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href="#Wind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Wind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biotic_components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biotic_components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Biotic components</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biotic_components-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biotic components subsection</span> </button> <ul 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id="toc-Fish_and_other_vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish_and_other_vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Fish and other vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish_and_other_vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trophic_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophic_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Trophic relationships</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trophic_relationships-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trophic relationships subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trophic_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_producers_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_producers_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Primary producers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_producers_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacteria_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacteria_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Bacteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacteria_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benthic_invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benthic_invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Benthic invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benthic_invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lentic_food_webs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lentic_food_webs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Lentic food webs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lentic_food_webs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Community_patterns_and_diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Community_patterns_and_diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Community patterns and diversity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Community_patterns_and_diversity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span 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id="toc-Succession_patterns_in_plankton_communities_–_the_PEG_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latitudinal_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latitudinal_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Latitudinal patterns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latitudinal_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_lake_lifecycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_lake_lifecycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Natural lake lifecycles</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_lake_lifecycles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Natural lake lifecycles subsection</span> </button> 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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasive_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Invasive species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasive_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentik_ekosistem" title="Lentik ekosistem – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Lentik ekosistem" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kosystem_See" title="Ökosystem See – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ökosystem See" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema_l%C3%A9ntico" title="Ecosistema léntico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecosistema léntico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%86%D9%87" title="بوم‌سازگان دریاچه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوم‌سازگان دریاچه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cosyst%C3%A8me_lentique" title="Écosystème lentique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Écosystème lentique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecossistema_l%C3%AAntico" title="Ecossistema lêntico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ecossistema lêntico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B7%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Озёрные экосистемы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Озёрные экосистемы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஏரிச் சூழல்மண்டலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஏரிச் சூழல்மண்டலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of ecosystem</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primary_zones_of_a_lake.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Primary_zones_of_a_lake.png/400px-Primary_zones_of_a_lake.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Primary_zones_of_a_lake.png/600px-Primary_zones_of_a_lake.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Primary_zones_of_a_lake.png/800px-Primary_zones_of_a_lake.png 2x" data-file-width="1918" data-file-height="858" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The three primary zones of a lake</div></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>lake ecosystem</b> or <b>lacustrine ecosystem</b> includes <a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">biotic</a> (living) <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Micro-organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organism">micro-organisms</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic</a> (non-living) physical and chemical interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lake ecosystems are a prime example of <b>lentic ecosystems</b> (<i>lentic</i> refers to stationary or relatively still <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>lentus</i>, which means "sluggish"), which include <a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">ponds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. Lentic ecosystems can be compared with <a href="/wiki/Lotic_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotic ecosystems">lotic ecosystems</a>, which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">streams</a>. Together, these two ecosystems are examples of <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a>. </p><p>Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a>, which has a maximum depth of 1642 m.