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<li id="toc-The_age_of_the_academies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_age_of_the_academies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The age of the academies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_age_of_the_academies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology_to_measure_science_funding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology_to_measure_science_funding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Methodology to measure science funding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodology_to_measure_science_funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funding_types:_public_and_private" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funding_types:_public_and_private"> <div 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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Rationale for funding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rationale_for_funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funding_modalities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funding_modalities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Funding modalities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funding_modalities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_research_councils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_research_councils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>List of research councils</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_research_councils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditionality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditionality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Conditionality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditionality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hard_money_versus_soft_money" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hard_money_versus_soft_money"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.6</span> <span>Hard money versus soft money</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hard_money_versus_soft_money-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_funding:_industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_funding:_industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Private funding: industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_funding:_industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Influence on research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_on_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influence on research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conflict_of_Interest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_of_Interest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Conflict of Interest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict_of_Interest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulatory_capture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulatory_capture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Regulatory capture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulatory_capture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency_of_funding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency_of_funding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Efficiency of funding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency_of_funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Trends</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trends subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>By country</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recessions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recessions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Recessions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recessions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/400px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/600px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">In society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indexes_of_science_articles" title="Category:Indexes of science articles">Article indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_science" title="Category:Glossaries of science">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> <b>Research funding</b> is a term generally covering any funding for scientific <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a>, in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>. Different methods can be used to disburse funding, but the term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. It is often measured via Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD). </p><p>Most research funding comes from two major sources: corporations (through <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies; often known as <i>research councils</i>). A smaller amount of scientific research is funded by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a> (OECD), more than 60% of <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> and government.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparatively, in countries with less GDP such as <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, the industry contribution is significantly lower. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than "<a href="/wiki/Blue_skies_research" title="Blue skies research">blue-sky</a>" ideas or technologies (such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Funding_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Funding of science">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Conducting research requires funds. Over the past years, funding for research has gone from a closed patronage system to which only few could contribute, to an open system with multiple funding possibilities. </p><p>In the early Zhou dynasty (-c. 6th century to 221 BCE), government officials used their resources to fund schools of thought of which they were patron. The bulk of their philosophies are still relevant, including Confucianism, Legalism and Taoism. </p><p>During the Mayan Empire (-c. 1200–1250), scientific research was funded for religious purposes. The Venus Table is developed, showing precise astronomical data about the position of Venus in the sky. In Cairo (-c. 1283), the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun funded a monumental hospital, patronizing the medical sciences over the religious sciences. Furthermore, Tycho Brahe was given an estate (-c. 1576 – 1580) by his royal patron King Frederik II, which was used to build Uraniborg, an early research institute. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_age_of_the_academies">The age of the academies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The age of the academies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1700–1799, scientific academies became central creators of scientific knowledge. Funded by state sponsorship, societies are still free to manage scientific developments. Membership is exclusive in terms of gender, race and class, but academies open the world of research up beyond the traditional patronage system. </p><p>In 1799, Louis-Nicolas Robert patents the paper machine. When he quarrels over invention ownership, he seeks financing from the Fourdrinier brothers. In 19th century Europe, businessmen financed the application of science to industry. </p><p>In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as the pace of technological progress increased before and during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, most scientific and technological research was carried out by individual <a href="/wiki/Inventor" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventor">inventors</a> using their own funds. A system of <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a> was developed to allow inventors a period of time (often twenty years) to commercialize their inventions and recoup a profit, although in practice many found this difficult. </p><p>The Manhattan Project (1942 – 1946) had cost $27 billion and employed 130,000 people, many of them scientists charged with producing the first nuclear weapons. In 1945, 70 scientists signed the Szilard petition, asking President Truman to make a demonstration of the power of the bomb before using it. Most of the signers lost their jobs in military research. </p><p>In the twentieth century, scientific and technological research became increasingly systematized, as <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a> developed, and discovered that continuous investment in <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> could be a key element of success in a competitive strategy. It remained the case, however, that imitation by competitors - circumventing or simply flouting patents, especially those registered abroad - was often just as successful a strategy for companies focused on innovation in matters of organisation and production technique, or even in marketing. </p><p>Today, many funders move towards transparent and accessible research outcomes through data repositories or Open-access mandates. Some researchers turn to crowdfunding in search of new projects to fund. Private and public foundations, governments, and others stand as an expansion of funding opportunities for researchers. As new funding sources become available, the research community grows and becomes accessible to a wider, and more diverse group of scientists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology_to_measure_science_funding">Methodology to measure science funding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methodology to measure science funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The guidelines for R&D data collections are laid down in the Frascati Manual published by the OECD.