U.S. state | History & Facts

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<div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision">U.S. state</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref350283"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350283">Origin of the U.S. states</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref350284"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350284">The place of the states in the federal system</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref350285"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350285">Nature of state governments</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref350286"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350286">Constitution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref350287"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350287">Legislature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref350288"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350288">Initiative and referendum</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref350289"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350289">Electoral districts and gerrymandering</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref350290"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350290">Executive</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref350291"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision#ref350291">Judicial branch</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/state-United-States-political-subdivision/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/state-United-States-political-subdivision">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" 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Rubio lands in Tel Aviv as countries seek return of six add'l living hostages</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 16, 2025, 3:22 AM ET (Jerusalem Post) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://gizmodo.com/gigantic-winter-storm-set-to-sweep-across-14-u-s-states-2000562885" rel="nofollow">Gigantic Winter Storm Set to Sweep Across 14 U.S. States</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 13, 2025, 3:16 AM ET (Gizmodo) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/female-representation-hits-new-highs-states-constitutions-assume-118616671" rel="nofollow">As female representation hits new highs among states, constitutions still assume officials are male</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 9, 2025, 4:00 AM ET (ABC News (U.S.)) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/1102207/6790d4983f9205b23b6fb67d99fcd46b" rel="nofollow">Second federal judge orders temporary pause to Trump administration efforts to freeze funding</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Jan. 31, 2025, 10:26 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref1302704"></span>U.S. state</strong>, first-order administrative unit of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United States</a>, one of the 50 <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituent" data-type="MW">constituent</a> political entities (four of which are formally called commonwealths) that share their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sovereignty" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sovereignty</a> with the U.S. federal government.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref350283"> <h2 class="h1">Origin of the U.S. states</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1776, 13 <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-colonies" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North American British colonies</a> proclaimed themselves to be independent states, and in 1781, under the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Articles-of-Confederation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Articles of Confederation</a>, they formed a “perpetual Union.” The perpetuity of that union was not assured, however, because the articles establishing that “firm league of friendship” provided also that each state should retain its “sovereignty, freedom, and independence,” and in the following years the states showed a strong <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="disposition" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/disposition" data-type="MW">disposition</a> to exercise the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sovereignty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereignty" data-type="MW">sovereignty</a> thus retained. The federal <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Constitution-of-the-United-States-of-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Constitution</a>, drafted in 1787 and put into effect two years later, established a stronger national government, the “more perfect” union that was needed. However, the Constitution made no reference to the troublesome question of sovereignty, leaving that to be disposed of over time—to be denied to the states, as it turned out, first by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nullification-Crisis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">nullification crisis of 1832–33</a> and then by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American Civil War</a>, though impassioned championing of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/states-rights" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">states’ rights</a> has remained central to American politics.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="mb-20"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="294425" data-asm-type="infogram"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="infogram"><script id="infogram_0__/sfcolO916p49smIiWVkb" src="https://e.infogram.com/js/dist/embed.js?Itp" type="text/javascript" title="Click on the banner for an interactive map of U.S. governors"></script></div></figure></div></div> </section> <span class="marker h3"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref350284"> <h2 class="h1">The place of the states in the federal system</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The federal Constitution divides the powers of government between the national (commonly called federal) government and the states. The federal government has those powers that are delegated to it by the Constitution and the authority to make all laws that may be “necessary and proper” to <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="implement" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/implement" data-type="MW">implement</a> such powers. The delegated powers are not numerous, but they are fundamental, including those to make war, to conduct <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/international-relations" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">foreign relations</a>, to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, and to levy taxes. The last-cited power may be exercised to provide not only for the common defense but also for the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/common-good" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">general welfare</a>. Federal power has been extended by <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutional" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutional" data-type="MW">constitutional</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="amendments" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amendments" data-type="MW">amendments</a>, but