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague, but Brown<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. In addition, some lakes become seasonally stratified. Ponds and pools have two regions: the <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">pelagic</a> open water zone, and the <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic zone</a>, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the <a href="/wiki/Profundal" class="mw-redirect" title="Profundal">profundal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two important subclasses of lakes are <a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">ponds</a>, which typically are small lakes that intergrade with wetlands, and water <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a>. Over long periods of time, lakes, or bays within them, may gradually become enriched by nutrients and slowly fill in with organic sediments, a process called succession. When humans use the <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a>, the volumes of sediment entering the lake can accelerate this process. The addition of sediments and nutrients to a lake is known as <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zones">Zones</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Zones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Lake_ecosystem" title="Special:EditPage/Lake ecosystem">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:auto;border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gainsboro;"> Lake zones</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; line-height:100%; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0;"> <dl><dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:green; color:white;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone#Lake_definitions" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:powderblue; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Limnetic_zone" title="Limnetic zone">Limnetic zone</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:royalblue; color:white;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Profundal_zone" title="Profundal zone">Profundal zone</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:navy; color:white;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gainsboro;"> <a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; line-height:100%; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0;"> <dl><dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:powderblue; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Epilimnion" title="Epilimnion">Epilimnion</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:deepskyblue; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Metalimnion" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalimnion">Metalimnion</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:royalblue; color:white;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Hypolimnion" title="Hypolimnion">Hypolimnion</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:steelblue; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Destratification</a></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gainsboro;"> Lake types</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; line-height:100%; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0;"> <dl><dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cccccc; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Holomictic_lake" title="Holomictic lake">Holomictic lake</a> <dl><dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#bbbbbb; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Monomictic_lake" title="Monomictic lake">Monomictic lake</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#aaaaaa; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Dimictic_lake" title="Dimictic lake">Dimictic lake</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#999999; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Polymictic_lake" title="Polymictic lake">Polymictic lake</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#888888; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Meromictic_lake" title="Meromictic lake">Meromictic lake</a></dd> <dd><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#777777; color:black;"> </span> </span> <a href="/wiki/Amictic_lake" title="Amictic lake">Amictic lake</a></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gainsboro;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; line-height:100%; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0;;text-align:center; line-height:140%; padding:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lake_stratification_topics" title="Template:Lake stratification topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lake_stratification_topics" title="Template talk:Lake stratification topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lake_stratification_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lake stratification topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones. One common system divides lakes into three zones. The first, the <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">littoral zone</a>, is the shallow zone near the shore.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is where rooted wetland plants occur. The offshore is divided into two further zones, an open water zone and a deep water zone. In the open water zone (or photic zone) sunlight supports photosynthetic algae and the species that feed upon them. In the deep water zone, sunlight is not available and the food web is based on detritus entering from the littoral and photic zones. Some systems use other names. The off shore areas may be called the <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">pelagic zone</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a> may be called the <a href="/wiki/Limnetic_zone" title="Limnetic zone">limnetic zone</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aphotic_zone" title="Aphotic zone">aphotic zone</a> may be called the <a href="/wiki/Profundal_zone" title="Profundal zone">profundal zone</a>. Inland from the littoral zone, one can also frequently identify a <a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">riparian zone</a> which has plants still affected by the presence of the lake—this can include effects from windfalls, spring flooding, and winter ice damage. The production of the lake as a whole is the result of production from plants growing in the littoral zone, combined with production from plankton growing in the open water. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetlands</a> can be part of the lentic system, as they form naturally along most lake shores, the width of the wetland and littoral zone being dependent upon the slope of the shoreline and the amount of natural change in water levels, within and among years. Often dead trees accumulate in this zone, either from windfalls on the shore or logs transported to the site during floods. This woody debris provides important habitat for fish and nesting birds, as well as protecting shorelines from erosion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abiotic_components">Abiotic components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Abiotic components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light">Light</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Light"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Light provides the solar energy required to drive the process of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, the major energy source of lentic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of light received depends upon a combination of several factors. Small ponds may experience shading by surrounding trees, while cloud cover may affect light availability in all systems, regardless of size. Seasonal and diurnal considerations also play a role in light availability because the shallower the angle at which light strikes water, the more light is lost by reflection. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Beer%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer's law">Beer's law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-giller:1998_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-giller:1998-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once light has penetrated the surface, it may also be scattered by particles suspended in the water column. This scattering decreases the total amount of light as depth increases.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-moss:1998_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss:1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lakes are divided into <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aphotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphotic">aphotic</a> regions, the prior receiving sunlight and latter being below the depths of light penetration, making it void of photosynthetic capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In relation to lake zonation, the pelagic and benthic zones are considered to lie within the photic region, while the profundal zone is in the aphotic region.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Temperature is an important abiotic factor in lentic ecosystems because most of the biota are <a href="/wiki/Poikilotherm" title="Poikilotherm">poikilothermic</a>, where internal body temperatures are defined by the surrounding system. Water can be heated or cooled through radiation at the surface and conduction to or from the air and surrounding substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-giller:1998_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-giller:1998-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shallow ponds often have a continuous temperature gradient from warmer waters at the surface to cooler waters at the bottom. In addition, temperature fluctuations can vary greatly in these systems, both diurnally and seasonally.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Temperature regimes are very different in large lakes. In temperate regions, for example, as air temperatures increase, the icy layer formed on the surface of the lake breaks up, leaving the water at approximately 4 °C. This is the temperature at which water has the highest density. As the season progresses, the warmer air temperatures heat the surface waters, making them less dense. The deeper waters remain cool and dense due to reduced light penetration. As the summer begins, two distinct layers become established, with such a large temperature difference between them that they remain stratified. The lowest zone in the lake is the coldest and is called the <a href="/wiki/Hypolimnion" title="Hypolimnion">hypolimnion</a>. The upper warm zone is called the <a href="/wiki/Epilimnion" title="Epilimnion">epilimnion</a>. Between these zones is a band of rapid temperature change called the <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a>. During the colder fall season, heat is lost at the surface and the epilimnion cools. When the temperatures of the two zones are close enough, the waters begin to mix again to create a uniform temperature, an event termed <a href="/wiki/Lake_turnover" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake turnover">lake turnover</a>. In the winter, inverse stratification occurs as water near the surface cools freezes, while warmer, but denser water remains near the bottom. A thermocline is established, and the cycle repeats.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LSE_Stratification.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/LSE_Stratification.png/600px-LSE_Stratification.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/LSE_Stratification.png/900px-LSE_Stratification.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/LSE_Stratification.png/1200px-LSE_Stratification.png 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Seasonal stratification in temperate lakes</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wind">Wind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foamlines.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5b/Foamlines.png/330px-Foamlines.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5b/Foamlines.png/495px-Foamlines.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5b/Foamlines.png/660px-Foamlines.png 2x" data-file-width="858" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of Langmuir rotations; open circles=positively buoyant particles, closed circles=negatively buoyant particles</figcaption></figure> <p>In exposed systems, wind can create turbulent, spiral-formed surface currents called <a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulations</a>. Exactly how these currents become established is still not well understood, but it is evident that it involves some interaction between horizontal surface currents and surface gravity waves. The visible result of these rotations, which can be seen in any lake, are the surface foamlines that run parallel to the wind direction. Positively buoyant particles and small organisms concentrate in the foamline at the surface and negatively buoyant objects are found in the upwelling current between the two rotations. Objects with neutral buoyancy tend to be evenly distributed in the water column.