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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Composition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Composition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Composition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Cement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Curing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aggregates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aggregates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Aggregates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aggregates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Admixtures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Admixtures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Admixtures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Admixtures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mineral_admixtures_and_blended_cements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineral_admixtures_and_blended_cements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Mineral admixtures and blended cements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineral_admixtures_and_blended_cements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Production </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Production subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Design_mix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design_mix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Design mix </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Design_mix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Mixing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_analysis—workability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_analysis—workability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Sample analysis—workability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_analysis—workability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curing_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curing_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Curing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curing_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maintaining_optimal_conditions_for_cement_hydration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maintaining_optimal_conditions_for_cement_hydration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Maintaining optimal conditions for cement hydration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maintaining_optimal_conditions_for_cement_hydration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Curing_techniques_avoiding_water_loss_by_evaporation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curing_techniques_avoiding_water_loss_by_evaporation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.2 Curing techniques avoiding water loss by evaporation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curing_techniques_avoiding_water_loss_by_evaporation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Alternative types </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternative_types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Alternative types subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Alternative_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asphalt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asphalt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Asphalt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asphalt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graphene_enhanced_concrete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graphene_enhanced_concrete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Graphene enhanced concrete </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graphene_enhanced_concrete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microbial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microbial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Microbial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microbial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanoconcrete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanoconcrete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Nanoconcrete </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanoconcrete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pervious" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pervious"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Pervious </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pervious-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Polymer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant_fibers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant_fibers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Plant fibers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant_fibers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sulfur_concrete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sulfur_concrete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Sulfur concrete </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sulfur_concrete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Volcanic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volcanic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10 Waste light </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycled_Aggregate_Concrete_(RAC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycled_Aggregate_Concrete_(RAC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.11 Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recycled_Aggregate_Concrete_(RAC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Properties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Properties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy_efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Energy efficiency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Fire safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earthquake_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earthquake_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Earthquake safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earthquake_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Construction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Construction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reinforced" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reinforced"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Reinforced </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reinforced-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Precast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Mass structures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_finishes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_finishes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Surface finishes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_finishes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prestressed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prestressed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Prestressed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prestressed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Placement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Placement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Placement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Placement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cold_weather_placement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_weather_placement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.1 Cold weather placement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_weather_placement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Underwater_placement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Underwater_placement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.2 Underwater placement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Underwater_placement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Roads </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tube_forest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tube_forest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Tube forest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tube_forest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment,_health_and_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment,_health_and_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Environment, health and safety </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environment,_health_and_safety-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Environment, health and safety subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Environment,_health_and_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Health_and_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Health and safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cement_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cement_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Cement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cement_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Climate change mitigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Climate change adaptation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End-of-life:_degradation_and_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End-of-life:_degradation_and_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 End-of-life: degradation and waste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End-of-life:_degradation_and_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Recycling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_records" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_records"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 World records </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_records-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Concrete</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 113 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-113" aria-hidden="true" > 113 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembok" title="Tembok – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Tembok" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9" title="خرسانة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خرسانة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornig%C3%B3n" title="Fornigón – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fornigón" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A8ton" title="Bèton – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Bèton" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formig%C3%B3n" title="Formigón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Formigón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="بتون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بتون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F" title="কংক্রিট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কংক্রিট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C5%8Dng-ku-l%C3%AD" title="Khōng-ku-lí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khōng-ku-lí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бэтон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэтон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedau" title="Bedau – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Bedau" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beto%C3%B1s" title="Betoñs – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Betoñs" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formig%C3%B3" title="Formigó – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Formigó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrit" title="Concrit – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Concrit" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86" title="بيطون – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="بيطون" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betoon" title="Betoon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Betoon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BA%CF%85%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Σκυρόδεμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σκυρόδεμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormig%C3%B3n" title="Hormigón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hormigón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betono" title="Betono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Betono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormigoi" title="Hormigoi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hormigoi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%86" title="بتن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بتن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9ton_de_ciment" title="Béton de ciment – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Béton de ciment" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coincr%C3%A9it" title="Coincréit – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Coincréit" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruadhtan" title="Cruadhtan – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cruadhtan" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formig%C3%B3n" title="Formigón – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Formigón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B4ng-k%C3%BA-li%CC%8Dt" title="Không-kú-li̍t – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Không-kú-li̍t" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%98%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%8A%B8" title="콘크리트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="콘크리트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Բետոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բետոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9F" title="कंक्रीट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कंक्रीट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betono" title="Betono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Betono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekhonkrithi" title="Ekhonkrithi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ekhonkrithi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinsteypa" title="Steinsteypa – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Steinsteypa" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcestruzzo" title="Calcestruzzo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Calcestruzzo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F" title="בטון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בטון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಕಾಂಕ್ರೀಟ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಾಂಕ್ರೀಟ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბეტონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბეტონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zege" title="Zege – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Zege" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudus_concretum" title="Rudus concretum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rudus concretum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betons" title="Betons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Betons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%ABtong" title="Bëtong – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bëtong" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betonas" title="Betonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Betonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet%C3%B3n" title="Petón – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Petón" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botumm" title="Botumm – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Botumm" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="കോൺക്രീറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കോൺക്രീറ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბეტონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბეტონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkrit" title="Konkrit – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Konkrit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F" title="कङ्क्रिट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कङ्क्रिट" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88" title="コンクリート – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンクリート" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betong" title="Betong – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Betong" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betong" title="Betong – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Betong" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betum" title="Betum – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Betum" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pälzisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%87" title="گاگره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="گاگره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84" title="បេតុង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បេតុង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concreto" title="Concreto – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Concreto" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urmiyun" title="Urmiyun – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Urmiyun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Concrete" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betoni" title="Betoni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Betoni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Concrete" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bet%C3%B3n" title="Betón – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Betón" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="کۆنکریت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆنکریت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betoni" title="Betoni – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Betoni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betong" title="Betong – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Betong" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongkreto" title="Kongkreto – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kongkreto" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88" title="பைஞ்சுதை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பைஞ்சுதை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81" title="కాంక్రీటు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కాంక్రీటు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%95" title="คอนกรีต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คอนกรีต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beton" title="Beton – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Beton" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Бетон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бетон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%B9" title="کنکریٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کنکریٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concreto" title="Concreto – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Concreto" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%AA_t%C3%B4ng" title="Bê tông – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bê tông" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkreto" title="Konkreto – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Konkreto" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%87%9D%E5%9C%9F" title="混凝土 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="混凝土" data-language-autonym="吴语" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Composite construction material</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the construction material. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Concrete_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Concrete (disambiguation)">Concrete (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grout" title="Grout">grout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Concrete" title="Special:EditPage/Concrete">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Concrete%22">"Concrete"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Concrete%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Concrete%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Concrete%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Concrete%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Concrete%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (July 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bloczek_betonowy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bloczek_betonowy.jpg/220px-Bloczek_betonowy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bloczek_betonowy.jpg/330px-Bloczek_betonowy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bloczek_betonowy.jpg/440px-Bloczek_betonowy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="751" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>A single <a href="/wiki/Concrete_block" title="Concrete block">concrete block</a>, as used for construction</figcaption></figure> Concrete is a <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite material</a> composed of <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">aggregate</a> bonded together with a fluid <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a> that cures to a solid over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in the world after <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> and is the most widely used building material.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Its usage worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminium combined.