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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inorganic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Inorganic compounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inorganic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lead(II)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead(II)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Lead(II) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead(II)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lead(IV)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead(IV)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Lead(IV) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead(IV)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_oxidation_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_oxidation_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Other oxidation states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_oxidation_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organolead" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organolead"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Organolead </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organolead-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Origin and occurrence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_and_occurrence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Origin and occurrence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 In space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 On Earth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Etymology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory_and_early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory_and_early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Prehistory and early history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory_and_early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Classical era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Confusion_with_tin_and_antimony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confusion_with_tin_and_antimony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Confusion with tin and antimony </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confusion_with_tin_and_antimony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages_and_the_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages_and_the_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Middle Ages and the Renaissance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages_and_the_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outside_Europe_and_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outside_Europe_and_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Outside Europe and Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outside_Europe_and_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Industrial Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Modern era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Production </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Production subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Primary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Two-stage_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-stage_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Two-stage process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-stage_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Direct process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Alternatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Secondary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elemental_form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elemental_form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Elemental form </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elemental_form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Batteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Batteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Batteries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Batteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coating_for_cables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coating_for_cables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Coating for cables </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coating_for_cables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Compounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Biological effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biological effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Toxicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Toxicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Exposure sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exposure_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lead_in_foods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead_in_foods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Lead in foods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead_in_foods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lead_in_plastic_toys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead_in_plastic_toys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.2 Lead in plastic toys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead_in_plastic_toys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Treatment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Environmental effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restriction_and_remediation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restriction_and_remediation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Restriction and remediation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restriction_and_remediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Lead</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 174 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-174" aria-hidden="true" > 174 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%88%D3%80%D0%BE" title="ПцашӀо – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="ПцашӀо" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lood" title="Lood – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Lood" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%88%B3%E1%88%B5" title="እርሳስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="እርሳስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="सीसा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सीसा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%93ad" title="Lēad – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Lēad" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B5" title="رصاص – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رصاص" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumo" title="Plumo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Plumo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Կապար – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Կապար" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliumbu" title="Pliumbu – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Pliumbu" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plomu" title="Plomu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Plomu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%C4%9Fu%C5%9Fun" title="Qurğuşun – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qurğuşun" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbal" title="Timbal – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Timbal" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE" title="সীসা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সীসা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%A2n" title="Iân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D1%83%D1%80%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Ҡурғаш – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡурғаш" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Свінец – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Свінец" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Волава – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Волава" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="सीसा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सीसा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tingga" title="Tingga – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tingga" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Олово – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Олово" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%9E%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%BA%E0%BC%8D" title="ཞ་ཉེ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཞ་ཉེ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olovo" title="Olovo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Olovo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plom" title="Plom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Plom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plom" title="Plom – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Plom" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%82%C4%83%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Хура тăхлан – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хура тăхлан" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plomo" title="Plomo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Plomo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olovo" title="Olovo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Olovo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutobvu" title="Mutobvu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mutobvu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piombu" title="Piombu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Piombu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plwm" title="Plwm – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Plwm" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bly" title="Bly – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bly" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86" title="لدون – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لدون" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blei" title="Blei – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Blei" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dily%C4%AF%CC%81h%C3%AD" title="Dilyį́hí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Dilyį́hí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plii" title="Plii – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Plii" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%8C%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%B2%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Μόλυβδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μόλυβδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5" title="Киве – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Киве" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plomo" title="Plomo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Plomo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbo" title="Plumbo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plumbo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promu" title="Promu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Promu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berun" title="Berun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Berun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="سرب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سرب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raanga" title="Raanga – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Raanga" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%BDggj" title="Blýggj – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Blýggj" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plomb" title="Plomb – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Plomb" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_(elemint)" title="Lead (elemint) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Lead (elemint)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plomp" title="Plomp – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Plomp" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luaidhe" title="Luaidhe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Luaidhe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leoaie" title="Leoaie – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Leoaie" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luaidhe" title="Luaidhe – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Luaidhe" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumbo" title="Chumbo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Chumbo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%82" title="સીસું – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સીસું" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%A8n" title="Yèn – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yèn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D2%97%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Хорлаҗин – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Хорлаҗин" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A9" title="납 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="납" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%93pau" title="Kēpau – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kēpau" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Կապար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կապար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="सीसा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सीसा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olovo_(element)" title="Olovo (element) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Olovo (element)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plombo" title="Plombo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Plombo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbal" title="Timbal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Timbal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbo" title="Plumbo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Plumbo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Зды – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Зды" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umthofu" title="Umthofu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umthofu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%BD" title="Blý – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Blý" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piombo" title="Piombo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Piombo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%AA" title="עופרת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עופרת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C9%A9l%C9%94mb%C9%A9" title="Pɩlɔmbɩ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Pɩlɔmbɩ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B8" title="ಸೀಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೀಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A7%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტყვია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტყვია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Қорғасын – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қорғасын" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plobm" title="Plobm – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Plobm" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risasi_(metali)" title="Risasi (metali) – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Risasi (metali)" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Ширысь – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Ширысь" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plon" title="Plon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Plon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirb" title="Sirb – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sirb" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%88%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Коргошун – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Коргошун" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D3%B9%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Вӹдвулны – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Вӹдвулны" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pion" title="Pion – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Pion" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D3%80%D1%83%D1%82%D3%80%D0%B8" title="ЧӀутӀи – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="ЧӀутӀи" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbum" title="Plumbum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Plumbum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svins" title="Svins – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Svins" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A4i" title="Bläi – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bläi" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8C%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%8C%D1%83%D1%88%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Кьуркьушум – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Кьуркьушум" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0vinas" title="Švinas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Švinas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciongio" title="Ciongio – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Ciongio" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loead" title="Loead – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Loead" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jygeitina" title="Jygeitina – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Jygeitina" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/cnisa" title="cnisa – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="cnisa" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piomb" title="Piomb – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Piomb" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93lom" title="Ólom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ólom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Олово – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Олово" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firamainty" title="Firamainty – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Firamainty" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="കറുത്തീയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കറുത്തീയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C4%81_(konganuku)" title="Matā (konganuku) – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Matā (konganuku)" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87" title="शिसे – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शिसे" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A7%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტყვია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ტყვია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B5" title="رصاص – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رصاص" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="سرب – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="سرب" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbum" title="Plumbum – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Plumbum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%97_(%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%A0%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F)" title="ꯂꯤꯗ (ꯄꯣꯠꯇꯤꯟꯂꯣꯟ) – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯂꯤꯗ (ꯄꯣꯠꯇꯤꯟꯂꯣꯟ)" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B2ng_(g%C4%ADng-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%86k)" title="Iòng (gĭng-sṳ̆k) – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Iòng (gĭng-sṳ̆k)" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Киви – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Киви" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Хар тугалга – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хар тугалга" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%B2_(%E1%80%9E%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF)" title="ခဲ (သတ္တု) – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ခဲ (သတ္တု)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temetztli" title="Temetztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Temetztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lood_(element)" title="Lood (element) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lood (element)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="सीसा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सीसा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1" title="लिड – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="लिड" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%89%9B" title="鉛 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="鉛" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiummo" title="Chiummo – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Chiummo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luad_(element)" title="Luad (element) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Luad (element)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bly" title="Bly – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bly" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bly" title="Bly – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bly" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbe" title="Plumbe – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Plumbe" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plomb" title="Plomb – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Plomb" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE" title="ସୀସା – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସୀସା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilaalii" title="Dilaalii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Dilaalii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qo%CA%BBrg%CA%BBoshin" title="Qoʻrgʻoshin – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qoʻrgʻoshin" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE_(%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4)" title="ਸਿੱਕਾ (ਧਾਤ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਿੱਕਾ (ਧਾਤ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1" title="लिड – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="लिड" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7" title="سیسا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سیسا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%90%DA%89" title="لېډ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لېډ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Ширись – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Ширись" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piomb" title="Piomb – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Piomb" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blie" title="Blie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Blie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C5%82%C3%B3w" title="Ołów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ołów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumbo" title="Chumbo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Chumbo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumb" title="Plumb – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Plumb" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titi" title="Titi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Titi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Свинец – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Свинец" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="सीसम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सीसम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prumu" title="Prumu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Prumu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leid_(element)" title="Leid (element) – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Leid (element)" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lood" title="Lood – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Lood" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbi_(element_kimik)" title="Plumbi (element kimik) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Plumbi (element kimik)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiummu" title="Chiummu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Chiummu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead" title="Lead – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Lead" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%8A%DA%BE%D9%88" title="شيھو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="شيھو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olovo" title="Olovo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Olovo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svinec" title="Svinec – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Svinec" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasaas" title="Rasaas – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Rasaas" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%DA%95%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%85" title="قوڕقوشم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="قوڕقوشم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Олово – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Олово" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olovo" title="Olovo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Olovo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbal" title="Timbal – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Timbal" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyijy" title="Lyijy – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lyijy" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bly" title="Bly – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bly" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tingga" title="Tingga – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Tingga" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஈயம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஈயம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldun" title="Aldun – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aldun" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Кургаш – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Кургаш" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81_(%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81)" title="సీసము (మూలకము) – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సీసము (మూలకము)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7" title="ตะกั่ว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตะกั่ว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%B6m_thi%C9%9Bk" title="Yöm thiɛk – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Yöm thiɛk" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target">Thuɔŋjäŋ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1" title="Сурб – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сурб" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%82" title="ᎦᏂ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎦᏂ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kur%C5%9Fun" title="Kurşun – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kurşun" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Свинець – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Свинець" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%81" title="سیسہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سیسہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%BA%DB%87%D8%B4%DB%87%D9%86" title="قوغۇشۇن – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="قوغۇشۇن" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yienz" title="Yienz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yienz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li 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Click to view the published version." rel="nofollow"><img alt="This article has been published in the peer-reviewed journal WikiJournal of Science (2018). Click to view the published version." