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<span>Cave diving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cave_diving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Landlocked body of water with underground connection to the sea</div> <p>An <b>anchialine system</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="/ŋ/: 'ng' in 'sing'">ŋ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>, from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <i>ankhialos</i> 'near the sea') is a landlocked body of water with a subterranean connection to the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>. Depending on its formation, these systems can exist in one of two primary forms: pools or caves. The primary differentiating characteristics between pools and caves is the availability of light; cave systems are generally <a href="/wiki/Aphotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphotic">aphotic</a> while pools are <a href="/wiki/Euphotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphotic">euphotic</a>. The difference in light availability has a large influence on the biology of a given system. Anchialine systems are a feature of coastal <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> which are density stratified, with water near the surface being fresh or <a href="/wiki/Brackish_water" title="Brackish water">brackish</a>, and saline water intruding from the coast at depth. Depending on the site, it is sometimes possible to access the deeper saline water directly in the anchialine pool, or sometimes it may be accessible by <a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">cave diving</a>. </p><p>Anchialine systems are extremely common worldwide especially along <a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">neotropical</a> coastlines where the geology and aquifer systems are relatively young, and there is minimal soil development. Such conditions occur notably where the <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> is <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> or recently formed volcanic <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>. Many anchialine systems are found on the coastlines of the <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">island of Hawaii</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a>, and other karst and volcanic systems. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karst_landscape_formation">Karst landscape formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Karst landscape formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bermuda_(UK)_image_number_219_caves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Bermuda_%28UK%29_image_number_219_caves.jpg/220px-Bermuda_%28UK%29_image_number_219_caves.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Bermuda_%28UK%29_image_number_219_caves.jpg/330px-Bermuda_%28UK%29_image_number_219_caves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Bermuda_%28UK%29_image_number_219_caves.jpg/440px-Bermuda_%28UK%29_image_number_219_caves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Crystal Cave, Bermuda is an anchialine cave formed by chemical dissolution of soluble bedrock.</figcaption></figure> <p>Anchialine systems may occur in <a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">karst landscapes</a>, regions with bedrock composed of soluble sedimentary rock, such as limestone, dolomite, marble, gypsum, or halite.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subterranean voids form in karst landscapes through the dissolution of bedrock by rainwater, which becomes mildly acidic by equilibrating with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil as it percolates, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a>, a weak acid.<sup id="cite_ref-Veni-2001_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veni-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The acidic water reacts with the soluble sedimentary rock causing the rock to dissolve and create voids.<sup id="cite_ref-Veni-2001_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veni-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, these voids widen and deepen, resulting in caves, sinkholes, subterranean pools, and springs.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Veni-2001_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veni-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The processes to form these karst morphological features occur on long geological timescales; caverns can be several hundred thousand to millions of years old.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the caverns which house karst anchialine systems form through the dissolution of bedrock via water percolation, current karst anchialine systems developed around the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">last glacial maximum</a>, approximately 20,000 years ago when the sea level was ~120 meters lower than today.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Hengstum-2019_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Hengstum-2019-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of this can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">speleothems</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">stalactites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">stalagmites</a>), a terrestrial cave formation observed at 24 meters water depth in anchialine pools in <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> and 122 meters water depth in a <a href="/wiki/Blue_hole" title="Blue hole">blue hole</a> in <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The marine transgression after the last glacial maximum caused <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saline groundwater</a> to intrude into karst caverns resulting in anchialine systems. In some anchialine systems, lenses of freshwater overlay the saltwater environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is caused by the accumulation of freshwater from <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_water" title="Meteoric water">meteoric</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phreatic_zone" title="Phreatic zone">phreatic</a> sources above the intruded saltwater or the vertical displacement of freshwater from intruding saltwater.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Hengstum-2019_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Hengstum-2019-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horizontal white “bathtub ring” stains are observed in submerged sections of Green Bay Cave, Bermuda, indicating paleo-transition zones between freshwater and saltwater at a lower sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanic_formation">Volcanic formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Volcanic formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anchialine_pond,_South_Maui.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Anchialine_pond%2C_South_Maui.jpeg/220px-Anchialine_pond%2C_South_Maui.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Anchialine_pond%2C_South_Maui.jpeg/330px-Anchialine_pond%2C_South_Maui.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Anchialine_pond%2C_South_Maui.jpeg/440px-Anchialine_pond%2C_South_Maui.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A volcanic anchialine pool in the 'Ahihi-Kina'u Natural Area Reserve on the southwestern coast of Maui, Hawaii.</figcaption></figure> <p>Anchialine systems are also commonly found in coastal <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> volcanic environments such as the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samoa" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lava_tube" title="Lava tube">Lava tubes</a> are the primary mechanism that creates anchialine systems in these volcanic environments.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lava tubes occur during eruptions of fluid-flowing <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">pahoehoe lava</a>. As lava flows downhill, the atmosphere and cooler surfaces come in contact with the exterior of the flow, causing it to solidify and create a conduit through which the interior liquid lava continues flowing. If the solid conduit empties of liquid lava, the result is a lava tube.<sup id="cite_ref-Martínez-2018_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martínez-2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lava tubes flow towards lower elevations and typically stop upon reaching the ocean; however, lava tubes can extend along the seafloor or form from submarine eruptions creating anchialine habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saltwater intruded into many coastal lava tubes during the marine transgression after the last glacial maximum creating many volcanic anchialine pools observed today. Volcanic anchialine systems typically can develop more rapidly than karst systems; on the order of thousands to tens of thousands of years due to their rapid formation at or near the Earth's surface, making them vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosional processes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martínez-2018_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martínez-2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tectonic_faulting_formation">Tectonic faulting formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tectonic faulting formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Las_Grietas,_isla_Santa_Cruz,_islas_Gal%C3%A1pagos,_Ecuador,_2015-07-26,_DD_81.