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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Aeration methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aeration_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_aeration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_aeration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Natural aeration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_aeration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_aeration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_aeration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Surface aeration</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Surface_aeration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Surface aeration subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Surface_aeration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Low_speed_surface_aerator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_speed_surface_aerator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Low speed surface aerator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_speed_surface_aerator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fountains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fountains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Fountains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fountains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Floating_surface_aerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Floating_surface_aerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Floating surface aerators</span> 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id="toc-Subsurface_aeration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jet_aeration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jet_aeration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Jet aeration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jet_aeration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coarse_bubble_aeration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coarse_bubble_aeration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Coarse bubble aeration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coarse_bubble_aeration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fine_bubble_aeration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fine_bubble_aeration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Fine bubble aeration</span> </div> </a> <ul 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</button> <ul id="toc-Large-scale_projects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thames_oxygenation_barges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thames_oxygenation_barges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Thames oxygenation barges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thames_oxygenation_barges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cardiff_Bay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardiff_Bay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Cardiff Bay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardiff_Bay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chesapeake_Bay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chesapeake_Bay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Chesapeake Bay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chesapeake_Bay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_treatment_aeration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_treatment_aeration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Water treatment aeration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_treatment_aeration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Adding air to water</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jet-d%27eau-Gen%C3%A8ve.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Jet-d%27eau-Gen%C3%A8ve.jpg/220px-Jet-d%27eau-Gen%C3%A8ve.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Jet-d%27eau-Gen%C3%A8ve.jpg/330px-Jet-d%27eau-Gen%C3%A8ve.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Jet-d%27eau-Gen%C3%A8ve.jpg/440px-Jet-d%27eau-Gen%C3%A8ve.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Fountains aerate water by spraying it into the air.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Water aeration</b> is the process of increasing or maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_saturation" title="Oxygen saturation">oxygen saturation</a> of water in both natural and artificial environments. Aeration techniques are commonly used in pond, lake, and reservoir management to address low oxygen levels or algal blooms.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_quality">Water quality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Water quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water aeration is often required in water bodies that suffer from <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxic</a> or anoxic conditions, often caused by upstream human activities such as sewage discharges, agricultural run-off, or over-baiting a fishing lake. Aeration can be achieved through the infusion of air into the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">pond</a> or by surface agitation from a fountain or spray-like device to allow for oxygen exchange at the surface and the release of gasses such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1972a_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1972a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decreased levels of <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved oxygen">dissolved oxygen</a> (DO) is a major contributor to poor water quality. Not only do fish and most other aquatic animals need oxygen, <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobic bacteria">aerobic bacteria</a> help decompose organic matter. When oxygen concentrations become low, anoxic conditions may develop which can decrease the ability of the water body to support life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aeration_methods">Aeration methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Aeration methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any procedure by which oxygen is added to water can be considered a type of water aeration. There are many ways to aerate water, but these all fall into two broad areas – <b>surface aeration</b> and <b>subsurface aeration</b>. A variety of techniques and technologies are available for both approaches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_aeration">Natural aeration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Natural aeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Natural aeration is a type of both sub-surface and surface aeration. It can occur through sub-surface aquatic plants. Through the natural process of photosynthesis, water plants release oxygen into the water providing it with the oxygen necessary for fish to live and aerobic bacteria to break down excess nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oxygen can be driven into the water when the wind disturbs the surface of the water body and natural aeration can also occur through a movement of water caused by an incoming <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">stream</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">waterfall</a>, or even a strong <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flood</a>. </p><p>In large water bodies in temperate climates, autumn turn-over can introduce oxygen rich water into the