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This turbulence circulates nutrients in the water column, making it crucial for many pelagic species, however its effect on benthic and profundal organisms is minimal to non-existent, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree of nutrient circulation is system specific, as it depends upon such factors as wind strength and duration, as well as lake or pool depth and productivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> is essential for organismal <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>. The amount of oxygen present in standing waters depends upon: 1) the area of transparent water exposed to the air, 2) the circulation of water within the system and 3) the amount of oxygen generated and used by organisms present.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In shallow, plant-rich pools there may be great fluctuations of oxygen, with extremely high concentrations occurring during the day due to photosynthesis and very low values at night when respiration is the dominant process of primary producers. Thermal stratification in larger systems can also affect the amount of oxygen present in different zones. The epilimnion is oxygen rich because it circulates quickly, gaining oxygen via contact with the air. The hypolimnion, however, circulates very slowly and has no atmospheric contact. Additionally, fewer green plants exist in the hypolimnion, so there is less oxygen released from photosynthesis. In spring and fall when the epilimnion and hypolimnion mix, oxygen becomes more evenly distributed in the system. Low oxygen levels are characteristic of the profundal zone due to the accumulation of decaying vegetation and animal matter that “rains” down from the pelagic and benthic zones and the inability to support primary producers.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a> is important for all organisms because it is a component of DNA and RNA and is involved in cell metabolism as a component of ATP and ADP. Also, phosphorus is not found in large quantities in freshwater systems, limiting photosynthesis in primary producers, making it the main determinant of lentic system production. The phosphorus cycle is complex, but the model outlined below describes the basic pathways. Phosphorus mainly enters a pond or lake through runoff from the watershed or by atmospheric deposition. Upon entering the system, a reactive form of phosphorus is usually taken up by algae and macrophytes, which release a non-reactive phosphorus compound as a byproduct of photosynthesis. This phosphorus can drift downwards and become part of the benthic or profundal sediment, or it can be <a href="/wiki/Remineralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Remineralization">remineralized</a> to the reactive form by microbes in the water column. Similarly, non-reactive phosphorus in the sediment can be remineralized into the reactive form.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sediments are generally richer in phosphorus than lake water, however, indicating that this nutrient may have a long residency time there before it is remineralized and re-introduced to the system.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biotic_components">Biotic components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biotic components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Co-occurrence_networks_of_bacterial_communities_in_a_lake.xcf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Co-occurrence_networks_of_bacterial_communities_in_a_lake.xcf/330px-Co-occurrence_networks_of_bacterial_communities_in_a_lake.xcf.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Co-occurrence_networks_of_bacterial_communities_in_a_lake.xcf/495px-Co-occurrence_networks_of_bacterial_communities_in_a_lake.xcf.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Co-occurrence_networks_of_bacterial_communities_in_a_lake.xcf/660px-Co-occurrence_networks_of_bacterial_communities_in_a_lake.xcf.png 2x" data-file-width="1683" data-file-height="1037" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Co-occurrence_network" title="Co-occurrence network">Co-occurrence network</a> of a bacterial community in a lake</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria">Bacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bacteria are present in all regions of lentic waters. Free-living forms are associated with decomposing organic material, <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilm</a> on the surfaces of rocks and plants, suspended in the water column, and in the sediments of the benthic and profundal zones. Other forms are also associated with the guts of lentic animals as parasites or in <a href="/wiki/Commensal" class="mw-redirect" title="Commensal">commensal</a> relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteria play an important role in system metabolism through nutrient recycling,<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is discussed in the Trophic Relationships section. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_producers">Primary producers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Primary producers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nelumbo_nucifera_LOTUS_bud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Nelumbo_nucifera_LOTUS_bud.jpg/170px-Nelumbo_nucifera_LOTUS_bud.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Nelumbo_nucifera_LOTUS_bud.jpg/255px-Nelumbo_nucifera_LOTUS_bud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Nelumbo_nucifera_LOTUS_bud.jpg/340px-Nelumbo_nucifera_LOTUS_bud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="4320" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera" title="Nelumbo nucifera">Nelumbo nucifera</a></i>, an aquatic plant.</figcaption></figure> <p>Algae, including both <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periphyton" title="Periphyton">periphyton</a>, are the principle photosynthesizers in ponds and lakes.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytoplankton are found drifting in the water column of the pelagic zone. Many species have a higher density than water, which should cause them to sink inadvertently down into the <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthos</a>. To combat this, phytoplankton have developed density-changing mechanisms, by forming <a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">vacuoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas_vesicle" title="Gas vesicle">gas vesicles</a>, or by changing their shapes to induce drag, thus slowing their descent.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A very sophisticated adaptation utilized by a small number of species is a tail-like <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellum</a> that can adjust vertical position, and allow movement in any direction.