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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Different_techniques:_grinding,_crushing,_milling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Different_techniques:_grinding,_crushing,_milling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Different techniques: grinding, crushing, milling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Different_techniques:_grinding,_crushing,_milling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milling_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milling_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Milling systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Milling_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Milling systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Milling_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_metate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_metate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The metate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_metate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Olynthus_mill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Olynthus_mill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Olynthus mill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Olynthus_mill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_rotating_millstone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_rotating_millstone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The rotating millstone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_rotating_millstone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Pompeian_mill_or_"blood"_mill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Pompeian_mill_or_"blood"_mill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>The Pompeian mill or "blood" mill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Pompeian_mill_or_"blood"_mill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Roman_trapetum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Roman_trapetum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>The Roman trapetum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Roman_trapetum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Millstones_of_southern_Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Millstones_of_southern_Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Millstones of southern Morocco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Millstones_of_southern_Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology_of_milling_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology_of_milling_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Chronology of milling systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology_of_milling_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_milling_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_milling_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Other milling systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_milling_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assembled_millstones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assembled_millstones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8.1</span> <span>Assembled millstones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assembled_millstones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edge_mill" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edge_mill"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8.2</span> <span>Edge mill</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edge_mill-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patterning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Patterning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grinding_with_millstones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grinding_with_millstones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Grinding with millstones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grinding_with_millstones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Symbolism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Symbolism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Symbolism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Symbolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Symbolism_in_the_Bible" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolism_in_the_Bible"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Symbolism in the Bible</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolism_in_the_Bible-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_symbolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_symbolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Other symbolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_symbolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heraldry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heraldry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Heraldry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heraldry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photo_gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photo_gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Photo gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photo_gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appendix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appendix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Appendix</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Appendix-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Appendix subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Appendix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Millstone</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%89" title="رحى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رحى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B2%D6%85%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%84" title="Աղօրիք – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Աղօրիք" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%99yirman_da%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Dəyirman daşı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dəyirman daşı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D3%99%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B" title="Тирмән ташы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тирмән ташы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Жарон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Жарон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breolim" title="Breolim – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Breolim" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mola_de_mol%C3%AD" title="Mola de molí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mola de molí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ml%C3%BDnsk%C3%BD_k%C3%A1men" title="Mlýnský kámen – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mlýnský kámen" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melinfaen" title="Melinfaen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Melinfaen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C9%9Bli" title="Nɛli – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Nɛli" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muela_de_molino" title="Muela de molino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Muela de molino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muel%C5%9Dtono" title="Muelŝtono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Muelŝtono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errotarri" title="Errotarri – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Errotarri" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A2%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="سنگ آسیاب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سنگ آسیاب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roue_de_moulin" title="Roue de moulin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Roue de moulin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moa_(pedra)" title="Moa (pedra) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Moa (pedra)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%98%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%80" title="ઘંટી – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઘંટી" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%B7%EB%8F%8C" title="맷돌 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="맷돌" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%84" title="Աղորիք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աղորիք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDrvanj" title="Žrvanj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Žrvanj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batu_kilangan" title="Batu kilangan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Batu kilangan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macina" title="Macina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Macina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="רחיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רחיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%81" title="ಬೀಸುವ ಕಲ್ಲು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೀಸುವ ಕಲ್ಲು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="დოლაბი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დოლაბი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mola" title="Mola – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mola" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girnos" title="Girnos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Girnos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malomk%C5%91" title="Malomkő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Malomkő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilang_(batu)" title="Kilang (batu) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kilang (batu)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molensteen" title="Molensteen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Molensteen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B8llestein" title="Møllestein – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Møllestein" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Stones used in gristmills, for grinding wheat or other grains</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Millstone_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Millstone (disambiguation)">Millstone (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Grinding stone" redirects here. For the metalworking tools, see <a href="/wiki/Grindstone" title="Grindstone">grindstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grinding_wheel" title="Grinding wheel">grinding wheel</a>. For the album by the Gary Moore Band, see <a href="/wiki/Grinding_Stone_(album)" title="Grinding Stone (album)">Grinding Stone (album)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about stones used to grind grains. For roadside distance markers, see <a href="/wiki/Milestone" title="Milestone">Milestone</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millstone_Anatomy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Millstone_Anatomy.jpg/250px-Millstone_Anatomy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Millstone_Anatomy.jpg/330px-Millstone_Anatomy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Millstone_Anatomy.jpg/500px-Millstone_Anatomy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption>The basic anatomy of a millstone. This is a runner stone; a bedstone would not have the "Spanish Cross" into which the supporting <a href="/wiki/Millrind" title="Millrind">millrind</a> fits.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Millstones</b> or <b>mill stones</b> are stones used in <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>, used for <a href="/wiki/Trituration" title="Trituration">triturating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crusher" title="Crusher">crushing</a> or, more specifically, grinding <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> or other grains. They are sometimes referred to as <b>grindstones</b> or <b>grinding stones</b>. </p><p>Millstones come in pairs: a stationary base with a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/convex" class="extiw" title="wikt:convex">convex</a> rim known as the <b>bedstone</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (or <b>nether millstone</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/concave" class="extiw" title="wikt:concave">concave</a>-rimmed <b>runner stone</b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that rotates. The movement of the runner on top of the bedstone creates a "scissoring" action that grinds grain trapped between the stones. Millstones are constructed so that their shape and configuration help to channel ground flour to the outer edges of the mechanism for collection. </p><p>The runner stone is supported by a cross-shaped metal piece (<a href="/wiki/Millrind" title="Millrind">millrind</a> or rynd) fixed to a "mace head" topping the main shaft or spindle leading to the driving mechanism of the mill (<a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">water</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Tide_mill" title="Tide mill"> tide</a>), or other means). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_origins_of_an_industry">The origins of an industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The origins of an industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Often referred to as the "oldest industry", the use of the millstone is inextricably linked to human history. Integrated into food processes since the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Palaeolithic</a>, its use remained constant until the end of the 19th century, when it was gradually replaced by a new type of <a href="/wiki/Roller_milled_white_enriched_flour" title="Roller milled white enriched flour">metal tool</a>. However, it can still be seen in rural domestic installations, such as in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, where 300 million women used hand mills daily to produce flour in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holgate_Windmill_millstones_-_2011-12-26.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Holgate_Windmill_millstones_-_2011-12-26.jpg/220px-Holgate_Windmill_millstones_-_2011-12-26.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Holgate_Windmill_millstones_-_2011-12-26.jpg/330px-Holgate_Windmill_millstones_-_2011-12-26.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Holgate_Windmill_millstones_-_2011-12-26.jpg/440px-Holgate_Windmill_millstones_-_2011-12-26.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A pair of millstones in <a href="/wiki/Holgate_Windmill" title="Holgate Windmill">Holgate Windmill</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest evidence for stones used to grind food is found in northern Australia, at the <a href="/wiki/Madjedbebe" title="Madjedbebe">Madjedbebe</a> rock shelter in <a href="/wiki/Arnhem_Land" title="Arnhem Land">Arnhem Land</a>, dating back around 60,000 years. Grinding stones or grindstones, as they were called, were used by the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal peoples</a> across the continent and islands, and they were traded in areas where suitable sandstone was not available in abundance. Different stones were adapted for grinding different things and varied according to location. One important use was for foods, in particular to grind seeds to make bread, but stones were also adapted for grinding specific types of starchy nuts, <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochres</a> for artwork, plant fibres for string, or plants for use in <a href="/wiki/Bush_medicine" title="Bush medicine">bush medicine</a>, and are still used today. The Australian grindstones usually comprise a large flat sandstone rock (for its abrasive qualities), used with a top stone, known as a "muller", "pounder",<sup id="cite_ref-qm_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-qm-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Pestle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pestle">pestle</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Victorians" title="Aboriginal Victorians">Aboriginal peoples of the present state of Victoria</a> used grinding stones to crush roots, bulbs, <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a>, and berries, as well as insects, small mammals, and reptiles before cooking them.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Ancient_history">In Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:156_Mus%C3%A9e_pr%C3%A9histoire_Penmarc%27h.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/156_Mus%C3%A9e_pr%C3%A9histoire_Penmarc%27h.JPG/220px-156_Mus%C3%A9e_pr%C3%A9histoire_Penmarc%27h.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/156_Mus%C3%A9e_pr%C3%A9histoire_Penmarc%27h.JPG/330px-156_Mus%C3%A9e_pr%C3%A9histoire_Penmarc%27h.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/156_Mus%C3%A9e_pr%C3%A9histoire_Penmarc%27h.JPG/440px-156_Mus%C3%A9e_pr%C3%A9histoire_Penmarc%27h.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Nether millstone and knurling wheel found at the <a href="/wiki/Pointe_de_la_Torche" title="Pointe de la Torche">La Torche</a> site (<a href="/wiki/Plomeur" title="Plomeur">Plomeur</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Careful examination of Paleolithic grinders (<a href="/wiki/Pebbles_(cereal)" title="Pebbles (cereal)">pebbles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheels</a>, mortar and pestle, etc.) enables us to determine the nature of the action exerted on the material and the gesture performed; the function of the tool can then be specified, as well as the activity in which it participated. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> people were already using rudimentary tools to crush various substances, as attested by the presence of rudimentary grinders at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a> and millstones in the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2telperronian" title="Châtelperronian">Châtelperronian</a>. From the <a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a> period onwards (around 38,000 years ago), <a href="/wiki/Early_European_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Early European modern humans">Cro-Magnon</a> man regularly used millstones, elongated grinders, and circular wheels. From the <a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian</a> period onwards (circa 29,000 years), this equipment became more diversified, with the appearance of new types of tools such as millstones and pestle grinders. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meule_et_broyeur_-_Orgnac.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Meule_et_broyeur_-_Orgnac.JPG/220px-Meule_et_broyeur_-_Orgnac.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Meule_et_broyeur_-_Orgnac.JPG/330px-Meule_et_broyeur_-_Orgnac.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Meule_et_broyeur_-_Orgnac.JPG/440px-Meule_et_broyeur_-_Orgnac.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2364" data-file-height="1670" /></a><figcaption>Neolithic millstone and grinder</figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Palaeolithic</a>, millstones from <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Kubbaniya" title="Wadi Kubbaniya">Wadi Kubbaniya</a> (Middle East, 19,000 B.C.) were involved in dietary processes and associated with residues of tuberous plants, which were known to require grinding before consumption, either to extract their toxins (<i><a href="/wiki/Cyperus_rotundus" title="Cyperus rotundus">Cyperus rotundus</a></i>, nutsedge), or to remove the fibrous texture that would make them indigestible (<i><a href="/wiki/Bolboschoenus_maritimus" title="Bolboschoenus maritimus">Scirpus maritimus</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">rhizomes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and the peel of the fruit of the <a href="/wiki/Hyphaene_thebaica" title="Hyphaene thebaica">doum palm</a>, also found on this site, benefit from being ground to improve their nutritional qualities; they thus complemented the meat diet of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>. Grinding <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> or <a href="/wiki/Oat" title="Oat">oat seeds</a> was practiced at the end of the Upper Palaeolithic (<a href="/wiki/Franchthi_Cave" title="Franchthi Cave">Franchthi</a>) or the <a href="/wiki/Kebaran_culture" title="Kebaran culture">Kebarian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohalo_II" title="Ohalo II">Ohalo II</a>, 19,000 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-colloque_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As tools improved, the material was increasingly finely ground, but only when it became a real powder could we speak of grinding. Thus, the men of the European Upper Paleolithic were already dissociating <i>grinding</i> and <i>milling</i>, as attested by the appearance at this time of the first <i>grinding slabs</i> used with grinders or millstones. While there is no evidence of the milling of wild cereals in the early Upper Paleolithic, at least in Europe, there is no reason not to believe that other plant matter (<a href="/wiki/Acorn" title="Acorn">acorns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hazelnut" title="Hazelnut">hazelnuts</a>, etc.) and animal matter (<a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a>) were already being ground into paste before cooking. Similarly, it's likely that millstones were being used at this time for technical purposes, to crush mineral substances (<a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a>) and certain plant or animal fibers for technical use. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_millstone_and_roller.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_millstone_and_roller.jpg/250px-CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_millstone_and_roller.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_millstone_and_roller.jpg/330px-CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_millstone_and_roller.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_millstone_and_roller.jpg/500px-CMOC_Treasures_of_Ancient_China_exhibit_-_millstone_and_roller.