it has been expanded much more significantly by the liberal use that Congress has made of the “necessary and proper” clause of the Constitution and by the judicial sanction of such use. In many areas of government responsibility, federal power and influence have been extended through a system of grants-in-aid to the states and, through them, to the local governments. The basic features of the plan are that Congress, acting under its authority to appropriate money for the general welfare or under some other specific authorization, makes funds available to the states for a particular purpose, on the condition that the states make <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="appropriations" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/appropriations" data-type="EB">appropriations</a> for the same purpose and meet a standard set by Congress for the manner in which the federal-state funds shall be expended. In the late 20th century this aid system expanded rapidly, both in the number of projects supported and in the funds appropriated for them.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/50-states-50-fun-facts-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/41/257741-131-8B99D74E/USA-United-States-watercolor-map-illustration.jpg" alt="USA, United States watercolor map Illustration in rainbow colors" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">50 States, 50 Fun Facts Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The U.S. Constitution imposes upon the states certain specific prohibitions. By far the most significant are those of the 14th <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Amendment" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Amendment" data-type="MW">Amendment</a>, which <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="stipulate" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stipulate" data-type="MW">stipulate</a> that no state shall “deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/due-process" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">due process</a> of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/equal-protection" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">equal protection</a> of the laws.” Since about 1930 a liberal judicial interpretation of those prohibitions has greatly enlarged <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-liberty" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">civil liberties</a> in general and the rights of racial minorities in particular, especially following the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Supreme-Court-of-the-United-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">U.S. Supreme Court</a>’s ruling in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Brown-v-Board-of-Education-of-Topeka" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true"><em>Brown</em> v. <em>Board of Education</em></a> (1954) and Congress’s enactment of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Civil-Rights-Act-United-States-1964" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Civil Rights Act</a> (1964) and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Voting-Rights-Act" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Voting Rights Act</a> (1965), though the Court’s decision in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Shelby-County-v-Holder" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true"><em>Shelby County</em> v. <em>Holder</em></a> (2013) removed the “preclearance” protections previously afforded voters under the last act.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The states have all the powers not conferred upon the federal government by the Constitution and not prohibited by it to the states. The powers of the states are thus residual, and, despite the steady extension of federal power, they are numerous and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="comprehensive" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/comprehensive" data-type="MW">comprehensive</a>. Furthermore, the national government has left much authority to the states that it might have reserved to itself. For instance, it permits the states to regulate <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/interstate-commerce-United-States-law" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">interstate commerce</a> relating to matters that are primarily of local concern, and it leaves to the states almost complete authority to police the interstate highways. Indeed, examples of state power exist on every hand. In contrast to the United States’ limited criminal code, state codes have incorporated great bodies of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/criminal-law" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">criminal law</a>. The laws governing contracts, torts, negotiable instruments, sales, and many other matters closely related to business are state laws. Also within the special province of the states are laws respecting property, wills and inheritance, and marriage, divorce, and domestic relations. In addition, the states determine who may vote, subject to the limitations set forth in the U.S. Constitution or its various amendments, and most laws relating to political parties and elections are acts of state legislatures.</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Local governments are largely established and controlled by the states, which determine how broad or limited is the authority that they grant to various branches of local government, such as counties, municipalities, and school districts. The so-called Dillon Rule—derived from the philosophy espoused by Iowa Supreme Court <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Justice" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Justice" data-type="MW">Justice</a> John F. Dillon in an 1868 decision—posits that local government exercises powers that are either expressly granted by the state, necessarily and fairly implied from the grant of power, or crucial to the existence of local government. The competing concept of Home Rule holds that state constitutions or statutes confer a measure of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="autonomy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/autonomy" data-type="MW">autonomy</a> on local government and that, in certain areas of responsibility, the authority of local government should not be infringed upon by the state government.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Public education is a leading state function, and the state is close to individuals in other ways. As a rule, the state issues their birth certificates and burial permits, and, as they progress from the cradle to the grave, it protects their personal rights and secures their property, bears most of the cost of their education, licenses them to enter a calling or profession, ministers to their convenience in numerous ways, and penalizes their delinquencies.