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Las_Grietas%2C_isla_Santa_Cruz%2C_islas_Gal%C3%A1pagos%2C_Ecuador%2C_2015-07-26%2C_DD_81.JPG/220px-Las_Grietas%2C_isla_Santa_Cruz%2C_islas_Gal%C3%A1pagos%2C_Ecuador%2C_2015-07-26%2C_DD_81.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Las_Grietas%2C_isla_Santa_Cruz%2C_islas_Gal%C3%A1pagos%2C_Ecuador%2C_2015-07-26%2C_DD_81.JPG/330px-Las_Grietas%2C_isla_Santa_Cruz%2C_islas_Gal%C3%A1pagos%2C_Ecuador%2C_2015-07-26%2C_DD_81.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Las_Grietas%2C_isla_Santa_Cruz%2C_islas_Gal%C3%A1pagos%2C_Ecuador%2C_2015-07-26%2C_DD_81.JPG/440px-Las_Grietas%2C_isla_Santa_Cruz%2C_islas_Gal%C3%A1pagos%2C_Ecuador%2C_2015-07-26%2C_DD_81.JPG 2x" data-file-width="6142" data-file-height="4433" /></a><figcaption>Las Grietas, isla Santa Cruz, islas Galápagos, Ecuador</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">Tectonic faulting</a> in coastal areas is a less common formation process for anchialine systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In volcanic and seismically activity areas, faults in coastal environments can be intruded by saline groundwater resulting in anchialine systems. Submerged coastal tectonic faults caused by volcanic activity are observed in Iceland and in the Galapagos Islands, where they are known as “grietas,” which translates to “cracks.”<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faulted anchialine systems can also form from <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">tectonic uplift</a> processes in coastal regions. The Ras Muhammad Crack area in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> is an anchialine pool created by an earthquake in 1968 from the uplift of a fossil reef. The earthquake resulted in a fault opening approximately 150 meters from the coastline, which filled with saline groundwater creating an anchialine pool with water depths of up to 14 meters.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deep anchialine pools created by faulting from the uplift of a reef limestone block are also seen on the island of <a href="/wiki/Niue" title="Niue">Niue</a> in the Central Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2007-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrology_process">Hydrology process</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hydrology process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrological</a> processes can describe how the water moves between the pool and the surrounding environment. Collectively, these processes change the salinity and the vertical density profile, which sets the conditions for the ecological communities to develop.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although each anchialine system is unique, a box model simplifies the hydrology processes included in each system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Box_model">Box model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Box model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To predict mean salinity of an anchialine pool, the pool can be treated as a well-mixed box. Various sources (sinks) add (remove) water and alter the salinity. Below lists several important saline sources and sinks of the pool.<sup id="cite_ref-Por-1985_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Por-1985-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The seawater seepage into the pool (SE): The barrier between a pool and the ocean controls how much seawater intrudes into a pool. If there are many caves in the barrier or the soil has high porosity, the pool is easier to exchange with the seawater. For example, pools near <a href="/wiki/Kailua-Kona,_Hawaii" title="Kailua-Kona, Hawaii">Kona</a>'s coast are saltier than inland pools.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Evaporation (E): Evaporation removes water from the pool, increasing the salinity. The salinity may be higher than the ocean water under solid evaporation. In a shallow pool without significant seawater flushing, weather events, like a hurricane passing through, cause a significant salinity fluctuation.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarecki-2006_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarecki-2006-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Pool water reflux into the substrate (RE): The reflux is similar to the seawater seepage but in a different direction. The substrate soaks up the dense bottom water and reduces the total salt in the pool.</li> <li>Evaporative pumping by the pool brine (EP): The pumping effect buffers evaporation. Under extreme evaporation, the salinity is much higher than water in mud. The salinity difference reverses the osmotic pressure and releases the low salinity water (freshwater or seawater) into the brine. Thus, it slows the rate of salinization.</li> <li>The influx of freshwater (F): The freshwater is from <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a> and groundwater. For example, after considerable rain, lots of freshwater on the surface flows into the pool and dilutes salt water.</li> <li>Surface-to-depth relation of the pool water body (S/D): The relationship describes a ratio of evaporation and total water volume. Evaporation is in proportion to the surface area. In a vast and shallow pool, evaporation concentrates brine faster.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarecki-2006_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarecki-2006-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The ratio between the evaporation and water exchange with the surrounding, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PS}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PS}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2b407f9c51fbb0db2f87a16bf7575cba521f3c82" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.245ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PS}"></span>, implies if the box reach an equilibrium state or not. </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PS={\frac {1}{F}}+{\frac {E}{SE+EP-RE}}+{\frac {S}{D}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>F</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mi>S</mi> <mi>E</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>R</mi> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>S</mi> <mi>D</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PS={\frac {1}{F}}+{\frac {E}{SE+EP-RE}}+{\frac {S}{D}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5956006c7ebc5de3a7edc3270d93cde34856341d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:34.861ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PS={\frac {1}{F}}+{\frac {E}{SE+EP-RE}}+{\frac {S}{D}}.}"></span> </p><p>For example, when the evaporation (E or S/D) removes freshwater faster than the influx, the salinity get higher than the ambient ocean. If <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PS\sim 1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PS\sim 1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ba92746e1b3d825c2a5cbfd63c3f1c1a15226655" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.506ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PS\sim 1}"></span>, salinity is close to open ocean salinity because the salt inflow balances the evaporation. If <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2>PS>1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mo>></mo> <mi>P</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mo>></mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2>PS>1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/052efbf0d7fecb540a46b1d1256852740e0c7867" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.766ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2>PS>1}"></span>, the pool is <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">metahaline</a> (~40 psu). If <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PS>2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mo>></mo> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PS>2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c08e55fb41ad1445abd8622c6f3bd224a9144ff" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.506ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PS>2}"></span>, the pool is <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">hypersaline</a> (60~80 psu).