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Journal_Icon.svg/20px-Journal_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Journal_Icon.svg/30px-Journal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Journal_Icon.svg/40px-Journal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="479" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Lead_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Lead (disambiguation)">Lead (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical element with atomic number 82 (Pb)</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1158442001">body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data>.wikitable,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox .periodictable{display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data{width:calc(100% - 20px)}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data>div{max-width:100%;overflow:auto}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox caption{display:table-caption}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Lead, 82Pb</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A small gray metal cube surrounded by three gray metal nuggets in front of a light gray background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/250px-Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/330px-Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg/500px-Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5260" data-file-height="3341" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c">Lead</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/lɛd/</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">led</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Appearance</th><td class="infobox-data">metallic gray</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align: left; color:inherit; background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">Standard atomic weight</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>Ar°(Pb)</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>[206.14, 207.94]<a href="#cite_note-CIAAW-1">[1]</a></li><li>207.2±1.1 (<a href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight#Abridged_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">abridged</a>)<a href="#cite_note-CIAAW2021-2">[2]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c">Lead in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="periodictable" style="margin:0 auto"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none; width:5px"><div style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit; margin:0; padding:0; text-align:center; border:none;"> <table style="empty-cells:hidden; border:none; padding:0; border-spacing:1px; border-collapse:separate; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> </td> <td colspan="30" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Neon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Argon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a> </td> <td colspan="14" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Scandium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">Vanadium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Cobalt</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Gallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Germanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Selenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Bromine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Krypton</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Strontium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;; width:0;"> </td> <td colspan="13" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Yttrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Technetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ruthenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rhodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">Indium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Antimony</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Tellurium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a> </td></tr> <tr style="border:none;padding:0;"> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Barium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">Lanthanum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Cerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Praseodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Neodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Promethium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Samarium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Europium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gadolinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Terbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dysprosium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Holmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Erbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Thulium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Ytterbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lutetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hafnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Tantalum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Osmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury (element)</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lead</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">Astatine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Radium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Actinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Protactinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Neptunium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Americium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Berkelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fermium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Mendelevium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">Nobelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rutherfordium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Dubnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Seaborgium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bohrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Meitnerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Darmstadtium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Roentgenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Copernicium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nihonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Flerovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Moscovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Livermorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Tennessine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Oganesson</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; width:10px; border:none;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a> ↑ Pb ↓ <a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Fl</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="nowrap" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; padding-top:0; padding-bottom:1px; border:none;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a> ← lead → <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Atomic number</a> (Z)</th><td class="infobox-data">82</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Group</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">group 14 (carbon group)</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Period</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">period 6</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Block</a></th><td class="infobox-data">  <a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)#p-block" title="Block (periodic table)">p-block</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">Electron configuration</a></th><td class="infobox-data">[<a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a>] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Electrons per shell</th><td class="infobox-data">2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c">Physical properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" />at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">STP</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a></th><td class="infobox-data">600.61 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a> (327.46 °C, 621.43 °F) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2022 K (1749 °C, 3180 °F) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a> (at 20 °C)</th><td class="infobox-data">11.348 g/cm3 <a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">when liquid (at <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">m.p.</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">10.66 g/cm3 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Heat of fusion</a></th><td class="infobox-data">4.77 <a href="/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilojoule per mole">kJ/mol</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Heat of vaporization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">179.5 kJ/mol </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Molar_heat_capacity" title="Molar heat capacity">Molar heat capacity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">26.650 J/(mol·K) </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapor pressure</a><div style="position:relative; margin:0 auto; padding:0; text-align:initial; width:-moz-fit-content; width:-webkit-fit-content; width:fit-content;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0"> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Pressure">P</abbr> (Pa) </th> <th>1 </th> <th>10 </th> <th>100 </th> <th>1 k </th> <th>10 k </th> <th>100 k </th></tr> <tr> <th>at <abbr title="Temperature">T</abbr> (K) </th> <td>978 </td> <td>1088 </td> <td>1229 </td> <td>1412 </td> <td>1660 </td> <td>2027 </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c">Atomic properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation states</a></th><td class="infobox-data">common: +2, +4 −4,<a href="#cite_note-GE28-4">[4]</a> −2,<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">?</a> −1,<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">?</a> 0,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> +1,<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">?</a> +3<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">?</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Pauling scale: 2.33 (in +4), 1.87 (in +2) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization energies</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1st: 715.6 kJ/mol </li><li>2nd: 1450.5 kJ/mol </li><li>3rd: 3081.5 kJ/mol </li><li> </li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">Atomic radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data">empirical: 175 <a href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">pm</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Covalent_radius" title="Covalent radius">Covalent radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data">146±5 pm </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_radius" title="Van der Waals radius">Van der Waals radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data">202 pm </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:82_(Pb_I)_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color lines in a spectral range" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/82_%28Pb_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png/250px-82_%28Pb_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/82_%28Pb_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png/500px-82_%28Pb_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png 1.5x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">Spectral lines</a> of lead</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c">Other properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Natural occurrence</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Crystal structure</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <a href="/wiki/Cubic_crystal_system" title="Cubic crystal system">face-centered cubic</a> (fcc) (<a href="/wiki/Pearson_symbol" title="Pearson symbol">cF4</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Lattice_constant" title="Lattice constant">Lattice constant</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubic-face-centered.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Face-centered cubic crystal structure for lead" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/60px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/75px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/100px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="109" data-file-height="126" /></a></div>a = 494.99 pm (at 20 °C)<a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">Thermal expansion</a></th><td class="infobox-data">28.73×10−6/K (at 20 °C)<a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">Thermal conductivity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">35.3 W/(m⋅K) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">Electrical resistivity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">208 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Diamagnetism" title="Diamagnetism">diamagnetic</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_susceptibility" title="Magnetic susceptibility">Molar magnetic susceptibility</a></th><td class="infobox-data">−23.0×10−6 cm3/mol (at 298 K)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeastAstleBeyer1983E110-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">16 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Shear_modulus" title="Shear modulus">Shear modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">5.6 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Bulk_modulus" title="Bulk modulus">Bulk modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">46 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">Speed of sound</a> thin rod</th><td class="infobox-data">1190 m/s (at <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">r.t.</a>) (annealed)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio" title="Poisson's ratio">Poisson ratio</a></th><td class="infobox-data">0.44 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1.5 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Brinell_hardness_test" title="Brinell hardness test">Brinell hardness</a></th><td class="infobox-data">38–50 MPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></th><td class="infobox-data">7439-92-1 </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemical_element_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of chemical element discoveries">Discovery</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> (<a href="/wiki/7000_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="7000 BCE">7000 BCE</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Symbol</th><td class="infobox-data">"Pb": from Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plumbum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:plumbum">plumbum</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c"><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_lead" title="Isotopes of lead">Isotopes of lead</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox_lead_isotopes" title="Template:Infobox lead isotopes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox_lead_isotopes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox lead isotopes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0; padding: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Main isotopes<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-7">[7]</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Decay</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">abundance</a> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" />(t1/2) </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay#Types_of_decay" title="Radioactive decay">mode</a> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">product</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">202Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_radioisotope" title="Synthetic radioisotope">synth</a> </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">5.25×104 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">ε</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium-202" class="mw-redirect" title="Thallium-202">202Tl</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">204Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">1.40% </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="3" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">stable</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">205Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">trace</a> </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">1.73×107 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">ε </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium-205" class="mw-redirect" title="Thallium-205">205Tl</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">206Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">24.1% </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="3" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">stable </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">207Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">22.1% </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="3" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">stable </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">208Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">52.4% </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="3" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: left;">stable </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">209Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">3.253 h </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Beta_minus_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta minus decay">β−</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth-209" title="Bismuth-209">209Bi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;">210Pb </th> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">22.20 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">β− </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth-210" class="mw-redirect" title="Bismuth-210">210Bi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">α</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury-206" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercury-206">206Hg</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">211Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">36.1 min </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">β− </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth-211" class="mw-redirect" title="Bismuth-211">211Bi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">212Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">10.64 h </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">β− </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth-212" class="mw-redirect" title="Bismuth-212">212Bi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">214Pb </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">26.8 min </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">β− </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth-214" class="mw-redirect" title="Bismuth-214">214Bi</a> </td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.5em; background: #F8F9FA;">Isotopic abundances vary greatly by sample<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeijaCoplenBerglundBrand2016-8">[8]</a></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint" style="color:inherit; background:#fdff8c"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Lead" title="Category:Lead">Category: Lead</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox_lead" title="Template:Infobox lead">view</a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infobox_lead" title="Template talk:Infobox lead">talk</a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox_lead" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox lead">edit</a></li></ul></div> | <a href="/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements" title="List of data references for chemical elements">references</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Lead (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/lɛd/</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a>; it has <a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">symbol</a> Pb (from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> plumbum) and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> 82. It is a <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_(elements)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal (elements)">heavy metal</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">denser</a> than most common materials. Lead is <a href="/wiki/Mohs_scale" title="Mohs scale">soft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">malleable</a>, and also has a relatively low <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>. When freshly cut, lead is a shiny gray with a hint of blue. It <a href="/wiki/Tarnish" title="Tarnish">tarnishes</a> to a dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any <a href="/wiki/Stable_nuclide" title="Stable nuclide">stable element</a> and three of its <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> are endpoints of major nuclear <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chains</a> of heavier elements. Lead is a relatively unreactive <a href="/wiki/Post-transition_metal" title="Post-transition metal">post-transition metal</a>. Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its <a href="/wiki/Amphoterism" title="Amphoterism">amphoteric</a> nature; lead and <a href="/wiki/Lead_oxide" title="Lead oxide">lead oxides</a> react with <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">bases</a>, and it tends to form <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lead_compounds" title="Lead compounds">Compounds of lead</a> are usually found in the +2 <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">carbon group</a>. Exceptions are mostly limited to <a href="/wiki/Organolead_chemistry" title="Organolead chemistry">organolead compounds</a>. Like the lighter members of the group, lead tends to <a href="/wiki/Catenation" title="Catenation">bond with itself</a>; it can form chains and polyhedral structures. Since lead is easily extracted from its <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a>, prehistoric people in the Near East <a href="/wiki/Metals_of_antiquity" title="Metals of antiquity">were aware of it</a>. <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">Galena</a> is a principal ore of lead which often bears silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>. Lead production declined after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of Rome</a> and did not reach comparable levels until the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Lead played a crucial role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheodore_Low_De_Vinne18999–36-9">[9]</a> In 2014, the annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting point, <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a> and relative inertness to <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation</a> make it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">plumbing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead-acid_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead-acid battery">batteries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bullet" title="Bullet">bullets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shot_(pellet)" title="Shot (pellet)">shots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">weights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">solders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">pewters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fusible_alloy" title="Fusible alloy">fusible alloys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead_paint" title="Lead paint">lead paints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">leaded gasoline</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lead_shielding" title="Lead shielding">radiation shielding</a>. Lead is a <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxin</a> that accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages the nervous system and interferes with the function of biological <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, causing <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorders</a> ranging from behavioral problems to brain damage, and also affects general health, cardiovascular, and renal systems. <a href="/wiki/Roman_lead_poisoning_theory" title="Roman lead poisoning theory">Lead's toxicity was first documented</a> by ancient Greek and Roman writers, who noted some of the symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a>, but became widely recognized in Europe in the late 19th century. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical properties">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic">Atomic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Atomic">edit</a>]</div> A lead <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> has 82 <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, arranged in an <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electron configuration</a> of [<a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a>]4f145d106s26p2. The sum of lead's first and second <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">ionization energies</a>—the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, lead's upper neighbor in the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">carbon group</a>. This is unusual; ionization energies generally fall going down a group, as an element's outer electrons become more distant from the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a>, and more <a href="/wiki/Shielding_effect" title="Shielding effect">shielded</a> by smaller orbitals. The sum of the first four ionization energies of lead exceeds that of tin,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELide200510–179-10">[10]</a> contrary to what <a href="/wiki/Periodic_trends" title="Periodic trends">periodic trends</a> would predict. This is explained by <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry" title="Relativistic quantum chemistry">relativistic effects</a>, which become significant in heavier atoms,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPyykkö1988563–594-11">[11]</a> which contract s and p orbitals such that lead's 6s electrons have larger binding energies than its 5s electrons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClaudioGodwinMagyar20021–144-12">[12]</a> A consequence is the so-called <a href="/wiki/Inert-pair_effect" title="Inert-pair effect">inert pair effect</a>: the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, stabilising the +2 <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> and making the distance between nearest atoms in <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> lead unusually long.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorman199636-13">[13]</a> Lead's lighter carbon group <a href="/wiki/Congener_(chemistry)" title="Congener (chemistry)">congeners</a> form stable or metastable <a href="/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy">allotropes</a> with the tetrahedrally coordinated and <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalently bonded</a> <a href="/wiki/Diamond_cubic" title="Diamond cubic">diamond cubic</a> structure. The energy levels of their outer <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">s-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">p-orbitals</a> are close enough to allow mixing into four <a href="/wiki/Orbital_hybridisation" title="Orbital hybridisation">hybrid</a> sp3 orbitals. In lead, the inert pair effect increases the separation between its s- and p-orbitals, and the gap cannot be overcome by the energy that would be released by extra bonds following hybridization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998226–227,_374-14">[14]</a> Rather than having a diamond cubic structure, lead forms <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bonding" title="Metallic bonding">metallic bonds</a> in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and shared between the Pb2+ ions. Lead consequently has a <a href="/wiki/Cubic_crystal_system" title="Cubic crystal system">face-centered cubic</a> structure<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen2002867-15">[15]</a> like the similarly sized<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlater1964-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">divalent</a> metals <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConsidineConsidine2013501,_2970-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[c]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bulk">Bulk</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bulk">edit</a>]</div> Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with a hint of blue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998372-25">[22]</a> It tarnishes on contact with moist air and takes on a dull appearance, the hue of which depends on the prevailing conditions. Characteristic properties of lead include high <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, malleability, ductility, and high resistance to <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Passivation_(chemistry)" title="Passivation (chemistry)">passivation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998372–373-26">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Angeln_zubehoer_grundblei_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Angeln_zubehoer_grundblei_01.jpg/220px-Angeln_zubehoer_grundblei_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Angeln_zubehoer_grundblei_01.jpg/330px-Angeln_zubehoer_grundblei_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Angeln_zubehoer_grundblei_01.jpg/440px-Angeln_zubehoer_grundblei_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="839" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption>Lead fishing weights</figcaption></figure> Lead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic weight result in a density<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush20016-27">[24]</a> of 11.34 g/cm3, which is greater than that of common metals such as <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> (7.87 g/cm3), <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> (8.93 g/cm3), and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> (7.14 g/cm3).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELide200512–35,_12–40-28">[25]</a> This density is the origin of the idiom to go over like a lead balloon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrenner2003396-29">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones201442-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[d]</a> Some rarer metals are denser: <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> are both at 19.3 g/cm3, and <a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">osmium</a>—the densest metal known—has a density of 22.59 g/cm3, almost twice that of lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELide20054–13,_4–21,_4–33-32">[28]</a> Lead is a very soft metal with a <a href="/wiki/Mohs_scale" title="Mohs scale">Mohs hardness</a> of 1.5; it can be scratched with a fingernail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogelAchilles20138-33">[29]</a> It is quite malleable and somewhat ductile.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1869341–343-34">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[e]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bulk_modulus" title="Bulk modulus">bulk modulus</a> of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility—is 45.8 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">GPa</a>. In comparison, that of <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">mild steel</a> 160–169 GPa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaleTotemeier200315–2–15–3-36">[31]</a> Lead's <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength" title="Ultimate tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium is 6 times higher, copper 10 times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush20018-37">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A disk of metal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Lead-2.jpg/250px-Lead-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Lead-2.jpg/330px-Lead-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Lead-2.jpg/500px-Lead-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>A sample of lead solidified from the molten state</figcaption></figure> The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELide200512-219-38">[33]</a>—is very low compared to most metals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush20016-27">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[f]</a> Its <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> of 1749 °C (3180 °F)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELide200512-219-38">[33]</a> is the lowest among the carbon-group elements. The <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">electrical resistivity</a> of lead at 20 °C is 192 <a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">nanoohm</a>-meters, almost an <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">order of magnitude</a> higher than those of other industrial metals (copper at 15.43 nΩ·m; gold 20.51 nΩ·m; and aluminium at 24.15 nΩ·m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELide200512-45-41">[35]</a> Lead is a <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductor</a> at temperatures lower than 7.19 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlakemore1985272-42">[36]</a> this is the highest <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity#phase_transition" title="Superconductivity">critical temperature</a> of all <a href="/wiki/Type-I_superconductor" title="Type-I superconductor">type-I superconductors</a> and the third highest of the elemental superconductors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebbMarsiglioHirsch2015-43">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isotopes">Isotopes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Isotopes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_lead" title="Isotopes of lead">Isotopes of lead</a></div> Natural lead consists of four stable <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> with mass numbers of 204, 206, 207, and 208,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA_-_Nuclear_Data_Section2017-44">[38]</a> and traces of six short-lived radioisotopes with mass numbers 209–214 inclusive. The high number of isotopes is consistent with lead's <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> being even.