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1312" /></a><figcaption>Stone-grinding slab with grinding roller <a href="/wiki/Peiligang_culture" title="Peiligang culture">Peiligang culture</a> (5500 - 5000 B.C.), <a href="/wiki/Xinzheng" title="Xinzheng">Xinzheng</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> eras, with the domestication of plants, much larger, fully formed grinding, pounding, and milling equipment appeared. From the <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a> onwards, several types of millstones can be found side by side, such as the deep "trough-shaped" millstone or the flat millstone, indicating a specialization of their function. In the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, the pestle-grinder began to be developed in the <a href="/wiki/Kebaran_culture" title="Kebaran culture">Kebarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a> periods. It gradually evolved into the heavy, generally wooden, thrown pestle. This type of equipment is still used today in many regions, such as in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> for milling millet. </p><p>The appearance of flat, elongated millstones in the Natoufian period (<a href="/wiki/Tell_Abu_Hureyra" title="Tell Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureïra</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>) dates back to the 9th millennium BC. They feature larger active surfaces and mark the emergence of a new gesture, that of grinding from front to back, with both hands, which implies a new posture for the body, kneeling in front of the millstone. The appearance of large, asymmetrical, shaped millstones (<a href="/wiki/Mureybet" title="Mureybet">Mureybet</a>, Sheikh Hassan, circa 10,000 BP) led to the "saddle-shaped" millstones still known today as the <a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">metate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-colloque2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_rest_of_the_world">In the rest of the world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In the rest of the world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millstone_(Myllynkivi).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Millstone_%28Myllynkivi%29.jpg/250px-Millstone_%28Myllynkivi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Millstone_%28Myllynkivi%29.jpg/330px-Millstone_%28Myllynkivi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Millstone_%28Myllynkivi%29.jpg/500px-Millstone_%28Myllynkivi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1599" /></a><figcaption>Millstone factory site in Finland</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BuhrStone.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/BuhrStone.JPG/220px-BuhrStone.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/BuhrStone.JPG/330px-BuhrStone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/BuhrStone.JPG/440px-BuhrStone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Buhr stone with resurfacing instructions</figcaption></figure><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Tell_Abu_Hureyra" title="Tell Abu Hureyra">Tell Abu Hureyra</a> archaeological site, as early as the 8th millennium BC, women's skeletons show traces of <a href="/wiki/Osteoarthritis" title="Osteoarthritis">osteoarthritis</a> in the knees, spinal deformity and deformation of the first <a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">metatarsal</a>, pathologies associated with long periods of bending while grinding, supporting the theory that early humans practiced a <a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">sexual division of labor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In India, millstone (<i>Chakki</i>) were used to grind grains and spices. These consist of a stationary stone cylinder upon which a smaller stone cylinder rotates. Smaller ones, for household use, were operated by two people. Larger ones, for community or commercial use, used livestock to rotate the upper cylinder. Today a majority of the stone flour mills (Atta Chakki) are equipped with lower stone rotating and upper stone stationary millstones also called Shikhar Emery Stones which are made from abrasive emery grains and grits, with a binding agent similar to Sorel Cement. These stones are made from two types of emery abrasives - Natural Jaspar Red Emery or Synthetic Calcined Bauxite Black Emery.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walderveense_molen_steenbillen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Walderveense_molen_steenbillen.jpg/170px-Walderveense_molen_steenbillen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Walderveense_molen_steenbillen.jpg/255px-Walderveense_molen_steenbillen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Walderveense_molen_steenbillen.jpg/340px-Walderveense_molen_steenbillen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Dressing a millstone</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millstone-monument-to-victoms-of-holodomor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Millstone-monument-to-victoms-of-holodomor.jpg/220px-Millstone-monument-to-victoms-of-holodomor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Millstone-monument-to-victoms-of-holodomor.jpg/330px-Millstone-monument-to-victoms-of-holodomor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Millstone-monument-to-victoms-of-holodomor.jpg/440px-Millstone-monument-to-victoms-of-holodomor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption> Monument in the village of Victorivka (Вікторівка) in memory of the victims of the man-made famine known as <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>. The monument is made from millstones that the villagers hid and used in secret, as the Soviet authorities had prohibited their use during the famine.</figcaption></figure><p>In Korea, there were three different millstones, each made from different materials, serving other purposes, such as threshing, grinding, and producing starch. Generally, the handle of a millstone in Korea was made from an ash tree, the process for making a handle from the ash tree was known as "Mulpure-namu". To ensure that everything is "all right" with the creation of a millstone, a mason within ancient Kora offered food and alcohol in a ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Millstones were introduced to Britain by the Romans during the 1st century AD and were widely used there from the 3rd century AD onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1932-1933 in Ukraine, during the man-made famine known as <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>, the Soviet authorities prohibited the use of millstones, claiming that a millstone is a "mechanism for enrichment" (which was a negative term in Soviet communist ideology).<sup id="cite_ref-millstonemonument_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-millstonemonument-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This forced Ukrainian villagers to hide their manually-operated millstones and use them secretly during the famine. In response, Soviet authorities regularly searched villages for "illegal" millstones and destroyed them.<sup id="cite_ref-millstonemonument_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-millstonemonument-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, the people of Victorivka village in Cherkasy Oblast built a monument using the millstones they had managed to hide and save from the Soviet plunder during the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-millstonemonument_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-millstonemonument-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Different_techniques:_grinding,_crushing,_milling"><span id="Different_techniques:_grinding.2C_crushing.2C_milling"></span>Different techniques: grinding, crushing, milling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Different techniques: grinding, crushing, milling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The preparation of vegetable products (<a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almonds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>, etc.), animal products (<a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">marrow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">tendons</a>, etc.), or mineral products (<a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a>) by grinding or milling, for consumption or technical use, has existed for several dozen millennia. Unlike crushing, in which a hard envelope such as a shell or bone is broken open to recover its contents, in this case, the aim is to reduce a much softer material to a <a href="/wiki/Powder" title="Powder">powder</a> or paste. </p><p>Depending on the place and time, millstones were used for "dry" grinding: in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>, but also for the preparation of <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">lime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enamelled_glass" title="Enamelled glass">enamel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>. The milling operation can also be carried out "wet", as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Durum" class="mw-redirect" title="Durum">durum wheat</a> <a href="/wiki/Semolina" title="Semolina">semolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nixtamalization" title="Nixtamalization">nixtamal</a>, or the grinding of <a href="/wiki/Mustard_seed" title="Mustard seed">mustard seeds</a>. During preparation, some raw materials produce a naturally fluid paste, as in <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> crushing or <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a> grinding. </p><p>In his typology of percussion, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Leroi-Gourhan" title="André Leroi-Gourhan">André Leroi-Gourhan</a> defines several families of gestures, three of which are essential for the preparation of raw materials: </p> <ol><li><i>Crushing gestures</i> involve vertical <a href="/wiki/Impulse_(physics)" title="Impulse (physics)">percussion</a> using a heavy, elongated object in the manner of the African pestle. This gesture is also used by the <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammer</a> to make <a href="/wiki/Pulp_(paper)" title="Pulp (paper)">paper pulp</a>, or in <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forging</a>;</li> <li><i>Milling gestures</i>, using percussion, which are performed in a circular, disordered, or back-and-forth motion on a millstone;</li> <li><i>Grinding gestures</i>, in which the movements are roughly circular and occasionally vertical, thus combining a thrown percussion and a percussion posed, are qualified here as diffuse. This is the case with the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">mortar-pestle</a> system.</li></ol> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pounding_millet_MS0818.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pilon: Vertical percussive crushing"><img alt="Pilon: Vertical percussive crushing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pounding_millet_MS0818.jpg/225px-Pounding_millet_MS0818.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pounding_millet_MS0818.jpg/337px-Pounding_millet_MS0818.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pounding_millet_MS0818.jpg/450px-Pounding_millet_MS0818.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 130px"><div class="gallerytext">Pilon: <i>Vertical percussive <b>crushing</b></i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 309.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 307.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RICE_POLISHING_BY_FOOT_POWER.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Crushing by hammering"><img alt="Crushing by hammering" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/RICE_POLISHING_BY_FOOT_POWER.jpg/500px-RICE_POLISHING_BY_FOOT_POWER.jpg" decoding="async" width="308" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/RICE_POLISHING_BY_FOOT_POWER.jpg/691px-RICE_POLISHING_BY_FOOT_POWER.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/RICE_POLISHING_BY_FOOT_POWER.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="521" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 288px"><div class="gallerytext"><i><b>Crushing</b> by hammering</i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aboriginal_grinding_stones.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Monolithic millstone with knurled wheel: percussive milling with uncoordinated movements"><img alt="Monolithic millstone with knurled wheel: percussive milling with uncoordinated movements" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Aboriginal_grinding_stones.jpg/500px-Aboriginal_grinding_stones.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Aboriginal_grinding_stones.jpg/960px-Aboriginal_grinding_stones.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 280px"><div class="gallerytext">Monolithic millstone with knurled wheel: <i>percussive <b>milling</b> with uncoordinated movements</i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 276.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 274.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P1010979mod.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Peruvian Stone Batán (sandstone): Percussive milling"><img alt="Peruvian Stone Batán (sandstone): Percussive milling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/P1010979mod.jpg/412px-P1010979mod.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/P1010979mod.jpg/618px-P1010979mod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/P1010979mod.jpg/824px-P1010979mod.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2220" data-file-height="1617" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 255px"><div class="gallerytext">Peruvian Stone <a href="/wiki/Batan_(stone)" title="Batan (stone)">Batán</a> (sandstone): <i>Percussive <b>milling</b></i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 211.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 209.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_peppercorns_with_mortar_and_pestle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mortar and pestle: Grinding by diffused percussive impact and diffused percussive application"><img alt="Mortar and pestle: Grinding by diffused percussive impact and diffused percussive application" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Black_peppercorns_with_mortar_and_pestle.jpg/314px-Black_peppercorns_with_mortar_and_pestle.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Black_peppercorns_with_mortar_and_pestle.jpg/471px-Black_peppercorns_with_mortar_and_pestle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Black_peppercorns_with_mortar_and_pestle.jpg/628px-Black_peppercorns_with_mortar_and_pestle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1402" data-file-height="1340" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 190px"><div class="gallerytext">Mortar and pestle: <i><b>Grinding</b> by diffused percussive impact and diffused percussive application</i></div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Milling_systems">Milling systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Milling systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermill</a>, mills operated using "strength-powered", i.e. the force of animals or people. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metate_(fcm).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Metate_%28fcm%29.jpg/220px-Metate_%28fcm%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Metate_%28fcm%29.jpg/330px-Metate_%28fcm%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Metate_%28fcm%29.jpg/440px-Metate_%28fcm%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1126" data-file-height="1596" /></a><figcaption>Mexican Metate</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_metate">The metate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The metate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></div> <p>The <i>metate</i> is a nether millstone for domestic use, for grinding <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>. It has been used for several thousand years (around 3000 BC) in the cultural area of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, and its name comes from the <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> "<i>metatl</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-colloque5_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today's millstones are monolithic, usually made of <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, apodous, or tripod, rectangular, and slightly concave on the grinding surface. These millstones are associated with a two-handed wheel, called a "<i>mano</i>", whose size generally exceeds the width of the millstone and which is driven in an alternating rectilinear motion. On tripod wheels, one of the legs is slightly higher than the other two, giving the whole unit an inclination, with the user standing in front of the highest part. </p><p>The manufacture of millstones was essentially a male occupation. In <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-Hispanic</a> times, millers used only stone tools, a practice that persisted in some villages until the mid-20th century. The use of metal tools, probably inherited from building stonemasons, made it possible to use the hardest basalts, resulting in millstones with a lifespan of over thirty years. While the manufacture of apod millstones from blocks of stone naturally polished in a riverbed was once within the reach of many farmers, the production of tripode metates requires specialized craftsmanship. </p><p>Grinding plays a key role in <a href="/wiki/Mexican_cuisine" title="Mexican cuisine">Mexican cuisine</a>. Dry grinding is possible, but very few recipes are produced in this way: <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">roasted coffee</a>, roasted corn or <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>, sugar loaves, and cocoa are ground into powder. But most preparations require grinding with water. Fruits are ground into juices, beans or boiled vegetables, ingredients are added to various spicy sauces and, above all, corn is used to make the <a href="/wiki/Tortilla" title="Tortilla">tortillas</a> that form the basis of every meal. The latter are made from <a href="/wiki/Hominy" title="Hominy">nixtamal</a>, i.e. dry corn kernels cooked with lime, then rinsed with water, which softens the kernels and produces a paste. Maize or nixtamal can be ground for preparations other than patties: <i><a href="/wiki/Tamale" title="Tamale">tamales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pozole" title="Pozole">pozole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atole" title="Atole">atole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pinole" title="Pinole">pinole</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Masa" title="Masa">masa</a></i>, with variations in the fineness of the grind depending on the use. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TortillaMakingSalvador.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/TortillaMakingSalvador.jpg/220px-TortillaMakingSalvador.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/TortillaMakingSalvador.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="239" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tortilla" title="Tortilla">Tortilla</a>-making in <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, circa 1900</figcaption></figure> <p>The metate was used exclusively by women, and in <a href="/wiki/Mixtec_culture" title="Mixtec culture">Mixtec lands</a>, the place where the millstone is located was a space reserved for women. A couple often acquires, or is given, a millstone when they set up home. This acquisition represents a major expense in the life of a Mixtec peasant, as evidenced by the wills of nobles and wealthy peasants from the 16th to 18th centuries, which included metates.<sup id="cite_ref-colloque5_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Daily tortillas are made from sufficiently moistened <i>corn dough</i>, which, unlike flour, cannot be preserved. This technical characteristic no doubt explains why domestic metates were not replaced centuries ago by mills, as they were in Europe. During the wars of the 19th century and the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution of 1910</a>, Mexican armies were accompanied by women and metates to ensure the stewardship of the country; the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish conquest</a> did not replace tortillas with bread - quite the contrary. At the end of the 19th century, the owners of the large plantations introduced motorized corn mills, which freed up female labor for the fields.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1920 onwards, electric mills appeared in the countryside, owned by municipalities, <a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">cooperatives</a> or private individuals. However, still in use today, nether millstones are still part of Mexico's rural heritage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 199.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 197.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Metate_Maya.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mayan dish depicting the use of a metate to grind cocoa beans. Chocolate Museum, Bruges."><img alt="Mayan dish depicting the use of a metate to grind cocoa beans. Chocolate Museum, Bruges." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Metate_Maya.jpg/296px-Metate_Maya.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Metate_Maya.jpg/445px-Metate_Maya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Metate_Maya.jpg/593px-Metate_Maya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1673" data-file-height="1693" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 178px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a> dish depicting the use of a metate to grind <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa beans</a>. <i>Chocolate Museum, <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>.</i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Metate_et_mano.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Metate and mano from the Mayan period. Chocolate Museum, Bruges."><img alt="Metate and mano from the Mayan period. Chocolate Museum, Bruges." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Metate_et_mano.jpg/400px-Metate_et_mano.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Metate_et_mano.jpg/600px-Metate_et_mano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Metate_et_mano.jpg/800px-Metate_et_mano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a> and mano from the Mayan period. <i>Chocolate Museum, <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>.</i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 320.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 318.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Metate_Costa_Rica.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Costa Rican funeral metate. Chocolate Museum, Bruges."><img alt="Costa Rican funeral metate. Chocolate Museum, Bruges." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Metate_Costa_Rica.jpg/478px-Metate_Costa_Rica.jpg" decoding="async" width="319" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Metate_Costa_Rica.jpg/717px-Metate_Costa_Rica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Metate_Costa_Rica.jpg/955px-Metate_Costa_Rica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2423" data-file-height="1522" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 299px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rican</a> funeral metate. <i>Chocolate Museum, <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>.