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the publication, R&D denotes three type of activity: basic research, applied research and experimental development. This definition does not cover innovation but it may feed into the innovative process. Business sector innovation has a dedicated OECD manual.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p><p>The most frequently used measurement for R&D is Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD). GERD is often represented in GERD-to-GDP ratios, as it allows for easier comparisons between countries. The data collection for GERD is based on reporting by performers. GERD differentiates according to the funding sector (business, enterprise, government, higher education, private non-profit, rest of the world) and the sector of performance (all funding sectors with the exception of rest of the world as GERD only measures activity within the territory of a country). The two may coincide for example when government funds government performed R&D. </p><p>Government funded science also may be measured by the Government budget appropriations and outlays for R&D (GBAORD/ GBARD). GBARD is a funder-based method, it denotes what governments committed to R&D (even if final payment might be different). GERD-source of funding-government and GBARD are not directly comparable. On data collection, GERD is performer based, GBARD is funder. The level of government considered also differs: GERD should include spending by all levels of the government (federal – state – local), whereas GBARD excludes the local level and often lacks state level data. On geographic coverage, GERD takes into account performance within the territory of a country whereas GBARD also payments to the Rest of the world.   </p><p>Comparisons on the effectiveness of both the different sources of funding and sectors of performance as well as their interplay have been made.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The analysis often boils down to whether public and private finance show crowding-in or crowding-out patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Funding_types:_public_and_private">Funding types: public and private</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Funding types: public and private"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public/State_Funding"><span id="Public.2FState_Funding"></span>Public/State Funding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Public/State Funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Research_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Research council">Research council</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_national_laboratories_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="United States national laboratories (disambiguation)">United States national laboratories</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Federally_funded_research_and_development_centers" title="Federally funded research and development centers">List of federally-funded research and development centers (US)</a></div><p>Public funding refers to activities financed by tax-payers money. This is primarily the case when the source of funds is the government. Higher education institutions are usually not completely publicly financed as they charge tuition fees and may receive funds from non-public sources. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rationale_for_funding">Rationale for funding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rationale for funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>R&D is a costly, and long-term investment to which disruptions are harmful.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The public sector has multiple reasons to fund science. The private sector is said to focus on the closer to the market stage of R&D policy, where <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/appropriability" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:appropriability">appropriability</a> hence private returns are high.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_1119–1135_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones_1119–1135-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basic research is weak on appropriability and so remains risky and under-financed.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, although governmental R&D may provide support across the R&D value chain, it is often characterized as <a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a> induced intervention to maintain early-stage research where incentives to invest are low. The theory of <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public goods</a> seconds this argument.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Publicly funded research often supports research fields where social rate of return is higher than private rate of return often related to appropriability potential.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general <a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">free rider problem</a> of public goods is a threat especially in case of global public goods such as climate change research, which may lower incentives to invest by both the private sector but also other governments.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Endogenous_growth_theory" title="Endogenous growth theory">endogenous growth theories</a>, R&D contributes to growth.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have depicted this relationship in the inverse, claiming that growth drives innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, (tacit) knowledge itself is said to be a source of economic driver internalized by science workers.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When this knowledge and/or human capital emigrates, countries face the so-called <a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">brain–drain</a>. Science policy can assist to avoid this as large shares of governmental R&D is spent on researchers and supporting staff personnel salaries.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, science funding is not only <a href="/wiki/Discretionary_spending" title="Discretionary spending">discretionary spending</a> but also has elements of <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_spending" title="Mandatory spending">entitlement spending</a>. </p><p>R&D funded and especially performed by the State may allow greater influence over its direction.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is particularly important in the case of R&D contributing to public goods. However, the ability of governments have been criticized over whether they are best positioned to pick winners and losers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the EU, dedicated safeguards have been enacted under a dedicated form of competition law called <a href="/wiki/State_aid_(European_Union)" title="State aid (European Union)">State Aid</a>. State Aid safeguards business activities from governmental interventions. This invention was largely driven by the German <a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">ordoliberal</a> school as to eliminate state subsidies advocated by the French <a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">dirigiste</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Threats to global public goods has refueled the debate on the role of governments beyond a mere market failure fixer, the so-called mission-driven policies.