<a href="#cite_note-45">[g]</a> Lead has a <a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">magic number</a> of protons (82), for which the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">nuclear shell model</a> accurately predicts an especially stable nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone1997-46">[39]</a> Lead-208 has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may explain why lead-208 is extraordinarily stable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone1997-46">[39]</a> With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are regarded as stable; lead-208 is the heaviest stable nucleus. (This distinction formerly fell to <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, with an atomic number of 83, until its only <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial isotope</a>, bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay very slowly.)<a href="#cite_note-49">[h]</a> The four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> to isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> with a release of energy, but this has not been observed for any of them; their predicted half-lives range from 1035 to 10189 years<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeemanBelliniCardaniCasali2013-50">[42]</a> (at least 1025 times the current age of the universe). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holsinger_Meteorite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A piece of a gray meteorite on a pedestal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Holsinger_Meteorite.jpg/250px-Holsinger_Meteorite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Holsinger_Meteorite.jpg/330px-Holsinger_Meteorite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Holsinger_Meteorite.jpg/500px-Holsinger_Meteorite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1657" data-file-height="1131" /></a><figcaption>The Holsinger meteorite, the largest piece of the <a href="/wiki/Canyon_Diablo_(meteorite)" title="Canyon Diablo (meteorite)">Canyon Diablo</a> meteorite. <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">Uranium–lead dating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">lead–lead dating</a> on this meteorite allowed refinement of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">age of the Earth</a> to 4.55 billion ± 70 million years.</figcaption></figure> Three of the stable isotopes are found in three of the four major <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chains</a>: lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 are the final decay products of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">thorium-232</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadioactive_Decay_Series2012-51">[43]</a> These decay chains are called the <a href="/wiki/Uranium_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium chain">uranium chain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Actinium_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium chain">actinium chain</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Thorium_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium chain">thorium chain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommittee_on_Evaluation_of_EPA_Guidelines_for_Exposure_to_Naturally_Occurring_Radioactive_MaterialsCommission_on_Life_SciencesDivision_on_Earth_and_Life_StudiesNational_Research_Council1999_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommittee_on_Evaluation_of_EPA_Guidelines_for_Exposure_to_Naturally_Occurring_Radioactive_MaterialsCommission_on_Life_SciencesDivision_on_Earth_and_Life_StudiesNational_Research_Council1999-52">[44]</a> Their isotopic concentrations in a natural rock sample depends greatly on the presence of these three parent uranium and thorium isotopes. For example, the relative abundance of lead-208 can range from 52% in normal samples to 90% in thorium ores;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmirnovBorisevichSulaberidze2012-53">[45]</a> for this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is given to only one decimal place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998368-54">[46]</a> As time passes, the ratio of lead-206 and lead-207 to lead-204 increases, since the former two are supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements while the latter is not; this allows for <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">lead–lead dating</a>. As uranium decays into lead, their relative amounts change; this is the basis for <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">uranium–lead dating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin200940–41-55">[47]</a> Lead-207 exhibits <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">nuclear magnetic resonance</a>, a property that has been used to study its compounds in solution and solid state,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb2000115-56">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWrackmeyerHorchler1990-57">[49]</a> including in the human body.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECangelosiPecoraro2015-58">[50]</a> Apart from the stable isotopes, which make up almost all lead that exists naturally, there are <a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">trace quantities</a> of a few radioactive isotopes. One of them is lead-210; although it has a half-life of only 22.2 years,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA_-_Nuclear_Data_Section2017-44">[38]</a> small quantities occur in nature because lead-210 is produced by a long decay series that starts with uranium-238 (that has been present for billions of years on Earth). Lead-211, −212, and −214 are present in the decay chains of uranium-235, thorium-232, and uranium-238, respectively, so traces of all three of these lead isotopes are found naturally. Minute traces of lead-209 arise from the very rare <a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">cluster decay</a> of radium-223, one of the <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">daughter products</a> of natural uranium-235, the rare beta-minus-neutron decay of thallium-210 (a decay product of uranium-238), and the decay chain of neptunium-237, traces of which are produced by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> in uranium ores. Lead-213 also occurs in the decay chain of neptunium-237. Lead-210 is particularly useful for helping to identify the ages of samples by measuring its ratio to lead-206 (both isotopes are present in a single decay chain).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiorini20107–8-59">[51]</a> In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass numbers 178–220.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA_-_Nuclear_Data_Section2017-44">[38]</a> Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of around 1.70×107 years.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[i]</a> The second-most stable is lead-202, which has a half-life of about 52,500 years, longer than any of the natural trace radioisotopes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA_-_Nuclear_Data_Section2017-44">[38]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chemistry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A flame with a small metal rod penetrating it; the flame near the rod is pale blue." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png/120px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png/165px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png/220px-Flammenf%C3%A4rbungPb.png 2x" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="721" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flame_test" title="Flame test">Flame test</a>: lead colors flame pale blue</figcaption></figure> Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition. <a href="/wiki/Lead_carbonate" title="Lead carbonate">Lead(II) carbonate</a> is a common constituent;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThürmerWilliamsReutt-Robey20022033–2035-62">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETétreaultSiroisStamatopoulou199817–32-63">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200110–11-64">[55]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">sulfate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_chloride" title="Lead(II) chloride">chloride</a> may also be present in urban or maritime settings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998373-65">[56]</a> This layer makes bulk lead effectively chemically inert in the air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998373-65">[56]</a> Finely powdered lead, as with many metals, is <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoricity" title="Pyrophoricity">pyrophoric</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBretherick20161442-66">[57]</a> and burns with a bluish-white flame.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarbisonBourgeoisJohnson2015132-67">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> reacts with lead at room temperature, forming <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_fluoride" title="Lead(II) fluoride">lead(II) fluoride</a>. The reaction with <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> is similar but requires heating, as the resulting chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the elements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998373-65">[56]</a> Molten lead reacts with the <a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">chalcogens</a> to give lead(II) chalcogenides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998374-68">[59]</a> Lead metal resists <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a> but not <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>; the outcome depends on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200111–12-69">[60]</a> Organic acids, such as <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998373-65">[56]</a> Concentrated <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkalis</a> dissolve lead and form <a href="/wiki/Plumbite" title="Plumbite">plumbites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolyanskiy198620-70">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inorganic_compounds">Inorganic compounds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Inorganic compounds">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lead_compounds" title="Lead compounds">Lead compounds</a></div> Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2. The <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">tetravalent</a> state is common for the carbon group. The divalent state is rare for <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, minor for germanium, important (but not prevailing) for tin, and is the more important of the two oxidation states for lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998373-65">[56]</a> This is attributable to <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry" title="Relativistic quantum chemistry">relativistic effects</a>, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Inert-pair_effect" title="Inert-pair effect">inert pair effect</a>, which manifests itself when there is a large difference in <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> between lead and <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halide" title="Halide">halide</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Nitride" title="Nitride">nitride</a> anions, leading to a significant partial positive charge on lead. The result is a stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in ionic compounds. The inert pair effect is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p orbitals remain similarly sized and sp3 hybridization is still energetically favorable. Lead, like carbon, is predominantly tetravalent in such compounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaupp20149–10-71">[62]</a> There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33. This difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down the carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in the +4 state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDieterWatson2009509-72">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead(II)">Lead(II)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lead(II)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxid_olovnat%C3%BD.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cream powder" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Oxid_olovnat%C3%BD.JPG/250px-Oxid_olovnat%C3%BD.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Oxid_olovnat%C3%BD.JPG/330px-Oxid_olovnat%C3%BD.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Oxid_olovnat%C3%BD.JPG/500px-Oxid_olovnat%C3%BD.JPG 2x" data-file-width="603" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide" title="Lead(II) oxide">Lead(II) oxide</a></figcaption></figure>Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidizing agents</a> like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_fluoride" title="Lead(II) fluoride">PbF2</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_chloride" title="Lead(II) chloride">PbCl2</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998373-65">[56]</a> Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt2014215-73">[64]</a> and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH)+ and finally [Pb4(OH)4]4+ (in which the <a href="/wiki/Hydroxy_group" title="Hydroxy group">hydroxyl</a> ions act as <a href="/wiki/Bridging_ligand" title="Bridging ligand">bridging ligands</a>),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing199543–63-74">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBunkerCasey201689-75">[66]</a> but are not <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">reducing agents</a> as tin(II) ions are. <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_inorganic_analysis" title="Qualitative inorganic analysis">Techniques</a> for identifying the presence of the Pb2+ ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the precipitation of lead(II) sulfide is instead achieved by bubbling <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> through the solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittenGaileyDavid1996904–905-76">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide" title="Lead(II) oxide">Lead monoxide</a> exists in two <a href="/wiki/Crystal_polymorphism" title="Crystal polymorphism">polymorphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Litharge" title="Litharge">litharge</a> α-PbO (red) and <a href="/wiki/Massicot" title="Massicot">massicot</a> β-PbO (yellow), the latter being stable only above around 488 °C. Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound of lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998384-77">[68]</a> There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998387-78">[69]</a> Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens. <a href="/wiki/Lead_sulfide" title="Lead sulfide">Lead sulfide</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Photoconductivity" title="Photoconductivity">photoconductor</a>, and an extremely sensitive <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">infrared radiation detector</a>. The other two chalcogenides, <a href="/wiki/Lead_selenide" title="Lead selenide">lead selenide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead_telluride" title="Lead telluride">lead telluride</a>, are likewise photoconducting. They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down the group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998389-79">[70]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Alternating dark gray and red balls connected by dark gray-red cylinders" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png/250px-Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png/330px-Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png/500px-Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1096" /></a><figcaption> Lead and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in a tetragonal <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure#Unit_cell" title="Crystal structure">unit cell</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lead(II,IV)_oxide" title="Lead(II,IV) oxide">lead(II,IV) oxide</a></figcaption></figure> Lead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZuckermanHagen1989426-80">[71]</a> and mixed halides, such as PbFCl. The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the <a href="/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis" title="Gravimetric analysis">gravimetric</a> determination of fluorine. The difluoride was the first solid <a href="/wiki/Ionic_conductivity_(solid_state)" title="Ionic conductivity (solid state)">ionically conducting</a> compound to be discovered (in 1834, by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFunke2013-81">[72]</a> The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_iodide" title="Lead(II) iodide">the diiodide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998382-82">[73]</a> Many lead(II) <a href="/wiki/Pseudohalogen" title="Pseudohalogen">pseudohalides</a> are known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_thiocyanate" title="Lead(II) thiocyanate">thiocyanate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998389-79">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhararaAtwood20064-83">[74]</a> Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of halide <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">coordination complexes</a>, such as [PbCl4]2−, [PbCl6]4−, and the [Pb2Cl9]n5n− chain anion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998382-82">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">Lead(II) sulfate</a> is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">cations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_nitrate" title="Lead(II) nitrate">Lead(II) nitrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate" title="Lead(II) acetate">lead(II) acetate</a> are very soluble, and this is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998388-84">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead(IV)">Lead(IV)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lead(IV)">edit</a>]</div> Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known. They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do not normally exist under standard conditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToxicological_Profile_for_Lead2007277-85">[76]</a> Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb3O4. It is described as <a href="/wiki/Lead(II,IV)_oxide" title="Lead(II,IV) oxide">lead(II,IV) oxide</a>, or structurally 2PbO·PbO2, and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound. <a href="/wiki/Lead_dioxide" title="Lead dioxide">Lead dioxide</a> is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDownsAdams20171128-86">[77]</a> This is because the expected PbCl4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl2 and Cl2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrescia2012234-87">[78]</a> Analogously to <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide" title="Lead(II) oxide">lead monoxide</a>, lead dioxide is capable of forming <a href="/wiki/Plumbate" title="Plumbate">plumbate</a> anions. <a href="/wiki/Lead(IV)_sulfide" title="Lead(IV) sulfide">Lead disulfide</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacintyre19923775-88">[79]</a> and lead diselenide<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverman19662067–2069-89">[80]</a> are only stable at high pressures. <a href="/wiki/Lead_tetrafluoride" title="Lead tetrafluoride">Lead tetrafluoride</a>, a yellow crystalline powder, is stable, but less so than the <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_fluoride" title="Lead(II) fluoride">difluoride</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lead(IV)_chloride" title="Lead(IV) chloride">Lead tetrachloride</a> (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998381-90">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_oxidation_states">Other oxidation states</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other oxidation states">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plumbide" title="Plumbide">Plumbide</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Nine dark gray spheres connected by cylinders of the same color forming a convex shape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png/250px-Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png/330px-Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png/500px-Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1035" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gyroelongated_square_pyramid" title="Gyroelongated square pyramid">capped square antiprismatic</a> anion [Pb9]4− from [K(18-crown-6)]2K2Pb9·(en)1.5<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYongHoffmannFässler20064774–4778-91">[82]</a></figcaption></figure> Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radicals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerFörsterFranzenHartrath20089965–9978-92">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMosseriHengleinJanata19902722–2726-93">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKonuChivers2011391–392-94">[85]</a> The same applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHadlington201759-95">[86]</a> Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. When PbO2 is heated in air, it becomes Pb12O19 at 293 °C, Pb12O17 at 351 °C, Pb3O4 at 374 °C, and finally PbO at 605 °C. A further <a href="/wiki/Sesquioxide" title="Sesquioxide">sesquioxide</a>, Pb2O3, can be obtained at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases. Many of them show defective <a href="/wiki/Fluorite" title="Fluorite">fluorite</a> structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such a structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998384–386-96">[87]</a> Negative oxidation states can occur as <a href="/wiki/Zintl_phase" title="Zintl phase">Zintl phases</a>, as either free lead anions, as in Ba2Pb, with lead formally being lead(−IV),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERöhr2017-97">[88]</a> or in oxygen-sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the <a href="/wiki/Trigonal_bipyramidal_molecular_geometry" title="Trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry">trigonal bipyramidal</a> Pb52− ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are lead(0).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlsfasser2007261–263-98">[89]</a> In such anions, each atom is at a polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp3 hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone pair</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing199543–63-74">[65]</a> They may be made in <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">liquid ammonia</a> via the reduction of lead by <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998393-99">[90]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organolead">Organolead</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Organolead">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organolead_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organolead compound">Organolead compound</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A gray-green sphere linked to four black spheres, each, in turn, linked also to three white ones" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png/170px-Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png/255px-Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png/340px-Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1970" /></a><figcaption>Structure of a <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">tetraethyllead</a> molecule: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style>  <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" />  <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" />  Lead</figcaption></figure> Lead can form <a href="/wiki/Catenation" title="Catenation">multiply-bonded chains</a>, a property it shares with its lighter <a href="/wiki/Homologous_series" title="Homologous series">homologs</a> in the carbon group. Its capacity to do so is much less because the Pb–Pb <a href="/wiki/Bond_energy" title="Bond energy">bond energy</a> is over three and a half times lower than that of the <a href="/wiki/C%E2%80%93C_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="C–C bond">C–C bond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998374-68">[59]</a> With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up to three.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStabenowSaakWeidenbruch2003-100">[91]</a> With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable than, typical organic compounds<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolyanskiy198643-101">[92]</a> (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing199543–63-74">[65]</a> This makes the <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic chemistry</a> of lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998404-102">[93]</a> Lead predominantly forms organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known. The most well-characterized exceptions are Pb[CH(SiMe3)2]2 and <a href="/wiki/Plumbocene" title="Plumbocene">plumbocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998404-102">[93]</a> The lead analog of the simplest <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Plumbane" title="Plumbane">plumbane</a>. Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWibergWibergHolleman2001918-103">[94]</a> Two simple derivatives, <a href="/wiki/Tetramethyllead" title="Tetramethyllead">tetramethyllead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">tetraethyllead</a>, are the best-known <a href="/wiki/Organolead_chemistry" title="Organolead chemistry">organolead</a> compounds. These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only starts to decompose if heated<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToxicological_Profile_for_Lead2007287-104">[95]</a> or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolyanskiy198644-105">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[j]</a> With sodium metal, lead readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with <a href="/wiki/Haloalkane" title="Haloalkane">alkyl halides</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic</a> compounds such as tetraethyllead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWindholz1976-107">[97]</a> The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds is usefully exploited: <a href="/wiki/Lead(IV)_acetate" title="Lead(IV) acetate">lead tetraacetate</a> is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZýka1966569-108">[98]</a> Tetraethyllead, once added to automotive gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998404-102">[93]</a> and is still widely used in <a href="/wiki/Avgas" title="Avgas">fuel for small aircraft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[99]</a> Other organolead compounds are less chemically stable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolyanskiy198643-101">[92]</a> For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWibergWibergHolleman2001918-103">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_occurrence">Origin and occurrence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Origin and occurrence">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-right:15px; margin-down:0; font-size:10pt; line-height:11pt;"> <caption style="margin-bottom: 5px;">Solar System abundances<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodders20031222–1223-110">[100]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:center;">Atomic number </th> <th style="width:45%;">Element </th> <th style="padding-right: 5px; padding-left: 10px;">Relative amount </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">42 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a> </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">0.798 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">46 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a> </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">0.440 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">50 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">1.146 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">78 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">0.417 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">80 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a> </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">0.127 </td></tr> <tr style="background:#ff9;"> <td style="text-align:center;">82 </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Lead </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">90 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a> </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">0.011 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">92 </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> </td> <td style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;">0.003 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_space">In space</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: In space">edit</a>]</div> Lead's per-particle abundance in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> is 0.121 <a href="/wiki/Parts-per_notation" title="Parts-per notation">ppb</a> (parts per billion).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodders20031222–1223-110">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[k]</a> This figure is two and a half times higher than that of <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>, eight times more than <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, and seventeen times more than <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodders20031222–1223-110">[100]</a> The amount of lead in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> is slowly increasing<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoedererKratzFrebelChristlieb20091963–1980-112">[101]</a> as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELochnerRohrbachCochrane200512-113">[102]</a> The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodders20031224-114">[103]</a> The Solar System abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number, is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodders20031222–1223-110">[100]</a> Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars. The two main modes of capture are the <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-</a> and <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-processes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957608–615-115">[104]</a> In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957551-116">[105]</a> A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture a neutron and become thallium-204; this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205, which has a half-life of around 17 million years. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208. On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209. On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206. The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and bismuth-209.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957608–609-117">[106]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Uppermost part of the nuclide chart, with only practically stable isotopes and lead-205 shown, and the path of the s-process overlaid on it as well that of the cycle on lead, bismuth, and polonium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg/250px-S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg/375px-S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg/500px-S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Chart of the final part of the <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> to <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a>. Red lines and circles represent <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron captures</a>; blue arrows represent <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decays</a>; the green arrow represents an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a>; cyan arrows represent <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron captures</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957553-118">[107]</a> This occurs in environments with a high neutron density, such as a <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> or the merger of two <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>. The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 1022 neutrons per square centimeter per second.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrebel2015114–115-119">[108]</a> The r-process does not form as much lead as the s-process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957608–610-120">[109]</a> It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957595-121">[110]</a> At this point, the neutrons are arranged in complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to energetically accommodate more of them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957596-122">[111]</a> When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">osmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">iridium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957582,_609–615-123">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_Earth">On Earth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: On Earth">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lingot_de_plomb_de_l%27%C3%A9poque_romaine._Mines_de_Cartag%C3%A8ne_Espagne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lingot_de_plomb_de_l%27%C3%A9poque_romaine._Mines_de_Cartag%C3%A8ne_Espagne.jpg/250px-Lingot_de_plomb_de_l%27%C3%A9poque_romaine._Mines_de_Cartag%C3%A8ne_Espagne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lingot_de_plomb_de_l%27%C3%A9poque_romaine._Mines_de_Cartag%C3%A8ne_Espagne.jpg/330px-Lingot_de_plomb_de_l%27%C3%A9poque_romaine._Mines_de_Cartag%C3%A8ne_Espagne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Lingot_de_plomb_de_l%27%C3%A9poque_romaine._Mines_de_Cartag%C3%A8ne_Espagne.jpg/500px-Lingot_de_plomb_de_l%27%C3%A9poque_romaine._Mines_de_Cartag%C3%A8ne_Espagne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1101" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption>Lead ingot from Roman times, Cartagena, Spain</figcaption></figure> Lead is classified as a <a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification#Chalcophile_elements" title="Goldschmidt classification">chalcophile</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">Goldschmidt classification</a>, meaning it is generally found combined with sulfur.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangmuirBroecker2012183–184-124">[113]</a> It rarely occurs in its <a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">native</a>, metallic form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner20144–5-125">[114]</a> Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over the course of the Earth's history, have remained in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">crust</a> instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's interior. This accounts for lead's relatively high <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">crustal abundance</a> of 14 ppm; it is the 36th most <a href="/wiki/Abundances_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Abundances of the elements (data page)">abundant</a> element in the crust.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmsley2011286,_passim-126">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[l]</a> The main lead-bearing mineral is <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a> (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner20144-129">[117]</a> Most other lead minerals are related to galena in some way; <a href="/wiki/Boulangerite" title="Boulangerite">boulangerite</a>, Pb5Sb4S11, is a mixed sulfide derived from galena; <a href="/wiki/Anglesite" title="Anglesite">anglesite</a>, PbSO4, is a product of galena oxidation; and <a href="/wiki/Cerussite" title="Cerussite">cerussite</a> or white lead ore, PbCO3, is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_decomposition" title="Chemical decomposition">decomposition</a> product of galena. <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a> are common impurities in lead minerals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner20144-129">[117]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elemental_abundances.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A line chart generally declining towards its right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Elemental_abundances.svg/250px-Elemental_abundances.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Elemental_abundances.svg/500px-Elemental_abundances.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Lead is a fairly common element in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a> for its high atomic number (82). Most elements of atomic number greater than 40 are less abundant.</figcaption></figure> World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, United States. Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88 million tons in 2016, of which <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> had 35 million, China 17 million, Russia 6.4 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey201797-130">[118]</a> Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0.1 μg/m3 in the atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 4 mg/kg in vegetation, 5 μg/L in fresh water and seawater.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERieuwerts2015225-131">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The modern English word lead is of Germanic origin; it comes from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> leed and <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> lēad (with the <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macron</a> above the "e" signifying that the vowel sound of that letter is long).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMerriam-Webster-132">[120]</a> The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> *lauda- ('lead').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonen2013*lauda--133">[121]</a> According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic languages of exactly the same meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonen2013*lauda--133">[121]</a> There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic *lauda-. One hypothesis suggests it is derived from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> *lAudh- ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENikolayev2012-134">[122]</a> Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> *ɸloud-io- ('lead'). This word is related to the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> plumbum, which gave the element its <a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">chemical symbol</a> Pb. The word *ɸloud-io- is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic *bliwa- (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German Blei.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonen2013*bliwa-_2-135">[123]</a> The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic *laidijan- ('to lead').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroonen2013*laidijan--136">[124]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory_and_early_history">Prehistory and early history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Prehistory and early history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_production_graph.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A line chart generally growing to its right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Lead_production_graph.svg/250px-Lead_production_graph.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Lead_production_graph.svg/500px-Lead_production_graph.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="821" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>World lead production peaking in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> period and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHongCandelonePattersonBoutron19941841–1843-137">[125]</a></figcaption></figure>Metallic lead beads <a href="/wiki/Metals_of_antiquity" title="Metals of antiquity">dating back to 7000–6500 BC</a> have been found in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> and may represent the first example of metal <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich19944-138">[126]</a> At that time, lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich19944-138">[126]</a> The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinder1993b-139">[127]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptians</a> were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and beyond;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHistory_of_Cosmetics-140">[128]</a> the Egyptians had used lead for sinkers in <a href="/wiki/Fishing_net" title="Fishing net">fishing nets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compacted_oxide_layer_glaze" title="Compacted oxide layer glaze">glazes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glasses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">enamels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ornament_(art)" title="Ornament (art)">ornaments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinder1993b-139">[127]</a> Various civilizations of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> used lead as a <a href="/wiki/Writing_material" title="Writing material">writing material</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapurukha_Kusimba2017-141">[129]</a> and as a <a href="/wiki/List_of_building_materials" title="List of building materials">construction material</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinder1993b-139">[127]</a> Lead was used by the ancient Chinese as a <a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">stimulant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinder1993b-139">[127]</a> as <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuYu200426-142">[130]</a> as <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraceptive</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToronto_museum_explores2003-143">[131]</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Chopsticks" title="Chopsticks">chopsticks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeiburger2018-144">[132]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley civilization</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamericans</a> used it for making <a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">amulets</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinder1993b-139">[127]</a> and the eastern and southern Africans used lead in <a href="/wiki/Wire_drawing" title="Wire drawing">wire drawing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBissonVogel2000105-145">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_era">Classical era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Classical era">edit</a>]</div> Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000 BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lavrio" title="Lavrio">Laurion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodHsuBell2021-146">[134]</a> These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich19945-147">[135]</a> Beginning c. 2000 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> worked deposits in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a>; by 1600 BC, lead mining existed in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey1973-148">[136]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sling_bullets_BM_GR1842.7-28.550_GR1851.5-7.11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sling_bullets_BM_GR1842.7-28.550_GR1851.5-7.11.jpg/220px-Sling_bullets_BM_GR1842.7-28.550_GR1851.5-7.11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sling_bullets_BM_GR1842.7-28.550_GR1851.5-7.11.jpg/330px-Sling_bullets_BM_GR1842.7-28.550_GR1851.5-7.11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sling_bullets_BM_GR1842.7-28.550_GR1851.5-7.11.jpg/440px-Sling_bullets_BM_GR1842.7-28.550_GR1851.5-7.11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1850" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Ancient Greek lead sling bullets with a winged thunderbolt molded on one side and the inscription ΔΕΞΑΙ ("take that") on the other side<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELead_sling_bullet-149">[137]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome's</a> territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical era</a>, with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors, the Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHongCandelonePattersonBoutron19941841–1843-137">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Callataÿ2005361–372-150">[138]</a> Lead mining occurred in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">central Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a>, the latter accounting for 40% of world production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHongCandelonePattersonBoutron19941841–1843-137">[125]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bleiplatte_von_Magliano_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A vaguely round plate illuminated from a side to increase the contrast. The characters curl around the contour." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Bleiplatte_von_Magliano_B.jpg/220px-Bleiplatte_von_Magliano_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Bleiplatte_von_Magliano_B.jpg/330px-Bleiplatte_von_Magliano_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Bleiplatte_von_Magliano_B.jpg/440px-Bleiplatte_von_Magliano_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Lead_Plaque_of_Magliano" title="Lead Plaque of Magliano">Lead Plaque of Magliano</a>, Italy, bears an Etruscan inscription from mid-5th century BC.</figcaption></figure> Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECeccarelli201335-151">[139]</a> Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOssuaries_and_Sarcophagi-152">[140]</a> Lead was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The <a href="/wiki/Balearic_slinger" title="Balearic slinger">Balearic slingers</a>, used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalvo_Rebollar201945-153">[141]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grosvenor_Museums_-_Wasserr%C3%B6hren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ancient pipes in a museum case" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Grosvenor_Museums_-_Wasserr%C3%B6hren.jpg/220px-Grosvenor_Museums_-_Wasserr%C3%B6hren.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Grosvenor_Museums_-_Wasserr%C3%B6hren.jpg/330px-Grosvenor_Museums_-_Wasserr%C3%B6hren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Grosvenor_Museums_-_Wasserr%C3%B6hren.jpg/440px-Grosvenor_Museums_-_Wasserr%C3%B6hren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Roman lead pipes<a href="#cite_note-154">[m]</a></figcaption></figure> Lead was used for making water pipes in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word for the metal, plumbum, is the origin of the English word "<a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">plumbing</a>". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich19946-155">[142]</a> ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush2001179–184-156">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBiselBisel2002459–460-157">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERetiefCilliers2006149–151-158">[145]</a> Writers of the time, such as <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for the preparation of <a href="/wiki/Grape_syrup" title="Grape syrup">sweeteners and preservatives</a> added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" (<a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate" title="Lead(II) acetate">lead(II) acetate</a>), whereas <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> vessels imparted a bitter flavor through <a href="/wiki/Verdigris" title="Verdigris">verdigris</a> formation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrout2017-159">[146]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ; color: #202122;background-color: Cornsilk;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic is to us. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">Heinz Eschnauer and Markus Stoeppler "Wine—An enological specimen bank", 1992<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEschnauerStoeppler199258-160">[147]</a></cite></div> </div> The Roman author <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> reported the <a href="/wiki/Roman_lead_poisoning_theory" title="Roman lead poisoning theory">health dangers of lead</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge1981486–491-161">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[149]</a> and modern writers have suggested that lead poisoning played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilfillan196553–60-163">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENriagu1983660–663-164">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[n]</a> Other researchers have criticized such claims, pointing out, for instance, that not all <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pain" title="Abdominal pain">abdominal pain</a> is caused by lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScarborough1984-167">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1985107–108-168">[154]</a> According to archaeological research, Roman <a href="/wiki/Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)" title="Pipe (fluid conveyance)">lead pipes</a> increased lead levels in tap water but such an effect was "unlikely to have been truly harmful".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReddyBraun20101052-169">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelileBlichert-ToftGoiranKeay20146594–6599-170">[156]</a> When lead poisoning did occur, victims were called "saturnine", dark and cynical, after the ghoulish father of the gods, <a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a>. By association, lead was considered the father of all metals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinger2006184-171">[157]</a> Its status in Roman society was low as it was readily available<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis198515-172">[158]</a> and cheap.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush2001183-173">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confusion_with_tin_and_antimony">Confusion with tin and antimony</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Confusion with tin and antimony">edit</a>]</div> Since the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, metallurgists and engineers have understood the difference between rare and valuable <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, essential for alloying with copper to produce tough and corrosion resistant <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, and 'cheap and cheerful' lead. However, the nomenclature in some languages is similar. Romans called lead plumbum nigrum ("black lead"), and tin plumbum candidum ("bright lead"). The association of lead and tin can be seen in other languages: the word olovo in <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a> translates to "lead", but in Russian, its <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> олово (olovo) means "tin".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolyanskiy19868-174">[160]</a> To add to the confusion, lead bore a close relation to antimony: both elements commonly occur as sulfides (galena and <a href="/wiki/Stibnite" title="Stibnite">stibnite</a>), often together. Pliny incorrectly wrote that stibnite would give lead on heating, instead of antimony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson183074-175">[161]</a> In countries such as Turkey and India, the originally Persian name surma came to refer to either antimony sulfide or lead sulfide,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxford_English_Dictionarysurma-176">[162]</a> and in some languages, such as Russian, gave its name to antimony (сурьма).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVasmer1986–1987сурьма-177">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages_and_the_Renaissance">Middle Ages and the Renaissance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Middle Ages and the Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicholas_Hilliard_(called)_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A white-faced woman in red clothes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Nicholas_Hilliard_%28called%29_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/170px-Nicholas_Hilliard_%28called%29_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Nicholas_Hilliard_%28called%29_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/255px-Nicholas_Hilliard_%28called%29_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Nicholas_Hilliard_%28called%29_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/340px-Nicholas_Hilliard_%28called%29_-_Portrait_of_Queen_Elizabeth_I_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3407" data-file-height="4427" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I of England</a> was commonly depicted with a whitened face. Lead in face whiteners is thought to have contributed to her death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKellett2012106–107-178">[164]</a></figcaption></figure> Lead mining in Western Europe declined after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Arabian Iberia</a> being the only region having a significant output.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinder1993a-179">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich19947-180">[166]</a> The largest production of lead occurred in South Asia and East Asia, especially China and India, where lead mining grew rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich19947-180">[166]</a> In Europe, lead production began to increase in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was again used for roofing and piping. Starting in the 13th century, lead was used to create <a href="/wiki/Medieval_stained_glass" title="Medieval stained glass">stained glass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich19948-181">[167]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Alchemy#Medieval_Europe" title="Alchemy">European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world">Arabian</a> traditions of <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>, lead (symbol ♄ in the European tradition)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdeCormack201654-182">[168]</a> was considered an impure <a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">base metal</a> which, by the separation, purification and balancing of its constituent essences, could be transformed to pure and incorruptible gold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotnoir200635-183">[169]</a> During the period, lead was used increasingly for <a href="/wiki/Adulterant" title="Adulterant">adulterating</a> wine. The use of such wine was forbidden for use in Christian rites by a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> in 1498, but it continued to be imbibed and resulted in mass poisonings up to the late 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinder1993a-179">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamson1885388-184">[170]</a> Lead was a key material in parts of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, and lead dust was commonly inhaled by print workers, causing lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinhaShellySharmaMeenakshi1993-185">[171]</a> Lead also became the chief material for making bullets for firearms: it was cheap, less damaging to iron gun barrels, had a higher density (which allowed for better retention of velocity), and its lower melting point made the production of bullets easier as they could be made using a wood fire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamage19808-186">[172]</a> Lead, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Venetian_ceruse" title="Venetian ceruse">Venetian ceruse</a>, was extensively used in cosmetics by Western European aristocracy as whitened faces were regarded as a sign of modesty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETungate201114-187">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonnelly2014171–172-188">[174]</a> This practice later expanded to white wigs and eyeliners, and only faded out with the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in the late 18th century. A similar fashion appeared in Japan in the 18th century with the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Geisha" title="Geisha">geishas</a>, a practice that continued long into the 20th century. The white faces of women "came to represent their feminine virtue as Japanese women",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshikari200365-189">[175]</a> with lead commonly used in the whitener.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENakashimaHayashiTashiroMatsushita199859-190">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outside_Europe_and_Asia">Outside Europe and Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Outside Europe and Asia">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, lead production was recorded soon after the arrival of European settlers. The earliest record dates to 1621 in the English <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Colony of Virginia</a>, fourteen years after its foundation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabinowitz199566-191">[177]</a> In Australia, the first mine opened by colonists on the continent was a lead mine, in 1841.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillLibraries_Board_of_South_Australia197469-192">[178]</a> In Africa, lead mining and smelting were known in the <a href="/wiki/Benue_Trough" title="Benue Trough">Benue Trough</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBissonVogel200085-193">[179]</a> and the lower <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a>, where lead was used for trade with Europeans, and as a currency by the 17th century,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBissonVogel2000131–132-194">[180]</a> well before the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">scramble for Africa</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black-and-white drawing of men working in a mine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg/250px-Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg/330px-Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg/500px-Lead_mining_Barber_1865p321cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="938" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Lead mining in the upper <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> region in the United States in 1865</figcaption></figure> In the second half of the 18th century, Britain, and later continental Europe and the United States, experienced the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. This was the first time during which lead production rates exceeded those of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHongCandelonePattersonBoutron19941841–43-195">[181]</a> Britain was the leading producer, losing this status by the mid-19th century with the depletion of its mines and the development of lead mining in Germany, Spain, and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELead_mining-196">[182]</a> By 1900, the United States was the leader in global lead production, and other non-European nations—Canada, Mexico, and Australia—had begun significant production; production outside Europe exceeded that within.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich199411-197">[183]</a> A great share of the demand for lead came from plumbing and painting—<a href="/wiki/Lead_paint" title="Lead paint">lead paints</a> were in regular use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERivaLafranconid'OrsoCesana201211–16-198">[184]</a> At this time, more (working class) people were exposed to the metal and lead poisoning cases escalated. This led to research into the effects of lead intake. Lead was proven to be more dangerous in its fume form than as a solid metal. Lead poisoning and <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a> were linked; British physician <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Baring_Garrod" title="Alfred Baring Garrod">Alfred Baring Garrod</a> noted a third of his gout patients were plumbers and painters. The effects of chronic ingestion of lead, including mental disorders, were also studied in the 19th century. The first laws aimed at decreasing lead poisoning in factories were enacted during the 1870s and 1880s in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERivaLafranconid'OrsoCesana201211–16-198">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Modern era">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A promotional poster for "COLLIER White Lead" (these words are highlighted) featuring a large image of a boy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png/250px-Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png/330px-Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png/340px-Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png 2x" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption>Promotional poster for <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Boy_Paint" title="Dutch Boy Paint">Dutch Boy</a> lead paint, United States, 1912</figcaption></figure>Further evidence of the threat that lead posed to humans was discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mechanisms of harm were better understood, lead blindness was documented, and the element was phased out of public use in the United States and Europe. The United Kingdom introduced mandatory factory inspections in 1878 and appointed the first Medical Inspector of Factories in 1898; as a result, a 25-fold decrease in lead poisoning incidents from 1900 to 1944 was reported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHernberg2000246-199">[185]</a> Most European countries banned lead paint—commonly used because of its opacity and water resistance<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrow2007-200">[186]</a>—for interiors by 1930.