oxygen-poor <a href="/wiki/Hypolimnion" title="Hypolimnion">hypolimnion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surface_aeration">Surface aeration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Surface aeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_speed_surface_aerator">Low speed surface aerator</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Low speed surface aerator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Water_aeration" title="Special:EditPage/Water aeration">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Water+aeration%22">"Water aeration"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Water+aeration%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Water+aeration%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Water+aeration%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Water+aeration%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Water+aeration%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The low speed surface aerator is a device for biology aeration with high efficiency. These devices are often in steel protected by epoxy coating and generate high torque. The mixing of water volume is excellent. The common power is going from 1 up to 250kw per unit with an efficiency (SOE) around 2 kgO2/kw. Low speed aerator are used mostly for biology plant aeration for water purification. The higher the diameter, the higher the SOE and mixing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fountains">Fountains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fountains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A fountain consists of a means of squirting the water upwards into the air. Typically this may be done using a motor that powers a rotating <a href="/wiki/Impeller" title="Impeller">impeller</a>. The impeller pumps water from the first few feet of the water and expels it into the air.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process utilizes air-water contact to transfer oxygen. As the water is propelled into the air, it breaks into small droplets. Collectively, these small droplets have a large <a href="/wiki/Surface_area" title="Surface area">surface area</a> through which oxygen can be transferred. Upon return, these droplets mix with the rest of the water and thus transfer their oxygen back to the ecosystem. </p><p>Fountains are a popular method of providing surface aeration because of the aesthetic appearance that they offer. However, most fountains are unable to produce a large area of oxygenated water.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, running electricity through the water to the fountain can be a safety hazard. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Floating_surface_aerators">Floating surface aerators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Floating surface aerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surface_Aerator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Surface_Aerator.jpg/220px-Surface_Aerator.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Surface_Aerator.jpg/330px-Surface_Aerator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Surface_Aerator.jpg/440px-Surface_Aerator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Typical mechanical surface aerator at work. It is often difficult for this type of machine to aerate the entire water column.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paddlewheel_aerator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Paddlewheel_aerator.jpg/220px-Paddlewheel_aerator.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Paddlewheel_aerator.jpg/330px-Paddlewheel_aerator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Paddlewheel_aerator.jpg/440px-Paddlewheel_aerator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1038" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>A one-<a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">horsepower</a> paddlewheel aerator. The splashing may increase the <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> rate of the water and thus increase the salinity of the water body.</figcaption></figure> <p>Floating surface aerators work in a similar manner to fountains, but they do not offer the same aesthetic appearance. They extract water from the top 1–2 feet of the water body and utilize air-water contact to transfer oxygen. Instead of propelling water into the air, they disrupt the water at the water surface. Floating surface aerators are also powered by on-shore electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effectiveness of a surface aerator is limited to a small area as they are unable to add circulation or oxygen to much more than a 3-metre radius. This circulation and oxygenating is then limited to the uppermost portion of the water column, often leaving the bottom portions unaffected. Low speed surface aerators can also be installed on floats. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paddlewheel_aerators">Paddlewheel aerators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Paddlewheel aerators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paddlewheel aerators also utilize air-to-water contact to transfer oxygen from the air in the atmosphere to the water body. They are most often used in the <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> (rearing aquatic animals or cultivating aquatic plants for food) field. Constructed of a hub with attached paddles, these aerators are usually powered by a tractor power take-off (<a href="/wiki/Power_take-off" title="Power take-off">PTO</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Gas_engine" title="Gas engine">gas engine</a>, or an <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a>. They tend to be mounted on <a href="/wiki/Float_(nautical)" title="Float (nautical)">floats</a>. Electricity forces the paddles to turn, churning the water and allowing oxygen transfer through air-water contact.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As each new section of water is churned, it absorbs oxygen from the air and then, upon its return to the water, restores it to the water. In this regard paddlewheel aeration works very similarly to floating surface aerators. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsurface_aeration">Subsurface aeration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subsurface aeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Subsurface aeration seeks to release bubbles at the bottom of the water body and allow them to rise by the force of buoyancy. <i>Diffused aeration systems</i> utilize <a href="/wiki/Liquid_bubble" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid bubble">bubbles</a> to aerate as well as mix the water. Water displacement from the expulsion of bubbles will cause a mixing action to occur, and the contact between the water and the bubble will result in an oxygen transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolles_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolles-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jet_aeration">Jet aeration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jet aeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Subsurface aeration can be accomplished by the use of <a href="/wiki/Jet_aerators" title="Jet aerators">jet aerators</a>, which aspirate air, by means of the <a href="/wiki/Venturi_effect" title="Venturi effect">Venturi</a> principle, and inject the air into the liquid.