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Funding_modalities">Funding modalities</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Funding modalities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Governments may fund science through different instruments such as: direct subsidies, tax credits, loans, financial instruments, regulatory measures, public procurement etc. While direct subsidies have been the prominent instrument to fund business R&D, since the <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–2008">financial crisis</a> a shift has taken place in OECD countries in the direction of tax breaks. The explanation seems to lay in the theoretical argument that firms know better, and in the practical benefit of lower administrative burden of such schemes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the funding type, different modalities to distribute the funds may be used. For regulatory measures, often the <a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">competition/antitrust</a> authorities will rule on exemptions. In case of block funding the funds may be directly allocated to given institutions such as higher education institutions with relative autonomy over their use.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For competitive grants, governments are often assisted by research councils to distribute the funds.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research councils are (usually public) bodies that provide research funding in the form of research grants or <a href="/wiki/Scholarship" title="Scholarship">scholarships</a>. These include arts councils and research councils for the funding of science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="List_of_research_councils">List of research councils</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: List of research councils"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An incomplete list of national and international pan-disciplinary public research councils: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Location </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Council" title="National Scientific and Technical Research Council">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/35px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/46px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Australian_Research_Council" title="Australian Research Council">Australian Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Health_and_Medical_Research_Council" title="National Health and Medical Research Council">National Health and Medical Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/CSIRO" title="CSIRO">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Nuclear_Science_and_Technology_Organisation" title="Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation">Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_Space_Agency" title="Australian Space Agency">Australian Space Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defence_Science_and_Technology_Group" title="Defence Science and Technology Group">Defence Science and Technology Group</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Research_Promotion_Agency" title="Austrian Research Promotion Agency">Austrian Research Promotion Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Science_Fund" title="Austrian Science Fund">Austrian Science Fund</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Space_Agency" title="Austrian Space Agency">Austrian Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sciensano" title="Sciensano">Sciensano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Research_Foundation_-_Flanders_(FWO)" class="mw-redirect" title="Research Foundation - Flanders (FWO)">Research Foundation - Flanders</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Scientific_and_Technological_Development" title="National Council for Scientific and Technological Development">National Council for Scientific and Technological Development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Space_Agency" title="Brazilian Space Agency">Brazilian Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (Canada)">National Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_Sciences_and_Engineering_Research_Council" title="Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council">Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Institutes_of_Health_Research" title="Canadian Institutes of Health Research">Canadian Institutes of Health Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_Sciences_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council">Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Space_Agency" title="Canadian Space Agency">Canadian Space Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defence_Research_and_Development_Canada" title="Defence Research and Development Canada">Defence Research and Development Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_of_Canada_Limited" title="Atomic Energy of Canada Limited">Atomic Energy of Canada Limited</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency of Canada</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CONICYT" title="CONICYT">National Commission for Scientific Research and Technology</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Natural_Science_Foundation_of_China" title="National Natural Science Foundation of China">National Natural Science Foundation of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Science_and_Technology_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Science and Technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/China_National_Space_Administration" title="China National Space Administration">China National Space Administration</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Czech_Science_Foundation" title="Czech Science Foundation">Czech Science Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technology_Agency_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Technology Agency of the Czech Republic">Technology Agency of the Czech Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_Space_Office" title="Czech Space Office">Czech Space Office</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Danish Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/European_Research_Council" title="European Research Council">European Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Defence_Fund" title="European Defence Fund">European Defence Fund</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/45px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Research_Council_of_Finland" title="Research Council of Finland">Research Council of Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tekes_(agency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tekes (agency)">Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Agence_Nationale_de_la_Recherche" class="mw-redirect" title="Agence Nationale de la Recherche">National Agency for Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/CNES" title="CNES">National Centre for Space Studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Alternative_Energies_and_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission">French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_National_Centre_for_Scientific_Research" title="French National Centre for Scientific Research">French National Centre for Scientific Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inserm" title="Inserm">French National Institute of Health and Medical Research</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft">German Research Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center" title="German Aerospace Center">German Aerospace Center</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Hellenic_Research_Foundation" title="National Hellenic Research Foundation">National Hellenic Research Foundation</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Centre_for_Research" title="Icelandic Centre for Research">Icelandic Centre for Research</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research" title="Council of Scientific and Industrial Research">Council of Scientific and Industrial Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Council_of_Medical_Research" title="Indian Council of Medical Research">Indian Council of Medical Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Council_of_Agricultural_Research" title="Indian Council of Agricultural Research">Indian Council of Agricultural Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defence_Research_and_Development_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence Research and Development Organization">Defence Research and Development Organization</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Irish_Research_Council" title="Irish Research Council">Irish Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland" title="Science Foundation Ireland">Science Foundation Ireland</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Israel_Science_Foundation" title="Israel