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkowitzRosner200037-201">[187]</a> The last major human exposure to lead was the addition of <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">tetraethyllead</a> to gasoline as an <a href="/wiki/Antiknock_agent" title="Antiknock agent">antiknock agent</a>, a practice that originated in the United States in 1921. It was phased out in the United States and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> by 2000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERivaLafranconid'OrsoCesana201211–16-198">[184]</a> In the 1970s, the United States and Western European countries introduced legislation to reduce lead air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoreSpauldingBohleberHandley2017-202">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmerican_Geophysical_Union2017-203">[189]</a> The impact was significant: while a study conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> in the United States in 1976–1980 showed that 77.8% of the population had elevated <a href="/wiki/Blood_lead_level" title="Blood lead level">blood lead levels</a>, in 1991–1994, a study by the same institute showed the share of people with such high levels dropped to 2.2%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECenters_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention1997-204">[190]</a> The main product made of lead by the end of the 20th century was the <a href="/wiki/Lead-acid_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead-acid battery">lead–acid battery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich1994117-205">[191]</a> From 1960 to 1990, lead output in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> grew by about 31%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich199417-206">[192]</a> The share of the world's lead production by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> increased from 10% to 30%, from 1950 to 1990, with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> being the world's largest producer during the mid-1970s and the 1980s, and China starting major lead production in the late 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich199491–92-207">[193]</a> Unlike the European communist countries, China was largely unindustrialized by the mid-20th century; in 2004, China surpassed Australia as the largest producer of lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey2005-208">[194]</a> As was the case during European industrialization, lead has had a negative effect on health in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangYangLiLi20122261–2273-209">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_production_plomb.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A line chart of many lines, some longer than other, most generally growing towards its right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Evolution_production_plomb.svg/250px-Evolution_production_plomb.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Evolution_production_plomb.svg/330px-Evolution_production_plomb.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Evolution_production_plomb.svg/500px-Evolution_production_plomb.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1493" data-file-height="1117" /></a><figcaption>Primary production of lead since 1840</figcaption></figure> As of 2014, production of lead is increasing worldwide due to its use in lead–acid batteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolliday2014-210">[196]</a> There are two major categories of production: primary from mined ores, and secondary from scrap. In 2014, 4.58 million metric tons came from primary production and 5.64 million from secondary production. The top three producers of mined lead concentrate in that year were China, Australia, and United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey201797-130">[118]</a> The top three producers of refined lead were China, United States, and India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuberman201642.14–15-211">[197]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Metal_Stocks_in_Society_report" title="Metal Stocks in Society report">Metal Stocks in Society report</a> of 2010, the total amount of lead in use, stockpiled, discarded, or dissipated into the environment, on a global basis, is 8 kg per capita. Much of this is in more developed countries (20–150 kg per capita) rather than less developed ones (1–4 kg per capita).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraedel2010-212">[198]</a> The primary and secondary lead production processes are similar. Some primary production plants now supplement their operations with scrap lead, and this trend is likely to increase in the future. Given adequate techniques, lead obtained via secondary processes is indistinguishable from lead obtained via primary processes. Scrap lead from the building trade is usually fairly clean and is re-melted without the need for smelting, though refining is sometimes needed. Secondary lead production is therefore cheaper, in terms of energy requirements, than is primary production, often by 50% or more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200156-213">[199]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Primary">edit</a>]</div> Most lead ores contain a low percentage of lead (rich ores have a typical content of 3–8%) which must be concentrated for extraction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner20146-214">[200]</a> During initial processing, ores typically undergo crushing, dense-medium separation, <a href="/wiki/Grinding_(abrasive_cutting)" title="Grinding (abrasive cutting)">grinding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">froth flotation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drying" title="Drying">drying</a>. The resulting concentrate, which has a lead content of 30–80% by mass (regularly 50–60%),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner20146-214">[200]</a> is then turned into (impure) lead metal. There are two main ways of doing this: a two-stage process involving roasting followed by blast furnace extraction, carried out in separate vessels; or a direct process in which the extraction of the concentrate occurs in a single vessel. The latter has become the most common route, though the former is still significant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201417-215">[201]</a> <div style="float: right; margin: 2px; font-size:85%; margin-left:18px; margin-bottom:18px"> <table class="wikitable sortable collapsible"> <caption>World's largest mining countries of lead, 2016<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey201797-130">[118]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th data-sort-type="number">Output (thousand tons) </th></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> China</td> <td align="right">2,400 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /> Australia</td> <td align="right">500 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /> United States</td> <td align="right">335 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/40px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/60px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Peru</td> <td align="right">310 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/40px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/60px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /> Mexico</td> <td align="right">250 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/60px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> Russia</td> <td align="right">225 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> India</td> <td align="right">135 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg/60px-Flag_of_Bolivia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="750" /> Bolivia</td> <td align="right">80 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/40px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/60px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /> Sweden</td> <td align="right">76 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> Turkey</td> <td align="right">75 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /> Iran</td> <td align="right">41 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/60px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> Kazakhstan</td> <td align="right">41 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /> Poland</td> <td align="right">40 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/40px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/60px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> South Africa</td> <td align="right">40 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/40px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg/60px-Flag_of_North_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="800" /> North Korea</td> <td align="right">35 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/60px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> Ireland</td> <td align="right">33 </td></tr> <tr> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/40px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/60px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> Macedonia</td> <td align="right">33 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other countries</td> <td align="right">170 </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Two-stage_process">Two-stage process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Two-stage process">edit</a>]</div> First, the sulfide concentrate is <a href="/wiki/Roasting_(metallurgy)" title="Roasting (metallurgy)">roasted</a> in air to oxidize the lead sulfide:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200151-216">[202]</a> <dl><dd>2 PbS(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 PbO(s) + 2 SO2(g)↑</dd></dl> As the original concentrate was not pure lead sulfide, roasting yields not only the desired lead(II) oxide, but a mixture of oxides, sulfates, and silicates of lead and of the other metals contained in the ore.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201411–12-217">[203]</a> This impure lead oxide is reduced in a <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>-fired blast furnace to the (again, impure) metal:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200151–52-218">[204]</a> <dl><dd>2 PbO(s) + C(s) → 2 Pb(s) + CO2(g)↑</dd></dl> Impurities are mostly arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold. Typically they are removed in a series of <a href="/wiki/Pyrometallurgy" title="Pyrometallurgy">pyrometallurgical processes</a>. The melt is treated in a <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnace</a> with air, steam, sulfur, which oxidizes the impurities except for silver, gold, bismuth. Oxidized contaminants float to the <a href="/wiki/Dross" title="Dross">top of the melt</a> and are skimmed off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201425-219">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimary_Lead_Refining-220">[206]</a> Metallic silver and gold are removed and recovered economically by means of the <a href="/wiki/Parkes_process" title="Parkes process">Parkes process</a>, in which zinc is added to lead. Zinc, which is immiscible in lead, dissolves the silver and gold. The zinc solution can be separated from the lead, and the silver and gold retrieved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimary_Lead_Refining-220">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1947-221">[207]</a> De-silvered lead is freed of bismuth by the <a href="/wiki/Betterton%E2%80%93Kroll_process" title="Betterton–Kroll process">Betterton–Kroll process</a>, treating it with metallic <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>. The resulting bismuth dross can be skimmed off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimary_Lead_Refining-220">[206]</a> Alternatively to the pyrometallurgical processes, very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically using the <a href="/wiki/Betts_electrolytic_process" title="Betts electrolytic process">Betts process</a>. Anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead are placed in an electrolyte of lead <a href="/wiki/Hexafluorosilicic_acid" title="Hexafluorosilicic acid">fluorosilicate</a> (PbSiF6). Once electrical potential is applied, impure lead at the anode dissolves and plates onto the cathode, leaving the majority of the impurities in solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrimary_Lead_Refining-220">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201434-222">[208]</a> This is a high-cost process and thus mostly reserved for refining bullion containing high percentages of impurities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201423-223">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Direct_process">Direct process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Direct process">edit</a>]</div> In this process, lead bullion and <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> is obtained directly from lead concentrates. The lead sulfide concentrate is melted in a furnace and oxidized, forming lead monoxide. Carbon (as coke or <a href="/wiki/Coal_gas" title="Coal gas">coal gas</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[o]</a>) is added to the molten charge along with <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">fluxing agents</a>. The lead monoxide is thereby reduced to metallic lead, in the midst of a slag rich in lead monoxide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201417-215">[201]</a> If the input is rich in lead, as much as 80% of the original lead can be obtained as bullion; the remaining 20% forms a slag rich in lead monoxide. For a low-grade feed, all of the lead can be oxidized to a high-lead slag.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201417-215">[201]</a> Metallic lead is further obtained from the high-lead (25–40%) slags via submerged fuel combustion or injection, reduction assisted by an electric furnace, or a combination of both.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner201417-215">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Alternatives">edit</a>]</div> Research on a cleaner, less energy-intensive lead extraction process continues; a major drawback is that either too much lead is lost as waste, or the alternatives result in a high sulfur content in the resulting lead metal. <a href="/wiki/Hydrometallurgy" title="Hydrometallurgy">Hydrometallurgical</a> extraction, in which <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anodes</a> of impure lead are immersed into an <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> and pure lead is deposited (<a href="/wiki/Electrowinning" title="Electrowinning">electrowound</a>) onto <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathodes</a>, is a technique that may have potential, but is not currently economical except in cases where electricity is very cheap.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200152–53-225">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary">Secondary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Secondary">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling#Lead–acid_batteries" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling § Lead–acid batteries</a></div> Smelting, which is an essential part of the primary production, is often skipped during secondary production. It is only performed when metallic lead has undergone significant oxidation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200156-213">[199]</a> The process is similar to that of primary production in either a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Rotary_kiln" title="Rotary kiln">rotary furnace</a>, with the essential difference being the greater variability of yields: blast furnaces produce hard lead (10% antimony) while reverberatory and rotary kiln furnaces produce semisoft lead (3–4% antimony).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency20101-226">[211]</a> The <a href="/wiki/ISASMELT" title="ISASMELT">ISASMELT</a> process is a more recent smelting method that may act as an extension to primary production; battery paste from spent lead–acid batteries (containing lead sulfate and lead oxides) has its sulfate removed by treating it with alkali, and is then treated in a coal-fueled furnace in the presence of oxygen, which yields impure lead, with antimony the most common impurity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200157-227">[212]</a> Refining of secondary lead is similar to that of primary lead; some refining processes may be skipped depending on the material recycled and its potential contamination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200157-227">[212]</a> Of the sources of lead for recycling, lead–acid batteries are the most important; lead pipe, sheet, and cable sheathing are also significant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200156-213">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_shielding.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A closed structure of black bricks" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Lead_shielding.jpg/220px-Lead_shielding.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Lead_shielding.jpg/330px-Lead_shielding.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Lead_shielding.jpg/440px-Lead_shielding.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Bricks of lead (alloyed with 4% antimony) are used as radiation shielding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreetAlexander1998181-228">[213]</a></figcaption></figure> Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> used was named <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">plumbago</a> (literally, lead mockup).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans1908133–179-229">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elemental_form">Elemental form</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Elemental form">edit</a>]</div> Lead metal has several useful mechanical properties, including high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness. Many metals are superior to lead in some of these aspects but are generally less common and more difficult to extract from parent ores. Lead's toxicity has led to its phasing out for some uses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBairdCann2012537–538,_543–547-230">[215]</a> Lead has been used for bullets since their invention in the Middle Ages. It is inexpensive; its low melting point means small arms ammunition and shotgun pellets can be cast with minimal technical equipment; and it is denser than other common metals, which allows for better retention of velocity. It remains the main material for bullets, alloyed with other metals as hardeners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERamage19808-186">[172]</a> Concerns have been raised that lead bullets used for hunting can damage the environment.<a href="#cite_note-232">[p]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">Shotgun</a> <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_cartridge" title="Shotgun cartridge">cartridges</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Waterfowl_hunting" title="Waterfowl hunting">waterfowl hunting</a> must today be lead-free in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>,<a href="#cite_note-233">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>,<a href="#cite_note-234">[218]</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-235">[219]</a> Lead's high density and resistance to corrosion have been exploited in a number of related applications. It is used as <a href="/wiki/Ballast" title="Ballast">ballast</a> in sailboat keels; its density allows it to take up a small volume and minimize water resistance, thus counterbalancing the heeling effect of wind on the sails.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2005194–195-236">[220]</a> It is used in <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">scuba diving</a> <a href="/wiki/Diving_weighting_system" title="Diving weighting system">weight belts</a> to counteract the diver's buoyancy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrestovnikoffHalls200670-237">[221]</a> In 1993, the base of the <a href="/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa" title="Leaning Tower of Pisa">Leaning Tower of Pisa</a> was stabilized with 600 tonnes of lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreetAlexander1998182-238">[222]</a> Because of its corrosion resistance, lead is used as a protective sheath for underwater cables.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJensen2013136-239">[223]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parc_de_Versailles,_Bassin_de_Flore,_Jean-Baptiste_Tuby_(1672-79)_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Yellow sculpture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Parc_de_Versailles%2C_Bassin_de_Flore%2C_Jean-Baptiste_Tuby_%281672-79%29_07.jpg/250px-Parc_de_Versailles%2C_Bassin_de_Flore%2C_Jean-Baptiste_Tuby_%281672-79%29_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Parc_de_Versailles%2C_Bassin_de_Flore%2C_Jean-Baptiste_Tuby_%281672-79%29_07.jpg/330px-Parc_de_Versailles%2C_Bassin_de_Flore%2C_Jean-Baptiste_Tuby_%281672-79%29_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Parc_de_Versailles%2C_Bassin_de_Flore%2C_Jean-Baptiste_Tuby_%281672-79%29_07.jpg/500px-Parc_de_Versailles%2C_Bassin_de_Flore%2C_Jean-Baptiste_Tuby_%281672-79%29_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A 17th-century gold-coated lead sculpture</figcaption></figure> Lead has many uses in the construction industry; lead sheets are used as <a href="/wiki/Architectural_metals" title="Architectural metals">architectural metals</a> in <a href="/wiki/Domestic_roof_construction" title="Domestic roof construction">roofing material</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(construction)" title="Cladding (construction)">cladding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flashing_(weatherproofing)" title="Flashing (weatherproofing)">flashing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rain_gutter" title="Rain gutter">gutters</a> and gutter joints, roof parapets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThink_Lead_research-240">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeatherings_to_Parapets-241">[225]</a> Lead is still used in statues and sculptures,<a href="#cite_note-243">[q]</a> including for <a href="/wiki/Armature_(sculpture)" title="Armature (sculpture)">armatures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPutnam2003216-244">[227]</a> In the past it was often used to <a href="/wiki/Tire_balance" title="Tire balance">balance the wheels of cars</a>; for environmental reasons this use is being phased out in favor of other materials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey201797-130">[118]</a> Lead is added to copper alloys, such as <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, to improve machinability and for its lubricating qualities. Being practically insoluble in copper, the lead forms solid globules in imperfections throughout the alloy, such as <a href="/wiki/Grain_boundary" title="Grain boundary">grain boundaries</a>. In low concentrations, as well as acting as a lubricant, the globules hinder the formation of <a href="/wiki/Swarf" title="Swarf">swarf</a> as the alloy is worked, thereby improving machinability. Copper alloys with larger concentrations of lead are used in <a href="/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)" title="Bearing (mechanical)">bearings</a>. The lead provides lubrication, and the copper provides the load-bearing support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopper_Development_Association-245">[228]</a> Lead's high density, atomic number, and formability form the basis for use of lead as a barrier that absorbs sound, vibration, and radiation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich1994101-246">[229]</a> Lead has no natural resonance frequencies;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich1994101-246">[229]</a> as a result, sheet-lead is used as a sound deadening layer in the walls, floors, and ceilings of sound studios.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuruswamy200031-247">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_pipe" title="Organ pipe">Organ pipes</a> are often made from a lead alloy, mixed with various amounts of tin to control the tone of each pipe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAudsley1965250–251-248">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmieri2006412–413-249">[232]</a> Lead is an established <a href="/wiki/Lead_shielding" title="Lead shielding">shielding</a> material from <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">radiation</a> in nuclear science and in X-ray rooms<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Council_on_Radiation_Protection_and_Measurements200416-250">[233]</a> due to its denseness and high <a href="/wiki/Attenuation_coefficient" title="Attenuation coefficient">attenuation coefficient</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush20017-251">[234]</a> Molten lead has been used as a coolant for <a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">lead-cooled fast reactors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETučekCarlssonWider20061590-252">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Batteries">Batteries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Batteries">edit</a>]</div> The largest use of lead in the early 21st century is in <a href="/wiki/Lead-acid_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead-acid battery">lead–acid batteries</a>. The lead in batteries undergoes no direct contact with humans, so there are fewer toxicity concerns.<a href="#cite_note-254">[r]</a> People who work in lead battery production or recycling plants may be exposed to lead dust and inhale it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToxicological_Profile_for_Lead20075–6-255">[237]</a> The reactions in the battery between lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid provide a reliable source of <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[s]</a> <a href="/wiki/Supercapacitor" title="Supercapacitor">Supercapacitors</a> incorporating lead–acid batteries have been installed in kilowatt and megawatt scale applications in Australia, Japan, and the United States in frequency regulation, solar smoothing and shifting, wind smoothing, and other applications.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlinsky-Paul2013-258">[239]</a> These batteries have lower energy density and charge-discharge efficiency than <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion batteries</a>, but are significantly cheaper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGulbinska2014-259">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coating_for_cables">Coating for cables</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Coating for cables">edit</a>]</div> Lead is used in high voltage power cables as shell material to prevent water diffusion into insulation; this use is decreasing as lead is being phased out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERich1994133–134-260">[241]</a> Its use in <a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">solder</a> for electronics is also being phased out by some countries to reduce the amount of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_hazard" title="Environmental hazard">environmentally hazardous</a> waste.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao2008440-261">[242]</a> Lead is one of three metals used in the <a href="/wiki/Oddy_test" title="Oddy test">Oddy test</a> for museum materials, helping detect organic acids, aldehydes, acidic gases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeinerLaviSeriRossin2015-262">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzczepanowska201384–85-263">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compounds">Compounds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Compounds">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_glass.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A crystal glass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Crystal_glass.jpg/250px-Crystal_glass.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Crystal_glass.jpg/330px-Crystal_glass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Crystal_glass.jpg/500px-Crystal_glass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PbCrO4_and_PbCrO4%E2%80%A2PbO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/PbCrO4_and_PbCrO4%E2%80%A2PbO.jpg/250px-PbCrO4_and_PbCrO4%E2%80%A2PbO.