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> When aggregate is mixed with dry <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, the mixture forms a fluid <a href="/wiki/Slurry" title="Slurry">slurry</a> that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water through a process called concrete hydration<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> that hardens it over several hours to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> This time allows concrete to not only be cast in forms, but also to have a variety of tooled processes performed. The hydration process is <a href="/wiki/Exothermic_process" title="Exothermic process">exothermic</a>, which means ambient temperature plays a significant role in how long it takes concrete to set. Often, additives (such as <a href="/wiki/Pozzolan" title="Pozzolan">pozzolans</a> or <a href="/wiki/Superplasticizer" title="Superplasticizer">superplasticizers</a>) are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet mix, delay or accelerate the curing time, or otherwise change the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as steel <a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">rebar</a>) embedded to provide <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, yielding <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>. In the past, <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a>-based cement binders, such as lime putty, were often used but sometimes with other <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_cement" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic cement">hydraulic cements</a>, (water resistant) such as a <a href="/wiki/Calcium_aluminate_cements" title="Calcium aluminate cements">calcium aluminate cement</a> or with Portland cement to form Portland cement concrete (named for its visual resemblance to <a href="/wiki/Portland_stone" title="Portland stone">Portland stone</a>).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Many other non-cementitious <a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete" title="Types of concrete">types of concrete</a> exist with other methods of binding aggregate together, including <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt concrete</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> binder, which is frequently used for <a href="/wiki/Road_surface" title="Road surface">road surfaces</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polymer_concrete" title="Polymer concrete">polymer concretes</a> that use polymers as a binder. Concrete is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Whereas concrete is itself a building material, mortar is a bonding agent that typically holds <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">bricks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">tiles</a> and other masonry units together.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Grout" title="Grout">Grout</a> is another material associated with concrete and cement. It does not contain coarse aggregates and is usually either pourable or <a href="/wiki/Thixotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thixotropic">thixotropic</a>, and is used to fill gaps between masonry components or coarse aggregate which has already been put in place. Some methods of concrete manufacture and repair involve pumping grout into the gaps to make up a solid mass in situ. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The word concrete comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed),<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> the perfect passive participle of "concrescere", from "con-" (together) and "crescere" (to grow). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_times">Ancient times</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient times">edit</a>]</div> Concrete floors were found in the royal palace of <a href="/wiki/Tiryns" title="Tiryns">Tiryns</a>, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400 to 1200 BC.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Lime mortars were used in Greece, such as in Crete and Cyprus, in 800 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of <a href="/wiki/Waterproof_concrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterproof concrete">waterproof concrete</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Concrete was used for construction in many ancient structures.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Mayan concrete at the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Uxmal" title="Uxmal">Uxmal</a> (AD 850–925) is referenced in Incidents of Travel in the Yucatán by <a href="/wiki/John_Lloyd_Stephens" title="John Lloyd Stephens">John L. Stephens</a>. "The roof is flat and had been covered with cement". "The floors were cement, in some places hard, but, by long exposure, broken, and now crumbling under the feet." "But throughout the wall was solid, and consisting of large stones imbedded in mortar, almost as hard as rock." Small-scale production of concrete-like materials was pioneered by the <a href="/wiki/Nabataea" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataea">Nabatean</a> traders who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan from the 4th century BC. They discovered the advantages of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_lime" title="Hydraulic lime">hydraulic lime</a>, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kilns</a> to supply mortar for the construction of <a href="/wiki/Rubble_masonry" title="Rubble masonry">rubble masonry</a> houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof <a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">cisterns</a>. They kept the cisterns secret as these enabled the Nabataeans to thrive in the desert.<a href="#cite_note-Gromicko-2016-15">[15]</a> Some of these structures survive to this day.<a href="#cite_note-Gromicko-2016-15">[15]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> eras, builders discovered that adding <a href="/wiki/Pozzolan" title="Pozzolan">volcanic ash</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a> allowed the mix to set underwater. They discovered the <a href="/wiki/Pozzolanic_activity#Reaction" title="Pozzolanic activity">pozzolanic reaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_era">Classical era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pantheon_dome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pantheon_dome.jpg/220px-Pantheon_dome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pantheon_dome.jpg/330px-Pantheon_dome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pantheon_dome.jpg/440px-Pantheon_dome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Exterior of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Pantheon" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Pantheon">Roman Pantheon</a>, finished 128 AD, the largest unreinforced concrete <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pantheon_cupola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Pantheon_cupola.jpg/220px-Pantheon_cupola.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Pantheon_cupola.jpg/330px-Pantheon_cupola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Pantheon_cupola.jpg/440px-Pantheon_cupola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2632" data-file-height="2632" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the Pantheon dome, seen from beneath. The concrete for the <a href="/wiki/Coffer" title="Coffer">coffered</a> dome was laid on moulds, mounted on temporary scaffolding.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museo_Foro_Caesaragusta_-_Cloaca_del_foro_03.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Museo_Foro_Caesaragusta_-_Cloaca_del_foro_03.JPG/170px-Museo_Foro_Caesaragusta_-_Cloaca_del_foro_03.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Museo_Foro_Caesaragusta_-_Cloaca_del_foro_03.JPG/255px-Museo_Foro_Caesaragusta_-_Cloaca_del_foro_03.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Museo_Foro_Caesaragusta_-_Cloaca_del_foro_03.JPG/340px-Museo_Foro_Caesaragusta_-_Cloaca_del_foro_03.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="4608" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Opus_caementicium" class="mw-redirect" title="Opus caementicium">Opus caementicium</a> exposed in a characteristic Roman arch. In contrast to modern concrete structures, the concrete used in Roman buildings was usually covered with brick or stone.</figcaption></figure> The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to AD 476.<a href="#cite_note-MAST-18">[18]</a> During the Roman Empire, <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Opus_caementicium" class="mw-redirect" title="Opus caementicium">opus caementicium</a>) was made from <a href="/wiki/Quicklime" class="mw-redirect" title="Quicklime">quicklime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">pozzolana</a> and an aggregate of <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Its widespread use in many <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of ancient Rome">Roman structures</a>, a key event in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">history of architecture</a> termed the <a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">Roman architectural revolution</a>, freed <a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">Roman construction</a> from the restrictions of stone and brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a> has the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <blockquote>Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vaults</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_domes" title="List of Roman domes">domes</a>, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or brick.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></blockquote> Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern Portland-cement concrete (c. 200 kg/cm2 [20 MPa; 2,800 psi]).<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> However, due to the absence of reinforcement, its <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength" title="Ultimate tensile strength">tensile strength</a> was far lower than modern <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced concrete</a>, and its mode of application also differed:<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <blockquote>Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of <a href="/wiki/Rubble" title="Rubble">rubble</a>. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></blockquote> The long-term durability of Roman concrete structures has been found to be due to its use of <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock" title="Pyroclastic rock">pyroclastic</a> (volcanic) rock and ash, whereby the crystallization of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Str%C3%A4tlingite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strätlingite (page does not exist)">strätlingite</a> (a specific and complex calcium aluminosilicate hydrate)<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> and the coalescence of this and similar calcium–aluminium-silicate–hydrate cementing binders helped give the concrete a greater degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Roman concrete is significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al-<a href="/wiki/Tobermorite" title="Tobermorite">tobermorite</a> crystals over time.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The use of hot mixing and the presence of lime clasts are thought to give the concrete a self-healing ability, where cracks that form become filled with calcite that prevents the crack from spreading.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures ensured that many survive to the present day. The <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a> in Rome are just one example. Many <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueducts</a> and bridges, such as the magnificent <a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> in southern France, have masonry cladding on a concrete core, as does the dome of the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> After the Roman Empire, the use of burned lime and pozzolana was greatly reduced. Low kiln temperatures in the burning of lime, lack of pozzolana, and poor mixing all contributed to a decline in the quality of concrete and mortar. From the 11th century, the increased use of stone in church and <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castle</a> construction led to an increased demand for mortar. Quality began to improve in the 12th century through better grinding and sieving. Medieval lime mortars and concretes were non-hydraulic and were used for binding masonry, "hearting" (binding <a href="/wiki/Rubble_masonry" title="Rubble masonry">rubble masonry</a> cores) and foundations. <a href="/wiki/Bartholomaeus_Anglicus" title="Bartholomaeus Anglicus">Bartholomaeus Anglicus</a> in his De proprietatibus rerum (1240) describes the making of mortar. In an English translation from 1397, it reads "lyme ... is a stone brent; by medlynge thereof with sonde and water sement is made". From the 14th century, the quality of mortar was again excellent, but only from the 17th century was pozzolana commonly added.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Canal_du_Midi" title="Canal du Midi">Canal du Midi</a> was built using concrete in 1670.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_era">Industrial era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Industrial era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smeaton%27s_Lighthouse00.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Smeaton%27s_Lighthouse00.jpg/170px-Smeaton%27s_Lighthouse00.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Smeaton%27s_Lighthouse00.jpg/255px-Smeaton%27s_Lighthouse00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Smeaton%27s_Lighthouse00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="321" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Smeaton%27s_Tower" title="Smeaton's Tower">Smeaton's Tower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, England</figcaption></figure> Perhaps the greatest step forward in the modern use of concrete was <a href="/wiki/Smeaton%27s_Tower" title="Smeaton's Tower">Smeaton's Tower</a>, built by British engineer <a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a>, England, between 1756 and 1759. This third <a href="/wiki/Eddystone_Lighthouse" title="Eddystone Lighthouse">Eddystone Lighthouse</a> pioneered the use of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_lime" title="Hydraulic lime">hydraulic lime</a> in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate.<a href="#cite_note-InterNACHI-34">[34]</a> A method for producing <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> was developed in England and patented by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Aspdin" title="Joseph Aspdin">Joseph Aspdin</a> in 1824.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Aspdin chose the name for its similarity to <a href="/wiki/Portland_stone" title="Portland stone">Portland stone</a>, which was quarried on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Portland" title="Isle of Portland">Isle of Portland</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dorset" title="Dorset">Dorset</a>, England. His son <a href="/wiki/William_Aspdin" title="William Aspdin">William</a> continued developments into the 1840s, earning him recognition for the development of "modern" Portland cement.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete</a> was invented in 1849 by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Monier" title="Joseph Monier">Joseph Monier</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and the first reinforced concrete house was built by François Coignet<a href="#cite_note-britannia-38">[38]</a> in 1853. The first concrete reinforced bridge was designed and built by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Monier" title="Joseph Monier">Joseph Monier</a> in 1875.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Prestressed concrete</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete#Post-tensioned_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">post-tensioned concrete</a> were pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Freyssinet" title="Eugène Freyssinet">Eugène Freyssinet</a>, a French <a href="/wiki/Structural_engineer" title="Structural engineer">structural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineer" title="Civil engineer">civil engineer</a>. Concrete components or structures are compressed by tendon cables during, or after, their fabrication in order to strengthen them against <a href="/wiki/Tension_(physics)" title="Tension (physics)">tensile</a> forces developing when put in service. Freyssinet <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patented</a> the technique on 2 October 1928.<a href="#cite_note-Billington1985-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Composition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">Slag</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></div> Concrete is an artificial <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite material</a>, comprising a matrix of cementitious binder (typically <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> paste or <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>) and a dispersed phase or "filler" of <a href="#Aggregates">aggregate</a> (typically a rocky material, loose stones, and sand). The binder "glues" the filler together to form a synthetic <a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(geology)" title="Conglomerate (geology)">conglomerate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-matse-41">[41]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete" title="Types of concrete">types of concrete</a> are available, determined by the formulations of binders and the types of aggregate used to suit the application of the engineered material. These variables determine strength and density, as well as chemical and thermal resistance of the finished product. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DB_Museum_rail_and_concrete_sleeper_cross_section_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/DB_Museum_rail_and_concrete_sleeper_cross_section_2.jpg/220px-DB_Museum_rail_and_concrete_sleeper_cross_section_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/DB_Museum_rail_and_concrete_sleeper_cross_section_2.jpg/330px-DB_Museum_rail_and_concrete_sleeper_cross_section_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/DB_Museum_rail_and_concrete_sleeper_cross_section_2.jpg/440px-DB_Museum_rail_and_concrete_sleeper_cross_section_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)" title="Cross section (geometry)">Cross section</a> of a concrete <a href="/wiki/Railroad_tie" title="Railroad tie">railway sleeper</a> below a rail</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">Construction aggregates</a> consist of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a> or crushed rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>, along with finer materials such as <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>. Cement paste, most commonly made of <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a>, is the most prevalent kind of concrete binder. For cementitious binders, <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> is mixed with the dry cement powder and aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid slurry (paste) that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical process</a> called <a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">hydration</a>. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust, stone-like material. Other cementitious materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slag_cement" class="mw-redirect" title="Slag cement">slag cement</a>, are sometimes added—either pre-blended with the cement or directly as a concrete component—and become a part of the binder for the aggregate.<a href="#cite_note-flyash-42">[42]</a> Fly ash and slag can enhance some properties of concrete such as fresh properties and durability.<a href="#cite_note-flyash-42">[42]</a> Alternatively, other materials can also be used as a concrete binder: the most prevalent substitute is <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>, which is used as the binder in <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt concrete</a>. Admixtures are added to modify the cure rate or properties of the material. <a href="#Mineral_admixtures_and_blended_cements">Mineral admixtures</a> use recycled materials as concrete ingredients. Conspicuous materials include <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a>, a by-product of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel power plant">coal-fired power plants</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ground_granulated_blast_furnace_slag" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground granulated blast furnace slag">ground granulated blast furnace slag</a>, a by-product of <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steelmaking</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Silica_fume" title="Silica fume">silica fume</a>, a by-product of industrial <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnaces</a>. Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include <a href="#Reinforcement">steel reinforcement</a> because this type of concrete can be formulated with high <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a>, but always has lower <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>. Therefore, it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> <a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">rebar</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete#Mix_design" title="Types of concrete">mix design</a> depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cement">Cement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">Cement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stockage_de_ciments.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Stockage_de_ciments.JPG/220px-Stockage_de_ciments.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Stockage_de_ciments.JPG/330px-Stockage_de_ciments.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Stockage_de_ciments.JPG/440px-Stockage_de_ciments.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>Several tons of bagged cement, about two minutes of output from a 10,000 ton per day <a href="/wiki/Cement_kiln" title="Cement kiln">cement kiln</a></figcaption></figure> Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plasters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> It consists of a mixture of calcium silicates (<a href="/wiki/Alite" title="Alite">alite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belite" title="Belite">belite</a>), <a href="/wiki/Tricalcium_aluminate" title="Tricalcium aluminate">aluminates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_aluminoferrite" title="Calcium aluminoferrite">ferrites</a>—compounds, which will react with water. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called <a href="/wiki/Clinker_(cement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinker (cement)">clinker</a>) with a source of <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a> (most commonly <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>). <a href="/wiki/Cement_kiln" title="Cement kiln">Cement kilns</a> are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial installations. Of the various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then <a href="/wiki/Cement_mill" title="Cement mill">grind it into cement</a>. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The five major compounds of calcium silicates and aluminates comprising Portland cement range from 5 to 50% in weight. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curing">Curing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Curing">edit</a>]</div> Combining <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> As stated by <a href="/wiki/Abrams%27_law" title="Abrams' law">Abrams' law</a>, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_structures_durability" title="Reinforced concrete structures durability">durable</a> concrete, whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher <a href="/wiki/Workability" title="Workability">slump</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The hydration of cement involves many concurrent reactions. The process involves <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a>, the interlinking of the silicates and aluminate components as well as their bonding to sand and gravel particles to form a solid mass.<a href="#cite_note-Hydration-47">[47]</a> One illustrative conversion is the hydration of tricalcium silicate: <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Cement_chemist_notation" title="Cement chemist notation">Cement chemist notation</a>:    C3S + H → C-S-H + CH + heat</dd> <dd>Standard notation:               Ca3SiO5 + H2O → CaO・SiO2・H2O (gel) + Ca(OH)2 + heat</dd> <dd>Balanced:                             2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O → 3 CaO・2 SiO2・4 H2O (gel) + 3 Ca(OH)2 + heat</dd> <dd>                                             (approximately as the exact ratios of CaO, SiO2 and H2O in C-S-H can vary)<a href="#cite_note-Hydration-47">[47]</a></dd></dl> The hydration (curing) of cement is irreversible.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aggregates">Aggregates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Aggregates">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">Construction aggregate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gravel_03375C.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Gravel_03375C.JPG/220px-Gravel_03375C.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Gravel_03375C.JPG/330px-Gravel_03375C.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Gravel_03375C.JPG/440px-Gravel_03375C.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Crushed stone <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">aggregates</a></figcaption></figure> Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a>, natural gravel, and <a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">crushed stone</a> are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> slag and <a href="/wiki/Bottom_ash" title="Bottom ash">bottom ash</a> are also permitted. The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required. Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps between the aggregate as well as paste the surfaces of the aggregate together, and is typically the most expensive component. Thus, variation in sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of concrete.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder, so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete. Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates non-homogeneity due to the influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.<a href="#cite_note-Veretennykov_Yugov_Dolmatov_et_al_2008-50">[50]</a> Decorative stones such as <a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">quartzite</a>, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Admixtures">Admixtures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Admixtures">edit</a>]</div> Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. Admixtures are defined as additions "made as the concrete mix is being prepared".<a href="#cite_note-text-51">[51]</a> The most common admixtures are retarders and accelerators. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.<a href="#cite_note-FHWA_Admixtures-52">[52]</a> (See <a href="#Production">§ Production</a> below.) The common types of admixtures<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> are as follows: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerant" title="Accelerant">Accelerators</a> speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials used are <a href="/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">calcium chloride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_nitrate" title="Calcium nitrate">calcium nitrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_nitrate" title="Sodium nitrate">sodium nitrate</a>. However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries, so that nitrates may be favored, even though they are less effective than the chloride salt. Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_entrainment" title="Air entrainment">Air entraining agents</a> add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces damage during <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">freeze-thaw</a> cycles, increasing <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_structures_durability" title="Reinforced concrete structures durability">durability</a>. However, entrained air entails a tradeoff with strength, as each 1% of air may decrease compressive strength by 5%.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> If too much air becomes trapped in the concrete as a result of the mixing process, <a href="/wiki/Defoamer" title="Defoamer">defoamers</a> can be used to encourage the air bubble to agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet concrete and then disperse.</li> <li>Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically a type of polymer) with wide temperature tolerance and corrosion resistance.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_inhibitor" title="Corrosion inhibitor">Corrosion inhibitors</a> are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.</li> <li>Crystalline admixtures are typically added during batching of the concrete to lower permeability. The reaction takes place when exposed to water and un-hydrated cement particles to form insoluble needle-shaped crystals, which fill capillary pores and micro-cracks in the concrete to block pathways for water and waterborne contaminates. Concrete with crystalline admixture can expect to self-seal as constant exposure to water will continuously initiate crystallization to ensure permanent waterproof protection.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigments</a> can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">Plasticizers</a> increase the workability of plastic, or "fresh", concrete, allowing it to be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer is lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete while maintaining workability and are sometimes called water-reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability characteristics.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplasticizer" title="Superplasticizer">Superplasticizers</a> (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers that have fewer deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more than is practical with traditional plasticizers. Superplasticizers are used to increase compressive strength. It increases the <a href="#Sample_analysis—workability">workability</a> of the concrete and lowers the need for water content by 15–30%.</li> <li>Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and bleeding.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retarder_(chemistry)" title="Retarder (chemistry)">Retarders</a> slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours where partial setting is undesirable before completion of the pour. Typical retarders include <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_gluconate" title="Sodium gluconate">sodium gluconate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">citric acid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tartaric_acid" title="Tartaric acid">tartaric acid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mineral_admixtures_and_blended_cements">Mineral admixtures and blended cements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mineral admixtures and blended cements">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="margin-left:1em; width:50%; text-align:right;"> <caption>Components of cement: comparison of chemical and physical characteristics<a href="#cite_note-56">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-SFA2005-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-KKP2002-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" scope="col">Property </th> <th scope="col">Portland cement </th> <th scope="col">Siliceous<a href="#cite_note-60">[b]</a> fly ash </th> <th scope="col">Calcareous<a href="#cite_note-61">[c]</a> fly ash </th> <th scope="col">Slag cement </th> <th scope="col">Silica fume </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <th scope="row" rowspan="6" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header is-valign-middle" style=""><div style=""><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1221560606">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-rl){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header{line-height:1;max-width:1em;padding:0.4em;vertical-align:bottom;width:1em}html.client-js .mw-parser-output .sortable:not(.jquery-tablesorter) .ts-vertical-header:not(.unsortable),html.client-js .mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.headerSort{background-position:50%.4em;padding-right:0.4em;padding-top:21px}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-valign-top{vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-valign-middle{vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-normal{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header>*{display:inline-block;transform:rotate(180deg);writing-mode:vertical-rl}@supports(writing-mode:sideways-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header>*{transform:none;writing-mode:sideways-lr}}}</style>Proportion by mass (%)</div> </th> <th scope="row">SiO2 </th> <td>21.9 </td> <td>52 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>35 </td> <td>85–97 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Al2O3 </th> <td>6.9 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>18 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Fe2O3 </th> <td>3 </td> <td>11 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">CaO </th> <td>63 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>21 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>< 1 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">MgO </th> <td>2.5 </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">SO3 </th> <td>1.7 </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" colspan="2">Specific surface (m2/kg)<a href="#cite_note-62">[d]</a> </th> <td>370 </td> <td>420 </td> <td>420 </td> <td>400 </td> <td>15,000 – 30,000 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" colspan="2">Specific gravity </th> <td>3.15 </td> <td>2.38 </td> <td>2.65 </td> <td>2.94 </td> <td>2.22 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th scope="row" colspan="2">General purpose </th> <td>Primary binder </td> <td>Cement replacement </td> <td>Cement replacement </td> <td>Cement replacement </td> <td>Property enhancer </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:left;"> <td colspan="7"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Values shown are approximate: those of a specific material may vary. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> ASTM C618 Class F </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> ASTM C618 Class C </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Specific surface measurements for silica fume by nitrogen adsorption (BET) method, others by <a href="/wiki/Air_permeability" class="mw-redirect" title="Air permeability">air permeability</a> method (Blaine). </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> Inorganic materials that have <a href="/wiki/Pozzolan" title="Pozzolan">pozzolanic</a> or latent hydraulic properties, these very <a href="/wiki/Granularity" title="Granularity">fine-grained</a> materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures),<a href="#cite_note-FHWA_Admixtures-52">[52]</a> or as a replacement for <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> (blended cements).<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a> Products which incorporate <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ground_granulated_blast-furnace_slag" title="Ground granulated blast-furnace slag">blast furnace slag</a>, and other useful materials with <a href="/wiki/Pozzolanic_activity" title="Pozzolanic activity">pozzolanic properties</a> into the mix, are being tested and used. These developments are ever growing in relevance to minimize the impacts caused by cement use, notorious for being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to 10%) of global <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mit-64">[60]</a> The use of alternative materials also is capable of lowering costs, improving concrete properties, and recycling wastes, the latest being relevant for <a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">circular economy</a> aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Construction_Industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Construction Industry">construction industry</a>, whose demand is ever growing with greater impacts on raw material extraction, waste generation and <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> practices. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">Fly ash</a>: A by-product of coal-fired <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">electric generating plants</a>, it is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, siliceous fly ash is <a href="/wiki/Pozzolanic_activity" title="Pozzolanic activity">pozzolanic</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.<a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_granulated_blast_furnace_slag" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground granulated blast furnace slag">Ground granulated blast furnace slag</a> (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product of <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">steel production</a> is used to partially replace <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> (by up to 80% by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties.<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silica_fume" title="Silica fume">Silica fume</a>: A by-product of the production of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferrosilicon" title="Ferrosilicon">ferrosilicon</a> <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher surface-to-volume ratio and a much faster <a href="/wiki/Pozzolanic_activity" title="Pozzolanic activity">pozzolanic reaction</a>. Silica fume is used to increase strength and <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_structures_durability" title="Reinforced concrete structures durability">durability</a> of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers for workability.<a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a></li> <li>High reactivity <a href="/wiki/Metakaolin" title="Metakaolin">metakaolin</a> (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a> and <a href="/wiki/Durability" title="Durability">durability</a> similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high-reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is important.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanofiber" title="Carbon nanofiber">Carbon nanofibers</a> can be added to concrete to enhance compressive strength and gain a higher <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a>, and also to improve the electrical properties required for strain monitoring, damage evaluation and self-health monitoring of concrete. Carbon fiber has many advantages in terms of mechanical and electrical properties (e.g., higher strength) and self-monitoring behavior due to the high <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength" title="Ultimate tensile strength">tensile strength</a> and high <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical conductivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a></li> <li>Carbon products have been added to make concrete electrically conductive, for deicing purposes.<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a></li> <li>New research from Japan's <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kitakyushu" title="University of Kitakyushu">University of Kitakyushu</a> shows that a washed and dried recycled mix of used diapers can be an environmental solution to producing less landfill and using less sand in concrete production. A model home was built in Indonesia to test the strength and durability of the new diaper-cement composite.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Concrete_plant_in_Mansfield,_Ohio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Concrete_plant_in_Mansfield%2C_Ohio.jpg/170px-Concrete_plant_in_Mansfield%2C_Ohio.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Concrete_plant_in_Mansfield%2C_Ohio.jpg/255px-Concrete_plant_in_Mansfield%2C_Ohio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Concrete_plant_in_Mansfield%2C_Ohio.jpg/340px-Concrete_plant_in_Mansfield%2C_Ohio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2008" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Concrete_plant" title="Concrete plant">Concrete plant</a> showing a <a href="/wiki/Concrete_mixer" title="Concrete mixer">concrete mixer</a> being filled from ingredient silos</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Concrete_mixing_plant,_Birmingham,_Alabama,_view_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Concrete_mixing_plant%2C_Birmingham%2C_Alabama%2C_view_2.jpg/170px-Concrete_mixing_plant%2C_Birmingham%2C_Alabama%2C_view_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Concrete_mixing_plant%2C_Birmingham%2C_Alabama%2C_view_2.jpg/255px-Concrete_mixing_plant%2C_Birmingham%2C_Alabama%2C_view_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Concrete_mixing_plant%2C_Birmingham%2C_Alabama%2C_view_2.jpg/340px-Concrete_mixing_plant%2C_Birmingham%2C_Alabama%2C_view_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6888" data-file-height="8610" /></a><figcaption>Concrete mixing plant in <a href="/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, in 1936</figcaption></figure> Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage, most concrete production takes place in a large type of industrial facility called a <a href="/wiki/Concrete_plant" title="Concrete plant">concrete plant</a>, or often a batch plant. The usual method of placement is casting in <a href="/wiki/Formwork" title="Formwork">formwork</a>, which holds the mix in shape until it has set enough to hold its shape unaided. Concrete plants come in two main types, ready-mix plants and central mix plants. A ready-mix plant blends all of the solid ingredients, while a central mix does the same but adds water. A central-mix plant offers more precise control of the concrete quality. Central mix plants must be close to the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant. A concrete plant consists of large hoppers for storage of various ingredients like cement, storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those ingredients, and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a <a href="/wiki/Concrete_mixer" title="Concrete mixer">concrete mixer</a> truck. Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms. The forms are containers that define the desired shape. Concrete <a href="/wiki/Formwork" title="Formwork">formwork</a> can be prepared in several ways, such as <a href="/wiki/Slip_forming" title="Slip forming">slip forming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel_plate_construction" title="Steel plate construction">steel plate construction</a>. Alternatively, concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Precast_concrete" title="Precast concrete">precast concrete</a> products. Interruption in pouring the concrete can cause the initially placed material to begin to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness called a cold joint between the two batches.<a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a> Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation, various technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Design_mix">Design mix</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Design mix">edit</a>]</div> Design mix ratios are decided by an engineer after analyzing the properties of the specific ingredients being used. Instead of using a 'nominal mix' of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts aggregate (the second example from above), a civil engineer will custom-design a concrete mix to exactly meet the requirements of the site and conditions, setting material ratios and often designing an admixture package to fine-tune the properties or increase the performance envelope of the mix. Design-mix concrete can have very broad specifications that cannot be met with more basic nominal mixes, but the involvement of the engineer often increases the cost of the concrete mix. Concrete mixes are primarily divided into nominal mix, standard mix and design mix. Nominal mix ratios are given in volume of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{Cement : Sand : Aggregate}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Cement : Sand : Aggregate</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{Cement : Sand : Aggregate}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3f54a1cfb199f81a404cb46d5048e0f97fb595c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:26.806ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{Cement : Sand : Aggregate}}}">. Nominal mixes are a simple, fast way of getting a basic idea of the properties of the finished concrete without having to perform testing in advance. Various governing bodies (such as <a href="/wiki/British_Standards" title="British Standards">British Standards</a>) define nominal mix ratios into a number of grades, usually ranging from lower <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a> to higher compressive strength. The grades usually indicate the 28-day cure strength.<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixing">Mixing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mixing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Volumetric_concrete_mixer" title="Volumetric concrete mixer">Volumetric concrete mixer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concrete_mixer" title="Concrete mixer">Concrete mixer</a></div> Thorough mixing is essential to produce uniform, high-quality concrete. Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">aggregates</a> can increase the <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a> of the resulting concrete.<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a <a href="/wiki/Water-cement_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-cement ratio">w/c</a> (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as accelerators or retarders, <a href="/wiki/Plasticizer" title="Plasticizer">superplasticizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Silica_fume" title="Silica fume">silica fume</a>. The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sample_analysis—workability">Sample analysis—workability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sample analysis—workability">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Concrete_slump_test" title="Concrete slump test">Concrete slump test</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cannon_Renewal_Project_-_October_2016_(30662609012).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cannon_Renewal_Project_-_October_2016_%2830662609012%29.jpg/220px-Cannon_Renewal_Project_-_October_2016_%2830662609012%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cannon_Renewal_Project_-_October_2016_%2830662609012%29.jpg/330px-Cannon_Renewal_Project_-_October_2016_%2830662609012%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cannon_Renewal_Project_-_October_2016_%2830662609012%29.jpg/440px-Cannon_Renewal_Project_-_October_2016_%2830662609012%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1931" /></a><figcaption>Concrete floor of a <a href="/wiki/Parking_garage" class="mw-redirect" title="Parking garage">parking garage</a> being placed</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Concreteathruz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Concreteathruz.jpg/220px-Concreteathruz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Concreteathruz.jpg/330px-Concreteathruz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Concreteathruz.jpg/440px-Concreteathruz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades Park in Washington, DC</figcaption></figure> Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (pouring, pumping, spreading, tamping, vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of <a href="/wiki/Hydration_reaction" title="Hydration reaction">hydration</a>) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or <a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_concrete" title="Segregation in concrete">segregation of aggregates</a> (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. Changes in gradation can also affect workability of the concrete, although a wide range of gradation can be used for various applications.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> An undesirable gradation can mean using a large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any combination of these factors and others may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e., which does not flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and which is difficult to surface finish.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> Workability can be measured by the <a href="/wiki/Concrete_slump_test" title="Concrete slump test">concrete slump test</a>, a simple measure of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the <a href="/wiki/ASTM" class="mw-redirect" title="ASTM">ASTM</a> C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "<a href="/wiki/Duff_Abrams" title="Duff Abrams">Abrams cone</a>" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount, owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm) out of one foot (300 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as eight inches. Workability can also be measured by the <a href="/wiki/Flow_table_test" title="Flow table test">flow table test</a>. Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or <a href="/wiki/Superplasticizer" title="Superplasticizer">superplasticizer</a> without changing the <a href="/wiki/Water-cement_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-cement ratio">water-cement ratio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> Some other admixtures, especially air-entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix. High-flow concrete, like <a href="/wiki/Self-consolidating_concrete" title="Self-consolidating concrete">self-consolidating concrete</a>, is tested by other flow-measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted. After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Curing_2">Curing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Curing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Curing-concrete.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Curing-concrete.jpg/220px-Curing-concrete.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Curing-concrete.jpg/330px-Curing-concrete.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Curing-concrete.jpg/440px-Curing-concrete.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>A concrete slab being kept hydrated during water curing by submersion (ponding)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maintaining_optimal_conditions_for_cement_hydration">Maintaining optimal conditions for cement hydration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Maintaining optimal conditions for cement hydration">edit</a>]</div> Concrete must be kept moist during curing in order to achieve optimal strength and <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_structures_durability" title="Reinforced concrete structures durability">durability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a> During curing <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydration</a> occurs, allowing calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to form. Over 90% of a mix's final strength is typically reached within four weeks, with the remaining 10% achieved over years or even decades.<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a> The conversion of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide" title="Calcium hydroxide">calcium hydroxide</a> in the concrete into <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> from absorption of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a> over several decades further strengthens the concrete and makes it more resistant to damage. This <a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">carbonation</a> reaction, however, lowers the pH of the cement pore solution and can corrode the reinforcement bars. Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that increases shrinkage and cracking. The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It depends on cross-section dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation.<a href="#cite_note-Veretennykov_Yugov_Dolmatov_et_al_2008-50">[50]</a> Addition of short-cut polymer fibers can improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced stresses during curing and increase early and ultimate compression strength.<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing or overheating due to the <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> setting of cement. Improper curing can cause <a href="/wiki/Spalling#Spalling_in_mechanical_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Spalling">spalling</a>, reduced strength, poor <a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(mechanical)" title="Abrasion (mechanical)">abrasion</a> resistance and <a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">cracking</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Curing_techniques_avoiding_water_loss_by_evaporation">Curing techniques avoiding water loss by evaporation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Curing techniques avoiding water loss by evaporation">edit</a>]</div> During the curing period, concrete is ideally maintained at controlled temperature and humidity. To ensure full hydration during curing, concrete slabs are often sprayed with "curing compounds" that create a water-retaining film over the concrete. Typical films are made of wax or related hydrophobic compounds. After the concrete is sufficiently cured, the film is allowed to abrade from the concrete through normal use.<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> Traditional conditions for curing involve spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water. The adjacent picture shows one of many ways to achieve this, ponding—submerging setting concrete in water and wrapping in plastic to prevent dehydration. Additional common curing methods include wet burlap and plastic sheeting covering the fresh concrete. For higher-strength applications, <a href="/wiki/Accelerated_curing" title="Accelerated curing">accelerated curing</a> techniques may be applied to the concrete. A common technique involves heating the poured concrete with steam, which serves to both keep it damp and raise the temperature so that the hydration process proceeds more quickly and more thoroughly. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_types">Alternative types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Alternative types">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete" title="Types of concrete">Types of concrete</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asphalt">Asphalt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Asphalt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">Asphalt concrete</a></div> Asphalt concrete (commonly called asphalt,<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> blacktop, or pavement in North America, and tarmac, bitumen macadam, or rolled asphalt in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite material</a> commonly used to surface <a href="/wiki/Road_surface" title="Road surface">roads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parking_lot" title="Parking lot">parking lots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">airports</a>, as well as the core of <a href="/wiki/Embankment_dam" title="Embankment dam">embankment dams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> It consists of <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">mineral aggregate</a> <a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">bound</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>, laid in layers, and compacted. The process was refined and enhanced by Belgian inventor and U.S. immigrant <a href="/wiki/Edward_De_Smedt" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward De Smedt">Edward De Smedt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a> The terms asphalt (or asphaltic) concrete, bituminous asphalt concrete, and bituminous mixture are typically used only in <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and construction documents, which define concrete as any composite material composed of mineral aggregate adhered with a binder. The abbreviation, AC, is sometimes used for asphalt concrete but can also denote asphalt content or asphalt cement, referring to the liquid asphalt portion of the composite material. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphene_enhanced_concrete">Graphene enhanced concrete</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Graphene enhanced concrete">edit</a>]</div> Graphene enhanced concretes are standard designs of concrete mixes, except that during the cement-mixing or production process, a small amount of chemically engineered <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a> (typically < 0.5% by weight) is added.<a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> These enhanced graphene concretes are designed around the concrete application. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microbial">Microbial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Microbial">edit</a>]</div> Bacteria such as <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_pasteurii" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus pasteurii">Bacillus pasteurii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_pseudofirmus" title="Bacillus pseudofirmus">Bacillus pseudofirmus</a>, Bacillus cohnii, Sporosarcina pasteuri, and <a href="/wiki/Arthrobacter_crystallopoietes" title="Arthrobacter crystallopoietes">Arthrobacter crystallopoietes</a> increase the compression strength of concrete through their biomass. However some forms of bacteria can also be concrete-destroying.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> Bacillus sp. CT-5. can reduce corrosion of reinforcement in reinforced concrete by up to four times. Sporosarcina pasteurii reduces water and chloride permeability. B. pasteurii increases resistance to acid.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_pasteurii" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus pasteurii">Bacillus pasteurii</a> and B. sphaericuscan induce calcium carbonate precipitation in the surface of cracks, adding compression strength.<a href="#cite_note-raju-91">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanoconcrete">Nanoconcrete</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Nanoconcrete">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decorative_cameo_plate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Decorative_cameo_plate.jpg/220px-Decorative_cameo_plate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Decorative_cameo_plate.jpg/330px-Decorative_cameo_plate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Decorative_cameo_plate.jpg/440px-Decorative_cameo_plate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Decorative plate made of Nano concrete with High-Energy Mixing (HEM)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Nanoconcrete" title="Nanoconcrete">Nanoconcrete</a> (also spelled "nano concrete"' or "nano-concrete") is a class of materials that contains Portland cement particles that are no greater than 100 μm<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> and particles of silica no greater than 500 μm, which fill voids that would otherwise occur in normal concrete, thereby substantially increasing the material's strength.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> It is widely used in foot and highway bridges where high flexural and compressive strength are indicated.<a href="#cite_note-raju-91">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pervious">Pervious</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pervious">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pervious_concrete" title="Pervious concrete">Pervious concrete</a></div> Pervious concrete is a mix of specially graded coarse aggregate, cement, water, and little-to-no fine aggregates. This concrete is also known as "no-fines" or porous concrete. Mixing the ingredients in a carefully controlled process creates a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate particles. The hardened concrete contains interconnected air voids totaling approximately 15 to 25 percent. Water runs through the voids in the pavement to the soil underneath. Air entrainment admixtures are often used in freeze-thaw climates to minimize the possibility of frost damage. Pervious concrete also permits rainwater to filter through roads and parking lots, to recharge aquifers, instead of contributing to runoff and flooding.<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymer">Polymer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Polymer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polymer_concrete" title="Polymer concrete">Polymer concrete</a></div> Polymer concretes are mixtures of aggregate and any of various polymers and may be reinforced. The cement is costlier than lime-based cements, but polymer concretes nevertheless have advantages; they have significant tensile strength even without reinforcement, and they are largely impervious to water. Polymer concretes are frequently used for the repair and construction of other applications, such as drains. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant_fibers">Plant fibers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Plant fibers">edit</a>]</div> Plant fibers and particles can be used in a concrete mix or as a reinforcement<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a>. These materials can increase ductility but the lignocellulosic particles hydrolyze during concrete curing as a result of alkaline environment and elevated temperatures<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a> Such process, that is difficult to measure<a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a>, can affect the properties of the resulting concrete. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sulfur_concrete">Sulfur concrete</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sulfur concrete">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_concrete" title="Sulfur concrete">Sulfur concrete</a></div> Sulfur concrete is a special concrete that uses sulfur as a binder and does not require cement or water. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanic">Volcanic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Volcanic">edit</a>]</div> Volcanic concrete substitutes volcanic rock for the limestone that is burned to form clinker. It consumes a similar amount of energy, but does not directly emit carbon as a byproduct.<a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a> Volcanic rock/ash are used as supplementary cementitious materials in concrete to improve the resistance to sulfate, chloride and alkali silica reaction due to pore refinement.<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a> Also, they are generally cost effective in comparison to other aggregates,<a href="#cite_note-Lemougna-104">[100]</a> good for semi and light weight concretes,<a href="#cite_note-Lemougna-104">[100]</a> and good for thermal and acoustic insulation.<a href="#cite_note-Lemougna-104">[100]</a> Pyroclastic materials, such as pumice, scoria, and ashes are formed from cooling magma during explosive volcanic eruptions. They are used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) or as aggregates for cements and concretes.<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> They have been extensively used since ancient times to produce materials for building applications. For example, pumice and other volcanic glasses were added as a natural pozzolanic material for mortars and plasters during the construction of the Villa San Marco in the Roman period (89 BC – 79 AD), which remain one of the best-preserved otium villae of the Bay of Naples in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waste_light">Waste light</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Waste light">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Waste_light_concrete" title="Waste light concrete">Waste light concrete</a></div> Waste light is a form of polymer modified concrete. The specific polymer admixture allows the replacement of all the traditional aggregates (gravel, sand, stone) by any mixture of solid waste materials in the grain size of 3–10 mm to form a low-compressive-strength (3–20 N/mm2) product<a href="#cite_note-107">[103]</a> for road and building construction. One cubic meter of waste light concrete contains 1.1–1.3 m3 of shredded waste and no other aggregates. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recycled_Aggregate_Concrete_(RAC)">Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Concrete" title="Special:EditPage/Concrete">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (October 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Recycled aggregate concretes are standard concrete mixes with the addition or substitution of natural aggregates with recycled aggregates sourced from construction and demolition wastes, disused pre-cast concretes or masonry. In most cases, recycled aggregate concrete results in higher water absorption levels by capillary action and permeation, which are the prominent determiners of the strength and durability of the resulting concrete. The increase in water absorption levels is mainly caused by the porous adhered mortar that exists in the recycled aggregates. Accordingly, recycled concrete aggregates that have been washed to reduce the quantity of mortar adhered to aggregates show lower water absorption levels compared to untreated recycled aggregates. The quality of the recycled aggregate concrete is determined by several factors, including the size, the number of replacement cycles, and the moisture levels of the recycled aggregates. When the recycled concrete aggregates are crushed into coarser fractures, the mixed concrete shows better permeability levels, resulting in an overall increase in strength. In contrast, recycled masonry aggregates provide better qualities when crushed in finer fractures. With each generation of recycled concrete, the resulting compressive strength decreases. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Properties">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_concrete" title="Properties of concrete">Properties of concrete</a></div> Concrete has relatively high <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a>, but much lower <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> Therefore, it is usually <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">reinforced</a> with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">coefficient of thermal expansion</a> and shrinks as it matures. All concrete structures crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to <a href="/wiki/Creep_(deformation)" title="Creep (deformation)">creep</a>. Tests can be performed to ensure that the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the application. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Concrete_Compression_Testing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Concrete_Compression_Testing.jpg/170px-Concrete_Compression_Testing.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Concrete_Compression_Testing.jpg/255px-Concrete_Compression_Testing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Concrete_Compression_Testing.jpg/340px-Concrete_Compression_Testing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="2036" /></a><figcaption>Compression testing of a concrete cylinder</figcaption></figure> The ingredients affect the strengths of the material. Concrete strength values are usually specified as the lower-bound compressive strength of either a cylindrical or cubic specimen as determined by standard test procedures. The strengths of concrete is dictated by its function. Very low-strength—14 MPa (2,000 psi) or less—concrete may be used when the concrete must be lightweight.<a href="#cite_note-lightweight-109">[105]</a> Lightweight concrete is often achieved by adding air, foams, or lightweight aggregates, with the side effect that the strength is reduced. For most routine uses, 20 to 32 MPa (2,900 to 4,600 psi) concrete is often used. 40 MPa (5,800 psi) concrete is readily commercially available as a more durable, although more expensive, option. Higher-strength concrete is often used for larger civil projects.