<sup id="cite_ref-Por-1985_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Por-1985-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stratification">Stratification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stratification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The box model gives an estimate of the saline environment but does not imply the strength of the halocline. The depth of the seawater intake should be considered for the vertical salinity structure.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a pool containing fresh or brackish water, if the denser seawater flushes near the surface, it reduces stratification. However, in the same scenario in a polyhaline pool, the seawater forms a freshwater lens at the top, reinforcing the stratification and potentially creating a hypoxic environment depending on oxygen reaction rates.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Biogeochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water chemistry of anchialine systems are directly related to the amount of connectivity to the adjacent marine and freshwater inputs, and evaporative losses. Major nutrient compositions (<a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a>) from the ocean and groundwater sources determine the <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a> in an anchialine system. These cycles are affected by the hydrological processes of anchialine systems which vary based on the type, size, and relative inputs of marine and freshwater into the system. Deeper anchialine systems, such as larger pool that resemble lakes, may become highly salinity stratified with depth. The surface consists of brackish oxygen-rich waters followed by a distinct <a href="/wiki/Pycnocline" title="Pycnocline">pycnocline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemocline" title="Chemocline">chemocline</a>, below which water has higher salinity and decreased dissolved oxygen (<a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">anoxic</a>) concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stratification and available nutrient resources establishes <a href="/wiki/Redox_gradient" title="Redox gradient">redox gradients</a> with depth which can support a variety of stratified communities of micro-organisms and biogeochemical cycles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Redox_conditions">Redox conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Redox conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In deeper stratified systems water below the chemocline can be associated with an increase in dissolved <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium" title="Ammonium">ammonium</a>, and a decrease in particulate organic carbon.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Humphreys-1999_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humphreys-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physical and chemical stratification determines which microbial metabolic pathways can occur and creates a vertical stratification of redox processes as oxygen decreases with depth. Oxygen-rich surface waters have a positive <a href="/wiki/Reduction_potential" title="Reduction potential">reduction potential</a> (Eh), meaning there are oxidizing conditions for aerobic respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-Humphreys-1999_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humphreys-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chemocline layer has a negative Eh (reducing conditions) and low nutrient availability from the respiration above, so <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthetic</a> bacteria reduce nitrate or sulfate for respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pohlman-1997_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohlman-1997-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The productivity in the surface and chemocline layer creates turbid water, below which both oxygen and light levels are low but dissolved inorganic nutrient levels are high creating communities of other reducing microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_nutrient_cycling">Physical nutrient cycling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Physical nutrient cycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Highly stratified anchialine systems, by definition, have little turbid mixing from wind or water movements.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead it is suggested that advection of nutrients back into the surface water is caused by the rain of particulate matter below the chemocline displacing water upwards and by the vertical movement of mobile organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Introduction of nutrients and organic matter from terrestrial runoff into the surface waters also adds to the nutrient cycling in anchialine systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamner-1982_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamner-1982-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pohlman-1997_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohlman-1997-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology">Biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecology">Ecology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anchialine systems have a highly specialized collection of organisms with distinctive adaptations.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The species that occupy a given system are strongly determined by the presence or absence of light (pools or caves). A broad diversity of algae and bacteria can be found in anchialine systems, however only few species dominate a given habitat at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanchéz-2002_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanchéz-2002-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systems closer to the coastline tend to have more influence from marine phytoplankton and zooplankton as they are advected in through the groundwater. Systems further inland are more dominated by freshwater algae and terrestrial deposits but exhibit increasingly restricted diversity within algal communities.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the ephemeral nature of many anchialine systems and their limited distribution across the planet, many of their inhabitants are either well adapted to tolerate a broad range of salinity and hypoxic conditions or are introduced through tides from neighboring marine habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Species that occupy these habitats are generalists or opportunistic as they exploit conditions intolerable for most other species.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crustaceans">Crustaceans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Crustaceans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a> are by far the most abundant taxa in anchialine systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crustacean biodiversity includes <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">Copepoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphipoda" title="Amphipoda">Amphipoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decapoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Decapoda">Decapoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ascothoracida" title="Ascothoracida">Ascothoracida</a>, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Diplostraca" title="Diplostraca">water fleas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-crustacean_invertebrates">Non-crustacean invertebrates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Non-crustacean invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vaasspons2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Vaasspons2.jpg/220px-Vaasspons2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Vaasspons2.jpg/330px-Vaasspons2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Vaasspons2.jpg/440px-Vaasspons2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2512" /></a><figcaption>Filter feeding barrel sponges on reef in Blue Hole</figcaption></figure> <p>Dominant non-crustacean invertebrates groups within anchialine systems include <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeders</a> (most common in Blue Holes), which thrive in moderate flow systems where the structure acts in a way to compress the water and make particulate organic matter less dilute, improving filter feeding efficacy.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is often seen in the hydrodynamic 'pumping' of Blue Holes by <a href="/wiki/Turbellaria" title="Turbellaria">Tubellaria</a> (flatworms), and <a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropoda</a> (snails and other mollusks). There are also other smaller non-crustacean inverts including <a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">chaetognaths</a> (voracious zooplankton).<sup id="cite_ref-Kornicker-1989_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kornicker-1989-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blind_Cavefish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Blind_Cavefish.jpg/230px-Blind_Cavefish.