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coarse_bubble_aeration">Coarse bubble aeration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Coarse bubble aeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coarse bubble aeration is a type of subsurface aeration wherein air is pumped from an on-shore <a href="/wiki/Air_compressor" title="Air compressor">air compressor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through a hose to a unit placed at the bottom of the water body. The unit expels <i>coarse bubbles</i> (more than 2mm in diameter),<sup id="cite_ref-epa_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epa-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which release oxygen when they come into contact with the water, which also contributes to a mixing of the lake's stratified layers. With the release of large bubbles from the system, a turbulent displacement of water occurs which results in a mixing of the water.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolles_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolles-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison to other aeration techniques, coarse bubble aeration is very inefficient in the way of transferring oxygen. This is due to the large diameter and relatively small collective surface area of its bubbles.<sup id="cite_ref-Bolles_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bolles-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fine_bubble_aeration">Fine bubble aeration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fine bubble aeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fine_Bubble_Aeration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Fine_Bubble_Aeration.jpg/220px-Fine_Bubble_Aeration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Fine_Bubble_Aeration.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="233" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption>Fine bubble aeration is an efficient technique of aeration in terms of oxygen transfer due to the large collective surface area of its bubbles.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fine bubble aeration is an efficient way to transfer oxygen to a water body.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A compressor on shore pumps air through a hose, which is connected to an underwater aeration unit. Attached to the unit are a number of diffusers. These diffusers come in the shape of discs, plates, tubes or hoses constructed from glass-bonded silica, porous <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> plastic, PVC or perforated membranes made from <a href="/wiki/EPDM_rubber" title="EPDM rubber">EPDM (ethylene propylene diene Monomer) rubber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Air pumped through the diffuser membranes is released into the water. These bubbles are known as <i>fine bubbles</i>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a> defines a fine bubble as anything smaller than 2mm in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-epa_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epa-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of aeration has a very high oxygen transfer efficiency (OTE), sometimes as high as 15 pounds of oxygen / (horsepower * hour) (9.1 kilograms of oxygen / (kilowatt * hour)).<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average, diffused air aeration diffuses approximately 2–4 <a href="/wiki/Cubic_feet_per_minute" class="mw-redirect" title="Cubic feet per minute">cfm</a> (cubic feet of air per minute) (56.6-113.3 liters of air per minute), but some operate at levels as low as 1 cfm (28.3 L/min) or as high as 10 cfm (283 L/min). </p><p>Fine bubble diffused aeration is able to maximize the surface area of the bubbles and thus transfer more oxygen to the water per bubble volume. Additionally, smaller bubbles take more time to reach the surface so not only is the surface area maximized but so are the time each bubble spends in the water, allowing it more opportunity to transfer oxygen to the water. As a general rule, smaller bubbles and a deeper release point will generate a greater oxygen transfer rate.<sup id="cite_ref-Taparhudee,_Wara_2002_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taparhudee,_Wara_2002-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the drawbacks to fine bubble aeration is that the membranes of ceramic diffusers can sometimes clog and must be cleaned in order to keep them working at their optimum efficiency. Also, they do not possess the ability to mix the water column as well as other aeration techniques, such as coarse bubble aeration.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lake_destratification">Lake destratification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lake destratification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>(<i>See also <a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification#De-stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake de-stratification</a>)</i> </p><p>Circulators are commonly used to mix a <a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">pond</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lake</a> and thus reduce thermal <a href="/wiki/Stratification_(water)" title="Stratification (water)">stratification</a>. Once circulated water reaches the surface, the air-water interface facilitates the transfer of oxygen to the lake water. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resource</a> and environmental managers have long been challenged by problems caused by thermal stratification of lakes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1972a_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1972a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1972b_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1972b-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fish die-offs have been directly associated with thermal gradients, stagnation, and ice cover.<sup id="cite_ref-LackeyHolmes1972_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LackeyHolmes1972-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excessive growth of plankton may limit the recreational use of lakes and the commercial use of lake water.<sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1973a_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1973a-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With severe thermal stratification in a lake, the quality of <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> also can be adversely affected.<sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1973b_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1973b-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1973c_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1973c-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For fisheries managers, the spatial distribution of <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> within a lake is often adversely affected by thermal stratification and in some cases may indirectly cause large die-offs of recreationally important fish.<sup id="cite_ref-LackeyHolmes1972_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LackeyHolmes1972-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One commonly-used tool to reduce the severity of these lake management problems is to eliminate or lessen thermal stratification through aeration.<sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1972a_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1972a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many types of aeration equipment have been used to reduce or eliminate thermal stratification. Aeration has met with some success, although it has rarely proved to be a panacea.