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=august-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker h4"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref350285"> <h2 class="h1">Nature of state governments</h2> <section data-level="2" id="ref350286"> <h2 class="h2">Constitution</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Each state has a written <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/constitution-politics-and-law" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">constitution</a> of its own design, subject only to the requirement that it shall not violate the federal Constitution. State constitutions follow the federal pattern in that they contain a bill of rights and adhere to the cherished American principle of the distribution of powers among the legislative, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/executive-government" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">executive</a>, and judicial branches of government. (Although the three-branch structure is not <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="mandated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mandated" data-type="MW">mandated</a>, the U.S. Constitution does require that all states uphold a “republican form” of government.) Most state constitutions provide in considerable detail for both the organization and the functions of government, and, in consequence, they are rather long documents. In contrast to the national Constitution, which has 4,400 words, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Alabama-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Alabama’s</a> constitution, the longest of any state, has more than 400,000. The next longest state constitution, that of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Texas-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Texas</a>, contains more than 92,000 words, whereas the shortest state constitution, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Vermont" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Vermont’s</a>, consists of fewer than 9,000 words. Such elaboration of detail requires frequent amendment, a process that is in almost <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="continuous" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/continuous" data-type="EB">continuous</a> operation in a number of states. Alabama has adopted more amendments (more than 970) than any other state, whereas <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rhode-Island-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Rhode Island</a> has adopted the fewest (just over a dozen).</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref350287"> <h2 class="h2">Legislature</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="264280" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/88/232288-050-45B766A1/Maryland-general-assembly-opening-session-state-house-annapolis.tif" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/1102207/264280"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/88/232288-050-45B766A1/Maryland-general-assembly-opening-session-state-house-annapolis.tif?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/88/232288-050-45B766A1/Maryland-general-assembly-opening-session-state-house-annapolis.tif?w=300" alt="Maryland House of Delegates" data-width="4141" data-height="2696" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/88/232288-050-45B766A1/Maryland-general-assembly-opening-session-state-house-annapolis.tif" data-href="/media/1/1102207/264280">Maryland House of Delegates</a><span>The Maryland House of Delegates meeting on January 9, 2013, at the State House in Annapolis, Maryland. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">A bicameral (two-house) legislature is used in all the states except <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nebraska-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Nebraska</a>, which instituted a unicameral system in 1937. As a rule, members of the smaller, upper house, called the Senate in all bicameral state legislatures, serve four-year terms, whereas their counterparts in the lower house, which most states call the House of Representatives, serve two-year terms. (Other names for the lower house are the Assembly (used by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">California</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Nevada-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Nevada</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/New-York-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">New York</a>, and Wisconsin), the General Assembly (used by New Jersey), and the House of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Delegates" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Delegates" data-type="EB">Delegates</a> (used by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Maryland-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Maryland</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Virginia-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Virginia</a>, and West Virginia).</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref350288"> <h2 class="h2">Initiative and referendum</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">During the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American Revolution</a> and for several years afterward, the legislatures enjoyed public confidence and practically unlimited powers in state government. Chiefly because a number of legislatures failed in their trust, the states developed the practice of placing limits on their powers to deal with revenue, appropriations, borrowing, local government, and certain other matters. Furthermore, in the course of time, the state courts assumed a restrictive view of legislative powers. Finally, between 1898 and 1918, general dissatisfaction with legislatures led more than one-third of the states to adopt the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/referendum" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">initiative and referendum</a>, each of which is employed today by about two dozen states. Both electoral devices allow citizens to bypass the legislature. The <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="initiative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/initiative" data-type="MW">initiative</a> allows citizens to put proposed statutes, and in some cases constitutional amendments, directly on the ballot. The referendum enables voters to approve or repeal legislative acts. These processes do not deprive legislatures of essential powers, and they may have the effect of improving legislatures’ work.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref350289"> <h2 class="h2">Electoral districts and gerrymandering</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In 1964 the U.S. Supreme Court, in a decision of far-reaching importance, ruled that the districts from which state legislators are elected must contain, as nearly as possible, the same number of inhabitants. This decision, popularly characterized as the “one man, one vote” principle, struck at the overrepresentation of rural <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constituencies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constituencies" data-type="MW">constituencies</a> in many state legislatures and gave greater political power to residents of metropolitan areas. However, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/gerrymandering" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gerrymandering</a>—the practice of drawing the boundaries of electoral districts in ways that give one <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-party" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">political party</a> an unfair advantage over its rivals (political or partisan gerrymandering) or that dilute the voting power of members of ethnic or linguistic minority groups (racial gerrymandering)—has been routinely used by both <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Republicans</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Democratic-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Democrats</a> in state after state. By the 2020s, however, nine states had turned over the responsibility for redrawing state electoral districts to nonpolitical commissions, whose members cannot hold political office. </p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref350290"> <h2 class="h2">Executive</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="264281" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/182158-050-AA7E2E7F/George-W-Bush-governor-Texas-January-17-1995.