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Blind_Cavefish.jpg/345px-Blind_Cavefish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Blind_Cavefish.jpg/460px-Blind_Cavefish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption>Mexican tetra, blind cave fish. One of the few vertebrates deep within anchialine caves</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anchialine_pools">Anchialine pools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Anchialine pools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algal_mat_in_Marine_Park_(90938)2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Algal_mat_in_Marine_Park_%2890938%292.jpg/220px-Algal_mat_in_Marine_Park_%2890938%292.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Algal_mat_in_Marine_Park_%2890938%292.jpg/330px-Algal_mat_in_Marine_Park_%2890938%292.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Algal_mat_in_Marine_Park_%2890938%292.jpg/440px-Algal_mat_in_Marine_Park_%2890938%292.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3652" data-file-height="2709" /></a><figcaption>Cyanobacteria algal mat</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hypogeal" title="Hypogeal">Hypogeal</a> shrimps have been observed to have high population densities in anchialine ponds upwards of hundreds of individuals per square meter.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the shrimp species present in these systems migrate into and out of pools with the tide through the connection at the water table.<sup id="cite_ref-Kornicker-1989_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kornicker-1989-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is hypothesized they enter pools during flood tides to feed and retreat to cover with ebb tides.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are a range of fish species that can be found in anchialine pools and their presence usually indicates lower populations of hypogeal shrimp and an absence of epigeal shrimp.<sup id="cite_ref-Kornicker-1989_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kornicker-1989-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Hawaii, the pools are home to the ʻōpaeʻula (Hawaiian shrimp, <i><a href="/wiki/Halocaridina_rubra" title="Halocaridina rubra">Halocaridina rubra</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:halocaridina_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:halocaridina-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anchialine pools are considered an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> that combines elements from brackish surface water bodies, subterranean systems, and terrestrial landscapes and are usually wet lit.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algal <a href="/wiki/Primary_producers" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producers">primary producers</a> inhabit the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthos</a>, while the diversity and productivity are often influenced by geological age and connectivity to the sea. Ecological studies of anchialine pools frequently identify regionally rare and <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> species, while primary producers in these systems are typically algae and bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In pools found in Western Hawaii cyanobacterial mats are dominant, these are common feature among shallow anchialine pools.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Found on the substratum, these yellow-orange mats may precipitate minerals that contribute to the overall sedimentation of a pool.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, anchialine pools tend to be deeper and saltier the closer they are to shoreline.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a high degree of endemism associated with these environments with over 400 endemic species being described in the last 25 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, when these habitats are degraded or destroyed, it often leads to the extinction of multiple species.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Porosity of the substratum can speed up or slow down this process with more porous substratum reducing sedimentation due to increased hydrologic connectivity with the water table which can exhibit a large control on the species that can survive in anchialine pools.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anchialine_caves">Anchialine caves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anchialine caves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deep within anchialine cave systems the lack of energy from solar radiation prevents photosynthesis. These dark cave systems are often classified as <a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">allochthonous</a> <a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">detritus</a> because the dominant input of organic matter is from sources outside the system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, the cave systems ultimately rely on solar radiation for most of their organic matter, but it is formed elsewhere. New research into the <a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">chemoautotrophy</a> of caves however may be changing this paradigm with a greater dependence on sulfate-reducing microbes and methanogens.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both cases, the accumulation of particulate matter is largely found at the <a href="/wiki/Halocline" title="Halocline">halocline</a> interface between 2 and 0 <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">PSU</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanchéz-2002_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanchéz-2002-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentration of organic particles is also seen at saline boundaries in other estuarine systems as well with elevated concentrations of particles at <a href="/wiki/Estuarine_turbidity_maximum" title="Estuarine turbidity maximum">estuarine turbidity maximum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fauna that reside strictly within the <a href="/wiki/Aphotic_zone" title="Aphotic zone">aphotic zone</a> of anchialine caves typically exhibit adaptations associated with low light and food, and are often classified as <a href="/wiki/Stygofauna" title="Stygofauna">stygofauna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anchialine systems are classically restricted in terms of fluxes (water, nutrients, organisms) in and out of the system. Many of the organisms in anchialine caves lack pigmentation; they have evolved to save energy by not developing <a href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">chromatophores</a>. Another adaptation from the lack of solar radiation is that many of these organisms have no eyes, a very energy intensive organelle they no longer need. Stygofauna are however quite different than deep sea organisms, most of which have kept their eyes and specialized them to see <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a> in their otherwise dark environments. There are no known bioluminescent <a href="/wiki/Stygobite" class="mw-redirect" title="Stygobite">stygobites</a> to date, despite this adaptation's popularity in other dark systems.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Outside of light availability, there are a wide variety of geochemical parameters that affect the biology and ecology within these systems. Possibly the most notable and universal in these systems is the strong halocline. While some anchialine systems are entirely salt water (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Blue_hole" title="Blue hole">blue holes</a>) other more inland systems (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">cenotes</a>) often have a freshwater lens that can extend hundreds of feet deep or for miles underground until they meet the ocean interface. The halocline not only acts as a physical barrier in density but as a niche partitioning factor that segregates these systems into <a href="/wiki/Stenohaline" title="Stenohaline">stenohaline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euryhaline" title="Euryhaline">euryhaline</a> organisms with the latter having the competitive advantage of being able to move between these two niches.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many low-latitude locations where the majority of these systems are found, the temperature of the intruding seawater is much warmer than the <a href="/wiki/Phreatic_zone" title="Phreatic zone">phreatic</a> freshwater. Because of discrepancy between warmer seawater and cooler groundwater, temperatures of the anchialine system may also increase with depth and penetration, which has implications for growth and respiration rates.