<a href="#cite_note-American-110">[106]</a> Strengths above 40 MPa (5,800 psi) are often used for specific building elements. For example, the lower floor columns of high-rise concrete buildings may use concrete of 80 MPa (11,600 psi) or more, to keep the size of the columns small. Bridges may use long beams of high-strength concrete to lower the number of spans required.<a href="#cite_note-Russel-111">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRMCA-112">[108]</a> Occasionally, other structural needs may require high-strength concrete. If a structure must be very rigid, concrete of very high strength may be specified, even much stronger than is required to bear the service loads. Strengths as high as 130 MPa (18,900 psi) have been used commercially for these reasons.<a href="#cite_note-Russel-111">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_efficiency">Energy efficiency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Energy efficiency">edit</a>]</div> The cement produced for making concrete accounts for about 8% of worldwide CO2 emissions per year (compared to, e.g., global aviation at 1.9%).<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-chathamhouse-114">[110]</a> The two <a href="/wiki/Cement#CO2_emissions" title="Cement">largest sources</a> of CO2 are produced by the cement manufacturing process, arising from (1) the decarbonation reaction of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cement_kiln" title="Cement kiln">cement kiln</a> (T ≈ 950 °C), and (2) from the combustion of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> to reach the <a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sintering</a> temperature (T ≈ 1450 °C) of <a href="/wiki/Cement_clinker" title="Cement clinker">cement clinker</a> in the kiln. The energy required for extracting, crushing, and mixing the raw materials (<a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">construction aggregates</a> used in the concrete production, and also <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> feeding the <a href="/wiki/Cement_kiln" title="Cement kiln">cement kiln</a>) is lower. Energy requirement for transportation of <a href="/wiki/Ready-mix_concrete" title="Ready-mix concrete">ready-mix concrete</a> is also lower because it is produced nearby the construction site from local resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job site.<a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a> The overall <a href="/wiki/Embodied_energy" title="Embodied energy">embodied energy</a> of concrete at roughly 1 to 1.5 megajoules per kilogram is therefore lower than for many structural and construction materials.<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a> Once in place, concrete offers a great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a> Concrete walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames.<a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a> Air leakage accounts for a large percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the efficiency of both residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature swings inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs.<a href="#cite_note-Features_and_Usage_of_Foam_Concrete-119">[115]</a> While insulation reduces energy loss through the building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern concrete wall systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient building. Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either insulating foam or <a href="/wiki/Rastra" title="Rastra">rastra</a> that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fire_safety">Fire safety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Fire safety">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boston_City_Hall_-_Boston,_MA_-_DSC04704_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Boston_City_Hall_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC04704_%28cropped%29.JPG/220px-Boston_City_Hall_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC04704_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Boston_City_Hall_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC04704_%28cropped%29.JPG/330px-Boston_City_Hall_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC04704_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Boston_City_Hall_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC04704_%28cropped%29.JPG/440px-Boston_City_Hall_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC04704_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4304" data-file-height="2768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Boston_City_Hall" title="Boston City Hall">Boston City Hall</a> (1968) is a <a href="/wiki/Brutalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Brutalist">Brutalist</a> design constructed largely of precast and poured in place concrete.</figcaption></figure> Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed using steel frames, since concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last longer under the same fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel frames, for the same effect as above. Concrete as a fire shield, for example <a href="/wiki/Fondu_fyre" title="Fondu fyre">Fondu fyre</a>, can also be used in extreme environments like a missile launch pad. Options for non-combustible construction include floors, ceilings and roofs made of cast-in-place and hollow-core precast concrete. For walls, concrete masonry technology and <a href="/wiki/Insulating_concrete_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Insulating concrete forms">Insulating Concrete Forms</a> (ICFs) are additional options. ICFs are hollow blocks or panels made of fireproof insulating foam that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure. Concrete also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high winds, hurricanes, and tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in minimal horizontal movement. However, this stiffness can work against certain types of concrete structures, particularly where a relatively higher flexing structure is required to resist more extreme forces. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earthquake_safety">Earthquake safety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Earthquake safety">edit</a>]</div> As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension. Larger earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear loads subject the structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures without reinforcement, like other unreinforced masonry structures, can fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced masonry structures constitute one of the largest earthquake risks globally.<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a> These risks can be reduced through seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school buildings in Istanbul, Turkey).<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction">Construction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Construction">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buffalo_City_Court_Building,_1971-74,_Pfohl,_Roberts_and_Biggie_(8448022295).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Buffalo_City_Court_Building%2C_1971-74%2C_Pfohl%2C_Roberts_and_Biggie_%288448022295%29.jpg/170px-Buffalo_City_Court_Building%2C_1971-74%2C_Pfohl%2C_Roberts_and_Biggie_%288448022295%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Buffalo_City_Court_Building%2C_1971-74%2C_Pfohl%2C_Roberts_and_Biggie_%288448022295%29.jpg/255px-Buffalo_City_Court_Building%2C_1971-74%2C_Pfohl%2C_Roberts_and_Biggie_%288448022295%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Buffalo_City_Court_Building%2C_1971-74%2C_Pfohl%2C_Roberts_and_Biggie_%288448022295%29.jpg/340px-Buffalo_City_Court_Building%2C_1971-74%2C_Pfohl%2C_Roberts_and_Biggie_%288448022295%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_City_Court_Building" title="Buffalo City Court Building">City Court Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a></figcaption></figure> Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire resistance compared with wooden construction and gains strength over time. Structures made of concrete can have a long service life.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a> Concrete is used more than any other artificial material in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Lomborg-123">[119]</a> As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, more than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-124">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reinforced">Reinforced</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Reinforced">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:O_Cristo_Redentor.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/O_Cristo_Redentor.JPG/170px-O_Cristo_Redentor.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/O_Cristo_Redentor.JPG/255px-O_Cristo_Redentor.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/O_Cristo_Redentor.JPG/340px-O_Cristo_Redentor.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2724" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christ_the_Redeemer_(statue)" title="Christ the Redeemer (statue)">Christ the Redeemer</a> statue in <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, Brazil. It is made of reinforced concrete clad in a mosaic of thousands of triangular <a href="/wiki/Soapstone" title="Soapstone">soapstone</a> tiles.<a href="#cite_note-brit-125">[121]</a></figcaption></figure> The use of reinforcement, in the form of iron was introduced in the 1850s by French industrialist François Coignet, and it was not until the 1880s that German civil engineer G. A. Wayss used steel as reinforcement. Concrete is a relatively brittle material that is strong under compression but less in tension. Plain, unreinforced concrete is unsuitable for many structures as it is relatively poor at withstanding stresses induced by vibrations, wind loading, and so on. Hence, to increase its overall strength, steel rods, wires, mesh or cables can be embedded in concrete before it is set. This reinforcement, often known as rebar, resists tensile forces.<a href="#cite_note-designingbuildings-126">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete (RC)</a> is a versatile composite and one of the most widely used materials in modern construction. It is made up of different constituent materials with very different properties that complement each other. In the case of reinforced concrete, the component materials are almost always concrete and steel. These two materials form a strong bond together and are able to resist a variety of applied forces, effectively acting as a single structural element.<a href="#cite_note-Claisse-2016-127">[123]</a> Reinforced concrete can be precast or cast-in-place (in situ) concrete, and is used in a wide range of applications such as; slab, wall, beam, column, foundation, and frame construction. Reinforcement is generally placed in areas of the concrete that are likely to be subject to tension, such as the lower portion of beams. Usually, there is a minimum of 50 mm cover, both above and below the steel reinforcement, to resist spalling and corrosion which can lead to structural instability.<a href="#cite_note-designingbuildings-126">[122]</a> Other types of non-steel reinforcement, such as <a href="/wiki/Fiber-reinforced_concrete" title="Fiber-reinforced concrete">Fibre-reinforced concretes</a> are used for specialized applications, predominately as a means of controlling cracking.<a href="#cite_note-Claisse-2016-127">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precast">Precast</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Precast">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Precast_concrete" title="Precast concrete">Precast concrete</a></div> Precast concrete is concrete which is cast in one place for use elsewhere and is a mobile material. The largest part of precast production is carried out in the works of specialist suppliers, although in some instances, due to economic and geographical factors, scale of product or difficulty of access, the elements are cast on or adjacent to the construction site.<a href="#cite_note-Richardson-2003-128">[124]</a> Precasting offers considerable advantages because it is carried out in a controlled environment, protected from the elements, but the downside of this is the contribution to greenhouse gas emission from transportation to the construction site.<a href="#cite_note-Claisse-2016-127">[123]</a> Advantages to be achieved by employing precast concrete:<a href="#cite_note-Richardson-2003-128">[124]</a> <ul><li>Preferred dimension schemes exist, with elements of tried and tested designs available from a catalogue.</li> <li>Major savings in time result from manufacture of structural elements apart from the series of events which determine overall duration of the construction, known by planning engineers as the 'critical path'.</li> <li>Availability of Laboratory facilities capable of the required control tests, many being certified for specific testing in accordance with National Standards.</li> <li>Equipment with capability suited to specific types of production such as stressing beds with appropriate capacity, moulds and machinery dedicated to particular products.</li> <li>High-quality finishes achieved direct from the mould eliminate the need for interior decoration and ensure low maintenance costs.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_structures">Mass structures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Mass structures">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mass_concrete" title="Mass concrete">Mass concrete</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UserKTrimble-AP_Taum_Sauk_Reservoir_UnderConstruction_Nov_22_2009_crop1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/UserKTrimble-AP_Taum_Sauk_Reservoir_UnderConstruction_Nov_22_2009_crop1.jpg/220px-UserKTrimble-AP_Taum_Sauk_Reservoir_UnderConstruction_Nov_22_2009_crop1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/UserKTrimble-AP_Taum_Sauk_Reservoir_UnderConstruction_Nov_22_2009_crop1.jpg/330px-UserKTrimble-AP_Taum_Sauk_Reservoir_UnderConstruction_Nov_22_2009_crop1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/UserKTrimble-AP_Taum_Sauk_Reservoir_UnderConstruction_Nov_22_2009_crop1.jpg/440px-UserKTrimble-AP_Taum_Sauk_Reservoir_UnderConstruction_Nov_22_2009_crop1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2132" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Aerial photo of reconstruction at <a href="/wiki/Taum_Sauk_Hydroelectric_Power_Station" title="Taum Sauk Hydroelectric Power Station">Taum Sauk</a> (Missouri) pumped storage facility in late November 2009. After the original reservoir failed, the new reservoir was made of roller-compacted concrete.</figcaption></figure> Due to cement's <a href="/wiki/Exothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exothermic">exothermic</a> chemical reaction while setting up, large concrete structures such as <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navigation_lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Navigation lock">navigation locks</a>, large mat foundations, and large <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">breakwaters</a> generate excessive heat during hydration and associated expansion. To mitigate these effects, post-cooling<a href="#cite_note-BerkCE-129">[125]</a> is commonly applied during construction. An early example at Hoover Dam used a network of pipes between vertical concrete placements to circulate cooling water during the curing process to avoid damaging overheating. Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the pour, the concrete mix used, and ambient air temperature, the cooling process may last for many months after the concrete is placed. Various methods also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix in mass concrete structures.<a href="#cite_note-BerkCE-129">[125]</a> Another approach to mass concrete structures that minimizes cement's thermal by-product is the use of <a href="/wiki/Roller-compacted_concrete" title="Roller-compacted concrete">roller-compacted concrete</a>, which uses a dry mix which has a much lower cooling requirement than conventional wet placement. It is deposited in thick layers as a semi-dry material then roller <a href="/wiki/Compactor" title="Compactor">compacted</a> into a dense, strong mass. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_finishes">Surface finishes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Surface finishes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Decorative_concrete" title="Decorative concrete">Decorative concrete</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Smpolishedconcrete2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Smpolishedconcrete2.jpg/220px-Smpolishedconcrete2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Smpolishedconcrete2.jpg/330px-Smpolishedconcrete2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Smpolishedconcrete2.jpg/440px-Smpolishedconcrete2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="557" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption>Black basalt polished concrete floor</figcaption></figure> Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous and have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many finishes can be applied to improve the appearance and preserve the surface against staining, water penetration, and freezing. Examples of improved appearance include <a href="/wiki/Stamped_concrete" title="Stamped concrete">stamped concrete</a> where the wet concrete has a pattern impressed on the surface, to give a paved, cobbled or brick-like effect, and may be accompanied with coloration. Another popular effect for flooring and table tops is <a href="/wiki/Polished_concrete" title="Polished concrete">polished concrete</a> where the concrete is polished optically flat with diamond abrasives and sealed with polymers or other sealants. Other finishes can be achieved with chiseling, or more conventional techniques such as painting or covering it with other materials. The proper treatment of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is an important stage in the construction and renovation of architectural structures.<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prestressed">Prestressed</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Prestressed">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Prestressed concrete</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scott_System_cacti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Scott_System_cacti.jpg/220px-Scott_System_cacti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Scott_System_cacti.jpg/330px-Scott_System_cacti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Scott_System_cacti.jpg/440px-Scott_System_cacti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2580" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption>Stylized cacti decorate a sound/retaining wall in <a href="/wiki/Scottsdale,_Arizona" title="Scottsdale, Arizona">Scottsdale, Arizona</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Prestressed concrete</a> is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in <a href="/wiki/Compressive_stress" title="Compressive stress">compressive stresses</a> during construction to oppose tensile stresses experienced in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the reinforcement. For example, a horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement along the bottom of the beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned concrete, after casting. There are two different systems being used:<a href="#cite_note-Claisse-2016-127">[123]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Pretensioned concrete</a> is almost always precast, and contains steel wires (tendons) that are held in tension while the concrete is placed and sets around them.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Post-tensioned concrete</a> has ducts through it. After the concrete has gained strength, tendons are pulled through the ducts and stressed. The ducts are then filled with grout. Bridges built in this way have experienced considerable corrosion of the tendons, so external post-tensioning may now be used in which the tendons run along the outer surface of the concrete.</li></ul> More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are paved with this material. <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">prestressed concrete</a> and <a href="/wiki/Precast_concrete" title="Precast concrete">precast concrete</a> are the most widely used <a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete" title="Types of concrete">types of concrete</a> functional extensions in modern days. For more information see <a href="/wiki/Brutalist_architecture" title="Brutalist architecture">Brutalist architecture</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Placement">Placement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Placement">edit</a>]</div> Once mixed, concrete is typically transported to the place where it is intended to become a structural item. Various methods of transportation and placement are used depending on the distances involve, quantity needed, and other details of application. Large amounts are often transported by truck, poured free under gravity or through a <a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">tremie</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Concrete_pump" title="Concrete pump">pumped</a> through a pipe. Smaller amounts may be carried in a skip (a metal container which can be tilted or opened to release the contents, usually transported by crane or hoist), or wheelbarrow, or carried in toggle bags for manual placement underwater. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cold_weather_placement">Cold weather placement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Cold weather placement">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pohjolatalo_Kouvola_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pohjolatalo_Kouvola_001.jpg/220px-Pohjolatalo_Kouvola_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pohjolatalo_Kouvola_001.jpg/330px-Pohjolatalo_Kouvola_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pohjolatalo_Kouvola_001.jpg/440px-Pohjolatalo_Kouvola_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5632" data-file-height="4224" /></a><figcaption>Pohjolatalo, an office building made of concrete in the city center of <a href="/wiki/Kouvola" title="Kouvola">Kouvola</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kymenlaakso" title="Kymenlaakso">Kymenlaakso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a> conditions (extreme heat or cold; windy conditions, and humidity variations) can significantly alter the quality of concrete. Many precautions are observed in cold weather placement.