<sup id="cite_ref-Lackey1972b_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lackey1972b-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Large-scale_projects">Large-scale projects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Large-scale projects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thames_oxygenation_barges">Thames oxygenation barges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Thames oxygenation barges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During heavy rain, London's sewage storm pipes overflow into the <a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">River Thames</a>, sending dissolved <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> levels plummeting and threatening the species it supports.<sup id="cite_ref-thames_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thames-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two dedicated <a href="/wiki/McTay_Marine" title="McTay Marine">McTay Marine</a> vessels, oxygenation barges <i>Thames Bubbler</i> and <i>Thames Vitality</i> are used to replenish oxygen levels, as part of an ongoing battle to clean up the river, which now supports 115 species of fish and hundreds more invertebrates, plants and birds.<sup id="cite_ref-thames_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thames-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiff_Bay">Cardiff Bay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cardiff Bay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dissolved oxygen concentration within <a href="/wiki/Cardiff_Bay" title="Cardiff Bay">Cardiff Bay</a> are maintained at or above 5 mg/L. Compressed air is pumped, from five sites around the Bay, through a series of steel reinforced rubber pipelines, laid on the beds of the Bay and Rivers Taff and Ely. These are connected to approximately 800 diffusers. At times this is insufficient and the Harbour Authority uses a mobile oxygenation barge built by <a href="/wiki/McTay_Marine" title="McTay Marine">McTay Marine</a> with <a href="/wiki/Liquid_oxygen" title="Liquid oxygen">liquid oxygen</a> stored in a tank. Liquid oxygen is passed through an electrically heated vapouriser and the gas is injected into a stream of water which is pumped from, and returned to, the bay. The barge is capable of dissolving up to 5 tonnes of oxygen in 24 hours.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chesapeake_Bay">Chesapeake Bay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Chesapeake Bay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similar options have been proposed to help rehabilitate the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a> where the principal problem is lack of filter-feeding organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oysters</a> responsible for keeping the water clean. Historically the Bay's oyster population was in the tens of billions, and they circulated the entire Bay volume in a matter of days.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Due to pollution, disease and over-harvesting their population is a fraction of historic levels. Water that was once clear for meters is now so turbid and sediment-ridden that a wader may lose sight of their feet before their knees are wet.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Oxygen is normally supplied by submerged aquatic vegetation via <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> but pollution and sediments have reduced the plant populations , resulting in a reduction of dissolved oxygen levels, rendering areas of the bay unsuitable for aerobic aquatic life. In a <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic relation</a> the plants provide the oxygen needed for underwater organisms to proliferate, and in exchange the filter feeders keep the water clean and thus clear enough for plants to have sufficient access to sunlight. Researchers have proposed oxygenation through artificial means as a solution to help improve water quality. Aeration of <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxic</a> water-bodies seems an appealing solution and it has been tried successfully many times on freshwater ponds and small lakes. However no one has undertaken an aeration project as large as an <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 353-hectare portion of the bay connected to the <a href="/wiki/Rock_Creek_(Potomac_River_tributary)" title="Rock Creek (Potomac River tributary)">Rock Creek</a> has been aerated using pipes since 2016. The system started as a large-bubble system intended mainly for de-stratification, creating a 74-ha oxic zone. It was upgraded in 2019 to fine-bubble injectors to provide more oxygen directly.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_treatment_aeration">Water treatment aeration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Water treatment aeration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Water_treatment" title="Water treatment">water treatment</a> processes use a variety of forms of aeration to support biological oxidative processes. A typical example is <a href="/wiki/Activated_sludge" title="Activated sludge">activated sludge</a> which can use fine or coarse bubble aeration or mechanical aeration cones which draw up mixed liquor from the base of a treatment tank and eject it through the air where oxygen is entrained in the liquor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerated_lagoon" title="Aerated lagoon">Aerated lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_aeration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCookeWelchPetersonNichols2005" class="citation book cs1">Cooke, G. Dennis; Welch, Eugene B.; Peterson, Spencer; Nichols, Stanley A., eds. (2005). <i>Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs</i>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 616. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781566706254" title="Special:BookSources/9781566706254"><bdi>9781566706254</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restoration+and+Management+of+Lakes+and+Reservoirs&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pages=616&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781566706254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+aeration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lackey1972a-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lackey1972a_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lackey1972a_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lackey1972a_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLackey1972" class="citation journal cs1">Lackey, Robert T. (1972). "A Technique for Eliminating Thermal Stratification in Lakes". <i>Journal of the American Water Resources Association</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 46–49. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972JAWRA...8...46L">1972JAWRA...8...46L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1752-1688.1972.tb05092.x">10.1111/j.1752-1688.1972.tb05092.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Water+Resources+Association&rft.atitle=A+Technique+for+Eliminating+Thermal+Stratification+in+Lakes&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=46-49&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1752-1688.1972.tb05092.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972JAWRA...8...46L&rft.aulast=Lackey&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+aeration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrennanWithgott2005" class="citation book cs1">Brennan, Scott; Withgott, Jay (2005). <i>Environment: the science behind the stories</i>. Sun Francisco , Calif.: Pearson (Benjamin Cummings). p. 426. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-4427-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-4427-6"><bdi>0-8053-4427-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environment%3A+the+science+behind+the+stories&rft.place=Sun+Francisco+%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=426&rft.pub=Pearson+%28Benjamin+Cummings%29&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8053-4427-6&rft.aulast=Brennan&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft.au=Withgott%2C+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+aeration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tucker-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2005" class="citation web cs1">Tucker, Craig (September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717010755/https://srac.tamu.edu/index.cfm/event/getFactSheet/whichfactsheet/183/">"Pond Aeration"</a>. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center. SRAC Publication No. 3700. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://srac.tamu.edu/index.cfm/event/getFactSheet/whichfactsheet/183/">the original</a> on 17 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pond+Aeration&rft.pub=Southern+Regional+Aquaculture+Center&rft.date=2005-09&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsrac.tamu.edu%2Findex.cfm%2Fevent%2FgetFactSheet%2Fwhichfactsheet%2F183%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+aeration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bolles-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bolles_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bolles_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bolles_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolles,_Steven_A." class="citation web cs1">Bolles, Steven A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.processenergy.com/Aeration%20Paper.pdf">"Modeling Wastewater Aeration Systems to Discover Energy Savings Opportunities"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Process Energy Services, LLC</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Process+Energy+Services%2C+LLC&rft.atitle=Modeling+Wastewater+Aeration+Systems+to+Discover+Energy+Savings+Opportunities&rft.au=Bolles%2C+Steven+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.processenergy.com%2FAeration%2520Paper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+aeration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.state.il.us/water/conservation/lake-notes/lake-aeration.pdf">"Lake Aeration and Circulation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ponds,_pools,_and_puddles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ponds" title="Template:Ponds"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ponds" title="Template talk:Ponds"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ponds" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ponds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ponds,_pools,_and_puddles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Ponds</a>, pools, and <a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">puddles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Ponds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash_pond" title="Ash pond">Ash pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_lake" title="Balancing lake">Balancing lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballast_pond" title="Ballast pond">Ballast pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beel" title="Beel">Beel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_pond" title="Cooling pond">Cooling pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_pond" title="Dew pond">Dew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation_pond" title="Evaporation pond">Evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon" title="Facultative lagoon">Facultative lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_pond" title="Garden pond">Garden pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pond" title="Ice pond">Ice pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion pond">Immersion pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kettle_(landform)" title="Kettle (landform)">Kettle pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_pond" title="Log pond">Log pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melt_pond" title="Melt pond">Melt pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_pond" title="Mill pond">Mill pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon#Subsequent_polishing_ponds" title="Facultative lagoon">Polishing pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceway_pond" title="Raceway pond">Raceway pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sag_pond" title="Sag pond">Sag pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_evaporation_pond" title="Salt evaporation pond">Salt evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_basin" title="Sediment basin">Sediment pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settling_basin" title="Settling basin">Settling pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">Stepwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stew_pond" title="Stew pond">Stew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Tailings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarn_(lake)" title="Tarn (lake)">Tarn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_pond" title="Waste pond">Waste pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_stabilization_pond" title="Waste stabilization pond">Waste stabilization pond</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/160px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/240px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/320px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchialine_system" title="Anchialine system">Anchialine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">Brine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinity_pool" title="Infinity pool">Infinity pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural pool">Natural pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean pool">Ocean pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunge_pool" title="Plunge pool">Plunge pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflecting_pool" title="Reflecting pool">Reflecting pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">Spent fuel pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_pool" title="Swimming pool">Swimming pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernal_pool" title="Vernal pool">Vernal pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">Puddles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_bath" title="Bird bath">Bird bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_ring_effect" title="Coffee ring effect">Coffee ring effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">Puddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_tension#Puddles_on_a_surface" title="Surface tension">Puddles on a surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seep_(hydrology)" title="Seep (hydrology)">Seep puddle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_dam" title="Beaver dam">Beaver dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duck_pond" title="Duck pond">Duck pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfish_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Goldfish