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploitation_and_conservation">Exploitation and conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Exploitation and conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diver_and_jellyfish,_Jellyfish_Lake,_Palau_Islands,_Micronesia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Diver_and_jellyfish%2C_Jellyfish_Lake%2C_Palau_Islands%2C_Micronesia.jpg/220px-Diver_and_jellyfish%2C_Jellyfish_Lake%2C_Palau_Islands%2C_Micronesia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Diver_and_jellyfish%2C_Jellyfish_Lake%2C_Palau_Islands%2C_Micronesia.jpg/330px-Diver_and_jellyfish%2C_Jellyfish_Lake%2C_Palau_Islands%2C_Micronesia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Diver_and_jellyfish%2C_Jellyfish_Lake%2C_Palau_Islands%2C_Micronesia.jpg/440px-Diver_and_jellyfish%2C_Jellyfish_Lake%2C_Palau_Islands%2C_Micronesia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>Jellyfish in anchialine lake in Micronesia</figcaption></figure> <p>The diversity of unusual and rare species found in anchialine has attracted tourists and recreational divers from across the globe. Tourism generated from the anchialine systems in Bermuda play an important role in the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Sket-1996_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sket-1996-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Palau lakes are famous for their jellyfish populations and have even had an IMAX feature film made about them called 'The Living Sea'.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, tourism and direct exploitation of anchialine systems has resulted in degradation of their environmental health. Approximately 90% of Hawaii's anchialine habitat have been degraded or lost due to development and introduction of exotic species.<sup id="cite_ref-Santos-2011_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santos-2011-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hawaii's anchialine systems are currently one of the most threatened habitats in the archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-Santos-2011_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santos-2011-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollution from tourism has led to endangered crustaceans in Sipun cave in Cavat.<sup id="cite_ref-Sket-1996_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sket-1996-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some anchialine systems are exploited for limestone for use in construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mining results in the collapse and destruction of anchialine caves. Ha Long Bay marine lakes have been exploited by residents in surrounding boat villages for fisheries and aquaculture.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anchialine pools are also intentionally filled for development purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tidal currents have been shown to sweep in trash into unexplored areas of Blue Holes in the Bahamas.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some caves in Bermuda, the Canary Islands, and Mallorca are used as wishing wells which increases concentration of copper and is thought to have caused the decline of the squat lobster, <i>Munidopsis polymorpha.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cave divers also have unintended negative impacts on these habitats by using flashlights that enable fish such as <i>Astyanax fasciatus</i> to feed on otherwise inaccessible prey.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, cave diving can negatively alter water chemistry in normally hypoxic cave environments by introducing oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AnchialinePondsHawaii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/AnchialinePondsHawaii.jpg/220px-AnchialinePondsHawaii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/AnchialinePondsHawaii.jpg/330px-AnchialinePondsHawaii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/AnchialinePondsHawaii.jpg/440px-AnchialinePondsHawaii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Protected anchialine pools in Hawaii</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to the high endemism in these environments and limited global distribution, many species in anchialine systems are at risk of extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 25 species are ICUN red list in Bermuda and other species are on the Mexican list of threatened and endangered species in the Yucatán.<sup id="cite_ref-Iliffe-2009_18-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iliffe-2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alien or introduced species also pose a significant threat to the ecological health of anchialine systems. These species could be introduced intentionally for the purpose of harvest or recreation or unintentionally from equipment on recreational divers.<sup id="cite_ref-Becking-2011_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becking-2011-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Vietnam, green sea turtles were introduced into anchialine pools for practices related to <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animistic</a> rites and consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-Becking-2011_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becking-2011-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exotic species introduction is a primary driver for anchialine habitat degradation in Hawaii.<sup id="cite_ref-Santos-2011_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santos-2011-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There has been policy and management action to protect the health of these environments. In Hawaii the Waikoloa anchialine Preservation Area Program (WAPPA) monitors the water quality of coastal environments including anchialine pools.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been little evidence yet to suggest the fauna of these pools are sensitive to water quality changes, however they may be more threatened by the increase of pool exploitation for recreational purposes due to increased accessibility from tourism development.<sup id="cite_ref-Brock-1997_17-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brock-1997-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also conservation efforts in Maui and the Sinai peninsula to protect anchialine habitats in those areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Sket-1996_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sket-1996-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ongoing_research">Ongoing research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ongoing research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_Diver.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cave_Diver.png/320px-Cave_Diver.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cave_Diver.png/480px-Cave_Diver.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cave_Diver.png/640px-Cave_Diver.png 2x" data-file-width="2878" data-file-height="1468" /></a><figcaption>Cave diver in a karst anchialine system. Sidemount tanks on each side allow further exploration.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cave_diving">Cave diving</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cave diving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary way in which people study and explore the subterranean sections of anchialine systems is through <a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">cave diving</a>. Using highly specialized techniques, divers navigate the sprawling overhead environment to form detailed maps of the underground aquifers, collect a variety of biologic, geologic, or chemical samples, and track hydrologic flow. Advances in cave diving technology, such as <a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">DPVs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">rebreathers</a>, facilitates data collection further into cave systems with lower environmental impact.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The complicated geometry of anchialine systems limits the understanding of hydrologic processes involved, requiring many studies to estimate or model the processes thought to be contributing to the physical and chemical properties of the system.<sup id="cite_ref-Pohlman-1997_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohlman-1997-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent studies look at categorizing changes in biodiversity and physical characteristics of anchialine systems under changing climate conditions. It is currently an area of active research to predict how climate change induced sea level rise may affect the formation and health of anchialine systems in the near future.