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/PbCrO4_and_PbCrO4%E2%80%A2PbO.jpg/330px-PbCrO4_and_PbCrO4%E2%80%A2PbO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/PbCrO4_and_PbCrO4%E2%80%A2PbO.jpg/500px-PbCrO4_and_PbCrO4%E2%80%A2PbO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1330" data-file-height="1627" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_chromate" title="Lead(II) chromate">Lead yellow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead(II,IV)_oxide" title="Lead(II,IV) oxide">lead red</a></figcaption></figure> In addition to being the main application for lead metal, lead–acid batteries are also the main consumer of lead compounds. The energy storage/release reaction used in these devices involves <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">lead sulfate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead_dioxide" title="Lead dioxide">lead dioxide</a>:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <dl><dd>Pb(s) + PbO 2(s) + 2H 2SO 4(aq) → 2PbSO 4(s) + 2H 2O(l)</dd></dl> Other applications of lead compounds are very specialized and often fading. Lead-based coloring agents are used in <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">ceramic glazes</a> and glass, especially for red and yellow shades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurleson200123-264">[245]</a> While lead paints are phased out in Europe and North America, they remain in use in less developed countries such as China,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInsight_ExplorerIPEN2016-265">[246]</a> India,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2017-266">[247]</a> or Indonesia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsmawatiPrimantiBroschéClark20132-267">[248]</a> Lead tetraacetate and lead dioxide are used as oxidizing agents in organic chemistry. Lead is frequently used in the <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a> coating of electrical cords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZweifel2009438-268">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkesSummersDanielsBerard2005106-269">[250]</a> It can be used to treat candle wicks to ensure a longer, more even burn. Because of its toxicity, European and North American manufacturers use alternatives such as zinc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERanderson2002-270">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENriaguKim200037–41-271">[252]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a> is composed of 12–28% <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide" title="Lead(II) oxide">lead oxide</a>, changing its optical characteristics and reducing the transmission of ionizing radiation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmstock1997116–119-272">[253]</a> a property used in old TVs and computer monitors with <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>. Lead-based <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lead_telluride" title="Lead telluride">lead telluride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lead_selenide" title="Lead selenide">lead selenide</a> are used in <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaic</a> cells and <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> detectors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogalski2010485–541-273">[254]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_effects">Biological effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Biological effects">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1268415487">.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox{border-collapse:collapse;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td,.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox th{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:40%}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td+td{width:60%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ib-chembox figure:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent){background:var(--background-color-inverted,#f8f9fa)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ib-chembox figure:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent){background:var(--background-color-inverted,#f8f9fa)}}</style> <table class="infobox ib-chembox"> <caption>Lead </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Hazards </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background-color:#eaeaea;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals" title="Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals">GHS labelling</a>: </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left:1em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/GHS_hazard_pictograms" title="GHS hazard pictograms">Pictograms</a></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="GHS08: Health hazard"><img alt="GHS08: Health hazard" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg/50px-GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg/75px-GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg/100px-GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="724" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:GHS-pictogram-pollu.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="GHS09: Environmental hazard"><img alt="GHS09: Environmental hazard" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/GHS-pictogram-pollu.svg/60px-GHS-pictogram-pollu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/GHS-pictogram-pollu.svg/120px-GHS-pictogram-pollu.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="724" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left:1em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals#Signal_word" title="Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals">Signal word</a></div> </td> <td>Danger </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left:1em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/GHS_hazard_statements" title="GHS hazard statements">Hazard statements</a></div> </td> <td><abbr class="abbr" title="H302: Harmful if swallowed">H302</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="H332: Harmful if inhaled">H332</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="H351: Suspected of causing cancer">H351</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="H360Df: May damage the unborn child. Suspected of damaging fertility.">H360Df</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="H373: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated exposure">H373</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="H410: Very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects">H410</abbr> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding-left:1em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/GHS_precautionary_statements" title="GHS precautionary statements">Precautionary statements</a></div> </td> <td><abbr class="abbr" title="P201: Obtain special instructions before use.">P201</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P261: Avoid breathing dust/fume/gas/mist/vapours/spray.">P261</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P273: Avoid release to the environment.">P273</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P304: IF INHALED:">P304</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P308: IF exposed or concerned:">P308</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P312: Call a POISON CENTER or doctor/physician if you feel unwell.">P312</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P313: Get medical advice/attention.">P313</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P340: Remove victim to fresh air and keep at rest in a position comfortable for breathing.">P340</abbr>, <abbr class="abbr" title="P391: Collect spillage.">P391</abbr><a href="#cite_note-274">[255]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/NFPA_704" title="NFPA 704">NFPA 704</a> (fire diamond) </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1170367383">.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-ref{float:right;padding:1px;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-container{width:82px;font-family:sans-serif;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-container-ref{float:left;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-images{float:left;font-size:20px;text-align:center;position:relative;height:80px;width:80px;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-map{position:absolute;height:80px;width:80px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond .noresize{margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-code{line-height:1em;text-align:center;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-code>a{color:black}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-blue{width:13px;top:31px;left:15px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-red{width:12px;top:12px;left:35px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-yellow{width:13px;top:31px;left:54px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-image{position:relative;top:51px;left:0}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-text{vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;line-height:80%;position:absolute;top:52px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-text a>span{position:absolute;color:black}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-wors{font-size:15px;width:23px;left:29px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-wox{font-size:15px;font-stretch:condensed;width:21px;line-height:80%;top:-4px;left:29px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-abcp{font-size:13.5px;font-stretch:condensed;width:28px;left:26px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-ac{font-size:10px;width:30px;left:25px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-strike{text-decoration:line-through}</style><div class="nfpa-704-diamond notheme"><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-container"><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-images nounderlines"> <div class="nfpa-704-diamond-map"><figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="NFPA 704 four-colored diamond" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/120px-NFPA_704.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/250px-NFPA_704.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" usemap="#ImageMap_b27845110d7e52b0" /><map name="ImageMap_b27845110d7e52b0"><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Blue" shape="poly" coords="23,23,47,47,23,70,0,47" alt="Health 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroform" title="Health 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroform" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Red" shape="poly" coords="47,0,70,23,47,47,23,23" alt="Flammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. water" title="Flammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. water" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Yellow" shape="poly" coords="70,23,94,47,70,70,47,47" alt="Instability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogen" title="Instability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogen" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#White" shape="poly" coords="47,47,70,70,47,94,23,70" alt="Special hazards (white): no code" title="Special hazards (white): no code" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-blue"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Blue" title="NFPA 704">2</a></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-red"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Red" title="NFPA 704">0</a></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-yellow"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Yellow" title="NFPA 704">0</a></div></div></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical compound</div> Lead has no confirmed biological role, and there is no confirmed safe level of lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorld_Health_Organization2018-275">[256]</a> A 2009 Canadian–American study concluded that even at levels that are considered to pose little to no risk, lead may cause "adverse mental health outcomes".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouchardBellingerWeuveMatthews-Bellinger2009-276">[257]</a> Its prevalence in the human body—at an adult average of 120 mg<a href="#cite_note-278">[t]</a>—is nevertheless exceeded only by zinc (2500 mg) and iron (4000 mg) among the heavy metals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmsley2011280,_621,_255-279">[259]</a> Lead <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a> are very efficiently absorbed by the body.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuckeyVenugopal1979177–178-280">[260]</a> A small amount of lead (1%) is stored in bones; the rest is excreted in urine and feces within a few weeks of exposure. Only about a third of lead is excreted by a child. Continual exposure may result in the <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulation</a> of lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToxic_Substances_Portal-281">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxicity">Toxicity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Toxicity">edit</a>]</div> Lead is a highly poisonous metal (whether inhaled or swallowed), affecting almost every organ and system in the human body.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Food_and_Drug_Administration201542-282">[262]</a> At airborne levels of 100 mg/m3, it is <a href="/wiki/Immediately_dangerous_to_life_or_health" title="Immediately dangerous to life or health">immediately dangerous to life and health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health-283">[263]</a> Most ingested lead is absorbed into the bloodstream.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOccupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration-284">[264]</a> The primary cause of its toxicity is its predilection for interfering with the proper functioning of enzymes. It does so by binding to the <a href="/wiki/Thiol" title="Thiol">sulfhydryl groups</a> found on many enzymes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolphRudolphHostetterLister2003369-285">[265]</a> or mimicking and displacing other metals which act as <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactors</a> in many enzymatic reactions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDartHurlbutBoyer-Hassen20041426-286">[266]</a> The essential metals that lead interacts with include calcium, iron, and zinc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKosnett2006238-287">[267]</a> High levels of calcium and iron tend to provide some protection from lead poisoning; low levels cause increased susceptibility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuckeyVenugopal1979177–178-280">[260]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects">Effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Effects">edit</a>]</div> Lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death. By mimicking calcium, lead can cross the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>. It degrades the <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> sheaths of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>, reduces their numbers, interferes with <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmission</a> routes, and decreases neuronal growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudolphRudolphHostetterLister2003369-285">[265]</a> In the human body, lead inhibits <a href="/wiki/Delta-aminolevulinic_acid_dehydratase" title="Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase">porphobilinogen synthase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferrochelatase" title="Ferrochelatase">ferrochelatase</a>, preventing both <a href="/wiki/Porphobilinogen" title="Porphobilinogen">porphobilinogen</a> formation and the incorporation of iron into <a href="/wiki/Protoporphyrin_IX" title="Protoporphyrin IX">protoporphyrin IX</a>, the final step in <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme</a> synthesis. This causes ineffective heme synthesis and <a href="/wiki/Microcytic_anemia" title="Microcytic anemia">microcytic anemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohenTrotzkyPincus1981904–906-288">[268]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_(raster).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A chart of a human body with arrows pointing pieces of text to different parts of the body" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png/250px-Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png/330px-Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png/500px-Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3883" /></a><figcaption>Symptoms of lead poisoning</figcaption></figure> Symptoms of lead poisoning include <a href="/wiki/Kidney_disease" title="Kidney disease">nephropathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colic" title="Colic">colic</a>-like abdominal pains, and possibly weakness in the fingers, wrists, or ankles. Small blood pressure increases, particularly in middle-aged and older people, may be apparent and can cause <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Several studies, mostly cross-sectional, found an association between increased lead exposure and decreased heart rate variability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENavas-Acien2007-289">[269]</a> In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Chronic, high-level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESokol2005133,_passim-290">[270]</a> In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> formation in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurochemical" title="Neurochemical">neurochemical</a> development (including that of neurotransmitters), and the organization of <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMycykHryhorczukAmitai2005462-291">[271]</a> Early childhood exposure has been linked with an increased risk of sleep disturbances and excessive daytime drowsiness in later childhood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuLiuPakWang20151869–1874-292">[272]</a> High blood levels are associated with delayed puberty in girls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoetersDen_HondDhoogeVan_Larebeke2008168–175-293">[273]</a> The rise and fall in exposure to airborne lead from the combustion of tetraethyl lead in gasoline during the 20th century has been linked with historical increases and <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">decreases in crime levels</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exposure_sources">Exposure sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Exposure sources">edit</a>]</div> Lead exposure is a global issue since lead mining and smelting, and battery manufacturing, disposal, and <a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling#Lead.E2.80.93acid_batteries" title="Battery recycling">recycling</a>, are common in many countries. Lead enters the body via inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body; for ingestion, the rate is 20–70%, with children absorbing a higher percentage than adults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarragó201216-294">[274]</a> Poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead, and less commonly after accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead-based paint.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToxicological_Profile_for_Lead20074-295">[275]</a> Seawater products can contain lead if affected by nearby industrial waters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremner2002101-296">[276]</a> Fruit and vegetables can be contaminated by high levels of lead in the soils they were grown in. Soil can be contaminated through particulate accumulation from lead in pipes, <a href="/wiki/Lead_paint" title="Lead paint">lead paint</a>, residual emissions from leaded gasoline.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry2007-297">[277]</a> The use of lead for water pipes is <a href="/wiki/Plumbosolvency" title="Plumbosolvency">a problem in areas with soft or acidic water</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorntonRautiuBrush200117-298">[278]</a> Hard water forms insoluble protective layers on the inner surface of the pipes, whereas soft and acidic water dissolves the lead pipes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1977109–115-299">[279]</a> Dissolved <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> in the carried water may result in the formation of soluble lead <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a>; oxygenated water may similarly dissolve lead as <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_hydroxide" title="Lead(II) hydroxide">lead(II) hydroxide</a>. Drinking such water, over time, can cause health problems due to the toxicity of the dissolved lead. The <a href="/wiki/Hard_water" title="Hard water">harder the water</a> the more <a href="/wiki/Calcium_bicarbonate" title="Calcium bicarbonate">calcium bicarbonate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">sulfate</a> it contains, and the more the inside of the pipes are coated with a protective layer of lead carbonate or lead sulfate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWibergWibergHolleman2001914-300">[280]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kymographic_recording_of_the_effect_of_lead_on_frog_heart..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Kymographic_recording_of_the_effect_of_lead_on_frog_heart..jpg/250px-Kymographic_recording_of_the_effect_of_lead_on_frog_heart..jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Kymographic_recording_of_the_effect_of_lead_on_frog_heart..jpg/330px-Kymographic_recording_of_the_effect_of_lead_on_frog_heart..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Kymographic_recording_of_the_effect_of_lead_on_frog_heart..jpg/500px-Kymographic_recording_of_the_effect_of_lead_on_frog_heart..jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3548" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kymograph" title="Kymograph">Kymographic</a> recording of the effect of lead acetate on frog heart experimental set up</figcaption></figure> Ingestion of applied lead-based paint is the major source of exposure for children: a direct source is chewing on old painted window sills. Additionally, as lead paint on a surface deteriorates, it peels and is pulverized into dust. The dust then enters the body through hand-to-mouth contact or contaminated food or drink. Ingesting certain <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine#Home_remedies" title="Traditional medicine">home remedies</a> may result in exposure to lead or its compounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarragó201211-301">[281]</a> Inhalation is the second major exposure pathway, affecting smokers and especially workers in lead-related occupations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOccupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration-284">[264]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoke" title="Tobacco smoke">Cigarette smoke</a> contains, among other toxic substances, radioactive <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_lead" title="Isotopes of lead">lead-210</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECenters_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention2015-302">[282]</a> "As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts, levels of lead in the air [in the United States] decreased by 86 percent between 2010 and 2020."<a href="#cite_note-EPSLAP-303">[283]</a> The concentration of lead in the air in the United States fell below the national standard of 0.15 μg/m3<a href="#cite_note-EPAleadStandards-304">[284]</a> in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-EPALeadTrends-305">[285]</a> Skin exposure may be significant for people working with organic lead compounds. The rate of skin absorption is lower for inorganic lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaniAraUsman201557,_58-306">[286]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead_in_foods">Lead in foods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Lead in foods">edit</a>]</div> Lead may be found in food when food is grown in soil that is high in lead, airborne lead contaminates the crops, animals eat lead in their diet, or lead enters the food either from what it was stored or cooked in.<a href="#cite_note-307">[287]</a> Ingestion of lead paint and batteries is also a route of exposure for livestock, which can subsequently affect humans.<a href="#cite_note-308">[288]</a> Milk produced by contaminated cattle can be diluted to a lower lead concentration and sold for consumption.<a href="#cite_note-309">[289]</a> In Bangladesh, lead compounds have been added to <a href="/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a> to make it more yellow.<a href="#cite_note-Stan2019-310">[290]</a> This is believed to have started in the 1980s and continues as of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stan2019-310">[290]</a> It is believed to be one of the main sources of high lead levels in the country.<a href="#cite_note-311">[291]</a> In Hong Kong the maximum allowed lead level in food is 6 parts per million in solids and 1 part per million in liquids.<a href="#cite_note-312">[292]</a> Lead-containing dust can settle on drying cocoa beans when they are set outside near polluting industrial plants.<a href="#cite_note-313">[293]</a> In December 2022, <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Reports" title="Consumer Reports">Consumer Reports</a> tested 28 <a href="/wiki/Dark_chocolate" title="Dark chocolate">dark chocolate</a> brands and found that 23 of them contained potentially harmful levels of lead, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> or both. They have urged the chocolate makers to reduce the level of lead which could be harmful, especially to a developing fetus.<a href="#cite_note-314">[294]</a> In March 2024, the US <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> recommended a voluntary recall on 6 brands of <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a> due to contamination with lead,<a href="#cite_note-315">[295]</a> after 500 reports of child lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-316">[296]</a> The FDA determined that cinnamon was adulterated with <a href="/wiki/Lead_chromate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead chromate">lead chromate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-317">[297]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead_in_plastic_toys">Lead in plastic toys</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Lead in plastic toys">edit</a>]</div> According to the United States <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control</a>, the use of lead in plastics has not been banned as of 2024. Lead softens the plastic and makes it more flexible so that it can go back to its original shape. Habitual chewing on colored plastic insulation from stripped electrical wires was found to cause elevated lead levels in a 46-year-old man.<a href="#cite_note-318">[298]</a> Lead may be used in plastic toys to stabilize molecules from heat. Lead dust can be formed when plastic is exposed to sunlight, air, and detergents that break down the chemical bond between the lead and plastics.<a href="#cite_note-319">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment">Treatment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a></div> Treatment for lead poisoning normally involves the administration of <a href="/wiki/Dimercaprol" title="Dimercaprol">dimercaprol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Succimer" title="Succimer">succimer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2010651–652-320">[300]</a> Acute cases may require the use of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_calcium_edetate" title="Sodium calcium edetate">disodium calcium edetate</a>, the calcium <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelate</a>, and the disodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (<a href="/wiki/Ethylenediaminetetraacetic_acid" title="Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid">EDTA</a>). It has a greater affinity for lead than calcium, with the result that lead chelate is formed by exchange and excreted in the urine, leaving behind harmless calcium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMastersTrevorKatzung2008481–483-321">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Environmental effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batteries_at_Thiaroye.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A dusty dump" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Batteries_at_Thiaroye.jpg/250px-Batteries_at_Thiaroye.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Batteries_at_Thiaroye.jpg/330px-Batteries_at_Thiaroye.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Batteries_at_Thiaroye.jpg/500px-Batteries_at_Thiaroye.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1545" data-file-height="1003" /></a><figcaption>Battery collection site in <a href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, Senegal, where at least 18 children died of lead poisoning in 2008</figcaption></figure> The extraction, production, use, and disposal of lead and its products have caused significant contamination of the Earth's soils and waters. Atmospheric emissions of lead were at their peak during the Industrial Revolution, and the leaded gasoline period in the second half of the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations_Environment_Programme20104-322">[302]</a> Lead releases originate from natural sources (i.e., concentration of the naturally occurring lead), industrial production, incineration and recycling, and mobilization of previously buried lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations_Environment_Programme20104-322">[302]</a> In particular, as lead has been phased out from other uses, in the Global South, lead recycling operations designed to extract cheap lead used for global manufacturing have become a well documented source of exposure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERenfrew20198-323">[303]</a> Elevated concentrations of lead persist in soils and sediments in post-industrial and urban areas; industrial emissions, including those arising from coal burning,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrace_element_emission2012-324">[304]</a> continue in many parts of the world, particularly in the developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations_Environment_Programme20106-325">[305]</a> Lead can accumulate in soils, especially those with a high organic content, where it remains for hundreds to thousands of years. Environmental lead can compete with other metals found in and on plant surfaces potentially inhibiting <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and at high enough concentrations, negatively affecting plant growth and survival. Contamination of soils and plants can allow lead to ascend the food chain affecting microorganisms and animals. In animals, lead exhibits toxicity in many organs, damaging the nervous, <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">renal</a>, reproductive, <a href="/wiki/Haematopoiesis" title="Haematopoiesis">hematopoietic</a>, and cardiovascular systems after ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAssiHezmeeHaronSabri2016-326">[306]</a> Fish uptake lead from both water and sediment;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorld_Health_Organization1995-327">[307]</a> bioaccumulation in the food chain poses a hazard to fish, birds, and sea mammals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUK_Marine_SACs_Project1999-328">[308]</a> Anthropogenic lead includes lead from <a href="/wiki/Shot_(pellet)" title="Shot (pellet)">shot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fishing_sinker" title="Fishing sinker">sinkers</a>. These are among the most potent sources of lead contamination along with lead production sites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_Nations_Environment_Programme20109-329">[309]</a> Lead was banned for shot and sinkers in the United States in 2017,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCoy2017-330">[310]</a> although that ban was only effective for a month,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECama2017-331">[311]</a> and a similar ban is being considered in the European Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELayton2017-332">[312]</a> Analytical methods for the determination of lead in the environment include <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence" title="X-ray fluorescence">X-ray fluorescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spectroscopy" title="Atomic spectroscopy">atomic spectroscopy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemical methods</a>. A specific <a href="/wiki/Ion-selective_electrode" title="Ion-selective electrode">ion-selective electrode</a> has been developed based on the ionophore S,S'-methylenebis(N,N-diisobutyl<a href="/wiki/Dithiocarbamate" title="Dithiocarbamate">dithiocarbamate</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHauser201749–60-333">[313]</a> An important biomarker assay for lead poisoning is <a href="/wiki/%CE%94-aminolevulinic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Δ-aminolevulinic acid">δ-aminolevulinic acid</a> levels in plasma, serum, and urine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauwerysHoet2001115,_116–117-334">[314]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restriction_and_remediation">Restriction and remediation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Restriction and remediation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1plombs_chasse_cygne_cond%C3%A92.