Science Foundation">Israel Science Foundation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Israel_Innovation_Authority" title="Israel Innovation Authority">Israel Innovation Authority</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel_Space_Agency" title="Israel Space Agency">Israel Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(Italy)" title="National Research Council (Italy)">National Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">Italian Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Research_and_Technology_Council_(Mexico)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research and Technology Council (Mexico)">National Research and Technology Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Space_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Space Agency">Mexican Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Organisation_for_Scientific_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research">Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Space_Office" title="Netherlands Space Office">Netherlands Space Office</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Research_Council_of_Norway" title="Research Council of Norway">Research Council of Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Defence_Research_Establishment" title="Norwegian Defence Research Establishment">Norwegian Defence Research Establishment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_of_Public_Health" title="Norwegian Institute of Public Health">Norwegian Institute of Public Health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Space_Agency" title="Norwegian Space Agency">Norwegian Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Science_Foundation" title="Pakistan Science Foundation">Pakistan Science Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research">Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Health_Research_Council" title="Pakistan Health Research Council">Pakistan Health Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space_and_Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission">Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Agricultural_Research_Council" title="Pakistan Agricultural Research Council">Pakistan Agricultural Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defence_Science_and_Technology_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence Science and Technology Organization">Defence Science and Technology Organization</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_para_a_Ci%C3%AAncia_e_Tecnologia" title="Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia">Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia" title="Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia">Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Science,_Technology_and_Research" title="Agency for Science, Technology and Research">Agency for Science, Technology and Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defence_Science_and_Technology_Agency" title="Defence Science and Technology Agency">Defence Science and Technology Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/35px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/45px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Research_Foundation_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Foundation of South Africa">National Research Foundation of South Africa</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spanish_National_Research_Council" title="Spanish National Research Council">Spanish National Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_Research_Agency" title="State Research Agency">State Research Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Aerospace_Technology" title="National Institute for Aerospace Technology">National Institute for Aerospace Technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Development_of_Industrial_Technology" title="Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology">Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Space_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Space Agency">Spanish Space Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_III_Health_Institute" title="Carlos III Health Institute">Carlos III Health Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/CIEMAT" title="CIEMAT">Centre for Energy, Environmental and Technological Research</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_of_Sri_Lanka" title="National Research Council of Sri Lanka">National Research Council of Sri Lanka</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Research_Council" title="Swedish Research Council">Swedish Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_National_Space_Agency" title="Swedish National Space Agency">Swedish National Space Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Defence_Research_Agency" title="Swedish Defence Research Agency">Swedish Defence Research Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation" title="Swiss National Science Foundation">Swiss National Science Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Space_Office" title="Swiss Space Office">Swiss Space Office</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span>  </span><a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Science_and_Technology_Development_Agency" title="National Science and Technology Development Agency">National Science and Technology Development Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Scientific_and_Technological_Research_Council_of_Turkey" title="Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey">Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Space_Agency" title="Turkish Space Agency">Turkish Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uganda National Council for Science and Technology<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/23px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/35px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg/45px-Flag_of_Uganda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Research_Foundation_(United_Arab_Emirates)" title="National Research Foundation (United Arab Emirates)">National Research Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates_Space_Agency" title="United Arab Emirates Space Agency">United Arab Emirates Space Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Engineering_and_Physical_Sciences_Research_Council" title="Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council">Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(United_Kingdom)" title="Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)">Medical Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_and_Biological_Sciences_Research_Council" title="Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council">Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Technology_Facilities_Council" title="Science and Technology Facilities Council">Science and Technology Facilities Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defence_Science_and_Technology_Laboratory" title="Defence Science and Technology Laboratory">Defence Science and Technology Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Innovate_UK" title="Innovate UK">Innovate UK</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research" title="National Institute for Health and Care Research">National Institute for Health and Care Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_Environment_Research_Council" title="Natural Environment Research Council">Natural Environment Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Research_Council" title="Economic and Social Research Council">Economic and Social Research Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Research_England" title="Research England">Research England</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Atomic_Energy_Authority" title="United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority">United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority</a>, <a href="/wiki/UK_Energy_Research_Centre" title="UK Energy Research Centre">UK Energy Research Centre</a>, <a href="/wiki/UK_Space_Agency" title="UK Space Agency">UK Space Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_and_Invention_Agency" title="Advanced Research and Invention Agency">Advanced Research and Invention Agency</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defence_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency">Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency-Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy">Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Science" title="Office of Science">DOE Office of Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Research_Service" title="Agricultural Research Service">Agricultural Research Service</a> </td> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conditionality">Conditionality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Conditionality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to project deliverables, funders also increasingly introduce new eligibility requirements alongside traditional ones such as research <a href="/wiki/Scientific_integrity" title="Scientific integrity">integrity/ethics</a>. </p><p>With the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379949.locale=en">Open Science movement</a>, funding is increasingly tied to <a href="/wiki/Data_management_plan" title="Data management plan">data management plans</a> and making <a href="/wiki/FAIR_data" title="FAIR data">data FAIR</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Open Science requirement complements <a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="Open access">Open Access</a> mandates<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which today are widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gender dimension also gained ground in recent years. The European Commission mandates applicants to adopt gender equality plans across their organization.