</i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 263.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 261.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tortilleras_aztecas.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aztec mother teaching her daughter to make tortillas. Codex Mendoza."><img alt="Aztec mother teaching her daughter to make tortillas. Codex Mendoza." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Tortilleras_aztecas.jpg/392px-Tortilleras_aztecas.jpg" decoding="async" width="262" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Tortilleras_aztecas.jpg/588px-Tortilleras_aztecas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Tortilleras_aztecas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 242px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztec</a> mother teaching her daughter to make tortillas. <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Mendoza" title="Codex Mendoza">Codex Mendoza</a>.</i></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 280.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 278.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tortilleras_Nebel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Las Tortilleras (The Tortilla Makers). Hand-colored lithograph, Mexico, early 19th century"><img alt="Las Tortilleras (The Tortilla Makers). Hand-colored lithograph, Mexico, early 19th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tortilleras_Nebel.jpg/418px-Tortilleras_Nebel.jpg" decoding="async" width="279" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tortilleras_Nebel.jpg/626px-Tortilleras_Nebel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tortilleras_Nebel.jpg/835px-Tortilleras_Nebel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5282" data-file-height="3797" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 259px"><div class="gallerytext"><i>Las Tortilleras</i> (The Tortilla Makers). Hand-colored <a href="/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithograph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, early 19th century</div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Olynthus_mill">The Olynthus mill</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Olynthus mill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moulin_Olynthe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Moulin_Olynthe.svg/220px-Moulin_Olynthe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Moulin_Olynthe.svg/330px-Moulin_Olynthe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Moulin_Olynthe.svg/440px-Moulin_Olynthe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>Olynthus mill: 1. Pivot 2. Lever 3. Running wheel with hopper 4. Grinding wheel 5. Table</figcaption></figure> <p>The town of <a href="/wiki/Olynthus" title="Olynthus">Olynthus</a> was destroyed in 348 BC by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedonia</a>, and the name "<i>Olynthus millstone, Olynthus grinder, Olynthus mill</i>" has come to be attached to this type of mill, which represents a genuine <a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">technical revolution</a>. In 1917, the Greek <a href="/w/index.php?title=Konstantinos_Kourouniotis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Konstantinos Kourouniotis (page does not exist)">Konstantinos Kourouniotis</a> elucidated the workings of the <a href="/wiki/Hopper_(particulate_collection_container)" title="Hopper (particulate collection container)">hopper</a> millstone, which played an important role in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ista2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Olynthus mill, the nether millstone(4) is rectangular, resting on a table (5); it measures between 0.42 m and 0.65 m in length, 0.36 m to 0.54 m in width and 0.08 to 0.25 m in thickness. The grinder, which forms the upper millstone (common millstone (3)), is usually rectangular, sometimes oval, with a central hopper parallel to the long sides, designed to receive the grain to be ground. The mill is capped by a horizontal axle attached to a <a href="/wiki/Kinematic_pair" title="Kinematic pair">pivot</a> (1) on one side of the table, the other end being operated by a worker who moves the lever (2) back and forth horizontally. The Olynthus mill thus shows the beginnings of mechanization, with millers now standing on their feet, making work easier. </p><p>This type of mill certainly appeared as early as the beginning of the 5th century BC. Its use was widespread throughout the Greek civilization in the 4th century B.C., from <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">Macedonia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, and was adopted as far afield as the islands of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, and modern-day <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. It continued into the 1st century B.C., and sometimes even later, as the excavations at the <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> suggest. The importance of this mill type for the Greek world was confirmed by the discovery, in 1967, of 22 hopper mills in the cargo of a ship wrecked off <a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a>, dated to the end of the 4th century BC. Increasing demand undoubtedly led to standardization in manufacturing and specialization of production centers. For example, flat <a href="/wiki/Argolis" title="Argolis">Argolidian</a> millstones, made of <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">andesite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a>, were produced from local quarries (<a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saronic_Gulf" title="Saronic Gulf">Saronic Gulf</a>), while grinders came from more distant quarries (islands of <a href="/wiki/Nisyros" title="Nisyros">Nysiros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milos" title="Milos">Milos</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-ista2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of this type of mill was not limited to grinding cereals, as the finds from <a href="/wiki/Thasos" title="Thasos">Thasos</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lavrio" title="Lavrio">Lavrio</a> suggest: it was also used to grind ore, so as to calibrate it for subsequent selection by washing. It may even have appeared in the mines of <a href="/wiki/Pangaion_Hills" title="Pangaion Hills">Pangaion Hills</a>. The text by <a href="/wiki/Agatharchides" title="Agatharchides">Agatharchides</a> on the gold mines of Egypt in the 1st century B.C., transmitted by <a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus</a>, mentions a mill with a lever: </p><p>"Women and older men then receive this ore crushed to the size of peas, throw it into the millstones, in numerous lines, two or three people standing at each lever and grind it." Photius' version specifies "<i>on either side</i>" of the lever.<sup id="cite_ref-ista2_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_rotating_millstone">The rotating millstone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The rotating millstone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></div> <p>This rotating millstone was spin by many ladies. The millstones name changes in many different parts of India. This is because there are so many different languages. The parts though will still stay the same.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It's also known as a "hand millstone", "arm millstone" or "moulinet", and in Latin as a "<i>molendinum bracchis</i>" or "<i>molendinum manuale</i>".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to de Barry, the oldest circular stone millstone was unearthed in the ruins of the town of <a href="/wiki/Olynthus" title="Olynthus">Olynthus</a>: it was the millstone of an <a href="/wiki/Oil_mill" title="Oil mill">oil mill</a>, not a flour mill. Historians <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marie-Claire_Amouretti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marie-Claire Amouretti (page does not exist)">Marie-Claire Amouretti</a> and Georges Comet<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> point out that these millstones pre-date the earliest known examples of circular grain mills. So it was probably through oil production that the first rotary crushing machine was introduced. <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">Cereals</a> and other fruits and seeds followed.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_women_working_primitive_grain_mill_LOC_matpc.06018_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Arab_women_working_primitive_grain_mill_LOC_matpc.06018_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Arab_women_working_primitive_grain_mill_LOC_matpc.06018_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Arab_women_working_primitive_grain_mill_LOC_matpc.06018_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Arab_women_working_primitive_grain_mill_LOC_matpc.06018_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Arab_women_working_primitive_grain_mill_LOC_matpc.06018_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Arab_women_working_primitive_grain_mill_LOC_matpc.06018_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2724" data-file-height="4030" /></a><figcaption>Arab women working primitive grain mill in Palestine (circa 1900)</figcaption></figure><p>The oldest rotating millstone are thought to have originated in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> 2,500 years ago(600 BC - 400 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It seems that the rotating millstone spread at the end of the 5th century BC from Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that it was directly derived from attempts to perfect the Olynthus mill.<sup id="cite_ref-pug_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pug-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Leroi-Gourhan" title="André Leroi-Gourhan">André Leroi-Gourhan</a> states that "<i>the transformation of rectilinear reciprocating motion into circular-continuous motion leads to another form of milling</i>". Some authors do not agree on its geographical origin, located for some "<i>towards <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> and the Syrian-Egyptian region</i>", "<i>simultaneously in Spain<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and England</i>" for others, and even though it was found in China in the 1st century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-pug_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pug-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to L.A. Moritz, the rotating grain mill only appeared in the first century BC. He bases his demonstration on Latin texts, in particular those of <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato</a>, and fixes the introduction of this type between the time of Plautus' death in 184BC and the composition of <i><a href="/wiki/De_agri_cultura" title="De agri cultura">De agri cultura</a></i>, around 160 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-ista2_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several types of mills can be identified in Europe, depending on the morphology of the millstones used in these manually operated rotary mills. </p><p>The <i>Celtic mill</i> is made up of massive millstones, with a conical external profile and virtually flat active stone surfaces. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a>, between the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D., the Celtic mill evolved into an intermediate type with two millstones superimposed and integrated, featuring a three-lobed feed opening. The more sharply tapered inner surfaces of the millstones ensured that the grains flowed more quickly under the effect of gravity, but the quality of the flour obtained remained mediocre. On the other hand, the effort required to operate the current millstone is considerable. The profile of the millstones makes them more difficult to cut, imposes a standardization of the millstones, and explains their diffusion and maintenance in a given region.<sup id="cite_ref-ista2_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples feature flatter wheels, with a much reduced taper, which reduces the stone mass. The speed of rotation became higher, providing a greater <a href="/wiki/Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">gyroscopic effect</a>, but also requiring the installation of a system of claws fixed with molten lead on the upper side of the movable wheel, to hold it in place around the pivot.<sup id="cite_ref-colloque5_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romanization</a> led to the widespread use of hand mills, which were perfected in terms of volume by increasing diameter and reducing height and weight. The profile of the millstones became flatter, and a number of improvements were introduced, such as an upper wedge to center the movable wheel on the pivot.<sup id="cite_ref-colloque5_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A device for adjusting the distance between the millstones (the <i>anille</i>) also appeared, enabling grinding quality to be controlled (1st century B.C.), and radii cut into the millstone could accentuate the natural abrasiveness of the stone.<sup id="cite_ref-pug_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pug-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later developments, such as the installation of the <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">double lever</a> or the use of a <a href="/wiki/Crankset" title="Crankset">crank</a> fixed to the center of the millstone (14th - 15th centuries), meant that this type of hand mill was used in the countryside until the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-colloque5_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because they wear more quickly, this type of millstone requires a stricter selection of stones, among which basalt has a privileged place. Most of the stone used in Roman times seems to have come from just a few quarries. In France, millstones from <a href="/wiki/Cap_d%27Agde" title="Cap d'Agde">Cap d'Agde</a> supplied <a href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a>; further north, quarries from the <a href="/wiki/Massif_Central" title="Massif Central">Massif Central</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volvic" title="Volvic">Volvic</a>) supplied a vast territory stretching from Aquitaine to the <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Helvetic valleys</a>; finally, from the <a href="/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne" title="Saône">Saône</a> valley to the German border, millstones came mainly from Eifel quarries (<a href="/wiki/Mayen" title="Mayen">Mayen</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pug_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pug-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe as a whole, the hand mill remained the main milling method until the end of Antiquity, and then throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>; it only began to give way to the advances of water and then wind mills.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mons_moulins_meule_ancienne.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Celtic-type hand mill"><img alt="Celtic-type hand mill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Mons_moulins_meule_ancienne.jpg/400px-Mons_moulins_meule_ancienne.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Mons_moulins_meule_ancienne.jpg/600px-Mons_moulins_meule_ancienne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Mons_moulins_meule_ancienne.jpg/800px-Mons_moulins_meule_ancienne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Celtic-type hand mill</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 157.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 155.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Moulin_celtique-tag.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cross-section of a Celtic arm mill 1- Pivot 2- Lever 3- Running wheel 4- Nether wheel"><img alt="Cross-section of a Celtic arm mill 1- Pivot 2- Lever 3- Running wheel 4- Nether wheel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Moulin_celtique-tag.svg/233px-Moulin_celtique-tag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="156" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Moulin_celtique-tag.svg/350px-Moulin_celtique-tag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Moulin_celtique-tag.svg/466px-Moulin_celtique-tag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="822" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 136px"><div class="gallerytext">Cross-section of a Celtic arm mill <b>1-</b> Pivot <b>2-</b> Lever <b>3-</b> Running wheel <b>4-</b> Nether wheel</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 128px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 126px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Moulin_dacique-tag.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cross-section of a dacique arm mill 1- Pivot 2- Lever 3- Running wheel 4- Lying wheel 5- Support"><img alt="Cross-section of a dacique arm mill 1- Pivot 2- Lever 3- Running wheel 4- Lying wheel 5- Support" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Moulin_dacique-tag.svg/189px-Moulin_dacique-tag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="126" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Moulin_dacique-tag.svg/283px-Moulin_dacique-tag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Moulin_dacique-tag.svg/378px-Moulin_dacique-tag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="866" data-file-height="1374" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 106px"><div class="gallerytext">Cross-section of a dacique arm mill <b>1-</b> Pivot <b>2-</b> Lever <b>3-</b> Running wheel <b>4-</b> Lying wheel <b>5-</b> Support</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Hand_Mill_Sincrai.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Roman hand mill with top shim to center the millstone wheel"><img alt="Roman hand mill with top shim to center the millstone wheel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Roman_Hand_Mill_Sincrai.jpg/399px-Roman_Hand_Mill_Sincrai.jpg" decoding="async" width="266" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Roman_Hand_Mill_Sincrai.jpg/599px-Roman_Hand_Mill_Sincrai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Roman_Hand_Mill_Sincrai.jpg/798px-Roman_Hand_Mill_Sincrai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 246px"><div class="gallerytext">Roman hand mill with top shim to center the millstone wheel</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 146px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 144px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11,_Tibetexpedition,_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone wheel used in Tibet (Lhasa, 1938)"><img alt="Millstone wheel used in Tibet (Lhasa, 1938)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg/216px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg/325px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg/433px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-BB-152-11%2C_Tibetexpedition%2C_Tibeter_mit_Handm%C3%BChle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="798" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 124px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone wheel used in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lhasa" title="Lhasa">Lhasa</a>, 1938)</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 331.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 329.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Moulin_type-01.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Schematic of an antique manual mill in action"><img alt="Schematic of an antique manual mill in action" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Moulin_type-01.png/494px-Moulin_type-01.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Moulin_type-01.png/741px-Moulin_type-01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Moulin_type-01.png/988px-Moulin_type-01.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="753" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 310px"><div class="gallerytext">Schematic of an antique manual mill in action</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 369.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 367.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Moulin_en_auge_type-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diagram of a manual mill in the Auge region, dating from the 13th to 18th centuries.[25]"><img alt="Diagram of a manual mill in the Auge region, dating from the 13th to 18th centuries.[25]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Moulin_en_auge_type-01.jpg/551px-Moulin_en_auge_type-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="368" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Moulin_en_auge_type-01.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="325" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 348px"><div class="gallerytext">Diagram of a manual mill in the <a href="/wiki/Auge" title="Auge">Auge</a> region, dating from the 13th to 18th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Pompeian_mill_or_"blood"_mill"><span id="The_Pompeian_mill_or_.22blood.22_mill"></span>The Pompeian mill or "blood" mill</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Pompeian mill or "blood" mill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With a diameter limited to the reach of an arm's movement, i.e. 40 to 70 cm, the hand mill could only produce a limited quantity of flour and was therefore essentially reserved for domestic use. By increasing the diameter and, above all, the height of the <i>meta</i> (nether millstone) and the <i>catillus</i> (runner millstone), the Romans were able to overcome this constraint with the animal-drawn <i>Pompeian mill</i>, also known as the <i>"blood" mill</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this mill, the nether millstone is conical at the top and the runner millstone looks like an <a href="/wiki/Hourglass" title="Hourglass">hourglass</a>, with its lower half covering the conical top of the nether millstone. The upper part of the runner millstone acts as a <a href="/wiki/Funnel" title="Funnel">funnel</a>, and a slight gap is maintained between the two millstones. The running wheel pivots around a wooden axle embedded in the standing wheel, and it is thanks to its suspension on this axle that the gap between the two wheels is ensured. This type of millstone could be powered either by two or four men, or by animal rides, hence its name <i>mola asinaria</i>, literally "donkey mill". </p><p>An example of this type of millstone can be found as early as the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical era</a>, used to grind ore in the <a href="/wiki/Mines_of_Laurion" title="Mines of Laurion">Laurion mines</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gille-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although it did not overtake the less efficient reciprocating millstone.