pond">Goldfish pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koi_pond" title="Koi pond">Koi pond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">Freshwater ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerated_lagoon" title="Aerated lagoon">Aerated lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakki_shower" title="Bakki shower">Bakki shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big-fish%E2%80%93little-pond_effect" title="Big-fish–little-pond effect">Big fish–little pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">Body of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_pond" title="Full pond">Full pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydric_soil" title="Hydric soil">Hydric soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytotelma" title="Phytotelma">Phytotelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond_of_Abundance" title="Pond of Abundance">Pond of Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond_liner" title="Pond liner">Pond liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponding" title="Ponding">Ponding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puddle_(M._C._Escher)" title="Puddle (M. C. Escher)"><i>Puddle</i> (M C Escher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_hole" title="Swimming hole">Swimming hole</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water aeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_Lilies_(Monet_series)" title="Water Lilies (Monet series)"><i>Water Lilies</i> (Monet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hydroculture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hydroculture" title="Template:Hydroculture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hydroculture" title="Template talk:Hydroculture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hydroculture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hydroculture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hydroculture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hydroculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroculture">Hydroculture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_hydroculture" title="Historical hydroculture">Historical hydroculture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeroponics" title="Aeroponics">Aeroponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaponics" title="Aquaponics">Aquaponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquascaping" title="Aquascaping">Aquascaping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponics" title="Hydroponics">Hydroponics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passive_hydroponics" title="Passive hydroponics">passive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subtypes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Aquatic garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottle_garden" title="Bottle garden">Bottle garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_water_culture" title="Deep water culture">Deep water culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kratky_method" title="Kratky method">Kratky method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebb_and_flow_hydroponics" title="Ebb and flow hydroponics">Ebb and flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fogponics" title="Fogponics">Fogponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microponics" title="Microponics">Microponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_film_technique" title="Nutrient film technique">Nutrient film technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_hydroponics" title="Organic hydroponics">Organic hydroponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organop%C3%B3nicos" title="Organopónicos">Organopónicos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-irrigated_planter" title="Sub-irrigated planter">Sub-irrigated planter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drip_irrigation" title="Drip irrigation">Top drip</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydroponics#Substrates" title="Hydroponics">Substrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">Charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coco_peat" class="mw-redirect" title="Coco peat">Coco peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatomaceous_earth" title="Diatomaceous earth">Diatomaceous earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expanded_clay_aggregate" title="Expanded clay aggregate">Expanded clay aggregate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growstones" title="Growstones">Growstones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">Lava rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_wool" title="Mineral wool">Mineral wool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perlite" title="Perlite">Perlite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">Pumice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_hulls" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice hulls">Rice hulls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermiculite" title="Vermiculite">Vermiculite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponics#Wood_fibre" title="Hydroponics">Wood fibre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accessories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grow_light" title="Grow light">Grow light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponic_dosers" title="Hydroponic dosers">Hydroponic dosers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_sprinkler" title="Irrigation sprinkler">Irrigation sprinkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf_sensor" title="Leaf sensor">Leaf sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowerpot" title="Flowerpot">Net-pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spray_nozzle" title="Spray nozzle">Spray nozzle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timer#Electromechanical_timers" title="Timer">Timers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrasonic_hydroponic_fogger" title="Ultrasonic hydroponic fogger">Ultrasonic hydroponic fogger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_chiller" title="Water chiller">Water chiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">Algaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_coral" title="Aquaculture of coral">Aquaculture of coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_sea_sponges" title="Aquaculture of sea sponges">Aquaculture of sea sponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled-environment_agriculture" title="Controlled-environment agriculture">Controlled-environment agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_hydroculture" title="Historical hydroculture">Historical hydroculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponicum" title="Hydroponicum">Hydroponicum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paludarium" title="Paludarium">Paludarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Plant nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_propagation" title="Plant propagation">Plant propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizosphere" title="Rhizosphere">Rhizosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_rot" title="Root rot">Root rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_farming" title="Vertical farming">Vertical farming</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water aeration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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