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UK Research and Innovation Global Challenges Research Fund mandates a gender equality statement.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most recently, the European Commission also introduced a “Do No Significant Harm” principle to the Framework Program which aims to curb the environmental footprint of scientific projects.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Do No Significant Harm" has been criticized as coupled with other eligibility requirements it is often characterized as <a href="/wiki/Red_tape" title="Red tape">red-tape</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The European Commission has been trying to simplify the Framework Program for numerous years with limited success.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simplification attempts are also taken by the <a href="/wiki/UK_Research_and_Innovation" title="UK Research and Innovation">UK Research and Innovation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Process">Process</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Often scientists apply for research funding which a granting agency may (or may not) approve to financially support. These <i>grants</i> require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher(s)'s background, the facilities used, the equipment needed, the time involved, and the overall potential of the scientific outcome. The process of grant writing and grant proposing is a somewhat delicate process for both the grantor and the grantee: the grantors want to choose the research that best fits their scientific principles, and the individual grantees want to apply for research in which they have the best chances but also in which they can build a body of work towards future scientific endeavors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Engineering_and_Physical_Sciences_Research_Council" title="Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council">Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council</a> in the United Kingdom has devised an alternative method of fund-distribution: the sandpit.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most universities have research administration offices to facilitate the interaction between the researcher and the granting agency.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Research administration is all about service—service to our faculty, to our academic units, to the institution, and to our sponsors. To be of service, we first have to know what our customers want and then determine whether or not we are meeting those needs and expectations."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States of America, the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_University_Research_Administrators" title="National Council of University Research Administrators">National Council of University Research Administrators</a> serves its members and advances the field of research administration through education and professional development programs, the sharing of knowledge and experience, and by fostering a professional, collegial, and respected community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hard_money_versus_soft_money">Hard money versus soft money</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hard money versus soft money"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In academic contexts, <i>hard money</i> may refer to funding received from a government or other entity at regular intervals, thus providing a steady inflow of financial resources to the beneficiary. The antonym, <i>soft money</i>, refers to funding provided only through competitive <a href="/wiki/Research_grant" class="mw-redirect" title="Research grant">research grants</a> and the writing of grant proposals.<sup id="cite_ref-StackExchangeHardMoney_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StackExchangeHardMoney-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hard money is usually issued by the government for the advancement of certain projects or for the benefit of specific agencies. Community <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a>, for instance, may be supported by the government by providing hard money. Since funds are disbursed regularly and continuously, the offices in charge of such projects are able to achieve their objectives more effectively than if they had been issued one-time grants. </p><p>Individual jobs at a research institute may be classified as "hard-money positions" or "soft-money positions";<sup id="cite_ref-StackExchangeHardMoney_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StackExchangeHardMoney-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the former are expected to provide <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a> because their funding is secure in the long term, whereas individual "soft-money" positions may come and go with fluctuations in the number of grants awarded to the institution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_funding:_industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding"><span id="Private_funding:_industrial.2Fphilanthropy.2Fcrowdfunding"></span>Private funding: industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Private funding: industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Private-equity_fund" class="mw-redirect" title="Private-equity fund">Private-equity fund</a></div> <p>Private funding for research comes from <a href="/wiki/Philanthropist" class="mw-redirect" title="Philanthropist">philanthropists</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Billionaire_Ideas_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Billionaire_Ideas-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crowd-funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Crowd-funding">crowd-funding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Crowdfunding_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowdfunding-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Private_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Private companies">private companies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-profit_foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit foundation">non-profit foundations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Professional_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional organization">professional organizations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philanthropists and foundations have been pouring millions of dollars into a wide variety of scientific investigations, including basic research discovery, disease cures, particle physics, astronomy, marine science, and the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Billionaire_Ideas_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Billionaire_Ideas-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Privately funded research has been adept at identifying important and transformative areas of scientific research.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many large technology companies spend billions of dollars on research and development each year to gain an <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovative</a> advantage over their competitors, though only about 42% of this funding goes towards projects that are considered substantially new, or capable of yielding radical breakthroughs.