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Iliffe-1987-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-1987_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFIliffe1987" class="citation journal cs1">Iliffe, Thomas M (January 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256486361">"Observations on the biology and geology of anchialine caves"</a>. <i>Conference: Proceedings of the Third Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas</i>: 73–80 – via ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conference%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Third+Symposium+on+the+Geology+of+the+Bahamas&rft.atitle=Observations+on+the+biology+and+geology+of+anchialine+caves&rft.pages=73-80&rft.date=1987-01&rft.aulast=Iliffe&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F256486361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnchialine+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Veni-2001-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Veni-2001_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Veni-2001_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Veni-2001_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeniDuCheneCrawfordGroves2001" class="citation book cs1">Veni, George; DuChene, Harvey; Crawford, Nicholas C.; Groves, Christopher G.; Huppert, George N.; Kastning, Ernst H.; Olson, Rick; Wheeler, Betty J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americangeosciences.org/sites/default/files/karst.pdf"><i>Living with Karst a Fragile Foundation</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Geological Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-922152-58-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-922152-58-6"><bdi>0-922152-58-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+with+Karst+a+Fragile+Foundation&rft.pub=American+Geological+Institute&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-922152-58-6&rft.aulast=Veni&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=DuChene%2C+Harvey&rft.au=Crawford%2C+Nicholas+C.&rft.au=Groves%2C+Christopher+G.&rft.au=Huppert%2C+George+N.&rft.au=Kastning%2C+Ernst+H.&rft.au=Olson%2C+Rick&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+Betty+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americangeosciences.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fkarst.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnchialine+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrantWoodsBurtPilkington2022" class="citation web cs1">Farrant, Andrew; Woods, Mark; Burt, Elaine; Pilkington, Sharon; Knight, John (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.bgs.ac.uk/mendips/caveskarst/caveform.htm">"How caves form"</a>. British Geological Survey.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+caves+form&rft.pub=British+Geological+Survey&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Farrant&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Woods%2C+Mark&rft.au=Burt%2C+Elaine&rft.au=Pilkington%2C+Sharon&rft.au=Knight%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.bgs.ac.uk%2Fmendips%2Fcaveskarst%2Fcaveform.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnchialine+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iliffe-2007-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iliffe-2007_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIliffeBishop2007" class="citation book cs1">Iliffe, Thomas M; Bishop, Renee (2007). <i>Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS); Adaptations to life in marine caves</i>. 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href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234009634">234009634</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aquatic+Conservation%3A+Marine+and+Freshwater+Ecosystems&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+spatial%E2%80%93temporal+response+of+groundwater-fed+anchialine+ecosystems+to+sea-level+rise+for+coastal+zone+management&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=853-869&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234009634%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1052-7613&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Faqc.3493&rft.aulast=Marrack&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft.au=Wiggins%2C+Chad&rft.au=Marra%2C+John+J.&rft.au=Genz%2C+Ayesha&rft.au=Most%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Falinski%2C+Kim&rft.au=Conklin%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Faqc.3493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnchialine+system" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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title="Pond">Ponds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash_pond" title="Ash pond">Ash pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_lake" title="Balancing lake">Balancing lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballast_pond" title="Ballast pond">Ballast pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beel" title="Beel">Beel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_pond" title="Cooling pond">Cooling pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_pond" title="Dew pond">Dew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation_pond" title="Evaporation pond">Evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon" title="Facultative lagoon">Facultative lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_pond" title="Garden pond">Garden pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pond" title="Ice pond">Ice pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion pond">Immersion pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kettle_(landform)" title="Kettle (landform)">Kettle pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_pond" title="Log pond">Log pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melt_pond" title="Melt pond">Melt pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_pond" title="Mill pond">Mill pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon#Subsequent_polishing_ponds" title="Facultative lagoon">Polishing pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceway_pond" title="Raceway pond">Raceway pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sag_pond" title="Sag pond">Sag pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_evaporation_pond" title="Salt evaporation pond">Salt evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_basin" title="Sediment basin">Sediment pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settling_basin" title="Settling basin">Settling pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">Stepwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stew_pond" title="Stew pond">Stew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Tailings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarn_(lake)" title="Tarn (lake)">Tarn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_pond" title="Waste pond">Waste pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_stabilization_pond" title="Waste stabilization pond">Waste stabilization pond</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/160px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/240px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/320px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anchialine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">Brine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinity_pool" title="Infinity pool">Infinity pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural pool">Natural pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean pool">Ocean pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunge_pool" title="Plunge pool">Plunge pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflecting_pool" title="Reflecting pool">Reflecting pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">Spent fuel pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_pool" title="Swimming pool">Swimming pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernal_pool" title="Vernal pool">Vernal pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">Puddles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_bath" title="Bird bath">Bird bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_ring_effect" title="Coffee ring effect">Coffee ring effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">Puddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_tension#Puddles_on_a_surface" title="Surface tension">Puddles on a surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seep_(hydrology)" title="Seep (hydrology)">Seep puddle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_dam" title="Beaver dam">Beaver dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duck_pond" title="Duck pond">Duck pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfish_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Goldfish pond">Goldfish pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koi_pond" title="Koi pond">Koi pond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">Freshwater ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerated_lagoon" title="Aerated lagoon">Aerated lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakki_shower" title="Bakki shower">Bakki shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big-fish%E2%80%93little-pond_effect" title="Big-fish–little-pond effect">Big fish–little pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">Body of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_pond" title="Full