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its qualities, it didn't really spread throughout the Roman world until later.<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gille-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were found throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean basin</a>, but never in very large numbers, except in Italy. Their very high cost - 1,250 <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarii</a> in the Late Roman period, compared with 250 denarii for hand millstones - meant that they were only used by millers and bakers. In <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, millstones are known from <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint-Rapha%C3%ABl,_Var" title="Saint-Raphaël, Var">Saint-Raphaël</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amiens" title="Amiens">Amiens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clermont-Ferrand" title="Clermont-Ferrand">Clermont-Ferrand</a>, all fashioned from basalt from the Eifel, Volvic or Cap d'Agde.<sup id="cite_ref-pug_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pug-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Late Antiquity, the donkey mill retreated, probably disappearing after the 5th century as a result of the expansion of the watermill, then the <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a>, except in <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, where it remained until the 20th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 231.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 229.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mill-stone_Chiaramonti_Inv1370_n2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hellenistic horse-powered grinding mill. Detail of a 2nd-century Roman sarcophagus. Vatican Museums"><img alt="Hellenistic horse-powered grinding mill. Detail of a 2nd-century Roman sarcophagus. Vatican Museums" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mill-stone_Chiaramonti_Inv1370_n2.jpg/344px-Mill-stone_Chiaramonti_Inv1370_n2.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mill-stone_Chiaramonti_Inv1370_n2.jpg/516px-Mill-stone_Chiaramonti_Inv1370_n2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mill-stone_Chiaramonti_Inv1370_n2.jpg/688px-Mill-stone_Chiaramonti_Inv1370_n2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2750" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 210px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> horse-powered grinding mill. Detail of a 2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagi" title="Ancient Roman sarcophagi">Roman sarcophagus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 220px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 218px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meule_tournante-tag.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Schematic diagram of the grinding mill: 1- Pivot 2- Hitch frame 3- Running wheel 4- Lying wheel"><img alt="Schematic diagram of the grinding mill: 1- Pivot 2- Hitch frame 3- Running wheel 4- Lying wheel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Meule_tournante-tag.svg/330px-Meule_tournante-tag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="218" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Meule_tournante-tag.svg/500px-Meule_tournante-tag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Meule_tournante-tag.svg/960px-Meule_tournante-tag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="943" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 198px"><div class="gallerytext">Schematic diagram of the grinding mill: <b>1-</b> Pivot <b>2-</b> Hitch frame <b>3-</b> Running wheel <b>4-</b> Lying wheel</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Corn_mill_(archaeological_park_Xanten,_Germany,_2005-04-23).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wheat mill. Xanten archaeological park"><img alt="Wheat mill. Xanten archaeological park" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Corn_mill_%28archaeological_park_Xanten%2C_Germany%2C_2005-04-23%29.jpg/500px-Corn_mill_%28archaeological_park_Xanten%2C_Germany%2C_2005-04-23%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Corn_mill_%28archaeological_park_Xanten%2C_Germany%2C_2005-04-23%29.jpg/960px-Corn_mill_%28archaeological_park_Xanten%2C_Germany%2C_2005-04-23%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">Wheat</a> mill. <a href="/wiki/Xanten" title="Xanten">Xanten</a> archaeological park</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Baeckerei_pompeji_kampanien_italien.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstones made of two elements of volcanic lava.[29] Bakery in Pompeii."><img alt="Millstones made of two elements of volcanic lava.[29] Bakery in Pompeii." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Baeckerei_pompeji_kampanien_italien.jpg/400px-Baeckerei_pompeji_kampanien_italien.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Baeckerei_pompeji_kampanien_italien.jpg/600px-Baeckerei_pompeji_kampanien_italien.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Baeckerei_pompeji_kampanien_italien.jpg/800px-Baeckerei_pompeji_kampanien_italien.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstones made of two elements of <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">volcanic lava</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bakery in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>.</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 149.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 147.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Bloch_-_Samson_and_the_Philistines_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Samson, prisoner of the Philistines, turns the millstone in prison, Carl Bloch (1863)"><img alt="Samson, prisoner of the Philistines, turns the millstone in prison, Carl Bloch (1863)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Carl_Bloch_-_Samson_and_the_Philistines_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/221px-Carl_Bloch_-_Samson_and_the_Philistines_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Carl_Bloch_-_Samson_and_the_Philistines_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/332px-Carl_Bloch_-_Samson_and_the_Philistines_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Carl_Bloch_-_Samson_and_the_Philistines_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/442px-Carl_Bloch_-_Samson_and_the_Philistines_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3619" data-file-height="4909" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 128px"><div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Samson" title="Samson">Samson</a>, prisoner of the <a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a>, turns the millstone in prison</i>, Carl Bloch (1863)</div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Roman_trapetum">The Roman trapetum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Roman trapetum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> period also saw the appearance of the olive crusher, which the Romans called the <i>trapetum</i>. Legend has it that it was invented by <a href="/wiki/Aristaeus" title="Aristaeus">Aristaeus</a>, and excavations at Olynthus have revealed examples dating back to the 5th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gille-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>trapetum</i> was precisely described by Cato the Elder, who gave us the technical names of all its parts. Excavations at Stabies, <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, the villa at <a href="/wiki/Boscoreale" title="Boscoreale">Boscoreale</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Africans" title="Roman Africans">Roman Africa</a> show that the system was widely used in ancient Rome and disappeared with it. </p><p>The <i>trapetum</i> consists of two plano-convex millstones (3, <i>orbes</i>), standing vertically, supported by a horizontal axis rotating around a vertical pivot (1, <i>columella</i>). This pivot rests on a short stone column (<i>milliarium</i>) at the center of a large hemispherical mortar (4). The lying millstone is a stone vat (4, <i>mortarium</i>) whose walls follow the external profile of the two common millstones. The orbs can move in a circular motion inside the <i>mortarium</i>, and are set in motion by the action of two wooden handles (2, <i>modioli</i>). Wooden wedges (<i>orbiculi</i>) inserted between the <i>milliarium</i> and the <i>columella</i> are used to adjust the height of the orbs above the bottom of the vat. In this system, the olives are not crushed under the millstone, but between the millstone and the sides of the vat.<sup id="cite_ref-ista2_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in the previous model, a gap was maintained between the two millstones. The resistance offered by the fruit forces the stone half-spheres to turn slightly on their axis; the two movements combine and the pressure is exerted only moderately, without breaking the stones, which would give bad taste.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resultant pulp could then be subjected to the action of a press to collect the oil. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Millstones_of_southern_Morocco">Millstones of southern Morocco</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Millstones of southern Morocco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moulin_trapetum-tag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Moulin_trapetum-tag.svg/250px-Moulin_trapetum-tag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Moulin_trapetum-tag.svg/330px-Moulin_trapetum-tag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Moulin_trapetum-tag.svg/500px-Moulin_trapetum-tag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>Roman olive mill or <i>Trapetum</i></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG/220px-Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG/330px-Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG/440px-Maroc_Essaouira_argane_oil_Luc_Viatour_3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>Hand mill used to make <a href="/wiki/Argan_oil" title="Argan oil">argan oil</a> by hand</figcaption></figure> <p>A melting pot of African, Eastern and Mediterranean civilizations, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> has preserved tools and techniques from different eras. </p><p>The Volubilis site, located in <a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana" title="Mauretania Tingitana">Mauritania Tingitana</a> (northeastern Morocco), features grain and olive mills from the Roman period (1st century-2nd century). These mills consist of a truncated cone-shaped standing millstone and a convex grinding ring to which the wooden machinery is connected, apparently operated without the aid of animal power. In this arrangement, the grinding ring is fitted onto the lying millstone. The <i>Volubilitan olive millstone</i> differs from the grain millstone by having oblique striations on the truncated surface of the lying millstone and on the inside of the grinding ring. <a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a> asserts that,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to extract the oil, the millstones (<i>molae</i>) are more useful than the crusher (<i>trapetum</i>), as they can be lowered or raised according to the size of the fruit, so as to avoid crushing the stone.<sup id="cite_ref-Brun1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brun1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> A second type of olive mill can be found on the same site, and consists of a monolithic vat on which a fluted drum turns around a vertical mast like the section of a column. This type of mill is more common and can be found on many sites, even in recent times.</p><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Volubilis1.11.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Giant olive wheel - Volubilis"><img alt="Giant olive wheel - Volubilis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Volubilis1.11.JPG/400px-Volubilis1.11.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Volubilis1.11.JPG/600px-Volubilis1.11.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Volubilis1.11.JPG/800px-Volubilis1.11.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Giant olive wheel - <a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Volubilis1.20.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Grinder ring - Volubilis"><img alt="Grinder ring - Volubilis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Volubilis1.20.JPG/400px-Volubilis1.20.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Volubilis1.20.JPG/600px-Volubilis1.20.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Volubilis1.20.JPG/800px-Volubilis1.20.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Grinder ring - <a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Presse_olive_Volubilis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olive mill with grinding ring - Volubilis"><img alt="Olive mill with grinding ring - Volubilis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presse_olive_Volubilis.jpg/500px-Presse_olive_Volubilis.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Presse_olive_Volubilis.jpg/960px-Presse_olive_Volubilis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Olive mill with grinding ring - <a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Volubilis1.1.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Trituration mill with upright millstone - Volubilis"><img alt="Trituration mill with upright millstone - Volubilis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Volubilis1.1.JPG/400px-Volubilis1.1.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Volubilis1.1.JPG/600px-Volubilis1.1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Volubilis1.1.JPG/800px-Volubilis1.1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Trituration mill with upright millstone - <a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></div> </div> </li> </ul><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sideroxylon_spinosum" title="Sideroxylon spinosum">argan tree</a> is a woodland species endemic to southwest Morocco. The technical environment of the <i>argan mill</i> covers its range. It's a stone hand mill used to grind roasted kernels and <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almonds</a>. </p><p>It stands out from the grain mill thanks to the truncated cone shape and greater height of its runner millstone (<i>agurf wuflla</i>), as well as the presence of a spout (<i>abajjr</i> or <i>tilst</i>) and a pouring spout (<i>ils</i>) on the nether millstone (<i>agurf u wadday</i>). At the center of the nether millstone is a short pivot (<i>tamnrut</i>) made of argan wood, around which the upper millstone rotates, pierced by an eyelet (<i>tit n tzrgt</i>) into which one or two handfuls of kernels are inserted. The circular movement is interrupted to remove the kernels after the millstone has been lifted. The whole unit can be raised on stones welded together in a "<a href="/wiki/Bakehouse_(building)" title="Bakehouse (building)">bakehouse</a>"-style architecture, allowing embers or argan shells to warm the unit, thus facilitating grinding in winter.<sup id="cite_ref-colloque5_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque5-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronology_of_milling_systems">Chronology of milling systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Chronology of milling systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="float:left;border:1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170);width:100%"><div style="text-align:left; padding:1em; font-size:95%; margin:1em; background:transparent"><div style="clear:both;width:100%;max-width:100%;border-top:0.1em solid black;height:1em;"></div><div id="Scale" style="clear:both;position:relative;top:-1.4em;left:-0.2em;width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em"><div style="float:left;overflow:visible;width:20%">│<div style="font-size:86%; position:relative; left:-1em; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap">−600</div></div><div style="float:left;overflow:visible;width:20%">│<div style="font-size:86%; position:relative; left:-1em; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap">−420</div></div><div style="float:left;overflow:visible;width:20%">│<div style="font-size:86%; position:relative; left:-1em; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap">−240</div></div><div style="float:left;overflow:visible;width:20%">│<div style="font-size:86%; position:relative; left:-1em; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap">−60</div></div><div style="float:left;overflow:visible;width:20%">│<div style="font-size:86%; position:relative; left:-1em; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap">120</div></div><div style="float:left;overflow:visible;width:0%">│<div style="font-size:86%; position:relative; left:-1em; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap">300</div></div></div><div style="clear:both; text-align:center"><b>[1]</b> Mortar and pestle (-600 to 300), <b>[2]</b> Flat grinding wheels and grinders (-600 to 300), <b>[3]</b> Olynthus hopper mill (-450 to 150), <b>[4]</b> <i>Meta</i> and <i>Catillus</i> manual grinding wheels (-250 to 0), <b>[5]</b> Pompeii-type "blood" mill (-150 to 300), <b>[6]</b> Manual rotating mill (-350 to 300), <b>[7]</b> Manual gear mill (250 to 300), <b>[8]</b> Watermill (-100 to 300).</div></div></div><div style="clear:left;"></div><p>Mortars and pestles have survived the centuries and are predominant for barley in Greece, <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> in Italy, and <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a> in Africa. They slowly became marginal in some regions, but did not disappear. In classical times, they were still widely represented in Greece and were still used for hulling cereals, even if the advent of adjustable millstones meant that they could now be ground. The advance of naked wheat, particularly common wheat, in Italy and Egypt made them less useful, but they were still mentioned in the Late Roman Empire, in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monastic rule</a> of <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Saint Isidore</a>. With the arrival of maize, they were once again used in certain regions.<sup id="cite_ref-ista_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A first typology of milling systems can be drawn up according to the driving force used; a complementary approach will look at the social context in which the mechanism is implemented. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian's</a> edict, the "blood" mill costed six times more than the hand mill, and the watermill eight times more. The latter therefore competed mainly with the "blood" mill, and took almost three centuries to supplant it. This was also the time it took the "blood" mill to supplant the hopper mill, and the hopper mill to supplant the flat millstone. </p><p>It seems that the watermill originated in the Eastern Mediterranean. An inscription from the <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Orcistus" title="Orcistus">Orcistus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which praised the advantages of its site in order to retain its privileges, states that it possesses "<i>thanks to the slope of the waters flowing through it, a large number of watermills</i>". At the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">Christian era</a>, the watermill was still a novelty in the western Mediterranean, and <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> classed it with irrigation machines. This type of mill proved ill-suited to the design of Pompeian millstones. In <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula's</a> time, "blood" mills were still dominant, as <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> describes. Over the course of the 1st and 2nd centuries, the watermill slowly spread to a wide variety of provinces: <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>, Gaul, and Africa, where the rotary millstone was often more widespread than the Pompeian mill. Over the course of the 4th century, the watermill slowly replaced the "blood" mill in Rome itself, becoming the predominant mill in the 2nd century. While there were some spectacular achievements in cities, such as the Barbegal mill in Arles, the watermill seems to have spread more slowly to rural villas, as <a href="/wiki/Rutilius_Taurus_Aemilianus_Palladius" title="Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius">Palladius</a> indicates.<sup id="cite_ref-ista_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>We don't really know how the Greeks processed their cereals between the 1st and 4th centuries. The "blood" mill was undoubtedly widespread, as attested by the legend of Lucius' donkey, borrowed by <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian of Samosata</a> and Apuleius. The coexistence of several types of milling seems to be the rule in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> world, and the codification of Diocletian's edict in the 2nd century, which established three types of mills (hand, blood, and water), can still be found in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_rural_code&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine rural code (page does not exist)">Byzantine rural code</a> in the 6th century, and even in travellers' accounts in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-ista_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ista-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Mediterranean, watermills, which depended on water supply, progressed especially when they had a complement to avoid the vagaries of the dry season. In this context, windmills undoubtedly contributed to the spread of watermills as early as the 11th century in regions such as Provence and the Greek islands.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_milling_systems">Other milling systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other milling systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assembled_millstones">Assembled millstones</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Assembled millstones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boll_Muehlsteine_3811.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Boll_Muehlsteine_3811.jpg/220px-Boll_Muehlsteine_3811.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Boll_Muehlsteine_3811.jpg/330px-Boll_Muehlsteine_3811.