<sup id="cite_ref-Business_Strategy_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Business_Strategy-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New scientific start-up companies initially seek funding from <a href="/wiki/Crowd-funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Crowd-funding">crowd-funding</a> organizations, <a href="/wiki/Venture_capitalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture capitalists">venture capitalists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Angel_investors" class="mw-redirect" title="Angel investors">angel investors</a>, gathering preliminary results using rented facilities,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but aim to eventually become self-sufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-Crowdfunding_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crowdfunding-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Europe and the United States have both reiterated the need for further private funding within universities.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The European Commission highlights the need for private funding via research in policy areas such the European Green Deal and Europe's role in the digital age.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_research">Influence on research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Influence on research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The source of funding may introduce conscious or unconscious <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">biases</a> into a researcher's work.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is highly problematic due to <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic freedom</a> in case of universities and <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">regulatory capture</a> in case of government-funded R&D. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_of_Interest">Conflict of Interest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Conflict of Interest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Disclosure of potential <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflicts of interest</a> (COIs) is used by journals to guarantee credibility and transparency of the scientific process. Conflict of interest disclosure, however, is not systematically nor consistently dealt with by journals that publish scientific research results. </p><p>When research is funded by the same agency that can be expected to gain from a favorable outcome there is a potential for biased results and research shows that results are indeed more favorable than would be expected from a more objective view of the evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2003 <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> studied the scope and impact of industry sponsorship in <a href="/wiki/Biomedical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical">biomedical</a> research. The researchers found financial relationships among industry, scientific investigators, and academic institutions widespread. Results showed a statistically significant association between industry sponsorship and pro-industry conclusions and concluded that "Conflicts of interest arising from these ties can influence biomedical research in important ways".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A British study found that a majority of the members on national and food policy committees receive funding from food companies.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an effort to cut costs, the <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a> has turned to the use of private, nonacademic research groups (i.e., contract research organizations [CROs]) which can do the work for less money than academic investigators. In 2001 CROs came under criticism when the editors of 12 major scientific journals issued a joint editorial, published in each journal, on the control over <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a> exerted by sponsors, particularly targeting the use of contracts which allow sponsors to review the studies prior to publication and withhold publication of any studies in which their product did poorly. They further criticized the trial methodology stating that researchers are frequently restricted from contributing to the trial design, accessing the raw data, and interpreting the results.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_Collaboration" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane Collaboration">Cochrane Collaboration</a>, a worldwide group that aims to provide compiled scientific evidence to aid well informed health care decisions, conducts <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic reviews</a> of <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> of health care interventions and tries to disseminate the results and conclusions derived from them.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few more recent reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, <a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational studies</a>. The systematic reviews are published in the <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_Library" title="Cochrane Library">Cochrane Library</a>. A 2011 study done to disclose possible conflicts of interests in underlying research studies used for medical <a href="/wiki/Meta-analyses" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-analyses">meta-analyses</a> reviewed 29 meta-analyses and found that conflicts of interest in the studies underlying the meta-analyses were rarely disclosed. The 29 meta-analyses reviewed an aggregate of 509 randomized controlled trials. Of these, 318 trials reported funding sources with 219 (69%) industry funded. 132 of the 509 trials reported author disclosures of conflict of interest, with 91 studies (69%) disclosing industry financial ties with one or more authors. However, the information was seldom reflected in the meta-analyses. Only two (7%) reported funding sources and none reported author-industry ties. The authors concluded, "without acknowledgment of COI due to industry funding or author industry financial ties from RCTs included in meta-analyses, readers' understanding and appraisal of the evidence from the meta-analysis may be compromised."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003 researchers looked at the association between authors' published positions on the safety and efficacy in assisting with weight loss of <a href="/wiki/Olestra" title="Olestra">olestra</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Fat_substitute" title="Fat substitute">fat substitute</a> manufactured by the <a href="/wiki/Procter_%26_Gamble" title="Procter & Gamble">Procter & Gamble</a> (P&G), and their financial relationships with the food and beverage industry. They found that supportive authors were significantly more likely than critical or neutral authors to have financial relationships with P&G and all authors disclosing an affiliation with P&G were supportive. The authors of the study concluded: "Because authors' published opinions were associated with their financial relationships, obtaining noncommercial funding may be more essential to maintaining objectivity than disclosing personal financial interests."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2005 study in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> surveyed 3247 US researchers who were all publicly funded (by the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>). Out of the scientists questioned, 15.5% admitted to altering design, methodology or results of their studies due to pressure of an external funding source. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulatory_capture">Regulatory capture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Regulatory capture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Private funding also may be channelled to public funders. In 2022, a news story broke following the resignation of Eric Lander, former director of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy" title="Office of Science and Technology Policy">Office of Science and Technology Policy</a> (OSTP) at the Biden administration, that the charity of former Google executive Eric Schmidt, Schmidt Futures, paid the salary of a number employees of the OSTP.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethics inquiries were initiated in the OSTP. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency_of_funding">Efficiency of funding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Efficiency of funding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The traditional measurement for efficiency of funding are <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">publication</a> output, <a href="/wiki/Citation_impact" title="Citation impact">citation impact</a>, number of <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, number of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhDs</a> awarded etc. However, the use of <a href="/wiki/Impact_factor" title="Impact factor">journal impact factor</a> has generated a <a href="/wiki/Publish_or_perish" title="Publish or perish">publish-or-perish</a> culture and a theoretical model has been established whose simulations imply that <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> and over-competitive research funding foster mainstream opinion to monopoly.