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An X-ray picture with numerous small pellets highlighted in white" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/1plombs_chasse_cygne_cond%C3%A92.jpg/220px-1plombs_chasse_cygne_cond%C3%A92.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/1plombs_chasse_cygne_cond%C3%A92.jpg/330px-1plombs_chasse_cygne_cond%C3%A92.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/1plombs_chasse_cygne_cond%C3%A92.jpg/440px-1plombs_chasse_cygne_cond%C3%A92.jpg 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>Radiography of a swan found dead in <a href="/wiki/Cond%C3%A9-sur-l%27Escaut" title="Condé-sur-l'Escaut">Condé-sur-l'Escaut</a> (northern France), highlighting lead shot. There are hundreds of lead pellets (a dozen is enough to kill an adult swan within a few days). Such bodies are sources of environmental contamination by lead.</figcaption></figure> By the mid-1980s, there was significant decline in the use of lead in industry.<a href="#cite_note-335">[315]</a> In the United States, environmental regulations reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non-battery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. <a href="/wiki/Scrubber" title="Scrubber">Particulate control devices</a> were installed in <a href="/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station" title="Coal-fired power station">coal-fired power plants</a> to capture lead emissions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrace_element_emission2012-324">[304]</a> In 1992, U.S. Congress required the Environmental Protection Agency to reduce the blood lead levels of the country's children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAuerKoverAidalaGreenwood20164-336">[316]</a> Lead use was further curtailed by the European Union's 2003 <a href="/wiki/Restriction_of_Hazardous_Substances_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive">Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetzelJuutiSugimoto2004122–124-337">[317]</a> A large drop in lead deposition occurred in the Netherlands after the 1993 national ban on use of lead shot for hunting and sport shooting: from 230 tonnes in 1990 to 47.5 tonnes in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeltaresNetherlands_Organisation_for_Applied_Scientific_Research2016-338">[318]</a> The usage of lead in <a href="/wiki/Avgas#100LL_(blue)" title="Avgas">Avgas 100LL</a> for <a href="/wiki/General_aviation" title="General aviation">general aviation</a> is allowed in the EU as of 2022.<a href="#cite_note-q566-339">[319]</a> In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Permissible_exposure_limit" title="Permissible exposure limit">permissible exposure limit</a> for lead in the workplace, comprising metallic lead, inorganic lead compounds, and lead soaps, was set at 50 μg/m3 over an 8-hour workday, and the <a href="/wiki/Blood_lead_level" title="Blood lead level">blood lead level</a> limit at 5 μg per 100 g of blood in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry2017-340">[320]</a> Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandjean1978303–321-341">[321]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_group" title="Vinyl group">vinyl</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinBrownKashtockJacobs20081288-342">[322]</a> (such as that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords), and Chinese brass.<a href="#cite_note-344">[u]</a> Old houses may still contain lead paint.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinBrownKashtockJacobs20081288-342">[322]</a> White lead paint has been <a href="/wiki/White_Lead_(Painting)_Convention,_1921" title="White Lead (Painting) Convention, 1921">withdrawn from sale</a> in industrialized countries, but specialized uses of other pigments such as yellow <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_chromate" title="Lead(II) chromate">lead chromate</a> remain,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrow2007-200">[186]</a> especially in road pavement marking paint.<a href="#cite_note-345">[324]</a> Stripping old paint by sanding produces dust which can be inhaled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarinoLandriganGraefNussbaum19901183–1185-346">[325]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lead_abatement" title="Lead abatement">Lead abatement</a> programs have been mandated by some authorities in properties where young children live.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoch1996111-347">[326]</a> The usage of lead in <a href="/wiki/Avgas#100LL_(blue)" title="Avgas">Avgas 100LL</a> for <a href="/wiki/General_aviation" title="General aviation">general aviation</a> is generally allowed in United States as of 2023.<a href="#cite_note-348">[327]</a> Lead waste, depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the waste, may be treated as household waste (to facilitate lead abatement activities),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency2000-349">[328]</a> or potentially hazardous waste requiring specialized treatment or storage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELead_in_Waste2016-350">[329]</a> Lead is released into the environment in shooting places and a number of lead management practices have been developed to counter the lead contamination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency2005I-1-351">[330]</a> Lead migration can be enhanced in acidic soils; to counter that, it is advised soils be treated with lime to <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(chemistry)" title="Neutralization (chemistry)">neutralize</a> the soils and prevent leaching of lead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency2005III-5–III-6-352">[331]</a> Research has been conducted on how to remove lead from <a href="/wiki/BioSystems" title="BioSystems">biosystems</a> by biological means: Fish bones are being researched for their ability to <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediate</a> lead in contaminated soil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreeman2012a20–a21-353">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2012-354">[333]</a> The fungus <a href="/wiki/Aspergillus_versicolor" title="Aspergillus versicolor">Aspergillus versicolor</a> is effective at absorbing lead ions from industrial waste before being released to water bodies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEActon201394–95-355">[334]</a> Several bacteria have been researched for their ability to remove lead from the environment, including the <a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_microorganism" title="Sulfate-reducing microorganism">sulfate-reducing bacteria</a> <a href="/wiki/Desulfovibrio" title="Desulfovibrio">Desulfovibrio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desulfotomaculum" title="Desulfotomaculum">Desulfotomaculum</a>, both of which are highly effective in aqueous solutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParkBolanMegharaNaidu2011162–174-356">[335]</a> Millet grass <a href="/wiki/Urochloa_ramosa" title="Urochloa ramosa">Urochloa ramosa</a> has the ability to accumulate significant amounts of metals such as lead and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> in its shoot and root tissues making it an important plant for remediation of contaminated soils.<a href="#cite_note-357">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Bryce-Smith" title="Derek Bryce-Smith">Derek Bryce-Smith </a>– one of the earliest campaigners against lead in petrol in the UK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr.">Thomas Midgley Jr.</a> – discovered that the addition of <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">tetraethyllead</a> to gasoline prevented <a href="/wiki/Engine_knocking" title="Engine knocking">"knocking"</a> in <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clair_Patterson" title="Clair Patterson">Clair Cameron Patterson</a> – instrumental in the banning of tetraethyllead in gasoline in the US and lead solder in food cans.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Kehoe" title="Robert A. Kehoe">Robert A. Kehoe</a> – foremost medical advocate for the use of tetraethyllead as an additive in gasoline.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> The tetrahedral allotrope of tin is called α- or gray tin and is stable only at or below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F). The stable form of tin above this temperature is called β- or white tin and has a distorted face centered cubic (tetragonal) structure which can be derived by compressing the tetrahedra of gray tin along their cubic axes. White tin effectively has a structure intermediate between the regular tetrahedral structure of gray tin, and the regular face centered cubic structure of lead, consistent with the general trend of increasing metallic character going down any representative group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParthé196413-18">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> A <a href="/wiki/Quasicrystal" title="Quasicrystal">quasicrystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Thin-film" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film">thin-film</a> allotrope of lead, with pentagonal symmetry, was reported in 2013. The allotrope was obtained by depositing lead atoms on the surface of an <a href="/wiki/Icosahedron" title="Icosahedron">icosahedral</a> silver-<a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">indium</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">ytterbium</a> quasicrystal. Its conductivity was not recorded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharmaNozawaSmerdonNugent2013-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharmaSmerdonNugentRibeiro2014174710-21">[20]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Diamond cubic structures with lattice parameters around the lattice parameter of silicon exists both in thin lead and tin films, and in massive lead and tin, freshly solidified in vacuum of ~5 x 10−6 Torr. Experimental evidence for almost identical structures of at least three oxide types is presented, demonstrating that lead and tin behave like silicon not only in the initial stages of crystallization, but also in the initial stages of oxidation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenevaDjunevaTsukeva1981-23">[21]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>: to go down like a lead balloon. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Malleability describes how easily it deforms under compression, whereas ductility means its ability to stretch. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> A (wet) finger can be dipped into molten lead without risk of a burning injury.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilley1999-39">[34]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> An even number of either protons or neutrons generally increases the nuclear stability of isotopes, compared to isotopes with odd numbers. No elements with odd atomic numbers have more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having the highest number of isotopes of all elements, ten.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIAEA_-_Nuclear_Data_Section2017-44">[38]</a> See <a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">Even and odd atomic nuclei</a> for more details. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> The half-life found in the experiment was 1.9×1019 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_MarcillacCoronDambierLeblanc2003876–78-47">[40]</a> A kilogram of natural bismuth would have an activity value of approximately 0.003 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerels</a> (decays per second). For comparison, the activity value of natural radiation in the human body is around 65 becquerels per kilogram of body weight (4500 becquerels on average).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorld_Nuclear_Association2015-48">[41]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Lead-205 decays solely via <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a>, which means when there are no electrons available and lead is fully ionized with all 82 electrons removed it cannot decay. Fully ionized thallium-205, the isotope lead-205 would decay to, becomes unstable and can decay into a <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay#Bound-state_β−_decay" title="Beta decay">bound state</a> of lead-205.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakahashiBoydMathewsYokoi1987-60">[52]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tetraphenyllead" title="Tetraphenyllead">Tetraphenyllead</a> is even more thermally stable, decomposing at 270 °C.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1998404-102">[93]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 106 parts of silicon is 2.6682×1010 parts; lead comprises 3.258 parts. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Elemental abundance figures are estimates and their details may vary from source to source.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECox1997182-127">[116]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_lead_pipe_inscription" title="Roman lead pipe inscription">inscription</a> reads: "Made when the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> was consul for the ninth term and the Emperor Titus was consul for the seventh term, when <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Iulius_Agricola" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Iulius Agricola">Gnaeus Iulius Agricola</a> was imperial governor (of Britain)." </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> The fact that <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> fathered only one child, as well as the alleged sterility of his successor, <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar Augustus">Caesar Augustus</a>, have been attributed to lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrankenburg201416-165">[152]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Gaseous by-product of the coking process, containing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>; used as a fuel. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> California began banning lead bullets for hunting on that basis in July 2015.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalifornia_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife-231">[216]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> For example, a firm "...producing quality [lead] garden ornament from our studio in West London for over a century".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELead_garden_ornaments2016-242">[226]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Potential injuries to regular users of such batteries are not related to lead's toxicity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConcordia_University2016-253">[236]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> See<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProgressive_Dynamics,_Inc.-256">[238]</a> for details on how a lead–acid battery works. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Rates vary greatly by country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorld_Health_Organization2000149–153-277">[258]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> An alloy of <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> (copper and zinc) with lead, iron, tin, and sometimes antimony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuda1996242-343">[323]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CIAAW-1"><a href="#cite_ref-CIAAW_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ciaaw.org/lead.htm">"Standard Atomic Weights: Lead"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Isotopic_Abundances_and_Atomic_Weights" title="Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights">CIAAW</a>. 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Standard+Atomic+Weights%3A+Lead&rft.pub=CIAAW&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ciaaw.org%2Flead.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIAAW2021-2"><a href="#cite_ref-CIAAW2021_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFProhaskaIrrgeherBenefieldBöhlke2022" class="citation journal cs1">Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (4 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/pac-2019-0603/html">"Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)"</a>. Pure and Applied Chemistry. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2019-0603">10.1515/pac-2019-0603</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1365-3075">1365-3075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Standard+atomic+weights+of+the+elements+2021+%28IUPAC+Technical+Report%29&rft.date=2022-05-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fpac-2019-0603&rft.issn=1365-3075&rft.aulast=Prohaska&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Irrgeher%2C+Johanna&rft.au=Benefield%2C+Jacqueline&rft.au=B%C3%B6hlke%2C+John+K.&rft.au=Chesson%2C+Lesley+A.&rft.au=Coplen%2C+Tyler+B.&rft.au=Ding%2C+Tiping&rft.au=Dunn%2C+Philip+J.+H.&rft.au=Gr%C3%B6ning%2C+Manfred&rft.au=Holden%2C+Norman+E.&rft.au=Meijer%2C+Harro+A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fpac-2019-0603%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_3-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArblaster2018" class="citation book cs1">Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62708-155-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62708-155-9"><bdi>978-1-62708-155-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Values+of+the+Crystallographic+Properties+of+Elements&rft.place=Materials+Park%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-62708-155-9&rft.aulast=Arblaster&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GE28-4"><a href="#cite_ref-GE28_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Greenwood" title="Norman Greenwood">Greenwood, Norman N.</a>; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann" title="Butterworth-Heinemann">Butterworth-Heinemann</a>. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8"><bdi>978-0-08-037941-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+of+the+Elements&rft.pages=28&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-08-037941-8&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Norman+N.&rft.au=Earnshaw%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Pb(0) carbonyls have been observered in reaction between lead atoms and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>; see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLingQiang2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ling, Jiang; Qiang, Xu (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1834915">"Observation of the lead carbonyls PbnCO (n=1–4): Reactions of lead atoms and small clusters with carbon monoxide in solid argon"</a>. The Journal of Chemical Physics. 122 (3): 034505. 122 (3): 34505. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JChPh.122c4505J">2005JChPh.122c4505J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1834915">10.1063/1.1834915</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9606">0021-9606</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15740207">15740207</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Chemical+Physics.+122+%283%29%3A+034505&rft.atitle=Observation+of+the+lead+carbonyls+Pb%3Csub%3En%3C%2Fsub%3ECO+%28n%3D1%E2%80%934%29%3A+Reactions+of+lead+atoms+and+small+clusters+with+carbon+monoxide+in+solid+argon&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=34505&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1834915&rft.issn=0021-9606&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15740207&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JChPh.122c4505J&rft.aulast=Ling&rft.aufirst=Jiang&rft.au=Qiang%2C+Xu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faip.scitation.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1834915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeastAstleBeyer1983E110-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeastAstleBeyer1983E110_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeastAstleBeyer1983">Weast, Astle & Beyer 1983</a>, p. E110. </li> <li id="cite_note-NUBASE2020-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NUBASE2020_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NUBASE2020_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKondevWangHuangNaimi2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf">"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"</a> (PDF). 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Ecological Engineering. 60: 96–98. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013EcEng..60...96L">2013EcEng..60...96L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecoleng.2013.07.043">10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.07.043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Engineering&rft.atitle=Assessment+of+metal+accumulation+capacity+of+Brachiaria+ramosa+collected+from+cement+waste+dumping+area+for+the+remediation+of+metal+contaminated+soil.&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.date=2013-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecoleng.2013.07.043&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013EcEng..60...96L&rft.aulast=Lakshmi&rft.aufirst=P.M.&rft.au=Jaison%2C+S.&rft.au=Muthukumar%2C+T.&rft.au=Muthukumar%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/20px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Science for external <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">academic peer review</a> in 2017 (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Talk:WikiJournal_of_Science/Lead:_properties,_history,_and_applications">reviewer reports</a>). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.aspx?objectid=399876&partid=1&output=Terms%2F!!%2FOR%2F!!%2F1204%2F!%2F%2F!%2FClassical+Greek%2F!%2F%2F!!%2F%2F!!!%2F&orig=%2Fresearch%2Fsearch_the_collection_database%2Fadvanced_search.aspx&currentPage=7&numpages=10">the original</a> on 14 February 2012. 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H. Crowther Ltd. 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H.+Crowther+Ltd&rft.atitle=Lead+garden+ornaments&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hcrowther.co.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLead_in_Waste2016" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/lead/lead-regulations">"Lead in Waste Disposal"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a>. 2016. 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Hanser. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-446-40801-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-446-40801-2"><bdi>978-3-446-40801-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plastics+Additives+Handbook&rft.pub=Hanser&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-446-40801-2&rft.aulast=Zweifel&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWbBH5QFXOhoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZýka1966" class="citation journal cs1">Zýka, J. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac196613040569">"Analytical study of the basic properties of lead tetraacetate as oxidizing agent"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="Pure and Applied Chemistry">Pure and Applied Chemistry</a>. 13 (4): 569–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac196613040569">10.1351/pac196613040569</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96821219">96821219</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Analytical+study+of+the+basic+properties+of+lead+tetraacetate+as+oxidizing+agent&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E569-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1351%2Fpac196613040569&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96821219%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BDka&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1351%252Fpac196613040569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAstridHelmutSigel2017" class="citation book cs1">Astrid, S.; Helmut, S.; Sigel, R. K. O., eds. (2017). Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 17. De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-044107-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-044107-9"><bdi>978-3-11-044107-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lead%3A+Its+Effects+on+Environment+and+Health&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-11-044107-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/460569">Table of contents</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCasasSordo2006" class="citation book cs1">Casas, J. S.; Sordo, J., eds. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D9nYWCv_FE4C">Lead Chemistry, Analytical Aspects. Environmental Impacts and Health Effects</a>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52945-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52945-9"><bdi>978-0-444-52945-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lead+Chemistry%2C+Analytical+Aspects.+Environmental+Impacts+and+Health+Effects&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-444-52945-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD9nYWCv_FE4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuntAbrahamJudsonBerry2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, A.; Abraham, J. L.; Judson, B.; Berry, C. L. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241576">"Toxicologic and epidemiologic clues from the characterization of the 1952 London smog fine particulate matter in archival autopsy lung tissues"</a>. Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (9): 1209–1214. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003EnvHP.111.1209H">2003EnvHP.111.1209H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.6114">10.1289/ehp.6114</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241576">1241576</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12842775">12842775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Toxicologic+and+epidemiologic+clues+from+the+characterization+of+the+1952+London+smog+fine+particulate+matter+in+archival+autopsy+lung+tissues&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1209-%3C%2Fspan%3E1214&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1241576%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12842775&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.6114&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003EnvHP.111.1209H&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Abraham%2C+J.+L.&rft.au=Judson%2C+B.&rft.au=Berry%2C+C.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1241576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ingalls, Walter Renton (1865-), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63784">Lead Smelting and Refining, With Some Notes on Lead Mining</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhangWeiZhangLiu2014" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Hao; Wei, Kai; Zhang, Mengyu; Liu, Rutao; Chen, Yadong (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1011134414001286">"Assessing the mechanism of DNA damage induced by lead through direct and indirect interactions"</a>. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 136: 46–53. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JPPB..136...46Z">2014JPPB..136...46Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jphotobiol.2014.04.020">10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2014.04.020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24844619">24844619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Photochemistry+and+Photobiology+B%3A+Biology&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+mechanism+of+DNA+damage+induced+by+lead+through+direct+and+indirect+interactions&rft.volume=136&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24844619&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jphotobiol.2014.04.020&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014JPPB..136...46Z&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Hao&rft.au=Wei%2C+Kai&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Mengyu&rft.au=Liu%2C+Rutao&rft.au=Chen%2C+Yadong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS1011134414001286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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href="/wiki/American_Society_for_Clinical_Pathology" title="American Society for Clinical Pathology">American Society for Clinical Pathology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.crown.co.za/modern-mining/industry-news/13897-covid-19-to-reduce-global-lead-production-by-5-2-in-2020">COVID-19 to reduce global lead production by 5,2% in 2020 (with a figure showing global lead production, 2010–2024)</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 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style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a> </th> <td colspan="14"> </td> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a> </th> <td title="H, Hydrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a> </td> <td colspan="30"> </td> <td title="He, Helium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td title="Li, Lithium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a> </td> <td title="Be, Beryllium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Be</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="B, Boron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">B</a> </td> <td title="C, Carbon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a> </td> <td title="N, Nitrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a> </td> <td title="O, Oxygen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a> </td> <td title="F, Fluorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">F</a> </td> <td title="Ne, Neon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td title="Na, Sodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a> </td> <td title="Mg, Magnesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="Al, Aluminium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a> </td> <td title="Si, Silicon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a> </td> <td title="P, Phosphorus" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">P</a> </td> <td title="S, Sulfur" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a> </td> <td title="Cl, Chlorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a> </td> <td title="Ar, Argon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td title="K, Potassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a> </td> <td title="Ca, Calcium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Sc, Scandium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a> </td> <td title="Ti, Titanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a> </td> <td title="V, Vanadium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a> </td> <td title="Cr, Chromium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a> </td> <td title="Mn, Manganese" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a> </td> <td title="Fe, Iron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a> </td> <td title="Co, Cobalt" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a> </td> <td title="Ni, Nickel" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a> </td> <td title="Cu, Copper" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a> </td> <td title="Zn, Zinc" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a> </td> <td title="Ga, Gallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Ga</a> </td> <td title="Ge, Germanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a> </td> <td title="As, Arsenic" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">As</a> </td> <td title="Se, Selenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a> </td> <td title="Br, Bromine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Br</a> </td> <td title="Kr, Krypton" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td title="Rb, Rubidium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a> </td> <td title="Sr, Strontium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Sr</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Y, Yttrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a> </td> <td title="Zr, Zirconium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zr</a> </td> <td title="Nb, Niobium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a> </td> <td title="Mo, Molybdenum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a> </td> <td title="Tc, Technetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Tc</a> </td> <td title="Ru, Ruthenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ru</a> </td> <td title="Rh, Rhodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rh</a> </td> <td title="Pd, Palladium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Pd</a> </td> <td title="Ag, Silver" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a> </td> <td title="Cd, Cadmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a> </td> <td title="In, Indium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">In</a> </td> <td title="Sn, Tin" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a> </td> <td title="Sb, Antimony" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Sb</a> </td> <td title="Te, Tellurium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Te</a> </td> <td title="I, Iodine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">I</a> </td> <td title="Xe, Xenon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td title="Cs, Caesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a> </td> <td title="Ba, Barium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</a> </td> <td title="La, Lanthanum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">La</a> </td> <td title="Ce, Cerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a> </td> <td title="Pr, Praseodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Pr</a> </td> <td title="Nd, Neodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Nd</a> </td> <td title="Pm, Promethium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Pm</a> </td> <td title="Sm, Samarium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a> </td> <td title="Eu, Europium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Eu</a> </td> <td title="Gd, Gadolinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gd</a> </td> <td title="Tb, Terbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Tb</a> </td> <td title="Dy, Dysprosium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dy</a> </td> <td title="Ho, Holmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Ho</a> </td> <td title="Er, Erbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Er</a> </td> <td title="Tm, Thulium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Tm</a> </td> <td title="Yb, Ytterbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Yb</a> </td> <td title="Lu, Lutetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a> </td> <td title="Hf, Hafnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hf</a> </td> <td title="Ta, Tantalum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a> </td> <td title="W, Tungsten" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a> </td> <td title="Re, Rhenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Re</a> </td> <td title="Os, Osmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Os</a> </td> <td title="Ir, Iridium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir</a> </td> <td title="Pt, Platinum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a> </td> <td title="Au, Gold" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a> </td> <td title="Hg, Mercury" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Hg</a> </td> <td title="Tl, Thallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a> </td> <td title="Pb, Lead" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:3px solid black; ;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pb</a> </td> <td title="Bi, Bismuth" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bi</a> </td> <td title="Po, Polonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Po</a> </td> <td title="At, Astatine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">At</a> </td> <td title="Rn, Radon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td title="Fr, Francium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a> </td> <td title="Ra, Radium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Ra</a> </td> <td title="Ac, Actinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Ac</a> </td> <td title="Th, Thorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Th</a> </td> <td title="Pa, Protactinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a> </td> <td title="U, Uranium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">U</a> </td> <td title="Np, Neptunium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a> </td> <td title="Pu, Plutonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Pu</a> </td> <td title="Am, Americium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Am</a> </td> <td title="Cm, Curium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Cm</a> </td> <td title="Bk, Berkelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Bk</a> </td> <td title="Cf, Californium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Cf</a> </td> <td title="Es, Einsteinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Es</a> </td> <td title="Fm, Fermium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fm</a> </td> <td title="Md, Mendelevium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Md</a> </td> <td title="No, Nobelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">No</a> </td> <td title="Lr, Lawrencium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lr</a> </td> <td title="Rf, Rutherfordium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rf</a> </td> <td title="Db, Dubnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Db</a> </td> <td title="Sg, Seaborgium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Sg</a> </td> <td title="Bh, Bohrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bh</a> </td> <td title="Hs, Hassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hs</a> </td> <td title="Mt, Meitnerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Mt</a> </td> <td title="Ds, Darmstadtium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Ds</a> </td> <td title="Rg, Roentgenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Rg</a> </td> <td title="Cn, Copernicium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Cn</a> </td> <td title="Nh, Nihonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nh</a> </td> <td title="Fl, Flerovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Fl</a> </td> <td title="Mc, Moscovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Mc</a> </td> <td title="Lv, Livermorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Lv</a> </td> <td title="Ts, Tennessine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Ts</a> </td> <td title="Og, Oganesson" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Og</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div role="presentation" id="periodic-table-legend" style="border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; width:100%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8;color:inherit; margin:0; margin:0;"><div style="padding:0.3em;"> <table style="width:100%; line-height:1.2em; table-layout:fixed; overflow:hidden; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#ff9999;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/S-block" class="mw-redirect" title="S-block">s-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#9bff99;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/F-block" 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compounds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lead_compounds39" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lead_compounds" title="Lead compounds">Lead compounds</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pb(II)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_bismuthate" title="Lead bismuthate">Pb(BiO3)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_bromide" title="Lead(II) bromide">PbBr2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbocene" title="Plumbocene">Pb(C5H5)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate" title="Lead(II) acetate">Pb(C2H3O2)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxalate" title="Lead(II) oxalate">PbC2O4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_phthalocyanine" title="Lead(II) phthalocyanine">PbC32H16N8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_chloride" title="Lead(II) chloride">PbCl2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_perchlorate" title="Lead(II) perchlorate">Pb(ClO4)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_carbonate" title="Lead carbonate">PbCO3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_chromate" title="Lead(II) chromate">PbCrO4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_fluoride" title="Lead(II) fluoride">PbF2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_hydrogen_arsenate" title="Lead hydrogen arsenate">PbHAsO4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_iodide" title="Lead(II) iodide">PbI2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_laurate" title="Lead(II) laurate">Pb(C 11H 23COO) 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_nitrate" title="Lead(II) nitrate">Pb(NO3)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_azide" title="Lead(II) azide">Pb(N3)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide" title="Lead(II) oxide">PbO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_hydroxide" title="Lead(II) hydroxide">Pb(OH)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_polonide" title="Lead polonide">PbPo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_heptaphosphide" title="Lead heptaphosphide">PbP7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_phosphate" title="Lead(II) phosphate">Pb3(PO4)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfide" title="Lead(II) sulfide">PbS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_thiocyanate" title="Lead(II) thiocyanate">Pb(SCN)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_selenide" title="Lead selenide">PbSe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">PbSO4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_selenate" title="Lead(II) selenate">PbSeO4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_telluride" title="Lead telluride">PbTe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_titanate" title="Lead titanate">PbTiO3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_metagermanate" title="Lead metagermanate">PbGeO3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_stearate" title="Lead stearate">C 36H 70PbO 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbite" title="Plumbite">PbO2−2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_carbide" title="Lead carbide">PbC2</a> (hypothetical)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pb(II,IV)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II,IV)_oxide" title="Lead(II,IV) oxide">Pb3O4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pb(IV)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead(IV)_acetate" title="Lead(IV) acetate">Pb(C2H3O2)4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(IV)_chloride" title="Lead(IV) chloride">PbCl4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_tetrafluoride" title="Lead tetrafluoride">PbF4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbane" title="Plumbane">PbH4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_dioxide" title="Lead dioxide">PbO2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(IV)_sulfide" title="Lead(IV) sulfide">PbS2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumbate" title="Plumbate">plumbate</a></li></ul> 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class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7dbbdd594f-kpllt","wgBackendResponseTime":422,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.216","walltime":"4.748","ppvisitednodes":{"value":75987,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1253864,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":108474,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":56,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":18,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":883929,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":3,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4082.237 1 -total"," 40.60% 1657.472 3 Template:Infobox"," 27.29% 1114.066 1 Template:Infobox_lead"," 27.24% 1112.140 1 Template:Infobox_element"," 19.78% 807.428 363 Template:Sfn"," 12.03% 491.045 159 Template:Trim"," 10.77% 439.591 111 Template:Cite_book"," 10.70% 436.905 1 Template:Infobox_lead_isotopes"," 10.66% 435.176 1 Template:Infobox_isotopes_(meta)"," 10.39% 424.219 1 Template:Isotopes/main/table"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.497","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25848909,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFActon2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAleccia2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlsfasser2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmerican_Geophysical_Union2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmstock1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson1869\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshikari2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssiHezmeeHaronSabri2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAstridHelmutSigel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAudsley1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAuerKoverAidalaGreenwood2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBairdCann2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckerFörsterFranzenHartrath2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeemanBelliniCardaniCasali2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeinerLaviSeriRossin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhararaAtwood2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiselBisel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBissonVogel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlakemore1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBouchardBellingerWeuveMatthews-Bellinger2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBremner2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrenner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrescia2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBretherick2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunkerCasey2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurleson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalderwood2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalifornia_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalvo_Rebollar2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCama2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCanada2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCangelosiPecoraro2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasasSordo2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasciani2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastellinoSannoloCastellino1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCeccarelli2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenters_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenters_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapurukha_Kusimba2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristensen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClaudioGodwinMagyar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohenTrotzkyPincus1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCommittee_on_Evaluation_of_EPA_Guidelines_for_Exposure_to_Naturally_Occurring_Radioactive_MaterialsCommission_on_Life_SciencesDivision_on_Earth_and_Life_StudiesNational_Research_Council1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConcordia_University2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConsidineConsidine2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopper_Development_Association\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotnoir2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrow2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDartHurlbutBoyer-Hassen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidsonRymanSutherlandMilner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelileBlichert-ToftGoiranKeay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeltaresNetherlands_Organisation_for_Applied_Scientific_Research2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDieterWatson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonnelly2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDownsAdams2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuda1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdeCormack2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmsley2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEschnauerStoeppler1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinger2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiorini2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankenburg2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrebel2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunke2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaleTotemeier2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilfillan1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillLibraries_Board_of_South_Australia1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraedel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrandjean1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrout2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuberman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGulbinska2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuruswamy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHadlington2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarbisonBourgeoisJohnson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauser2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHernberg2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHesamiSalimiGhaderian2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHistory_of_Cosmetics\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodge1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHongCandelonePattersonBoutron1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntAbrahamJudsonBerry2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIAEA_-_Nuclear_Data_Section2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInsight_ExplorerIPEN2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsmawatiPrimantiBroschéClark2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaupp2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellett2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKonuChivers2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosnett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrestovnikoffHalls2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKroonen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLakshmiJaisonMuthukumarMuthukumar2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangmuirBroecker2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauwerysHoet2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLayton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLead_garden_ornaments2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLead_in_Waste2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLead_mining\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLead_sling_bullet\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinBrownKashtockJacobs2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLide2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiuLiuPakWang2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLochnerRohrbachCochrane2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLodders2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuckeyVenugopal1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacintyre1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcus_Vitruvius_Pollio1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarinoLandriganGraefNussbaum1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkowitzRosner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMastersTrevorKatzung2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCoy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerriam-Webster\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMielkeReagan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoreSpauldingBohleberHandley2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMosseriHengleinJanata1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMycykHryhorczukAmitai2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakashimaHayashiTashiroMatsushita1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Council_on_Radiation_Protection_and_Measurements2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNavas-Acien2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeiburger2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNikolayev2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNriagu1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNriaguKim2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOccupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlinsky-Paul2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOssuaries_and_Sarcophagi\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmieri2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkBolanMegharaNaidu2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParthé1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPauling1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenevaDjunevaTsukeva1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetzelJuutiSugimoto2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolyanskiy1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrasad2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrimary_Lead_Refining\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProgressive_Dynamics,_Inc.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPutnam2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPyykkö1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabinowitz1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadioactive_Decay_Series2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamage1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanderson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReddyBraun2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenfrew2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRetiefCilliers2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRich1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRieuwerts2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRivaLafranconid\u0026#039;OrsoCesana2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoedererKratzFrebelChristlieb2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogalski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudolphRudolphHostetterLister2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRöhr2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamson1885\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScarborough1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoch1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchoetersDen_HondDhoogeVan_Larebeke2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharmaNozawaSmerdonNugent2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharmaSmerdonNugentRibeiro2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverman1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinhaShellySharmaMeenakshi1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlater1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmirnovBorisevichSulaberidze2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokol2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStabenowSaakWeidenbruch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStempel2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStreetAlexander1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzczepanowska2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakahashiBoydMathewsYokoi1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarragó2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheodore_Low_De_Vinne1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThink_Lead_research\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomson1830\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorntonRautiuBrush2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThürmerWilliamsReutt-Robey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolliday2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToronto_museum_explores2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToxic_Substances_Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToxicological_Profile_for_Lead2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrace_element_emission2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTungate2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTučekCarlssonWider2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTétreaultSiroisStamatopoulou1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUK_Marine_SACs_Project1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Nations_Environment_Programme2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Food_and_Drug_Administration2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Geological_Survey1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Geological_Survey2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Geological_Survey2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_California_Nuclear_Forensic_Search_Project\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVasmer1986–1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVogelAchilles2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaldron1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaniAraUsman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeastAstleBeyer1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeatherings_to_Parapets\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebb2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebbMarsiglioHirsch2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittenGaileyDavid1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWibergWibergHolleman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkesSummersDanielsBerard2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilley1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinder1993a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinder1993b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWindholz1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodHsuBell2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Health_Organization2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorld_Nuclear_Association2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrackmeyerHorchler1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYongHoffmannFässler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungMiller-Medzon2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuYu2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangWeiZhangLiu2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangYangLiLi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuckermanHagen1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZweifel2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZýka1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Callataÿ2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_MarcillacCoronDambierLeblanc2003\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Academic peer reviewed\"] = 1,\n [\"AmCyc Poster\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"CIAAW2016\"] = 1,\n [\"Chem\"] = 5,\n [\"Chembox\"] = 1,\n [\"Chembox Hazards\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 109,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 73,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 58,\n [\"Clear\"] = 4,\n [\"Color box\"] = 3,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"E\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 21,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagu\"] = 17,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"GHS08\"] = 1,\n [\"GHS09\"] = 1,\n [\"H-phrases\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox lead\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 21,\n [\"Lead compounds\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"NUBASE2020\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"P-phrases\"] = 1,\n [\"Periodic table (navbox)\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 361,\n [\"Sfn whitelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 3,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFMeijaCoplenBerglundBrand2016\"] = 1,\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n1 1 Mikhail Boldyrev\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7dbbdd594f-57hkk","timestamp":"20250406070218","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Lead","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lead","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q708","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q708","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-05-17T15:16:47Z","dateModified":"2025-04-06T07:01:52Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e6\/Lead_electrolytic_and_1cm3_cube.jpg","headline":"chemical element with symbol Pb and atomic number 82"}</script> </body> </html>