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Boll_Muehlsteine_3811.jpg/440px-Boll_Muehlsteine_3811.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Pair of grinding wheels made of assembled tiles</figcaption></figure> <p>In a study of millstones in Flanders from the Middle Ages to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, Jean Bruggeman<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> points out that medieval millstones were always monolithic, that black basalt stones were still monolithic in later centuries, and that white stones remained so until the 18th century. However, "<i>gisantes</i>" were sometimes made up of several irregularly-shaped pieces. These were bound in <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a>, encased in an iron or wooden casing, and sometimes placed on a bed of cemented bricks. </p><p>In fact, the invention of millstones made of pieces, i.e. an assembly of several stones or tiles, remains difficult to date precisely.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 15th century, the river trade passing through Paris was strictly controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> of water merchants; "French companies" had to inform the clerks of the names of their partners, the city of destination, and the nature and value of the cargo. Thus, on May 3, 1452, a Rouen merchant named Robert Le Cornu declared that he was bringing to Normandy one or more boats loaded with 35 millstones, 5 blinkers, 100 <i>carreaux</i> and a tombstone.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various texts provide clues to the manufacture of millstones in the 17th century. On March 10, 1647, Jacques Vinault "<i>sold 3 rounds<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of grinding stone</i>" to Pierre Bailly. On March 26, 1652, another text evokes the difficulties of a millstone assembly site, with a "<i>lack of wood to cook the plastre quy is not in sufficient quantity to plastrer and put in the places where it is necessary, joinct aussy that there is stone to suffice to make the millstones</i>". On July 7, 1680, Sr Delugré "<i>made a deal with Claude Duvau and Jullien Boullmer, stone molders [...] to supply them with 2 molds of molding stone and plaster to make the millstones [...] made and perfect to make flour</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Dorothée Kleinmann, "economic milling" and its improvements really took off at the end of the 18th century. This led to the development of stone quarrying and millstone production in new regions such as <a href="/wiki/Cinq-Mars-la-Pile" title="Cinq-Mars-la-Pile">Cinq-Mars-la-Pile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domme,_Dordogne" title="Domme, Dordogne">Domme</a>, where "<i>millstones are always formed by joining several pieces together; there are no blocks large enough to make masses from a single piece</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these locations, it seems that at the beginning of the eighteenth century, millstone was not yet quarried, preferring to salvage scattered blocks from woods, fields and vineyards, which sometimes considerably increased their value. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carriers2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Carriers2.jpg/220px-Carriers2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Carriers2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Millstone production workshop in <a href="/wiki/%C3%89pernon" title="Épernon">Épernon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Once the millstone blocks have been transported to the site and "peeled", the manufacturer selects the stones required for the millstone. The different pieces are classified according to their quality, taking into account hardness, grain, porosity, and color. At this stage, it is also necessary to take into account the milling system used in the country of dispatch, and the type of wheat produced in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the choice has been made, production begins with the center or "boitard", which is usually made in one piece. This must be very solid, especially for the current millstone, as it is at this level that the casing on which the millstone is suspended is fixed. Around the boitard, the tiles are arranged and fixed with plaster or cement, and chiseled to fit together sufficiently. A wheel of this type is generally made up of two to six quarters. "<i>When the job is done and the blocks match, the worker adjusts them by cementing them with <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a>, sometimes with a paste of <a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">Spanish white</a> and oil that hardens with age, and clamps the whole with iron hoops</i>". On the other side of the working surface, the back of the millstone, or "counter-molding", is surrounded by a strip of sheet metal serving as temporary formwork. To give the millstone the necessary weight and thickness, it is reloaded with small stones embedded in fine <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, into which are inserted cast-iron balancing boxes, which may contain <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> if necessary.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edge_mill">Edge mill</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Edge mill"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Edge_mill" title="Edge mill">Edge mill</a></div> <p>Horizontal use of the millstone is generally associated with milling. When the millstone is "upright", i.e. on its edge, it is used for grinding, crushing, or milling operations. In this configuration, the nether millstone is fixed by its eyebolt to a vertical <a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">mast</a> located centrally on the nether millstone which acts as a pivot. Depending on the size of the installation, and to maintain the verticality of the mast, its upper part may be attached to a beam overhanging the mill. The current millstone is rotated either " by means of force", or more often, in a <a href="/wiki/Riding_hall" title="Riding hall">riding hall</a>. In this way, the mill is driven by a double movement, turning on itself while pivoting around the mast, as in the Roman trapetum. In this type of device, the millstone is monolithic or made up of a paved or even masonry surface. Depending on the product to be processed, the millstone may be slightly concave, with a rim around the periphery to avoid dispersing the crushed material.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Olive_press_0723.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olive mill - Nazareth. The spar through the eyelet is held in place by a dowel and is used to turn the current millstone."><img alt="Olive mill - Nazareth. The spar through the eyelet is held in place by a dowel and is used to turn the current millstone." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Olive_press_0723.jpg/400px-Olive_press_0723.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Olive_press_0723.jpg/600px-Olive_press_0723.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Olive_press_0723.jpg/800px-Olive_press_0723.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Olive mill - <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a>. The <i>spar</i> through the <i>eyelet</i> is held in place by a <a href="/wiki/Dowel" title="Dowel">dowel</a> and is used to turn the current millstone.</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 307.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 305.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:High_Atlas-The_olive_grinding_mill_(js).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Olive mill. High Atlas"><img alt="Olive mill. High Atlas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/High_Atlas-The_olive_grinding_mill_%28js%29.jpg/500px-High_Atlas-The_olive_grinding_mill_%28js%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="306" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/High_Atlas-The_olive_grinding_mill_%28js%29.jpg/960px-High_Atlas-The_olive_grinding_mill_%28js%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1967" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 286px"><div class="gallerytext">Olive mill. <a href="/wiki/High_Atlas" title="High Atlas">High Atlas</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 320.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 318.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tou_d%27preinseu,_J%C3%A8rri.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Apple lathe" driven by a horse. Ring-shaped trough serving as a lying millstone. The Elms, Jersey"><img alt=""Apple lathe" driven by a horse. Ring-shaped trough serving as a lying millstone. The Elms, Jersey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tou_d%27preinseu%2C_J%C3%A8rri.jpg/478px-Tou_d%27preinseu%2C_J%C3%A8rri.jpg" decoding="async" width="319" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tou_d%27preinseu%2C_J%C3%A8rri.jpg/717px-Tou_d%27preinseu%2C_J%C3%A8rri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tou_d%27preinseu%2C_J%C3%A8rri.jpg/957px-Tou_d%27preinseu%2C_J%C3%A8rri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1538" data-file-height="965" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 299px"><div class="gallerytext">"Apple lathe" driven by a horse. Ring-shaped trough serving as a lying millstone. The Elms, <a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-10.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Animal-drawn millstone. Korea"><img alt="Animal-drawn millstone. Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-10.jpg/400px-Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-10.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-10.jpg/600px-Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-10.jpg/800px-Korean.Folk.Village-Minsokchon-10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Animal-drawn millstone. <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chocolaterie-nestl%C3%A9-broc_m%C3%A9langeur_f%C3%A8ve_de_cacao-ancien-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Old Millstone equipped with windrow ploughs, used to grind cocoa beans"><img alt="Old Millstone equipped with windrow ploughs, used to grind cocoa beans" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Chocolaterie-nestl%C3%A9-broc_m%C3%A9langeur_f%C3%A8ve_de_cacao-ancien-3.jpg/400px-Chocolaterie-nestl%C3%A9-broc_m%C3%A9langeur_f%C3%A8ve_de_cacao-ancien-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Chocolaterie-nestl%C3%A9-broc_m%C3%A9langeur_f%C3%A8ve_de_cacao-ancien-3.jpg/600px-Chocolaterie-nestl%C3%A9-broc_m%C3%A9langeur_f%C3%A8ve_de_cacao-ancien-3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Chocolaterie-nestl%C3%A9-broc_m%C3%A9langeur_f%C3%A8ve_de_cacao-ancien-3.jpg/800px-Chocolaterie-nestl%C3%A9-broc_m%C3%A9langeur_f%C3%A8ve_de_cacao-ancien-3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Old Millstone equipped with <a href="/wiki/Windrow" title="Windrow">windrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">ploughs</a>, used to grind cocoa beans</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agris1.1.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone and riding hall - Agris (Charente)"><img alt="Millstone and riding hall - Agris (Charente)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Agris1.1.JPG/400px-Agris1.1.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Agris1.1.JPG/600px-Agris1.1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Agris1.1.JPG/800px-Agris1.1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone and <a href="/wiki/Riding_hall" title="Riding hall">riding hall</a> - Agris (Charente)</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crocq08.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone and oil press - Crocq (Creuse)"><img alt="Millstone and oil press - Crocq (Creuse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Crocq08.JPG/400px-Crocq08.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Crocq08.JPG/600px-Crocq08.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Crocq08.JPG/800px-Crocq08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone and oil press - <a href="/wiki/Crocq" title="Crocq">Crocq</a> (<a href="/wiki/Creuse" title="Creuse">Creuse</a>)</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 276.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 274.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Almazara_2010.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Olive mill with four conical millstones (Spain)"><img alt="Olive mill with four conical millstones (Spain)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Almazara_2010.JPG/412px-Almazara_2010.JPG" decoding="async" width="275" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Almazara_2010.JPG/618px-Almazara_2010.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Almazara_2010.JPG/823px-Almazara_2010.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1578" data-file-height="1150" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 255px"><div class="gallerytext">Olive mill with four conical millstones (Spain)</div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG/220px-Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG/330px-Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG/440px-Millet-Seed_Sandstone_Macro.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Piece of <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> approx. 4 cm</figcaption></figure> <p>In common language, "millstone" refers to any type of rock that may have been used in a mill, whereas in the geological sense, true "millstone" is defined as a siliceous accident in a <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">sedimentary basin</a>. </p><p>The type of stone most suitable for making millstones is a <a href="/wiki/Siliceous_rock" title="Siliceous rock">siliceous rock</a> called <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burrstone" class="extiw" title="wikt:burrstone">burrstone</a> (or buhrstone), an open-textured, porous but tough, fine-grained <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>, or a silicified, <a href="/wiki/Fossiliferous_limestone" title="Fossiliferous limestone">fossiliferous limestone</a>. In some sandstones, the cement is <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On a historical scale, it seems that most types of rock have been used in milling. Among the sedimentary rocks of potential use are <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>. The latter soon emerged as the stones of choice, with porosities that make them easy to shape<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and extraction that can be facilitated by bedding between <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> <a href="/wiki/Interbedding" title="Interbedding">interbeds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It wasn't until the 15th century that millstones <i>stricto sensu</i> began to be quarried, a practice that became widespread in the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Fabre_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fabre-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deep-lying <i><a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">magmatic rocks</a></i>, such as granite, are widespread, but were ultimately little used for millstone manufacture, probably due to their low porosity and the presence of black <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>, which rapidly alters to form iron <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a>. Basalt was widely used in Germany (Eifel), but is not widespread in France, with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89venos" title="Évenos">Évenos volcano</a> in Provence; other examples include the basalt millstones of the <a href="/wiki/Agde" title="Agde">Agde volcano</a>, and those of the Sainte Magdeleine volcano at <a href="/wiki/La_M%C3%B4le" title="La Môle">La Môle</a>, not far from <a href="/wiki/Cogolin" title="Cogolin">Cogolin</a>. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestones</a></i> are generally porous, with medium to low compressive strengths, so "classic" limestones seem to have been quickly abandoned in favor of better stones. Although very fine-grained, limestone polishes very quickly and needs to be re-cut frequently to keep the stones rough. Some sandstone limestones (Saint-Julien-des-Molières limestone) can have very good compressive strength (over 100 MPa).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstone rocks</a></i> (sandstones and <a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(geology)" title="Conglomerate (geology)">microconglomerates</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> up to 1 cm) are the preferred material for millstones. Analysis of production sites shows that they can be limestone-cemented sandstones, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silica</a>-cemented sandstones, or even slightly <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphosed</a> sandstones.<sup id="cite_ref-Fabre2_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fabre2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Limestone-cemented sandstones</i>, such as Alpine molasses, are widespread. They have medium porosities (6 to 12%), medium compressive strength (35 MPa), often coarse grain size, and variable silica content. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elancourt_Commanderie_b%C3%A2timent_nord.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Elancourt_Commanderie_b%C3%A2timent_nord.JPG/250px-Elancourt_Commanderie_b%C3%A2timent_nord.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Elancourt_Commanderie_b%C3%A2timent_nord.JPG/330px-Elancourt_Commanderie_b%C3%A2timent_nord.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Elancourt_Commanderie_b%C3%A2timent_nord.JPG/500px-Elancourt_Commanderie_b%C3%A2timent_nord.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption>House built in <a href="/wiki/Gritstone" title="Gritstone">gritstone</a> - <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lancourt" title="Élancourt">Élancourt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A very good millstone is generally rich in silica: the higher the percentage, the stronger the rock, silica being the hardest common mineral on the Earth's surface. The same is true of sandstone with siliceous cement, where the percentage of silica is high because both the grains and the cement are siliceous in nature. However, they don't necessarily make good millstones, like Vosges sandstone, which has a rather fine grain and traces of iron. </p><p>Slightly metamorphosed sandstones often have very low porosity (around 2%) due to <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonic compression</a>, resulting in somewhat compact sandstones. Compressive strength can be very high (over 100 MPa), as in the case of Arros sandstone, despite an average silica percentage. </p><p>Finally, millstones in the geological sense are porous stones, which play a role not only for cutting, but also undoubtedly for grinding. These include stones such as those from La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, with high porosity (20%), compressive strength of 80 MPa, and medium grain. Corfélix stones have exceptional compressive strength on the order of solid basalt (190 MPa), 98% silica, fairly coarse grain, and medium to high porosity.<sup id="cite_ref-Fabre2_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fabre2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a nutshell, for the rock mechanics, a good millstone has three fundamental characteristics: </p> <ul><li><i>insensitivity to alteration</i>, whether through dissolution (<a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>), the action of moisture (as in the case of limestone), or the chemical action of water, as in the case of granite mica or Vosges sandstone (presence of iron) ;</li> <li><i>heterogeneity on a millimeter and centimeter scale</i> is a quality that provides crushing asperities and evacuating channels, like hard punches held together by a slightly less hard but tenacious cement, which is not generally a characteristic of limestone;</li> <li><i>high porosity</i>, which facilitates quarrying, as it is easier to introduce cutting tools into porous rock than into solid rock, but also undoubtedly facilitates grinding.</li></ul> <p>The following table presents some examples of geological and petrophysical data obtained from sites used for the production of millstones:<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable centre"> <tbody><tr> <th>Production site </th> <th>Rock type </th> <th>SiO<sub>2</sub> % </th> <th>CaO % </th> <th>Density (t/m<sup>3</sup>) </th> <th>Porosity % </th> <th>Rc (compression) Mpa </th></tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFFFCC" align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/Mont-Saint-Martin,_Is%C3%A8re" title="Mont-Saint-Martin, Isère">Mont-Saint-Martin</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">Breccia</a> </td> <td>- </td> <td>54,2 </td> <td>2,36 </td> <td>11,1 to 11,7 </td> <td>Medium to low </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFFFCC" align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/La_Livini%C3%A8re" title="La Livinière">Saint-Julien-des-Molières</a> </td> <td>Marine honeycomb <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> with <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>-<a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> inclusions </td> <td>33,8 </td> <td>35,6 </td> <td>2,65 to 3,39 </td> <td>0,9 to 1,1 </td> <td>130 to 133 </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFCCCC" align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/Saint-Gervais,_Is%C3%A8re" title="Saint-Gervais, Isère">Les Écouges</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> microconglomeratic <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> </td> <td>40,6 </td> <td>28,1 </td> <td>2,35 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>37 to 44 </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFCCCC" align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/Saint-Louis-et-Parahou" title="Saint-Louis-et-Parahou">Le Bézu</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">Siliceous</a> cement <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> </td> <td>98,6 </td> <td>- </td> <td>2,35 </td> <td>11,9 </td> <td>23 to 26 </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#FFCCCC" align="center"> <td><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arros_(Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Atlantiques)" class="extiw" title="fr:Arros (Pyrénées-Atlantiques)">Pareil</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> fine-grained <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> cement </td> <td>54,7 </td> <td>22,7 </td> <td>2,6 </td> <td>1,7 </td> <td>124 </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/Reuil-en-Brie" title="Reuil-en-Brie">Tarterel</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gritstone" title="Gritstone">Gritstone</a> </td> <td>98,3 </td> <td>- </td> <td>2,1 to 2,4 </td> <td>17,5 to 21,4 </td> <td>38 to 100 </td></tr> <tr bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center"> <td><a href="/wiki/Corf%C3%A9lix" title="Corfélix">Bois de l'Homme Blanc</a> </td> <td><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meuli%C3%A8re_(g%C3%A9ologie)" class="extiw" title="fr:Meulière (géologie)">Gritstone</a> </td> <td>97,8 </td> <td>- </td> <td>2,4 </td> <td>10,3 to 10,6 </td> <td>139 to 240 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Millstones used in Britain were of several types:<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derbyshire" title="Derbyshire">Derbyshire</a> Peak stones of grey <a href="/wiki/Millstone_Grit" title="Millstone Grit">Millstone Grit</a>, cut from one piece, used for grinding <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-SF_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> imitation Derbyshire Peak stones are used as decorative signposts at the boundaries of the <a href="/wiki/Peak_District_National_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak District National Park">Peak District National Park</a>. Derbyshire Peak stones wear quickly and are typically used to grind animal feed since they leave stone powder in the flour, making it undesirable for human consumption.