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calls have been made to reform research assessment, most notably in the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Declaration_on_Research_Assessment" title="San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment">San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment</a><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Leiden_Manifesto" title="Leiden Manifesto">Leiden Manifesto for research metrics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current system also has limitations to measure excellence in the Global South.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Novel measurement systems such as the Research Quality Plus has been put forward to better emphasize local knowledge and contextualization in the evaluation of excellence.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another question is how to allocate funds to different disciplines, institutions, or researchers. A recent study by Wayne Walsh found that “prestigious institutions had on average 65% higher grant application success rates and 50% larger award sizes, whereas less-prestigious institutions produced 65% more publications and had a 35% higher citation impact per dollar of funding.”<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trends">Trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_research_and_development_spending" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by research and development spending">List of countries by research and development spending</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Endogenous_growth_theory" title="Endogenous growth theory">endogenous growth theories</a> R&D contributes to economic growth. Therefore, countries have strong incentives to maintain investments in R&D. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_country">By country</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: By country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different countries spend vastly different amounts on research, in both absolute and relative terms. For instance, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> spend more than 4% of their GDP while many less developed countries spend less than 1%.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In developed economies, GERD is financed mainly by the business sector, whereas the government and the university sector dominates in less-developed economies.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some countries, funding from the Rest of the World makes up 20-30% of total GERD, probably due to FDI and foreign aid, but only in Mali it is the main source of fund.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Private non-profit is not the main source of fund in any countries, but it reaches 10% of total GERD in Columbia and Honduras.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When comparing annual GERD and GDP Growth, it can be seen that countries with lower GERD are often growing faster. However, as most of these countries are developing, their growth is probably driven by other <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">factors of production</a>. On the other hand, developed countries who have higher GERD also produce positive growth rates. GERD in these countries has a more substantial contribution to growth rate. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country (and the EU) </th> <th>GERD as % of the GDP in 2017<sup id="cite_ref-:2_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>GDP Growth (annual %) in 2017<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Main GERD source of fund<sup id="cite_ref-:2_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Targets </th></tr> <tr> <td>Israel </td> <td>4,81 </td> <td>4,38 </td> <td>Business </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Republic of Korea </td> <td>4,29 </td> <td>3,16 </td> <td>Business </td> <td>5% by 2017 </td></tr> <tr> <td>USA </td> <td>2,81 </td> <td>2,33 </td> <td>Business </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>European Union </td> <td>2,15 </td> <td>2,8 </td> <td>Business </td> <td>3% of EU GDP by 2030 </td></tr> <tr> <td>China </td> <td>2,11 </td> <td>6,95 </td> <td>Business </td> <td>annual increase of 7% (2021- 2025)<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uruguay </td> <td>0,48 </td> <td>1,63 </td> <td>Higher Education </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mali </td> <td>0,29 </td> <td>5,31 </td> <td>Rest of the World </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Armenia </td> <td>0,22 </td> <td>7,5 </td> <td>Government </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Iraq </td> <td>0,04 </td> <td>-1,82 </td> <td>Government </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guatemala </td> <td>0,02 </td> <td>4,63 </td> <td>Higher education </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recessions">Recessions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Recessions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In crisis, business R&D tends to act <a href="/wiki/Procyclical_and_countercyclical_variables" title="Procyclical and countercyclical variables">procyclically</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As R&D is a long-term investments and so disruptions should be avoided Keynesian <a href="/wiki/Procyclical_and_countercyclical_variables" title="Procyclical and countercyclical variables">countercyclical</a> reactions were advocated for in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, but this was difficult to achieve for some countries.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the nature of COVID-19, the pandemic accelerated publicly funded R&D spending in 2020, primarily into the <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a>. A fall is expected in spending for 2021, although not below 2020 levels.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pandemic made health research and sectors with strategic value-chain dependencies the main target of science funding.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_funding_advisory_bodies" title="Category:Scientific funding advisory bodies">Scientific funding advisory bodies (category)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Organized_Funding_Allocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-Organized Funding Allocation">Self-Organized Funding Allocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research" title="Industry funding of academic research">Industry funding of academic research</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en"><i>OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society</i></a>. OECD. 2015. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1787%2Fsti_scoreboard-2015-en">10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789264239784" title="Special:BookSources/9789264239784"><bdi>9789264239784</bdi></a> – via oecd-ilibrary.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OECD+Science%2C+Technology+and+Industry+Scoreboard+2015%3A+Innovation+for+growth+and+society&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2Fsti_scoreboard-2015-en&rft.isbn=9789264239784&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-ilibrary.org%2Fscience-and-technology%2Foecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2012" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, R.A. (2012). "Socioeconomic impacts of heat transfer research". <i>International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer</i>. <b>39</b> (10): 1467–1473. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ICHMT..39.1467T">2012ICHMT..39.1467T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icheatmasstransfer.2012.09.007">10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2012.09.007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Communications+in+Heat+and+Mass+Transfer&rft.atitle=Socioeconomic+impacts+of+heat+transfer+research&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1467-1473&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.icheatmasstransfer.2012.09.007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012ICHMT..39.1467T&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=R.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOECD2015" class="citation book cs1">OECD (2015-10-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/frascati-manual-2015_9789264239012-en"><i>Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development</i></a>. The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities. 