pond">Full pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydric_soil" title="Hydric soil">Hydric soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytotelma" title="Phytotelma">Phytotelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond_of_Abundance" title="Pond of Abundance">Pond of Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond_liner" title="Pond liner">Pond liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponding" title="Ponding">Ponding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puddle_(M._C._Escher)" title="Puddle (M. C. Escher)"><i>Puddle</i> (M C Escher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_hole" title="Swimming hole">Swimming hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_aeration" title="Water aeration">Water aeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_Lilies_(Monet_series)" title="Water Lilies (Monet series)"><i>Water Lilies</i> (Monet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coastal_geography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Coastal_geography" title="Template:Coastal geography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Coastal_geography" title="Template talk:Coastal geography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Coastal_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Coastal geography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coastal_geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anchialine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayre_(landform)" title="Ayre (landform)">Ayre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_island" title="Barrier island">Barrier island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bight_(geography)" title="Bight (geography)">Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodden" title="Bodden">Bodden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_(geography)" title="Cape (geography)">Cape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">Cliff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_plain" title="Coastal plain">Coastal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_waterfall" title="Coastal waterfall">Coastal waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cove" title="Cove">Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Dune</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cliff-top_dune" title="Cliff-top dune">cliff-top</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firth" title="Firth">Firth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjard" title="Fjard">Fjard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundus_(seabed)" title="Fundus (seabed)">Fundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gat_(landform)" title="Gat (landform)">Gat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geo_(landform)" title="Geo (landform)">Geo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf" title="Gulf">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut_(coastal_geography)" title="Gut (coastal geography)">Gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapua" title="Hapua">Hapua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headland" title="Headland">Headland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet" title="Inlet">Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islet" title="Islet">Islet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">Isthmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machair" title="Machair">Machair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_arch" title="Natural arch">Natural arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ria" title="Ria">Ria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skerry" title="Skerry">Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_(geography)" title="Sound (geography)">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spit_(landform)" title="Spit (landform)">Spit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_(geology)" title="Stack (geology)">Stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strand_plain" title="Strand plain">Strand plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_island" title="Tidal island">Tidal island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">Tidal marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tied_island" title="Tied island">Tied island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombolo" title="Tombolo">Tombolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waituna" title="Waituna">Waituna</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Windwatt" title="Windwatt">Windwatt</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Accreting_coast_Image6.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coastal and oceanic landforms"><img alt="Coastal and oceanic landforms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/140px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/210px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/280px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="697" /></a></span><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernando_noronha.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha"><img alt="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/140px-Fernando_noronha.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/210px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/280px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">Beaches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_cusps" title="Beach cusps">Beach cusps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_evolution" title="Beach evolution">Beach evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_ridge" title="Beach ridge">Beach ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_wrack" title="Beach wrack">Beach wrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaches_in_estuaries_and_bays" title="Beaches in estuaries and bays">Beaches in estuaries and bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beachrock" title="Beachrock">Beachrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_morphodynamics" title="Coastal morphodynamics">Coastal morphodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_beach" title="Pocket beach">Pocket beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_beach" title="Raised beach">Raised beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_recession_of_beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern recession of beaches">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">Shell beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">Shingle beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_beach" title="Storm beach">Storm beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wash_margin" title="Wash margin">Wash margin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">River mouths</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debouch" title="Debouch">Debouch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">River delta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mega_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mega delta">mega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regressive_delta" title="Regressive delta">regressive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowhole_(geology)" title="Blowhole (geology)">Blowhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliffed_coast" title="Cliffed coast">Cliffed coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordant_coastline" title="Concordant coastline">Concordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_(hydrology)" title="Current (hydrology)">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuspate_foreland" title="Cuspate foreland">Cuspate foreland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordant_coastline" title="Discordant coastline">Discordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_coastline" title="Emergent coastline">Emergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeder_bluff" title="Feeder bluff">Feeder bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_coast" title="Flat coast">Flat coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graded_shoreline" title="Graded shoreline">Graded shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingression_coast" title="Ingression coast">Ingression coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Large-scale coastal behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_regression" title="Marine regression">Marine regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">Marine transgression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_shoreline" title="Raised shoreline">Raised shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cave" title="Sea cave">Sea cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_foam" title="Sea foam">Sea foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peresyp" title="Peresyp">peresyp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steep_coast" title="Steep