</li> <li>French buhrstones, used for finer grinding. French Burr comes from the <a href="/wiki/Marne_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Marne Valley">Marne Valley</a> in northern France. The millstones are not cut from one piece, but built up from sections of quartz cemented together, backed with <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a> and bound with <a href="/wiki/Shrink-fitting" title="Shrink-fitting">shrink-fit</a> iron bands. Slots in the bands provide attachments for lifting. In southern England the material was imported as pieces of rock, only assembled into complete millstones in local workshops.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was necessary to balance the completed runner stone with lead weights applied to the lighter side.<sup id="cite_ref-SF_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Composite stones, built up from pieces of <a href="/wiki/Emery_(rock)" title="Emery (rock)">emery</a>, were introduced during the nineteenth century; they were found to be more suitable for grinding at the higher speeds available when auxiliary engines were adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-SF_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In Europe, a further type of millstone was used. These were uncommon in Britain, but not unknown: </p> <ul><li><b>Cullen stones</b> (stones from <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>), a form of black <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> quarried in the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Province#Mineral_resources" title="Rhine Province">Rhine Valley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mayen" title="Mayen">Mayen</a> near Cologne, Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-Cullen_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cullen-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Lava stones</b> from Orvieto (Italy), Mount Etna and Hyblaean Mounts (Sicily), and Pantelleria island, were used by the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patterning">Patterning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Patterning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rayonnage_des_meules.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Rayonnage_des_meules.svg/220px-Rayonnage_des_meules.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Rayonnage_des_meules.svg/330px-Rayonnage_des_meules.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Rayonnage_des_meules.svg/440px-Rayonnage_des_meules.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1021" /></a><figcaption>Main ways to design the millstone's furrow.</figcaption></figure> <p>The surface of a millstone is divided by deep grooves called <i>furrows</i> into separate flat areas called <i>lands</i>. Spreading away from the furrows are smaller grooves called <i>feathering</i> or <i>cracking</i>. The grooves provide a cutting edge and help to channel the ground flour out from the stones. </p><p>The furrows and lands are arranged in repeating patterns called <i>harps</i>. A typical millstone will have six, eight or ten harps. The pattern of harps is repeated on the face of each stone, when they are laid face to face the patterns mesh in a kind of "scissoring" motion creating the cutting or grinding function of the stones. When in regular use stones need to be <i>dressed</i> periodically, that is, re-cut to keep the cutting surfaces sharp. </p><p>The major challenge is to limit the heat generated by the pressure of the millstones on the ground flour. In addition to denaturing the flour (browning), this overheating, and any sparks generated by the rubbing of the stones, could cause an <a href="/wiki/Dust_explosion" title="Dust explosion">explosion in the mill</a>, whose atmosphere is charged with fine flour particles.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A complex system of spokes had to be devised to ventilate the gap between the millstones and, at the same time, progressively push the material from the <i>eyelet</i> to the <i>peripheral</i> rabbet. Wheat millstones have long been used to grind cereals in a single pass. We had to find the best way of extracting the flour and cleaning the <a href="/wiki/Bran" title="Bran">bran</a>, ensuring that it was unbroken and free of flour. </p><p>Millstones need to be evenly balanced, and achieving the correct separation of the stones is crucial to producing good quality flour. The experienced miller will be able to adjust their separation very accurately. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image-Schema_meule_detail.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Image-Schema_meule_detail.svg/220px-Image-Schema_meule_detail.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Image-Schema_meule_detail.svg/330px-Image-Schema_meule_detail.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Image-Schema_meule_detail.svg/440px-Image-Schema_meule_detail.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The rim of the millstone is made up of fine grooves called <i>feathering or cracking</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>For the manufacture of the millstone, the customer had to specify the diameter, the size of the eye and the direction of the furrows. Occasionally, a miller was mistaken about the direction of the furrows, as extracts from correspondence testify: "<i>You tell us that your top wheels must be rifled to turn counter-clockwise. We therefore understand that these millstones must be radiused to turn counter-clockwise, i.e. in the opposite direction to that in which the sun seems to revolve around the earth</i>". Despite all the precautions taken at the time of ordering, it sometimes happened that, in the event of a dispute, we were obliged to travel to change the direction: "<i>we sent a workman a hundred leagues from here to unravel, straighten and re-radiate two pairs of millstone; the profit is eaten twice</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-colloque3_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque3-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Between the furrows, the millstone is covered with fine grooves called <i>feathering</i> or <i>cracking</i>, also cut into the stone, to make it more aggressive and thus better able to grind the grains. They run along the edge of the millstone, over a width of around 15 cm, to form the <i>rabbet</i>. Regularly, the furrows need to be redone with a special hammer: the millstone is said to need to be rhabillaged or rebatted. This operation must be carried out after grinding around 50 tons of wheat.<sup id="cite_ref-Dussart_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dussart-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Special steel hardening techniques enabled certain companies, such as <i>Kupka</i> in Germany, to produce picks and hammers that were particularly appreciated by millstone reworkers. During the operation, the light blows emitted a cloud of siliceous dust that could cause lung ailments in specialized workers. In addition, the cutting of millstones led to professional tattoos, with <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> particles from the tools embedded under the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a>. Eye diseases were also common.<sup id="cite_ref-colloque4_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colloque4-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Walderveense_molen_hardstenen_molensteen.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone in Walderveen, Gelderland, Netherlands"><img alt="Millstone in Walderveen, Gelderland, Netherlands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Walderveense_molen_hardstenen_molensteen.jpg/400px-Walderveense_molen_hardstenen_molensteen.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Walderveense_molen_hardstenen_molensteen.jpg/600px-Walderveense_molen_hardstenen_molensteen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Walderveense_molen_hardstenen_molensteen.jpg/800px-Walderveense_molen_hardstenen_molensteen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone in Walderveen, <a href="/wiki/Gelderland" title="Gelderland">Gelderland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 173.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 171.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Molen_De_Engel_kunststeen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Molen_De_Engel_kunststeen.jpg/257px-Molen_De_Engel_kunststeen.jpg" decoding="async" width="172" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Molen_De_Engel_kunststeen.jpg/386px-Molen_De_Engel_kunststeen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Molen_De_Engel_kunststeen.jpg/515px-Molen_De_Engel_kunststeen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="1702" /></a></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Molensteen_kunststeen_met_pandscherpsel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Molensteen_kunststeen_met_pandscherpsel.jpg/274px-Molensteen_kunststeen_met_pandscherpsel.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Molensteen_kunststeen_met_pandscherpsel.jpg/411px-Molensteen_kunststeen_met_pandscherpsel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Molensteen_kunststeen_met_pandscherpsel.jpg/548px-Molensteen_kunststeen_met_pandscherpsel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1332" data-file-height="1457" /></a></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 214.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 212.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Doesburgermolen_molensteen_met_viertaksrijn.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone and shackle, X-shaped metal part"><img alt="Millstone and shackle, X-shaped metal part" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Doesburgermolen_molensteen_met_viertaksrijn.jpg/319px-Doesburgermolen_molensteen_met_viertaksrijn.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Doesburgermolen_molensteen_met_viertaksrijn.jpg/478px-Doesburgermolen_molensteen_met_viertaksrijn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Doesburgermolen_molensteen_met_viertaksrijn.jpg/638px-Doesburgermolen_molensteen_met_viertaksrijn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1646" data-file-height="1549" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 193px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone and shackle, X-shaped metal part</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 151.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 149.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Molen_het_Hert_Putten_molensteen_voor_eek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Molen_het_Hert_Putten_molensteen_voor_eek.jpg/224px-Molen_het_Hert_Putten_molensteen_voor_eek.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Molen_het_Hert_Putten_molensteen_voor_eek.jpg/336px-Molen_het_Hert_Putten_molensteen_voor_eek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Molen_het_Hert_Putten_molensteen_voor_eek.jpg/448px-Molen_het_Hert_Putten_molensteen_voor_eek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1649" data-file-height="2206" /></a></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sint_Willebrordus_molen_molensteen_Bakel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Sint_Willebrordus_molen_molensteen_Bakel.jpg/500px-Sint_Willebrordus_molen_molensteen_Bakel.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Sint_Willebrordus_molen_molensteen_Bakel.jpg/960px-Sint_Willebrordus_molen_molensteen_Bakel.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> </li> </ul><div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grinding_with_millstones">Grinding with millstones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Grinding with millstones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schema_meule.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Schema_meule.svg/220px-Schema_meule.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Schema_meule.svg/330px-Schema_meule.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Schema_meule.svg/440px-Schema_meule.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption> 1. Hopper 2. Shoe 3. Crook string 4. Shoe handle 5. Damsel 6. Eye 7. Runner stone 8. Bedstone 9. Rind 10. Mace 11. Stone spindle 12. Millstone support 13. Wooden beam 14. Casing (Tentering gear not shown) </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minalinpampangajf2520_05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Minalinpampangajf2520_05.JPG/220px-Minalinpampangajf2520_05.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Minalinpampangajf2520_05.JPG/330px-Minalinpampangajf2520_05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Minalinpampangajf2520_05.JPG/440px-Minalinpampangajf2520_05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Gilingan bato (ancient rice millstone, <a href="/wiki/Minalin,_Pampanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Minalin, Pampanga">Minalin, Pampanga</a>, Philippines)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndianGrindingStone_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/IndianGrindingStone_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-IndianGrindingStone_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/IndianGrindingStone_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-IndianGrindingStone_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/IndianGrindingStone_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-IndianGrindingStone_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="859" /></a><figcaption>Old Indian grinding stone used for making batter for Dosa,Idli etc.</figcaption></figure> <p>Grain is fed by gravity from the hopper into the feed-shoe. The shoe is agitated by a shoe handle running against an agitator (<i>damsel</i>) on the stone <i>spindle</i>, the shaft powering the runner stone. This mechanism regulates the feed of grain to the millstones by making the feed dependent on the speed of the runner stone. From the feed shoe the grain falls through the <i>eye</i>, the central hole, of the runner stone and is taken between the runner and the bed stone to be ground. The flour exits from between the stones from the side. The stone casing prevents the flour from falling on the floor, instead it is taken to the <i>meal spout</i> from where it can be bagged or processed further. The runner stone is supported by the <a href="/wiki/Millrind" title="Millrind">rind</a>, a cross- shaped metal piece, on the spindle. The spindle is carried by the <i>tentering gear</i>, a set of beams forming a lever system, or a <a href="/wiki/Jackscrew" title="Jackscrew">screw jack</a>, with which the runner stone can be lifted or lowered slightly and the gap between the stones adjusted.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The weight of the runner stone is significant (up to 1,500 kilograms (3,300 lb)) and it is this weight combined with the cutting action from the porous stone and the patterning that causes the milling process. </p><p>Millstones for some water-powered mills (such as <a href="/wiki/Peirce_Mill" title="Peirce Mill">Peirce Mill</a>) spin at about 125 rpm.<sup id="cite_ref-NPS_Peirce_Mill_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NPS_Peirce_Mill-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Especially in the case of wind-powered mills the turning speed can be irregular. Higher speed means more grain is fed to the stones by the feed-shoe, and grain exits the stones more quickly because of their faster turning speed. The miller has to reduce the gap between the stones so more weight of the runner presses down on the grain and the grinding action is increased to prevent the grain being ground too coarsely. It has the added benefit of increasing the load on the mill and so slowing it down. In the reverse case the miller may have to raise the runner stone if the grain is milled too thoroughly making it unsuitable for baking. In any case the stones should never touch during milling as this would cause them to wear down rapidly. The process of lowering and raising the runner stone is called tentering and lightering. In many windmills it is automated by adding a <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_governor" title="Centrifugal governor">centrifugal governor</a> to the tentering gear. Depending on the type of grain to be milled and the power available the miller may adjust the feed of grain to stones beforehand by changing the amount of agitation of the feed-shoe or adjusting the size of the hopper outlet. Milling by millstones is a one-step process in contrast with roller mills in modern mass production where milling takes place in many steps. It produces wholemeal flour which can be turned into white flour by sifting to remove the bran.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 269.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 267.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MillingEquipment-01-tag.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone feeder"><img alt="Millstone feeder" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/MillingEquipment-01-tag.jpg/401px-MillingEquipment-01-tag.jpg" decoding="async" width="268" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/MillingEquipment-01-tag.jpg/602px-MillingEquipment-01-tag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/MillingEquipment-01-tag.jpg/802px-MillingEquipment-01-tag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="623" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 248px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone feeder</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 202px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Auget.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Principle of the grain feeding system"><img alt="Principle of the grain feeding system" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Auget.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="298" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 180px"><div class="gallerytext">Principle of the grain feeding system</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meule_%C3%A0_grain_moulins_de_Kerouat_Finist%C3%A8re_France.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="View from the eyelet"><img alt="View from the eyelet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Meule_%C3%A0_grain_moulins_de_Kerouat_Finist%C3%A8re_France.JPG/400px-Meule_%C3%A0_grain_moulins_de_Kerouat_Finist%C3%A8re_France.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Meule_%C3%A0_grain_moulins_de_Kerouat_Finist%C3%A8re_France.JPG/600px-Meule_%C3%A0_grain_moulins_de_Kerouat_Finist%C3%A8re_France.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Meule_%C3%A0_grain_moulins_de_Kerouat_Finist%C3%A8re_France.JPG/800px-Meule_%C3%A0_grain_moulins_de_Kerouat_Finist%C3%A8re_France.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">View from the eyelet</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_trempure.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The dipping mechanism adjusts the distance between the two millstones (Gentinnes watermill - Belgium)."><img alt="The dipping mechanism adjusts the distance between the two millstones (Gentinnes watermill - Belgium)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/La_trempure.jpg/225px-La_trempure.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/La_trempure.jpg/337px-La_trempure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/La_trempure.jpg/450px-La_trempure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 130px"><div class="gallerytext">The dipping mechanism adjusts the distance between the two millstones (<a href="/wiki/Gentinnes" title="Gentinnes">Gentinnes</a> watermill - <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>).</div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbolism">Symbolism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Symbolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolism_in_the_Bible">Symbolism in the Bible</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Symbolism in the Bible"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Millstones were often essential objects within a community. For that reason, they gain multiple symbolic meanings and symbolism within mythology, folklore, and the Bible. The Hebrew Bible admonishes <small>(<a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy_24" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy 24">Deuteronomy 24</a>:6)</small>: "No one shall take a lower millstone, nor an upper millstone, in pledge [for the payment of a debt], for that would be tantamount to taking away a life in pledge." The rabbis have explained that not only a millstone cannot be taken as security for a pledge, but anything in which the life of man depends cannot be taken as security for a pledge.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The Bible heavily utilized millstone symbolism within its various proverbs. A common one is the millstone's proverbial designation of something as a great weight, as seen in <a href="/wiki/Matthew_18" title="Matthew 18">Matthew 18</a>:6 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>But whoso shall offend one of these little ones which believe in me, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck, and that he were drowned in the depth of the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Likewise, due to the exhausting physical labor associated with the earliest millstones, they were symbolic of hard work and accredited as a menial task given to the lowest form of a laborer.