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OECD Digital Economy Papers. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1787%2F222138024482">10.1787/222138024482</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Policy+Responses+to+the+Economic+Crisis%3A+Investing+in+Innovation+for+Long-Term+Growth&rft.date=2009-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2F222138024482&rft.aulast=Guellec&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft.au=Wunsch-Vincent%2C+Sacha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-ilibrary.org%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fpolicy-responses-to-the-economic-crisis_222138024482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbi_YounesAyoubiBallesterCristelli2021" class="citation journal cs1">Abi Younes, George; Ayoubi, Charles; Ballester, Omar; Cristelli, Gabriele; de Rassenfosse, Gaétan; Foray, Dominique; Gaulé, Patrick; Pellegrino, Gabriele; van den Heuvel, Matthias; Webster, Elizabeth; Zhou, Ling (2021-04-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/spp/article/47/5/733/5865508">"COVID-19: Insights from innovation economists"</a>. <i>Science and Public Policy</i>. <b>47</b> (5): 733–745. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fscipol%2Fscaa028">10.1093/scipol/scaa028</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0302-3427">0302-3427</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7337780">7337780</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+and+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=COVID-19%3A+Insights+from+innovation+economists&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=733-745&rft.date=2021-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7337780%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0302-3427&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fscipol%2Fscaa028&rft.aulast=Abi+Younes&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Ayoubi%2C+Charles&rft.au=Ballester%2C+Omar&rft.au=Cristelli%2C+Gabriele&rft.au=de+Rassenfosse%2C+Ga%C3%A9tan&rft.au=Foray%2C+Dominique&rft.au=Gaul%C3%A9%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Pellegrino%2C+Gabriele&rft.au=van+den+Heuvel%2C+Matthias&rft.au=Webster%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Ling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fspp%2Farticle%2F47%2F5%2F733%2F5865508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOECD_Directorate_for_Science,_Technology_and_Innovation2022" class="citation web cs1">OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Innovation (March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/sti/msti2022.pdf">"OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators. R&D Highlights in the March 2022 Publication"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OECD+Main+Science+and+Technology+Indicators.+R%26D+Highlights+in+the+March+2022+Publication&rft.date=2022-03&rft.au=OECD+Directorate+for+Science%2C+Technology+and+Innovation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Fsti%2Fmsti2022.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUNESCO2021" class="citation web cs1">UNESCO (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377433">"UNESCO Science Report: The race against time for smarter development"</a>. <i>unesdoc.unesco.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unesdoc.unesco.org&rft.atitle=UNESCO+Science+Report%3A+The+race+against+time+for+smarter+development&rft.date=2021&rft.au=UNESCO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000377433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Eisfeld-Reschke, Jörg, Herb, Ulrich, & Wenzlaff, Karsten (2014). Research Funding in Open Science. In S. Bartling & S. Friesike (Eds.), Opening Science (pp. 237–253). Heidelberg: Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-00026-8_16">10.1007/978-3-319-00026-8_16</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerb2014" class="citation news cs1">Herb, Ulrich (2014-07-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140903102354/http://www.researchresearch.com/index.php?option=com_news&template=rr_2col&view=article&articleId=1345626">"Open science's final frontier"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_Europe_(magazine)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Research Europe (magazine) (page does not exist)">Research Europe</a> Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.researchresearch.com/index.php?option=com_news&template=rr_2col&view=article&articleId=1345626">the original</a> on 2014-09-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Open+science%27s+final+frontier&rft.date=2014-07-31&rft.aulast=Herb&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchresearch.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_news%26template%3Drr_2col%26view%3Darticle%26articleId%3D1345626&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinsonDe_Vries2005" class="citation journal cs1">Martinson, Brian C.; De Vries, Raymond; et al. (2005). "Scientists behaving badly". <i>Nature</i>. <b>435</b> (7043): 737–738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.435..737M">2005Natur.435..737M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F435737a">10.1038/435737a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15944677">15944677</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4341622">4341622</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Scientists+behaving+badly&rft.volume=435&rft.issue=7043&rft.pages=737-738&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F435737a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4341622%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15944677&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.435..737M&rft.aulast=Martinson&rft.aufirst=Brian+C.&rft.au=De+Vries%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMello2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mello, Michelle M.; et al. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2Fnejmsa044115">"Academic Medical Centers' Standards for Clinical-Trial Agreements with Industry"</a>. <i>New England Journal of Medicine</i>. <b>352</b> (21): 2202–2210. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2Fnejmsa044115">10.1056/nejmsa044115</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15917385">15917385</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8283797">8283797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Academic+Medical+Centers%27+Standards+for+Clinical-Trial+Agreements+with+Industry&rft.volume=352&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=2202-2210&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8283797%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15917385&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2Fnejmsa044115&rft.aulast=Mello&rft.aufirst=Michelle+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1056%252Fnejmsa044115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdlyzko1995" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Odlyzko" title="Andrew Odlyzko">Odlyzko, Andrew</a> (1995-10-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/decline.txt">"The Decline of Unfettered Research"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Decline+of+Unfettered+Research&rft.date=1995-10-04&rft.aulast=Odlyzko&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtc.umn.edu%2F~odlyzko%2Fdoc%2Fdecline.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunding+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Funding_of_science&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/page/where-search-funding">Where to Search for Funding | Science | AAAS</a>, from Science Careers, from the Journal Science.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ResearchCrossroads.org">ResearchCrossroads</a> Aggregated funding data from the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, NSF, private foundations and the European Union</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/research/fp7/index_en.cfm?pg=understanding">Seventh Framework Programme (2007–2013)</a> The European Unions's programme for funding and promoting research at the European level</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cordis.europa.eu/home_en.html">CORDIS - the official website of the European Unions's programme for funding and promoting research</a> This website contains comprehensive information on research projects already funded.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rcuk.ac.uk/">Research Councils UK</a> The portal for the UK-based Research Councils.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> 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