<a href="#cite_note-FPrimeC-131">[127]</a> Low temperatures significantly slow the chemical reactions involved in hydration of cement, thus affecting the strength development. Preventing freezing is the most important precaution, as formation of ice crystals can cause damage to the crystalline structure of the hydrated cement paste. If the surface of the concrete pour is insulated from the outside temperatures, the heat of hydration will prevent freezing. The <a href="/wiki/American_Concrete_Institute" title="American Concrete Institute">American Concrete Institute</a> (ACI) definition of cold weather placement, ACI 306,<a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> is: <ul><li>A period when for more than three successive days the average daily air temperature drops below 40 °F (~ 4.5 °C), and</li> <li>Temperature stays below 50 °F (10 °C) for more than one-half of any 24-hour period.</li></ul> In <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, where temperatures tend to be much lower during the cold season, the following criteria are used by <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Standards_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Standards Agency">CSA</a> A23.1: <ul><li>When the air temperature is ≤ 5 °C, and</li> <li>When there is a probability that the temperature may fall below 5 °C within 24 hours of placing the concrete.</li></ul> The minimum strength before exposing concrete to extreme cold is 500 psi (3.4 MPa). CSA A 23.1 specified a compressive strength of 7.0 MPa to be considered safe for exposure to freezing. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Underwater_placement">Underwater placement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Underwater placement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Underwater_construction" title="Underwater construction">Underwater construction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tremie_operation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tremie_operation.png/170px-Tremie_operation.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tremie_operation.png/255px-Tremie_operation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Tremie_operation.png/340px-Tremie_operation.png 2x" data-file-width="2231" data-file-height="4446" /></a><figcaption>Assembled tremie placing concrete underwater</figcaption></figure> Concrete may be placed and cured underwater. Care must be taken in the placement method to prevent washing out the cement. Underwater placement methods include the <a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">tremie</a>, pumping, skip placement, manual placement using toggle bags, and bagwork.<a href="#cite_note-Larn_and_Whistler_1993-133">[129]</a> A tremie is a vertical, or near-vertical, pipe with a hopper at the top used to pour concrete underwater in a way that avoids washout of cement from the mix due to turbulent water contact with the concrete while it is flowing. This produces a more reliable strength of the product. The <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style>toggle bag method is generally used for placing small quantities and for repairs. Wet concrete is loaded into a reusable canvas bag and squeezed out at the required place by the diver. Care must be taken to avoid washout of the cement and fines. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Underwater bagwork is the manual placement by divers of woven cloth bags containing dry mix, followed by piercing the bags with steel rebar pins to tie the bags together after every two or three layers, and create a path for hydration to induce curing, which can typically take about 6 to 12 hours for initial hardening and full hardening by the next day. Bagwork concrete will generally reach full strength within 28 days. Each bag must be pierced by at least one, and preferably up to four pins. Bagwork is a simple and convenient method of underwater concrete placement which does not require pumps, plant, or formwork, and which can minimise environmental effects from dispersing cement in the water. Prefilled bags are available, which are sealed to prevent premature hydration if stored in suitable dry conditions. The bags may be biodegradable.<a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509">Grouted aggregate is an alternative method of forming a concrete mass underwater, where the forms are filled with coarse aggregate and the voids then completely filled from the bottom by displacing the water with pumped <a href="/wiki/Grout" title="Grout">grout</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Larn_and_Whistler_1993-133">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roads">Roads</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Roads">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Road_surface#Concrete" title="Road surface">Concrete roads</a> are more fuel efficient to drive on,<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> more reflective and last significantly longer than other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern-paving methods and design practices have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and significantly less expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that <a href="/wiki/Pervious_concrete" title="Pervious concrete">pervious concrete</a> can be used, which eliminates the need to place <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">storm drains</a> near the road, and reducing the need for slightly sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater through use of drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise needed in the water-distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted as it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the ground.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tube_forest">Tube forest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Tube forest">edit</a>]</div> Cement molded into a forest of tubular structures can be 5.6 times more resistant to cracking/failure than standard concrete. The approach mimics mammalian <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">cortical bone</a> that features elliptical, hollow <a href="/wiki/Osteons" class="mw-redirect" title="Osteons">osteons</a> suspended in an organic matrix, connected by relatively weak “cement lines". Cement lines provide a preferable in-plane crack path. This design fails via a “stepwise toughening mechanism". Cracks are contained within the tube, reducing spreading, by dissipating energy at each tube/step.<a href="#cite_note-136">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environment,_health_and_safety">Environment, health and safety</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Environment, health and safety">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">Environmental impact of concrete</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unbalanced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:DUE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:DUE">unbalanced</a> towards certain viewpoints. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit">improve the article</a> or discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Concrete" title="Talk:Concrete">talk page</a>. (January 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The manufacture and use of concrete produce a wide range of environmental, economic and social impacts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_safety">Health and safety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Health and safety">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Occupational_dust_exposure#Construction" title="Occupational dust exposure">Occupational dust exposure § Construction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/180px--Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" height="320" data-durationhint="13" data-mwtitle="Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="270" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="406" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="608" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1080" data-height="1920" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="82" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="136" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="202" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/05/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm/Dust_emission_when_using_electrical_power_tools.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="202" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete_dust&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Concrete dust (page does not exist)">Concrete dust</a> emission from the use of power tool</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crushed_Concrete_Granular_Fill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Crushed_Concrete_Granular_Fill.jpg/220px-Crushed_Concrete_Granular_Fill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Crushed_Concrete_Granular_Fill.jpg/330px-Crushed_Concrete_Granular_Fill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Crushed_Concrete_Granular_Fill.jpg/440px-Crushed_Concrete_Granular_Fill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2434" data-file-height="1947" /></a><figcaption>Recycled crushed concrete, to be reused as granular fill, is loaded into a semi-dump truck</figcaption></figure> Grinding of concrete can produce <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazardous dust">hazardous dust</a>. Exposure to cement dust can lead to issues such as <a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">silicosis</a>, kidney disease, skin irritation and similar effects. The U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> in the United States recommends attaching local exhaust ventilation shrouds to electric concrete grinders to control the spread of this dust. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA) has placed more stringent regulations on companies whose workers regularly come into contact with silica dust. An updated silica rule, which OSHA put into effect 23 September 2017 for construction companies, restricted the amount of breathable crystalline silica workers could legally come into contact with to 50 micro grams per cubic meter of air per 8-hour workday. That same rule went into effect 23 June 2018 for general industry, <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> and maritime. That deadline was extended to 23 June 2021 for engineering controls in the hydraulic fracturing industry. Companies which fail to meet the tightened safety regulations can face financial charges and extensive penalties. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh concrete (before curing is complete) is highly alkaline and must be handled with proper protective equipment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cement_2">Cement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Cement">edit</a>]</div> A major component of concrete is <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>, a fine powder used mainly to bind sand and coarser aggregates together in concrete. Although a variety of cement types exist, the most common is "<a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a>", which is produced by mixing clinker with smaller quantities of other additives such as gypsum and ground limestone. The production of clinker, the main constituent of cement, is responsible for the bulk of the sector's greenhouse gas emissions, including both energy intensity and process emissions.<a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a> The cement industry is one of the three primary producers of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas – the other two being energy production and transportation industries. On average, every tonne of cement produced releases one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere. Pioneer cement manufacturers have claimed to reach lower carbon intensities, with 590 kg of CO2eq per tonne of cement produced.<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> The emissions are due to combustion and calcination processes,<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a> which roughly account for 40% and 60% of the greenhouse gases, respectively. Considering that cement is only a fraction of the constituents of concrete, it is estimated that a tonne of concrete is responsible for emitting about 100–200 kg of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-140">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lehne-2018-141">[137]</a> Every year more than 10 billion tonnes of concrete are used worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Lehne-2018-141">[137]</a> In the coming years, large quantities of concrete will continue to be used, and the mitigation of CO2 emissions from the sector will be even more critical. Concrete is used to create hard surfaces that contribute to <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>, which can cause heavy soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding, but conversely can be used to divert, dam, and control flooding. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete_dust&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Concrete dust (page does not exist)">Concrete dust</a> released by building <a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">demolition</a> and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>. Concrete is a contributor to the <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> effect, though less so than <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_mitigation">Climate change mitigation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Climate change mitigation">edit</a>]</div> Reducing the cement clinker content might have positive effects on the environmental life-cycle assessment of concrete. Some research work on reducing the cement clinker content in concrete has already been carried out. However, there exist different research strategies. Often replacement of some clinker for large amounts of slag or fly ash was investigated based on conventional concrete technology. This could lead to a waste of scarce raw materials such as slag and fly ash. The aim of other research activities is the efficient use of cement and reactive materials like slag and fly ash in concrete based on a modified mix design approach.<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> The embodied carbon of a precast concrete facade can be reduced by 50% when using the presented fiber reinforced high performance concrete in place of typical reinforced concrete cladding.<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a> Studies have been conducted about commercialization of low-carbon concretes. <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">Life cycle assessment</a> (LCA) of low-carbon concrete was investigated according to the ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash (FA) replacement ratios. Global warming potential (GWP) of GGBS decreased by 1.1 kg CO2 eq/m3, while FA decreased by 17.3 kg CO2 eq/m3 when the mineral admixture replacement ratio was increased by 10%. This study also compared the compressive strength properties of binary blended low-carbon concrete according to the replacement ratios, and the applicable range of mixing proportions was derived.<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_adaptation">Climate change adaptation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Climate change adaptation">edit</a>]</div> High-performance building materials will be particularly important for enhancing resilience, including for flood defenses and critical-infrastructure protection.<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a> Risks to infrastructure and cities posed by extreme weather events are especially serious for those places exposed to flood and hurricane damage, but also where residents need protection from extreme summer temperatures. Traditional concrete can come under strain when exposed to humidity and higher concentrations of atmospheric CO2. While concrete is likely to remain important in applications where the environment is challenging, novel, smarter and more adaptable materials are also needed.<a href="#cite_note-Lehne-2018-141">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End-of-life:_degradation_and_waste">End-of-life: degradation and waste</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: End-of-life: degradation and waste">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunkhannock_Viaduct,_NE_Pennsylvania_USA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Tunkhannock_Viaduct%2C_NE_Pennsylvania_USA.jpg/220px-Tunkhannock_Viaduct%2C_NE_Pennsylvania_USA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Tunkhannock_Viaduct%2C_NE_Pennsylvania_USA.jpg/330px-Tunkhannock_Viaduct%2C_NE_Pennsylvania_USA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Tunkhannock_Viaduct%2C_NE_Pennsylvania_USA.jpg/440px-Tunkhannock_Viaduct%2C_NE_Pennsylvania_USA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="822" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tunkhannock_Viaduct" title="Tunkhannock Viaduct">Tunkhannock Viaduct</a> in northeastern Pennsylvania opened in 1915 and is still in regular use today</figcaption></figure><div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This paragraph is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Concrete_degradation" title="Concrete degradation">Concrete degradation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Concrete_degradation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Concrete_degradation" title="Concrete degradation">Concrete degradation</a> may have many different causes. Concrete is mostly damaged by the <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforcement bar">reinforcement bars</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Carbonatation" title="Carbonatation">carbonatation</a> of hardened <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a> paste or chloride attack under wet conditions. Chemical damage is caused by the formation of expansive products produced by chemical reactions (from <a href="/wiki/Carbonatation" title="Carbonatation">carbonatation</a>, chlorides, sulfates and distillate water), by aggressive chemical species present in <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> (chlorides, sulfates, magnesium ions), or by microorganisms (<a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>...) Other damaging processes can also involve calcium leaching by water infiltration, physical phenomena initiating cracks formation and propagation, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea water effects, leaching, and erosion by fast-flowing water.<a href="#cite_note-Concrete_degradation_MironKoleva2017-147">[143]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recycling">Recycling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Recycling">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This paragraph is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Concrete_recycling" title="Concrete recycling">Concrete recycling</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Concrete_recycling&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Concrete_recycling" title="Concrete recycling">Concrete recycling</a> is the use of rubble from demolished concrete structures. <a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a> is cheaper and more ecological than trucking rubble to a <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[144]</a> Crushed rubble can be used for road gravel, <a href="/wiki/Revetment" title="Revetment">revetments</a>, retaining walls, landscaping gravel, or raw material for new concrete. Large pieces can be used as bricks or slabs, or incorporated with new concrete into structures, a material called urbanite.<a href="#cite_note-Concrete_recycling_concretenetwork.com-149">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Concrete_recycling_Urbanite_Construction-150">[146]</a></div></div>There have been concerns about the recycling of painted concrete due to possible lead content. Studies have indicated that recycled concrete exhibits lower strength and durability compared to concrete produced using natural aggregates.<a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> This deficiency can be addressed by incorporating supplementary materials such as fly ash into the mixture.<a href="#cite_note-155">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_records">World records</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: World records">edit</a>]</div> The world record for the largest concrete pour in a single project is the <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> in Hubei Province, China by the Three Gorges Corporation. The amount of concrete used in the construction of the dam is estimated at 16 million cubic meters over 17 years. The previous record was 12.3 million cubic meters held by <a href="/wiki/Itaipu_Dam" title="Itaipu Dam">Itaipu hydropower station</a> in Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-probeinternational.org-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[154]</a> The world record for concrete pumping was set on 7 August 2009 during the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Parbati_River_(Himachal_Pradesh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parbati River (Himachal Pradesh)">Parbati</a> Hydroelectric Project, near the village of Suind, <a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a>, India, when the concrete mix was pumped through a vertical height of 715 m (2,346 ft).<a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[156]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Polavaram_Project" title="Polavaram Project">Polavaram dam</a> works in <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a> on 6 January 2019 entered the <a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness World Records</a> by pouring 32,100 cubic metres of concrete in 24 hours.<a href="#cite_note-161">[157]</a> The world record for the largest continuously poured concrete raft was achieved in August 2007 in Abu Dhabi by contracting firm Al Habtoor-CCC Joint Venture and the concrete supplier is Unibeton Ready Mix.<a href="#cite_note-Concrete_Supplier_for_Landmark_Tower-162">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_world_record_Concrete_Supplier_for_Landmark_Tower_Unibeton_Ready_Mix-163">[159]</a> The pour (a part of the foundation for the Abu Dhabi's <a href="/wiki/The_Landmark_(Abu_Dhabi)" title="The Landmark (Abu Dhabi)">Landmark Tower</a>) was 16,000 cubic meters of concrete poured within a two-day period.