coast">Steep coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submergent_coastline" title="Submergent coastline">Submergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_break" title="Surf break">Surf break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surge_channel" title="Surge channel">Surge channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave-cut_platform" title="Wave-cut platform">Wave-cut platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(coastal_management)" title="Accretion (coastal management)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Coastal management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">Integrated coastal zone management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersion_(coastal_management)" title="Submersion (coastal management)">Submersion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_line" title="Bulkhead line">Bulkhead line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_size" title="Grain size">Grain size</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boulder" title="Boulder">boulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobble_(geology)" title="Cobble (geology)">cobble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_(geology)" title="Granule (geology)">granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pebble" title="Pebble">pebble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">shingle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Region_of_freshwater_influence" title="Region of freshwater influence">Region of freshwater influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_plume" title="River plume">River plume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Coastal_geography" title="Category:Coastal geography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cave_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Caves" title="Template:Caves"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caves" title="Template talk:Caves"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caves" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caves"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cave_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_caving_and_speleology" title="Glossary of caving and speleology">Glossary of caving and speleology</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biospeleology" title="Biospeleology">Biospeleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_conservation" title="Cave conservation">Cave conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_survey" title="Cave survey">Cave survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving" title="Caving">Caving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving_equipment" title="Caving equipment">Equipment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fauna" title="Subterranean fauna">Fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stygofauna" title="Stygofauna">Stygofauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troglofauna" title="Troglofauna">Troglofauna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">Karst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleogenesis" title="Speleogenesis">Speleogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleology" title="Speleology">Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_by_country" title="Category:Caves by country">Caves by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and formation<br /> processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anchihaline cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_cave" title="Breathing cave">Breathing cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave-in" title="Cave-in">Cave-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estavelle" title="Estavelle">Estavelle/Inversac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foiba" title="Foiba">Foiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_cave" title="Glacier cave">Glacier cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Ice cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">Karst spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_cave" title="Lava cave">Lava cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ley_tunnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ley tunnel">Ley tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mine_exploration" title="Mine exploration">Exploration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_cave" title="Pit cave">Pit cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponor" title="Ponor">Ponor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_cave" title="Salt cave">Salt cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cave" title="Sea cave">Sea cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutional_cave" title="Solutional cave">Solutional cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_cave" title="Show cave">Show cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffosion" title="Suffosion">Suffosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sump_(cave)" title="Sump (cave)">Sump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talus_cave" title="Talus cave">Talus cave</a></li> <li>Underground <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underground_lake" title="Underground lake">Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_waterfall" title="Subterranean waterfall">Waterfall</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">Speleothems</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Speleogen" title="Speleogen">Speleogens</a><br />(Cave formations)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthodite" title="Anthodite">Anthodite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxwork" title="Boxwork">Boxwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcite_rafts" title="Calcite rafts">Calcite rafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_pearl" title="Cave pearl">Cave pearl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_popcorn" title="Cave popcorn">Cave popcorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogtooth_spar" title="Dogtooth spar">Dogtooth spar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowstone" title="Flowstone">Flowstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostwork" title="Frostwork">Frostwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helictite" title="Helictite">Helictite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonmilk" title="Moonmilk">Moonmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimstone" title="Rimstone">Rimstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelfstone" title="Shelfstone">Shelfstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snottite" title="Snottite">Snottite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_straw" title="Soda straw">Soda straw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleoseismite" title="Speleoseismite">Speleoseismite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">Stalactite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">Stalagmite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalagnate">Stalagnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vug" title="Vug">Vug</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_dweller" title="Cave dweller">Cave dweller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave-dwelling_Jews" title="Cave-dwelling Jews">Cave-dwelling Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cave_monasteries" title="List of cave monasteries">Cave monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kome_Caves" title="Kome Caves">Kome Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok_and_Mamproug_Cave_Dwellings" title="Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings">Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaodong" title="Yaodong">Yaodong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diving_into_the_Unknown" title="Diving into the Unknown">Diving into the Unknown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Forgotten_Dreams" title="Cave of Forgotten Dreams">Cave of Forgotten Dreams</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Eiger" title="The Underground Eiger">The Underground Eiger</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UK_caving_fatalities" title="List of UK caving fatalities">List of UK caving fatalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpazat_cave_rescue" title="Alpazat cave rescue">Alpazat cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riesending_cave_rescue" title="Riesending cave rescue">Riesending cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue" title="Tham Luang cave rescue">Tham Luang cave rescue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves" title="Category:Caves">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&oldid=1254105437">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anchialine_system&oldid=1254105437</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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