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/1102207/264281"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/182158-050-AA7E2E7F/George-W-Bush-governor-Texas-January-17-1995.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/182158-050-AA7E2E7F/George-W-Bush-governor-Texas-January-17-1995.jpg?w=300" alt="George W. Bush's gubernatorial inauguration" data-width="1600" data-height="1018" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/182158-050-AA7E2E7F/George-W-Bush-governor-Texas-January-17-1995.jpg" data-href="/media/1/1102207/264281">George W. Bush's gubernatorial inauguration</a><span>George W. Bush being sworn in as governor of Texas, January 17, 1995.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In colonial America the governors exercised wide powers. During the Revolution, however, much of their authority was stripped away, but after about 1850 the tendency was to make them an <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/inertial-force" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">effective force</a> in legislation and, since 1915, to greatly strengthen their control over administration. Although the governor’s authority over administration has often been impaired by the delegation of much of the administrative work to boards, commissions, and other relatively independent agencies, in many states this situation has been partially corrected by the establishment of administrative departments and the placement of a group of related services in each of them. In such states, the department heads are commonly appointed by, and serve under the immediate direction of, the governor, whose administrative position is thus somewhat <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="analogous" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/analogous" data-type="MW">analogous</a> to that of the president of the United States. Like the governor, a number of the other leading officials in a state’s executive branch—including the lieutenant governor, the secretary of state, and the attorney general—are directly elected by the voters. In the great majority of states, the governor’s influence over legislation is particularly significant, and it is explained by a variety of factors, including the governor’s political position, professional staff, and veto power, as well as the time limit under which most legislatures must work. The hand of governors has been incidentally strengthened by the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="trend" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/trend" data-type="EB">trend</a> to increase the length of their terms.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">As of the early 2020s, 19 states permitted the removal of state officials, including the governor, before the end of a term of office through a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/recall-election" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">recall election</a> (also referred to as a representative recall or a recall referendum). Officials can also be removed from office through the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/impeachment" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">impeachment</a> process, wherein the lower house of the legislature brings charges against the official and the upper house serves as the jury in an impeachment trial. The recall process generally involves the collection of a required minimum number of signatures on a petition within a prescribed <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="time frame" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/time frame" data-type="EB">time frame</a> to initiate a recall election. While petitions for the recall of governors have been relatively common, only four times in American history have gubernatorial recall elections actually been held: <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Dakota" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">North Dakota</a> Gov. Lynn Frazier was recalled in 1921, as was California Gov. Gray Davis in 2003; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Wisconsin" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Wisconsin</a> Gov. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Scott-Walker" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Scott Walker</a> and California Gov. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gavin-Newsom" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gavin Newsom</a> survived recall votes in 2012 and 2021, respectively.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref350291"> <h2 class="h2">Judicial branch</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD14 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The system of law and justice in the states was inherited from Britain, but it has been modified in the states to fit their requirements. Whether judges are elected or appointed and how a state’s court system is structured are determined by either the state constitution or the legislature. Most states follow the elective system and limit the term of office to four, six, or some other number of years. The courts in all the states follow the practice of judicial review; that is, they pass upon the constitutionality of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="statutes" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/statutes" data-type="EB">statutes</a> where such a determination is necessary to decide cases appropriately before them. The state supreme court sits atop the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/judiciary" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">judicial system</a> in most states and hears appeals from the state’s lower courts. It is the court of last resort except in cases regarding consistency with the U.S. Constitution, which can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.</p><span class="marker MOD14 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <span class="md-signature font-12"><a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></span> <span class="md-signature font-12">This article was most recently revised and updated by <a href="/editor/Amy-Tikkanen/6393">Amy Tikkanen</a>.</span><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-simplify-root"></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":1102207,"pageLength":2094,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.36"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.36' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"LARGE","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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