<a href="#cite_note-164">[160]</a> The previous record, 13,200 cubic meters poured in 54 hours despite a severe tropical storm requiring the site to be covered with <a href="/wiki/Tarpaulin" title="Tarpaulin">tarpaulins</a> to allow work to continue, was achieved in 1992 by joint Japanese and South Korean consortiums <a href="/wiki/Hazama_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazama Corporation">Hazama Corporation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Samsung_C%26T_Corporation" title="Samsung C&T Corporation">Samsung C&T Corporation</a> for the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Petronas_Towers" title="Petronas Towers">Petronas Towers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[161]</a> The world record for largest continuously poured concrete floor was completed 8 November 1997, in <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a>, Kentucky by design-build firm EXXCEL Project Management. The monolithic placement consisted of 225,000 square feet (20,900 m2) of concrete placed in 30 hours, finished to a flatness tolerance of FF 54.60 and a levelness tolerance of FL 43.83. This surpassed the previous record by 50% in total volume and 7.5% in total area.<a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a> The record for the largest continuously placed underwater concrete pour was completed 18 October 2010, in New Orleans, Louisiana by contractor C. J. Mahan Construction Company, LLC of Grove City, Ohio. The placement consisted of 10,251 cubic yards of concrete placed in 58.5 hours using two concrete pumps and two dedicated concrete batch plants. Upon curing, this placement allows the 50,180-square-foot (4,662 m2) cofferdam to be dewatered approximately 26 feet (7.9 m) below sea level to allow the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Canal" title="Industrial Canal">Inner Harbor Navigation Canal</a> Sill & Monolith Project to be completed in the dry.<a href="#cite_note-168">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_leveling" title="Concrete leveling">Concrete leveling</a> – Process to level concrete by levelling its underlying foundation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_mixer" title="Concrete mixer">Concrete mixer</a> – Device that combines cement, aggregate, and water to form concrete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_masonry_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Concrete masonry unit">Concrete masonry unit</a> – Standard-sized block used in constructionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_plant" title="Concrete plant">Concrete plant</a> – Equipment that combines various ingredients to form concrete</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a> – Loosely defined subset of elements that exhibit metallic propertiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hempcrete" title="Hempcrete">Hempcrete</a> – Biocomposite material used for construction and insulation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a> – Microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth's atmosphere</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncrete" title="Syncrete">Syncrete</a> – Synthetic form of concrete</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGagg2014" class="citation journal cs1">Gagg, Colin R. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leighton.com.au/verve/_resources/AlHabtoorIssue24.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 8 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abu+Dhabi+%E2%80%93+Landmark+Tower+has+a+record-breaking+pour&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Al+Habtoor+Engineering&rft.date=2007-09%2F2007-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leighton.com.au%2Fverve%2F_resources%2FAlHabtoorIssue24.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcrete" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> National Geographic Channel International / Caroline Anstey (2005), Megastructures: Petronas Twin Towers </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100526044112/http://concreteproducts.com/mag/concrete_continuous_cast_exxcel/?smte=wr">"Continuous cast: Exxcel Contract Management oversees record concrete pour"</a>. concreteproducts.com. 1 March 1998. 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Retrieved 13 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.construction.com&rft.atitle=Contractors+Prepare+to+Set+Gates+to+Close+New+Orleans+Storm+Surge+Barrier&rft.date=2011-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.construction.com%2Ftoolkit%2Freports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcrete" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/reel/video/p0f6jmwc/the-world-s-growing-problem-with-concrete">"The world's growing problem with concrete, the world's most destructive material"</a> (Video). BBC Reel. 6 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+world%27s+growing+problem+with+concrete%2C+the+world%27s+most+destructive+material&rft.pub=BBC+Reel&rft.date=2023-03-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Freel%2Fvideo%2Fp0f6jmwc%2Fthe-world-s-growing-problem-with-concrete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcrete" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Concrete&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Concrete" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Concrete">Concrete</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190504100410/https://www.constructiontest.org/concrete-meaning-properties-strength-advantages-construction/">Advantage and Disadvantage of Concrete</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunning2022" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Dunning, Brian</a> (4 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4813">"Skeptoid #813: Why You Need to Care About Concrete"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)#Skeptoid_podcasts" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Skeptoid</a>. Retrieved 14 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Skeptoid&rft.atitle=Skeptoid+%23813%3A+Why+You+Need+to+Care+About+Concrete&rft.date=2022-01-04&rft.aulast=Dunning&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fskeptoid.com%2Fepisodes%2F4813&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConcrete" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWVAzS5duAs">Getting Buried in Concrete to Explain How It Works</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openresearch.surrey.ac.uk/view/pdfCoverPage?instCode=44SUR_INST&filePid=13140253340002346&download=true">Release of ultrafine particles from three simulated building processes</a></li> <li>Concrete: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Road_types" title="Template:Road types"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Road_types" title="Template talk:Road types"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Road_types" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Road types"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Road_hierarchy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Road</a> <a href="/wiki/Road_hierarchy" title="Road hierarchy">hierarchy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_road" title="Types of road">Types of road</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limited-access_road" title="Limited-access road">Limited-access</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_highway" title="Bicycle highway">Bicycle highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled-access_highway" title="Controlled-access highway">Freeway / Motorway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carriageway" title="Dual carriageway">Dual carriageway / Divided highway / Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevated_highway" title="Elevated highway">Elevated highway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Limited-access_roads_by_country" title="Category:Limited-access roads by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Australia" title="Highways in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Belgium#Road_transport" title="Transport in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Highway_System" title="Brazilian Highway System">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Canada" title="Roads in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressways_of_China" title="Expressways of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Croatia" title="Highways in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Highways in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobahn" title="Autobahn">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Greece" title="Highways in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_and_roads_in_Hong_Kong" title="List of streets and roads in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_India" title="Roads in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-quality_dual_carriageway" title="High-quality dual carriageway">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_roads_in_Nepal" title="List of roads in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Pakistan" title="Roads in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Poland" title="Highways in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Portugal" title="Roads in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Spain" title="Highways in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway_system_in_Taiwan" title="Highway system in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Roads in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbered_highways_in_the_United_States" title="Numbered highways in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main roads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arterial_road" title="Arterial road">Arterial road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collector_road" title="Collector road">Collector road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_highway" title="County highway">County highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local%E2%80%93express_lanes" title="Local–express lanes">Express–collector setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm-to-market_road" title="Farm-to-market road">Farm-to-market road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">Highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Link_road" title="Link road">Link road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-lane_expressway" title="Two-lane expressway">Two-lane expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2%2B1_road" title="2+1 road">2+1 road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2%2B2_road" title="2+2 road">2+2 road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkway" title="Parkway">Parkway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_road" title="Ring road">Ring road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_two" title="Super two">Super two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trunk_road" title="Trunk road">Trunk road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway_systems_by_country" title="Highway systems by country">Highway systems by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Local roads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Alley</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avenue_(landscape)" title="Avenue (landscape)">Avenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_road" title="Back road">Back road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_boulevard" title="Bicycle boulevard">Bicycle boulevard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boulevard" title="Boulevard">Boulevard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_lane" title="Country lane">Country lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_end_street" title="Dead end street">Dead end</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driveway" title="Driveway">Driveway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontage_road" title="Frontage road">Frontage road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_lane_(road)" title="Green lane (road)">Green lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Street" title="Main Street">Main street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_road" title="Primitive road">Primitive road</a></li> <li>Road</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side_road" title="Side road">Side road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_carriageway" title="Single carriageway">Single carriageway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-track_road" title="Single-track road">Single-track road</a></li> <li>Street</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunken_lane" title="Sunken lane">Sunken lane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(road)" title="Concurrency (road)">Concurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detour" title="Detour">Detour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_hierarchy" title="Road hierarchy">Road hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_highway" title="Private highway">Private highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Route_number" title="Route number">Route number</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_route" title="Special route">special route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_route" title="Business route">business route</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_hierarchy" title="Street hierarchy">Street hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroad" title="Stroad">Stroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">Toll road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_road" title="Winter road">Winter road</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Road_junction" title="Road junction">Road junctions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Interchange_(road)" title="Interchange (road)">Interchanges</a> (<a href="/wiki/Grade_separation" title="Grade separation">grade-separated</a>)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloverleaf_interchange" title="Cloverleaf interchange">Cloverleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_interchange" title="Diamond interchange">Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-flow_interchange" title="Free-flow interchange">Free-flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interchange_(road)#Directional_T_interchange" title="Interchange (road)">Directional T</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diverging_diamond_interchange" title="Diverging diamond interchange">Diverging diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_cloverleaf_interchange" title="Partial cloverleaf interchange">Parclo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raindrop_interchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Raindrop interchange">Raindrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundabout_interchange" title="Roundabout interchange">Roundabout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-point_urban_interchange" title="Single-point urban interchange">Single-point urban (SPUI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_interchange" title="Stack interchange">Stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-level_diamond_interchange" title="Three-level diamond interchange">Three-level diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interchange_(road)#Trumpet_interchange" title="Interchange (road)">Trumpet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Intersection_(road)" title="Intersection (road)">Intersections (at-grade)</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-way_junction" title="Three-way junction">3-way junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowtie_(road)" title="Bowtie (road)">Bowtie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_junction" title="Box junction">Box junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channelization_(roads)" title="Channelization (roads)">Channelization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous-flow_intersection" title="Continuous-flow intersection">Continuous flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hook_turn" title="Hook turn">Hook turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jughandle" title="Jughandle">Jughandle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_left" title="Michigan left">Michigan left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offset_T-intersection" title="Offset T-intersection">Offset T-intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_intersection" title="Protected intersection">Protected intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrant_roadway_intersection" title="Quadrant roadway intersection">Quadrant roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-in/right-out" title="Right-in/right-out">Right-in/right-out (RIRO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundabout" title="Roundabout">Roundabout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagull_intersection" title="Seagull intersection">Seagull intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_intersection" title="Split intersection">Split intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstreet" title="Superstreet">Superstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_U-turn" title="Texas U-turn">Texas U-turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turnaround_(road)" title="Turnaround (road)">Turnaround</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Road_surface" title="Road surface">Surfaces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">Asphalt concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioasphalt" title="Bioasphalt">Bioasphalt</a></li> <li>Brick</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipseal" title="Chipseal">Chipseal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">Cobblestone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Roads">Concrete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corduroy_road" title="Corduroy road">Corduroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_cracking" title="Crocodile cracking">Crocodile cracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_grinding_of_pavement" title="Diamond grinding of pavement">Diamond grinding of pavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirt_road" title="Dirt road">Dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_depth_recycling" title="Full depth recycling">Full depth recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassphalt" title="Glassphalt">Glassphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_road" title="Ice road">Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">Macadam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavement_milling" title="Pavement milling">Pavement milling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeable_paving" title="Permeable paving">Permeable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plank_road" title="Plank road">Plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_road" title="Plastic road">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubberized_asphalt" title="Rubberized asphalt">Rubberized asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sealcoat" title="Sealcoat">Sealcoat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sett_(paving)" title="Sett (paving)">Sett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamped_asphalt" title="Stamped asphalt">Stamped asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarmacadam" title="Tarmacadam">Tarmac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_texture" title="Road texture">Texture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Road_traffic_safety" title="Road traffic safety">Road safety factors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Road and environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaplaning" title="Aquaplaning">Aquaplaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_ice" title="Black ice">Black ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_(roads)" title="Bleeding (roads)">Bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crosswind" title="Crosswind">Crosswind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Man%27s_Curve" title="Dead Man's Curve">Dead Man's Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_joint" title="Expansion joint">Expansion joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_(crossing)" title="Ford (crossing)">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hairpin_turn" title="Hairpin turn">Hairpin turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_crossing" title="Level crossing">Level crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhole_cover" title="Manhole cover">Manhole cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oversize_load" title="Oversize load">Oversize load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pothole" title="Pothole">Pothole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_debris" title="Road debris">Road debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_slipperiness" title="Road slipperiness">Road slipperiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_train" title="Road train">Road train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadkill" title="Roadkill">Roadkill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockfall" title="Rockfall">Rockfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rut_(roads)" title="Rut (roads)">Rut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_bump" title="Speed bump">Speed bump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">Storm drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_light" title="Traffic light">Traffic light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washboarding" title="Washboarding">Washboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washout_(erosion)" title="Washout (erosion)">Washout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteout_(weather)" title="Whiteout (weather)">Whiteout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall" title="Snow squall">Snow squall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Human factors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Driver%27s_education" title="Driver's education">Driver's education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence" title="Driving under the influence">Driving under the influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowsy_driving" title="Drowsy driving">Drowsy driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_rage" title="Road rage">Road rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-vehicle_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-vehicle crash">Single-vehicle crash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbag" title="Airbag">Airbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_safety" title="Automotive