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is not the only symbolic meaning of millstones within the Bible; millstones were also used as a symbol of civilization, prosperity, and comfortable living.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_symbolism">Other symbolism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other symbolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Out of the Bible, the millstone can be seen as a symbol of transformation, death, and rebirth. This is due to the strenuous amount of work and effort that goes into utilizing a millstone to grind grain into flour. Other symbolic meanings associated with millstones include fertility and abundance. In Korea, a practice existed in which the husband would use a millstone while his wife was in childbirth, hoping that he could share her pain.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both the Bible and folklore, the millstone can be associated with punishment. In some instances and stories, a millstone is used to harm an individual for their behavior. Examples of millstones being used to punish individuals can be seen in "<a href="/wiki/The_Juniper_Tree_(fairy_tale)" title="The Juniper Tree (fairy tale)">The Juniper Tree</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-:1_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Judges 9:53, where one is used to kill <a href="/wiki/Abimelech_(Judges)" title="Abimelech (Judges)">Abimelech</a> by tossing it on his head.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MillstoneCrest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/MillstoneCrest.jpg/220px-MillstoneCrest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/MillstoneCrest.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="242" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>Millstone crest of <a href="/wiki/John_Lisle,_2nd_Baron_Lisle_of_Rougemont" title="John Lisle, 2nd Baron Lisle of Rougemont">John de Lisle, 2nd Baron Lisle</a> (c.1318-1355), KG, drawn from his <a href="/wiki/Garter_stall_plate" title="Garter stall plate">Garter stall plate</a> in <a href="/wiki/St_George%27s_Chapel" class="mw-redirect" title="St George's Chapel">St George's Chapel</a>, Windsor</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heraldry">Heraldry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Heraldry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">heraldry</a>, as a demonstration of military bravado, a millstone features as the heraldic crest of <a href="/wiki/John_Lisle,_2nd_Baron_Lisle_of_Rougemont" title="John Lisle, 2nd Baron Lisle of Rougemont">John de Lisle, 2nd Baron Lisle</a> (c.1318-1355), one of the founder knights of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Garter" title="Order of the Garter">Order of the Garter</a>, as shown on his garter-plate in St George's Chapel, Windsor: <i>A mill-stone argent pecked sable the inner circle and the rim of the second the fer-de-moline or</i>. Thus symbolising super-human strength necessary to support such a weight atop his helmet. </p><p>In its more basic heraldic form it is a <a href="/wiki/Charge_(heraldry)" title="Charge (heraldry)">charge</a> symbolising industry.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>fer-de-moline</i> ("mill-iron") or millrind, which attaches to the millstone and transfers to it the torque of the drive-shaft, is also a common heraldic charge, used as <a href="/wiki/Canting_arms" title="Canting arms">canting arms</a> by families named Mills, Milles, Turner, etc.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 101.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 99.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:H%C3%B6%C3%B6r_vapen.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A millstone in the arms of Höör, Sweden"><img alt="A millstone in the arms of Höör, Sweden" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/H%C3%B6%C3%B6r_vapen.svg/149px-H%C3%B6%C3%B6r_vapen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/H%C3%B6%C3%B6r_vapen.svg/223px-H%C3%B6%C3%B6r_vapen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/H%C3%B6%C3%B6r_vapen.svg/297px-H%C3%B6%C3%B6r_vapen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="251" data-file-height="304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 80px"><div class="gallerytext">A millstone in the arms of <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6%C3%B6r" title="Höör">Höör</a>, Sweden</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 106px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 104px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Askola.vaakuna.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A millstone in the arms of Askola, Finland"><img alt="A millstone in the arms of Askola, Finland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Askola.vaakuna.svg/156px-Askola.vaakuna.svg.png" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Askola.vaakuna.svg/235px-Askola.vaakuna.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Askola.vaakuna.svg/313px-Askola.vaakuna.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="575" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 84px"><div class="gallerytext">A millstone in the arms of <a href="/wiki/Askola" title="Askola">Askola</a>, Finland</div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Photo_gallery">Photo gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Photo gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed-overlay"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 303.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 301.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Woldegk-Roemermuehle.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Woldegk-Roemermuehle.JPG/452px-Woldegk-Roemermuehle.JPG" decoding="async" width="302" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Woldegk-Roemermuehle.JPG/678px-Woldegk-Roemermuehle.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Woldegk-Roemermuehle.JPG/904px-Woldegk-Roemermuehle.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1760" data-file-height="1168" /></a></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 135.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 133.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Handkorenmolen_in_IJzendijkse_Molen.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone at Augusta Raurica"><img alt="Millstone at Augusta Raurica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Handkorenmolen_in_IJzendijkse_Molen.jpg/200px-Handkorenmolen_in_IJzendijkse_Molen.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Handkorenmolen_in_IJzendijkse_Molen.jpg/300px-Handkorenmolen_in_IJzendijkse_Molen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Handkorenmolen_in_IJzendijkse_Molen.jpg/400px-Handkorenmolen_in_IJzendijkse_Molen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1401" data-file-height="2100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 114px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone at <a href="/wiki/Augusta_Raurica" title="Augusta Raurica">Augusta Raurica</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 318px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 316px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustaraurica_millstone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Augustaraurica_millstone.jpg/474px-Augustaraurica_millstone.jpg" decoding="async" width="316" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Augustaraurica_millstone.jpg/711px-Augustaraurica_millstone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Augustaraurica_millstone.jpg/947px-Augustaraurica_millstone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="887" /></a></span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 348.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 346.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mons_moulins_Huile.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ancient communal mills (Lambert mills) for oil, fulling, wheat, on the Siagnole, Mons (Var)"><img alt="Ancient communal mills (Lambert mills) for oil, fulling, wheat, on the Siagnole, Mons (Var)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Mons_moulins_Huile.jpg/960px-Mons_moulins_Huile.jpg" decoding="async" width="347" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Mons_moulins_Huile.jpg/1039px-Mons_moulins_Huile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2881" data-file-height="1664" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 327px"><div class="gallerytext">Ancient communal mills (Lambert mills) for oil, fulling, wheat, on the Siagnole, Mons (Var)</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EC_Mill_with_Petroleum_Engine.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Millstone powered by internal combustion engine"><img alt="Millstone powered by internal combustion engine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/EC_Mill_with_Petroleum_Engine.JPG/399px-EC_Mill_with_Petroleum_Engine.JPG" decoding="async" width="266" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/EC_Mill_with_Petroleum_Engine.JPG/598px-EC_Mill_with_Petroleum_Engine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/EC_Mill_with_Petroleum_Engine.JPG/797px-EC_Mill_with_Petroleum_Engine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1952" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 246px"><div class="gallerytext">Millstone powered by internal combustion engine</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Levens_moulin-farine.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Former flour mill (Levens, France)."><img alt="Former flour mill (Levens, France)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Levens_moulin-farine.jpg/400px-Levens_moulin-farine.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Levens_moulin-farine.jpg/600px-Levens_moulin-farine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Levens_moulin-farine.jpg/800px-Levens_moulin-farine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Former flour mill (<a href="/wiki/Levens,_Alpes-Maritimes" title="Levens, Alpes-Maritimes">Levens</a>, France).</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meule_a_grain_chine.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Grain millstone in the snow in northern China."><img alt="Grain millstone in the snow in northern China." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Meule_a_grain_chine.jpg/400px-Meule_a_grain_chine.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Meule_a_grain_chine.jpg/600px-Meule_a_grain_chine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Meule_a_grain_chine.jpg/800px-Meule_a_grain_chine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Grain millstone in the snow in northern <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meule_de_moulin_(Lotbini%C3%A8re).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A millstone used to support a sundial at Domaine Joly in Lotbinière, Quebec."><img alt="A millstone used to support a sundial at Domaine Joly in Lotbinière, Quebec." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Meule_de_moulin_%28Lotbini%C3%A8re%29.JPG/400px-Meule_de_moulin_%28Lotbini%C3%A8re%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Meule_de_moulin_%28Lotbini%C3%A8re%29.JPG/600px-Meule_de_moulin_%28Lotbini%C3%A8re%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Meule_de_moulin_%28Lotbini%C3%A8re%29.JPG/800px-Meule_de_moulin_%28Lotbini%C3%A8re%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">A millstone used to support a sundial at Domaine Joly in <a href="/wiki/Lotbini%C3%A8re,_Quebec" title="Lotbinière, Quebec">Lotbinière</a>, Quebec.</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meule_aux_Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Garden Millstone at Jardins de Métis, Quebec."><img alt="Garden Millstone at Jardins de Métis, Quebec." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Meule_aux_Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis_1.JPG/400px-Meule_aux_Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Meule_aux_Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis_1.JPG/600px-Meule_aux_Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Meule_aux_Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis_1.JPG/800px-Meule_aux_Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Garden Millstone at <a href="/wiki/Jardins_de_M%C3%A9tis" title="Jardins de Métis">Jardins de Métis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>.</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Encyclop%C3%A9die_-_illustration_of_a_powder-mill_(18th_Century).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encyclopedia. Manufacture of gunpowder"><img alt="Encyclopedia. Manufacture of gunpowder" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Encyclop%C3%A9die_-_illustration_of_a_powder-mill_%2818th_Century%29.jpg/225px-Encyclop%C3%A9die_-_illustration_of_a_powder-mill_%2818th_Century%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Encyclop%C3%A9die_-_illustration_of_a_powder-mill_%2818th_Century%29.jpg/337px-Encyclop%C3%A9die_-_illustration_of_a_powder-mill_%2818th_Century%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Encyclop%C3%A9die_-_illustration_of_a_powder-mill_%2818th_Century%29.jpg/450px-Encyclop%C3%A9die_-_illustration_of_a_powder-mill_%2818th_Century%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 130px"><div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">Encyclopedia</a>. Manufacture of gunpowder</div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meule_gypse.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Pair of millstones used to grind gypsum before firing. Berzé-la-Ville"><img alt="Pair of millstones used to grind gypsum before firing. Berzé-la-Ville" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Meule_gypse.JPG/400px-Meule_gypse.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Meule_gypse.JPG/600px-Meule_gypse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Meule_gypse.JPG/800px-Meule_gypse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">Pair of millstones used to grind <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> before firing. <a href="/wiki/Berz%C3%A9-la-Ville" title="Berzé-la-Ville">Berzé-la-Ville</a></div> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:QP_western_stone_across_jeh.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="One of the Dutch Kills Millstones displayed in a NYC park."><img alt="One of the Dutch Kills Millstones displayed in a NYC park." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/QP_western_stone_across_jeh.jpg/400px-QP_western_stone_across_jeh.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/QP_western_stone_across_jeh.jpg/600px-QP_western_stone_across_jeh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/QP_western_stone_across_jeh.jpg/800px-QP_western_stone_across_jeh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3672" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytextwrapper" style="width: 247px"><div class="gallerytext">One of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Kills_Millstones" title="Dutch Kills Millstones">Dutch Kills Millstones</a> displayed in a <a href="/wiki/City_of_Greater_New_York" title="City of Greater New York">NYC</a> park.</div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_bed-stone" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=bed-stone">"bed-stone"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=bed-stone&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dbed-stone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emblematic of hardness in (for example) <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Job#41:24" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Job">Job 41:24</a> - "His heart is as firm as a stone; yea, as hard as a piece of the nether millstone."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_cock-eye" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=cock-eye">"cock-eye"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=cock-eye&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dcock-eye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Jean-Pierre Henri Azéma, Actes du colloque de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, p. 424</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-qm-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-qm_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGiorgi2020" class="citation web cs1">Giorgi, Marisa (19 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.qm.qld.gov.au/2020/05/19/grindstone-ancient-multi-tools/">"Grindstone – ancient multi-tools"</a>. <i>The Queensland Museum Network Blog</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Queensland+Museum+Network+Blog&rft.atitle=Grindstone+%E2%80%93+ancient+multi-tools&rft.date=2020-05-19&rft.aulast=Giorgi&rft.aufirst=Marisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.qm.qld.gov.au%2F2020%2F05%2F19%2Fgrindstone-ancient-multi-tools%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.firstpeoplesrelations.vic.gov.au/fact-sheet-aboriginal-grinding-stones">"Fact sheet: Aboriginal grinding stones"</a>. <i>First Peoples – State Relations</i>. <a href="/wiki/Victorian_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian Government">Victorian Government</a>. 6 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=First+Peoples+%E2%80%93+State+Relations&rft.atitle=Fact+sheet%3A+Aboriginal+grinding+stones&rft.date=2021-10-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.firstpeoplesrelations.vic.gov.au%2Ffact-sheet-aboriginal-grinding-stones&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred Wendorf <i>The Prehistory of Wadi Kubbaniya Vol. 1, 2 & 3</i>, 1986-1989, Dallas, (with R. Schild). SMU Press (Assembler and Contributor)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colloque-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-colloque_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Meules à grains. Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colloque2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-colloque2_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Meules à grains. Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theya Molleson, "Seed preparation in the Mesolithic: the osteological evidence", <i>Antiquity</i>, vol. 63, no 239, June 1989, p. 356-362 (DOI <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00076079">10.1017/S0003598X00076079</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYeon2016" class="citation journal cs1">Yeon, Yoo S. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.e-jsst.org/upload/jsst-7-1-57.pdf">"Millstone: The Creation of a New Coalescence Consciousness of Opposites"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Symbols & Sandplay Therapy</i>. <b>7</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">57–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12964%2Fjsst.160003">10.12964/jsst.160003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Symbols+%26+Sandplay+Therapy&rft.atitle=Millstone%3A+The+Creation+of+a+New+Coalescence+Consciousness+of+Opposites&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E57-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12964%2Fjsst.160003&rft.aulast=Yeon&rft.aufirst=Yoo+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-jsst.org%2Fupload%2Fjsst-7-1-57.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShaffrey2015" class="citation journal cs1">Shaffrey, Ruth (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/abs/intensive-milling-practices-in-the-romanobritish-landscape-of-southern-england-using-newly-established-criteria-for-distinguishing-millstones-from-rotary-querns/10AC82351E5C7C708BE6A40CE6993E7F">"Intensive milling practices in the Romano-British landscape of southern England. Using newly established criteria for distinguishing millstones from rotary querns"</a>. <i>Britannia</i>. <b>46</b>: <span class="nowrap">55–</span>92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068113X15000185">10.1017/S0068113X15000185</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164726574">164726574</a> – via cambridgecore.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Britannia&rft.atitle=Intensive+milling+practices+in+the+Romano-British+landscape+of+southern+England.+Using+newly+established+criteria+for+distinguishing+millstones+from+rotary+querns&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0068113X15000185&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164726574%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shaffrey&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fbritannia%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fintensive-milling-practices-in-the-romanobritish-landscape-of-southern-england-using-newly-established-criteria-for-distinguishing-millstones-from-rotary-querns%2F10AC82351E5C7C708BE6A40CE6993E7F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-millstonemonument-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-millstonemonument_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-millstonemonument_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-millstonemonument_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFКобиляцька2012" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Кобиляцька, Вікторія (7 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://day.kyiv.ua/article/cuspilstvo/pamyatnyk-iz-zhoren">"Пам'ятник із жорен"</a> [Monument from millstones]. <i>День</i> (in Ukrainian). No. 224. Kiev, Ukraine<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%27%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA+%D1%96%D0%B7+%D0%B6%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD&rft.issue=224&rft.date=2012-12-07&rft.aulast=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0&rft.aufirst=%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fday.kyiv.ua%2Farticle%2Fcuspilstvo%2Fpamyatnyk-iz-zhoren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colloque5-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-colloque5_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-colloque5_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-colloque5_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-colloque5_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-colloque5_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-colloque5_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Meules à grains. Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Here we find an example of the influence of a technical system on a social system, like the hitching system described by Major Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ista2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ista2_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ista2_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ista2_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ista2_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ista2_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ista2_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Marie-Claire Amouretti. <i>Le pain et l'huile dans la Grèce antique</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <i>Le livre de l'olivier</i>, Marie-Claire Amouretti and Georges Comet, Éditions EDISUD (Aix-en-Provence, France), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7449-0198-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-7449-0198-9">2-7449-0198-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>[PDF]</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.moulins-a-vent.net/Images/dossier-de-presse.pdf">http://www.moulins-a-vent.net/Images/dossier-de-presse.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ritti_et_al._2007,_159_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRittiGreweKessener2007">Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007</a>, p. 158, 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlonso_i_Martínez2015" class="citation journal cs1">Alonso i Martínez, Natalia (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5294175">"«Moliendo en ibero, moliendo en griego»: aculturación y resistencia tecnológica en el Mediterráneo occidental durante la Edad del Hierro"</a>. <i>Vegueta: Anuario de la Facultad de Geografía e Historia</i> (15): <span class="nowrap">23–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1133-598X">1133-598X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vegueta%3A+Anuario+de+la+Facultad+de+Geograf%C3%ADa+e+Historia&rft.atitle=%C2%ABMoliendo+en+ibero%2C+moliendo+en+griego%C2%BB%3A+aculturaci%C3%B3n+y+resistencia+tecnol%C3%B3gica+en+el+Mediterr%C3%A1neo+occidental+durante+la+Edad+del+Hierro&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=1133-598X&rft.aulast=Alonso+i+Mart%C3%ADnez&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdialnet.unirioja.es%2Fservlet%2Farticulo%3Fcodigo%3D5294175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_DíazPavón_SoldevilaDuque_EspinoPonce_de_León_Iglesias2014" class="citation journal cs1">Rodríguez Díaz, Alonso; Pavón Soldevila, Ignacio; Duque Espino, David M.; Ponce de León Iglesias, Moisés (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4948508">"Molinos y molienda en el mundo tartésico: el Guadiana y Tajo Medios"</a>. <i>Revista d'arqueologia de Ponent</i> (24): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>214. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1131-883X">1131-883X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+d%27arqueologia+de+Ponent&rft.atitle=Molinos+y+molienda+en+el+mundo+tart%C3%A9sico%3A+el+Guadiana+y+Tajo+Medios&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E214&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=1131-883X&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+D%C3%ADaz&rft.aufirst=Alonso&rft.au=Pav%C3%B3n+Soldevila%2C+Ignacio&rft.au=Duque+Espino%2C+David+M.&rft.au=Ponce+de+Le%C3%B3n+Iglesias%2C+Mois%C3%A9s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdialnet.unirioja.es%2Fservlet%2Farticulo%3Fcodigo%3D4948508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pug-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pug_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pug_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pug_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pug_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pug_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pug.fr/extrait_ouvrage/Epain1.pdf">Et l'Homme créa la meule</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Alonso Martinez, N. 1995. "Les premières meules rotatives manuelles dans le nord-est de la péninsule Iberique." In <i>La Transmission des connaissances techniques</i>, edited by M.-Cl. Amouretti and G. Comet, 15–23. Cahiers d'histoire des techniques 3. Aix en Provence: L'Université de Provence.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Rafael Frankel: The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution, in <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>, vol. 107, no. 1 (2003), p. 17-19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> CHAUSSAT, Alain-Gilles. 2008. Les meules à main rotatives: Collection du musée de Saint-Michel-de-Monjoie dans la Manche, Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, p. 120.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://meule-a-main.blogspot.com/">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> See the expression <i>moulin à sang</i> in Blanchemanche Philippe. Georges Cornet, "Le paysan et son outil. Essai d'histoire technique des céréales (France, 8th - 15th century)", <i>Études rurales</i>, No. 129-130, 1993, p. 201-204 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rural_0014-2182_1993_num_129_1_3417_t1_0201_0000_3">read online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gille-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gille_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gille_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gille_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <i>Histoire des techniques</i> - <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Gille_(historian)" title="Bertrand Gille (historian)">Bertrand Gille</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Roland Étienne, Christel Müller, Francis Prost, <i>Archéologie historique de la Grèce antique</i>, Ellipses, 2006, p. 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Two square-section iron boxes (arm fasteners) held the levers, which were secured by a wooden peg slid into the round-section hole running right through them.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mediterranees.net/civilisation/techniques/agriculture/olea.html">Techniques dans l'antiquité gréco-romaine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">XII, 52, 6-7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brun1-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brun1_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Jean-Pierre Brun. <i>Archéologie du vin et de l'huile. De la préhistoire à l'époque hellénistique</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ista-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ista_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ista_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ista_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Marie-Claire Amouretti. <i>Le pain et l'huile dans la Grèce antique</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The town of Orcistus is mentioned in the <i>Tabula Peutingeriana</i> (Table de Peutinger) and corresponds to the Turkish site of <i>Alikel Yaila</i>, also known as <i>Alekian</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asso.nordnet.fr/aramnord/jean_bruggeman_qui_est_il.htm">Jean Bruggeman, l'Historien des Moulins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080217061039/http://asso.nordnet.fr/aramnord/jean_bruggeman_qui_est_il.htm">Archived</a> 17 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, p. 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, p. 283</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This term should be understood as a unit of volume</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, p. 298</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ours Pierre Armand Dufrénoy, 1834</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.la-ferte-sous-jouarre.org/patrimoine/article.php3?id_article=13">Patrimoine meulier</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090112193430/http://www.la-ferte-sous-jouarre.org/patrimoine/article.php3?id_article=13">Archived</a> 12 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBucksch1997" class="citation book cs1">Bucksch, Herbert (1997). <i>Dictionary Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 1</i>. Springer-Verlag. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-58164-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-58164-2"><bdi>978-3-540-58164-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+Geotechnical+Engineering%2C+Vol.+1&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-3-540-58164-2&rft.aulast=Bucksch&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Limestone or sandstone for construction stones have porosities of the order of 20%.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In this case, at least one of the two planes of the grinding wheel is roughened, which facilitates shaping.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fabre-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fabre_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <i>Analyses pétrographiques et mécaniques d'un ensemble de roches meulières utilisées en France à l'époque médiévale</i>. Denis Fabre, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msh-alpes.prd.fr/Actualites/meulieres.htm">Colloque international</a> "Les meulières. Recherche, protection et valorisation d'un patrimoine industriel européen (Ancient times-21st century)", Grenoble 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ordinary concrete has a compressive strength of around 35 MPa, while high-performance concrete used for high-rise buildings has a compressive strength of around 80 MPa.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strictly speaking, sandstones are defined as rocks with grain sizes of up to 2 mm.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fabre2-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fabre2_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fabre2_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <i>Analyses pétrographiques et mécaniques d'un ensemble de roches meulières utilisées en France à l'époque médiévale</i>. Denis Fabre, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msh-alpes.prd.fr/Actualites/meulieres.htm">Colloque international</a> "Les meulières. Recherche, protection et valorisation d'un patrimoine industriel européen (Ancient times-21st century)", Grenoble 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Source : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://meuliere.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/presentation.html">Atlas des meulières de France et d'Europe</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2023" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, David (2023). <i>Millstones of the Pennines and North West England</i>. Amberley Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781-3981-1293-3" title="Special:BookSources/9781-3981-1293-3"><bdi>9781-3981-1293-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Millstones+of+the+Pennines+and+North+West+England&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781-3981-1293-3&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SF-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SF_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SF_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SF_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFreese2011" class="citation book cs1">Freese, Stanley (27 May 2011). <i>Windmills and millwrighting</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107600133" title="Special:BookSources/9781107600133"><bdi>9781107600133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Windmills+and+millwrighting&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-05-27&rft.isbn=9781107600133&rft.aulast=Freese&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wood_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood2003" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Geoff (2003). <i>Thorrington Tide Mill</i>. Essex County Council. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/185281-232-X" title="Special:BookSources/185281-232-X"><bdi>185281-232-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thorrington+Tide+Mill&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Essex+County+Council&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=185281-232-X&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cullen-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cullen_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peakscan.freeuk.com/geology.htm">"Peak District Millstones"</a>. Stephen N Wood<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Peak+District+Millstones&rft.pub=Stephen+N+Wood&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peakscan.freeuk.com%2Fgeology.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAikin1838" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Aikin" title="Arthur Aikin">Aikin, Arthur</a> (1838). "On Corn Mills". <i>Transactions</i>. <b>51</b>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a>: 121.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions&rft.atitle=On+Corn+Mills&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=121&rft.date=1838&rft.aulast=Aikin&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Santi, Gambin, Renzulli (2021) "The millstone trade from the most exploited Italian volcanic areas: an overview from the phoenicians to the roman period", ANNALS OF GEOPHYSICS, 64, 5, VO551, 2021 ; doi:10.4401/ag-8647</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inrs.fr/">inrs.fr</a> See also: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120903222847/http://www.inrs.fr/publications/ED846.html">Silos grains</a> then <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inrs.fr/dossiers/explosion.html">Explosion et lieu de travail</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090611085140/http://www.inrs.fr/dossiers/explosion.html">Archived</a> 11 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colloque3-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-colloque3_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Meules à grains. Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dussart-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dussart_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.moulin-dussart.be">Moulin Dussart</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colloque4-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-colloque4_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup>(fr)</sup> Meules à grains. Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wood (2003) p 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPS_Peirce_Mill-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NPS_Peirce_Mill_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NPS publication "Peirce Mill" GPO: 2004--304-337/00145 Reprint 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMishnah1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DanbyMishnah/mode/1up"><i>The Mishnah</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Danby" title="Herbert Danby">Herbert Danby</a> (12th ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DanbyMishnah/page/364/mode/1up">364</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815402-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-815402-X"><bdi>0-19-815402-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mishnah&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=364&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-19-815402-X&rft.au=Mishnah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FDanbyMishnah%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span>, s.v. <i>Baba Mezia</i> 9:13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Matthew#18:6" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Matthew">Matthew 18:6</a>: <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a>, paralleled in <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Luke#17:2" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Luke">Luke 17:2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLynchRowland2005" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, Alban J; Rowland, Chester A. (1 November 2005). <i>The History of Grinding</i>. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0873352383" title="Special:BookSources/978-0873352383"><bdi>978-0873352383</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Grinding&rft.pub=Society+for+Mining%2C+Metallurgy%2C+and+Exploration&rft.date=2005-11-01&rft.isbn=978-0873352383&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Alban+J&rft.au=Rowland%2C+Chester+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalton" class="citation web cs1">Walton, Steven A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engr.psu.edu/mtah/articles/pdf/mill_in_bible.pdf">"The Mill in the Bible"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mill+in+the+Bible&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Steven+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.engr.psu.edu%2Fmtah%2Farticles%2Fpdf%2Fmill_in_bible.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.welt-der-wappen.de/Heraldik//seiten/muehleisen.htm">Bernhard Peter: The mill iron and derived forms</a> (in German)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appendix">Appendix</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Appendix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><sup>(fr)</sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=is4ru__ZPpMC"><i>Meules à grains.</i> <i>Actes du colloque international de La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, 16-19 mai 2002</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dis4ru__ZPpMC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover">archive</a>, Éditions Ibis Press - Éditions de la maison des sciences de l'homme (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-910728-35-8" title="Special:BookSources/2-910728-35-8">2-910728-35-8</a>)</li> <li><sup>(fr)</sup> Alain Belmont, <i>La Pierre à pain. Les carrières de meules de moulins en France, du Moyen ge à la révolution industrielle</i>, Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 2006, 2 vol. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7061-1305-7" title="Special:BookSources/2-7061-1305-7">2-7061-1305-7</a>)</li> <li><sup>(fr)</sup> Bertrand Gille (s. dir.), <i>Histoire des techniques</i>, Gallimard, coll. "La Pléiade", 1978. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-07-010881-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-07-010881-7">978-2-07-010881-7</a>)</li> <li><sup>(fr)</sup> Bertrand Gille, <i>Les sources statistiques de l'histoire de France - Des enquêtes du xviie siècle à 1870</i>, Centre de recherches d'histoire et de philologie de la IVe section de l'École pratique des hautes études, 1964.</li> <li><sup>(fr)</sup> Auguste Armengaud, Claude Rivals, <i>Moulins à vent et meuniers des pays d'oc</i>, Toulouse, Loubatières, 1992 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-86266-162-7" title="Special:BookSources/2-86266-162-7">2-86266-162-7</a>)</li> <li><sup>(fr)</sup> Marie-Claire Amouretti, <i>Le pain et l'huile dans la Grèce antique. De l'araire au moulin</i>, Besançon, Les Belles Lettres, ALUB, (328), 1986 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-251-60328-X" title="Special:BookSources/2-251-60328-X">2-251-60328-X</a>)</li> <li><sup>(fr)</sup> Jean-Pierre Brun. <i>Archéologie du vin et de l'huile. De la préhistoire à l'époque hellénistique</i>. Éditions errance, 2004 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87772-285-6" title="Special:BookSources/2-87772-285-6">2-87772-285-6</a>)</li> <li><sup>(fr)</sup> Jean-Pierre Brun. <i>Archéologie du vin et de l'huile dans l'Empire romain</i>. Éditions errance, 2004 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87772-293-7" title="Special:BookSources/2-87772-293-7">2-87772-293-7</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRittiGreweKessener2007" class="citation cs2">Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7414675">"A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications"</a>, <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i>, vol. 20, pp. <span class="nowrap">138–</span>163</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=A+Relief+of+a+Water-powered+Stone+Saw+Mill+on+a+Sarcophagus+at+Hierapolis+and+its+Implications&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E138-%3C%2Fspan%3E163&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Ritti&rft.aufirst=Tullia&rft.au=Grewe%2C+Klaus&rft.au=Kessener%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7414675&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMillstone" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="See_also">See also</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedrock_mortar" title="Bedrock mortar">Bedrock mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_mill" title="Edge mill">Edge mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">Gristmill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BChlsteinbr%C3%BCche" title="Mühlsteinbrüche">Mühlsteinbrüche</a>, historic millstone quarries in Saxony</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_grinding_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain grinding wheel">Grain grinding wheel</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_links">External links</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Millstone&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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href="/wiki/Template:Navbox_Mill" title="Template:Navbox Mill"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Navbox_Mill" title="Template talk:Navbox Mill"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox_Mill" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Navbox Mill"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mill76" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_mill" title="List of types of mill">Mill</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Motion System</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a></li> <li>Bief/Bisse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spillway" title="Spillway">Spillway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">Watermill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_mill" title="Tide mill">Tide mill</a></li> <li>Rodet mill</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">Windmill</a></li> <li>Polder mill</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_mill" title="Ship mill">Ship mill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">Fulling</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Millstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugarcane_mill" title="Sugarcane mill">Sugarcane mill</a></li> <li>Paper mill</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bark_mill" title="Bark mill">Bark mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noria" title="Noria">Noria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_mill" title="Edge mill">Edge mill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Wheel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">Water wheel</a></li> <li>Bucket wheel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">Turbine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Moulder</li> <li>Water streams management law in France</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from 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