safety">Automotive safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seat_belt" title="Seat belt">Seat belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_compensation#Road_transport" title="Risk compensation">Risk compensation (road transport)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underride_guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Underride guard">Underride guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Traffic#Rules_of_the_road" title="Traffic">Space and time allocation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_transfer_machine" title="Barrier transfer machine">Barrier transfer machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bike_lane" title="Bike lane">Bike lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climbing_lane" title="Climbing lane">Climbing lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_streets" title="Complete streets">Complete streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraflow_lane" title="Contraflow lane">Contraflow lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraflow_lane_reversal" title="Contraflow lane reversal">Contraflow lane reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-occupancy_toll_lane" title="High-occupancy toll lane">High-occupancy toll lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-occupancy_vehicle_lane" title="High-occupancy vehicle lane">High-occupancy vehicle lane</a></li> <li>Lane</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_street" title="Living street">Living street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_lane" title="Managed lane">Managed lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_strip" title="Median strip">Median / Central reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motorcycle_lane" title="Motorcycle lane">Motorcycle lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_lane" title="Passing lane">Passing lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_crossing" title="Pedestrian crossing">Pedestrian crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_zone" title="Pedestrian zone">Pedestrian zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_island" title="Refuge island">Refuge island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversible_lane" title="Reversible lane">Reversible lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_diet" title="Road diet">Road diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_verge" title="Road verge">Road verge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_truck_ramp" title="Runaway truck ramp">Runaway truck ramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_space" title="Shared space">Shared space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk" title="Sidewalk">Sidewalk / Pavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_(road)" title="Shoulder (road)">Shoulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_running_train" title="Street running train">Street-running railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_calming" title="Traffic calming">Traffic calming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Traffic directionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_island" title="Traffic island">Traffic island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_lanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic lanes">Traffic lanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_signal_preemption" title="Traffic signal preemption">Traffic signal preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truck_bypass" title="Truck bypass">Truck bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unused_highway" title="Unused highway">Unused highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_outside_lane" title="Wide outside lane">Wide outside lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woonerf" title="Woonerf">Woonerf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demarcation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bollard" title="Bollard">Bollard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botts%27_dots" title="Botts' dots">Botts' dots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_barrier" title="Cable barrier">Cable barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat%27s_eye_(road)" title="Cat's eye (road)">Cat's eye (road)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_step_barrier" title="Concrete step barrier">Concrete step barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-slope_barrier" title="Constant-slope barrier">Constant-slope barrier</a></li> <li>Curb</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-shape_barrier" title="F-shape barrier">F-shape barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_rail" title="Guard rail">Guard rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_barrier" title="Jersey barrier">Jersey barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassel_kerb" title="Kassel kerb">Kassel kerb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_pavement_marker" title="Raised pavement marker">Raised pavement marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_surface_marking" title="Road surface marking">Road surface marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumble_strip" title="Rumble strip">Rumble strip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_barrier" title="Traffic barrier">Traffic barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_cone" title="Traffic cone">Traffic cone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Bridge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpass" title="Overpass">Overpass / Flyover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Underpass / Tunnel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Performance indicators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pavement_condition_index" title="Pavement condition index">Pavement condition index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_roughness_index" title="International roughness index">International roughness index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_serviceability_index" title="Present serviceability index">Present serviceability index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavement_performance_modeling" title="Pavement performance modeling">Pavement performance modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granular_base_equivalency" title="Granular base equivalency">Granular base equivalency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_road_transport_terms" title="Glossary of road transport terms">Glossary of road transport terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_road_types_by_features" class="mw-redirect" title="List of road types by features">Road types by features</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stonemasonry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stonemasonry" title="Template:Stonemasonry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stonemasonry" title="Template talk:Stonemasonry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stonemasonry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stonemasonry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stonemasonry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">Ashlar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rustication_(architecture)" title="Rustication (architecture)">Rustication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">Dry stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_cutting" title="Letter cutting">Letter cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-tensioned_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-tensioned stone">Post-tensioned stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">Massive precut stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_masonry" title="Monumental masonry">Monumental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_masonry" title="Rubble masonry">Rubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_sculpture" title="Stone sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slipform_stonemasonry" title="Slipform stonemasonry">Slipform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snecked_masonry" title="Snecked masonry">Snecked</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#F4F0EC"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_stone" title="Artificial stone">Artificial stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">Brick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_stone" title="Cast stone">Cast stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_decorative_stones" title="List of decorative stones">Decorative stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone" title="Dimension stone">Dimension stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fieldstone" title="Fieldstone">Fieldstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagstone" title="Flagstone">Flagstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grout" title="Grout">Grout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lime_mortar" title="Lime mortar">Lime mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone" title="List of types of limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">Marble</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble" title="List of types of marble">Types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">Mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sandstones" title="List of sandstones">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate" title="Slate">Slate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_veneer" title="Stone veneer">Stone veneer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_grinder" title="Angle grinder">Angle grinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_hammer" title="Bush hammer">Bush hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_tile_cutter" title="Ceramic tile cutter">Ceramic tile cutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">Chisel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_blade" title="Diamond blade">Diamond blade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_(lifting_appliance)" title="Lewis (lifting appliance)">Lewis (lifting appliance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry_trowel" title="Masonry trowel">Trowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-explosive_demolition_agents" title="Non-explosive demolition agents">Non-explosive demolition agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_and_feather" title="Plug and feather">Plug and feather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemason%27s_hammer" title="Stonemason's hammer">Stonemason's hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straightedge" title="Straightedge">Straightedge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#F4F0EC"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stone_flaming" title="Stone flaming">Flaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flushwork" title="Flushwork">Flushwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knapping" title="Knapping">Knapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_masonry" title="Polygonal masonry">Polygonal masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repointing" title="Repointing">Repointing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scabbling" title="Scabbling">Scabbling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckpointing" title="Tuckpointing">Tuckpointing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry_veneer" title="Masonry veneer">Veneer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brickwork" title="Brickwork">Brickwork</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wythe" title="Wythe">Wythe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">Hardstone carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headstone" class="mw-redirect" title="Headstone">Headstone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Footstone" title="Footstone">Footstone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_sculpture" title="Stone sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_wall" title="Stone wall">Stone wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#F4F0EC"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Bricklayers_and_Allied_Craftworkers" title="International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers">International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Work_to_the_Crown_of_Scotland" title="Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland">Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mason_Contractors_Association_of_America" title="Mason Contractors Association of America">Mason Contractors Association of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operative_Plasterers%27_and_Cement_Masons%27_International_Association" title="Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association">Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Masons" title="Worshipful Company of Masons">Worshipful Company of Masons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Concrete" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Concrete_navbox" title="Template:Concrete navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Concrete_navbox" title="Template talk:Concrete navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Concrete_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Concrete navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concrete" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Concrete</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_architectural_revolution" title="Roman architectural revolution">Roman architectural revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">Roman engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete#Mix_design" title="Types of concrete">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">Cement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_aluminate_cements" title="Calcium aluminate cements">Calcium aluminate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energetically_modified_cement" title="Energetically modified cement">Energetically modified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosendale_cement" title="Rosendale cement">Rosendale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water%E2%80%93cement_ratio" title="Water–cement ratio">Water–cement ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">Aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">Fly ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_granulated_blast-furnace_slag" title="Ground granulated blast-furnace slag">Ground granulated blast-furnace slag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silica_fume" title="Silica fume">Silica fume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metakaolin" title="Metakaolin">Metakaolin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Production">Production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_plant" title="Concrete plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_mixer" title="Concrete mixer">Concrete mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_concrete_mixer" title="Volumetric concrete mixer">Volumetric mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversing_drum_mixer" title="Reversing drum mixer">Reversing drum mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_slump_test" title="Concrete slump test">Slump test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_table_test" title="Flow table test">Flow table test</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Curing">Curing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_cover" title="Concrete cover">Concrete cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_meter" title="Cover meter">Cover meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">Rebar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Construction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precast_concrete" title="Precast concrete">Precast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast-in-place_concrete" title="Cast-in-place concrete">Cast-in-place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formwork" title="Formwork">Formwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climbing_formwork" title="Climbing formwork">Climbing formwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slip_forming" title="Slip forming">Slip forming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screed" title="Screed">Screed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_concrete_screed" class="mw-redirect" title="Power concrete screed">Power screed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_finisher" title="Concrete finisher">Finisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_grinder" title="Concrete grinder">Grinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_trowel" title="Power trowel">Power trowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_pump" title="Concrete pump">Pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_float" title="Concrete float">Float</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_sealer" title="Concrete sealer">Sealer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">Tremie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Properties_of_concrete" title="Properties of concrete">Properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_structures_durability" title="Reinforced concrete structures durability">Durability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_degradation" title="Concrete degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">Environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_recycling" title="Concrete recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_concrete" title="Segregation in concrete">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali%E2%80%93silica_reaction" title="Alkali–silica reaction">Alkali–silica reaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_concrete" title="Types of concrete">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AstroCrete" class="mw-redirect" title="AstroCrete">AstroCrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-reinforced_concrete" title="Fiber-reinforced concrete">Fiber-reinforced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filigree_concrete" title="Filigree concrete">Filigree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_concrete" title="Foam concrete">Foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunarcrete" title="Lunarcrete">Lunarcrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_concrete" title="Mass concrete">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoconcrete" title="Nanoconcrete">Nanoconcrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervious_concrete" title="Pervious concrete">Pervious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polished_concrete" title="Polished concrete">Polished</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_concrete" title="Polymer concrete">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">Prestressed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ready-mix_concrete" title="Ready-mix concrete">Ready-mix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roller-compacted_concrete" title="Roller-compacted concrete">Roller-compacting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-consolidating_concrete" title="Self-consolidating concrete">Self-consolidating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-leveling_concrete" title="Self-leveling concrete">Self-leveling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_concrete" title="Sulfur concrete">Sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabby_concrete" title="Tabby concrete">Tabby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translucent_concrete" title="Translucent concrete">Translucent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_light_concrete" title="Waste light concrete">Waste light</a></li> <li>Aerated <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoclaved_aerated_concrete" title="Autoclaved aerated concrete">AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_autoclaved_aerated_concrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete">RAAC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_slab" title="Concrete slab">Slab</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waffle_slab" title="Waffle slab">waffle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow-core_slab" title="Hollow-core slab">hollow-core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voided_biaxial_slab" title="Voided biaxial slab">voided biaxial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_foundation#Slab_on_grade" title="Shallow foundation">slab on grade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_block" title="Concrete block">Concrete block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_step_barrier" title="Concrete step barrier">Step barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_surface#Concrete" title="Road surface">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete_column" title="Reinforced concrete column">Columns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete#Use_in_construction" title="Reinforced concrete">Structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Concrete_Institute" title="American Concrete Institute">American Concrete Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concrete_Society" title="The Concrete Society">Concrete Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Structural_Engineers" title="Institution of Structural Engineers">Institution of Structural Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Concrete_Institute" title="Indian Concrete Institute">Indian Concrete Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocem" title="Nanocem">Nanocem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portland_Cement_Association" title="Portland Cement Association">Portland Cement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_for_Structural_Concrete" title="International Federation for Structural Concrete">International Federation for Structural Concrete</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurocode_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurocode 2">Eurocode 2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EN_197-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EN 197-1 (page does not exist)">EN 197-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EN_206-1" class="mw-redirect" title="EN 206-1">EN 206-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EN_10080" title="EN 10080">EN 10080</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hempcrete" title="Hempcrete">Hempcrete</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Concrete" 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