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phytoplankton can also maintain their presence in the water column by being circulated in <a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir rotations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Periphytic algae, on the other hand, are attached to a substrate. In lakes and ponds, they can cover all benthic surfaces. Both types of plankton are important as food sources and as oxygen providers.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic plants">Aquatic plants</a> live in both the benthic and pelagic zones, and can be grouped according to their manner of growth: ⑴ <b>emergent</b> = rooted in the substrate, but with leaves and flowers extending into the air; ⑵ <b>floating-leaved</b> = rooted in the substrate, but with floating leaves; ⑶ <b>submersed</b> = growing beneath the surface; ⑷ <b>free-floating macrophytes</b> = not rooted in the substrate, and floating on the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These various forms of macrophytes generally occur in different areas of the benthic zone, with emergent vegetation nearest the shoreline, then floating-leaved macrophytes, followed by submersed vegetation. Free-floating macrophytes can occur anywhere on the system's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic plants">Aquatic plants</a> are more buoyant than their terrestrial counterparts because freshwater has a higher density than air. This makes structural rigidity unimportant in lakes and ponds (except in the aerial stems and leaves). Thus, the leaves and stems of most aquatic plants use less energy to construct and maintain woody tissue, investing that energy into fast growth instead.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to contend with stresses induced by the wind and waves, plants must be both flexible and tough. Light, water depth, and substrate types are the most important factors controlling the distribution of submerged aquatic plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Keddy_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keddy-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Macrophytes are sources of food, oxygen, and habitat structure in the benthic zone, but cannot penetrate the depths of the euphotic zone, and hence are not found there.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-moss:1998_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss:1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_strider_G_remigis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Water_strider_G_remigis.jpg/220px-Water_strider_G_remigis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Water_strider_G_remigis.jpg/330px-Water_strider_G_remigis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Water_strider_G_remigis.jpg/440px-Water_strider_G_remigis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gerridae" title="Gerridae">Water striders</a> are predatory insects which rely on <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> to walk on top of water. They live on the surface of ponds, marshes, and other quiet waters. They can move very quickly, up to 1.5 <a href="/wiki/Metre_per_second" title="Metre per second">m/s</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a> are tiny animals suspended in the water column. Like phytoplankton, these species have developed mechanisms that keep them from sinking to deeper waters, including drag-inducing body forms, and the active flicking of appendages (such as antennae or spines).<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remaining in the water column may have its advantages in terms of feeding, but this zone's lack of refugia leaves zooplankton vulnerable to predation. In response, some species, especially <a href="/wiki/Daphnia" title="Daphnia">Daphnia</a> sp., make daily vertical migrations in the water column by passively sinking to the darker lower depths during the day, and actively moving towards the surface during the night. Also, because conditions in a lentic system can be quite variable across seasons, zooplankton have the ability to switch from laying regular eggs to resting eggs when there is a lack of food, temperatures fall below 2 °C, or if predator abundance is high. These resting eggs have a <a href="/wiki/Diapause" title="Diapause">diapause</a>, or dormancy period, that should allow the zooplankton to encounter conditions that are more favorable to survival when they finally hatch.<sup id="cite_ref-gliwicz:2004_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gliwicz:2004-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invertebrates that inhabit the benthic zone are numerically dominated by small species, and are species-rich compared to the zooplankton of the open water. They include: <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crayfish" title="Crayfish">crayfish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">molluscs</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Clam" title="Clam">clams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</a>), and numerous types of insects.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These organisms are mostly found in the areas of macrophyte growth, where the richest resources, highly-oxygenated water, and warmest portion of the ecosystem are found. The structurally diverse macrophyte beds are important sites for the accumulation of organic matter, and provide an ideal area for colonization. The sediments and plants also offer a great deal of protection from predatory fishes.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Very few invertebrates are able to inhabit the cold, dark, and oxygen-poor <a href="/wiki/Profundal_zone" title="Profundal zone">profundal zone</a>. Those that can are often red in color, due to the presence of large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>, which greatly increases the amount of oxygen carried to cells.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the concentration of oxygen within this zone is low, most species construct tunnels or burrows in which they can hide, and utilize the minimum amount of movements necessary to circulate water through, drawing oxygen to them without expending too much energy.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish_and_other_vertebrates">Fish and other vertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fish and other vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fish have a range of physiological tolerances that are dependent upon which species they belong to. They have different lethal temperatures, dissolved oxygen requirements, and spawning needs that are based on their activity levels and behaviors. Because fish are highly mobile, they are able to deal with unsuitable abiotic factors in one zone by simply moving to another. A detrital feeder in the profundal zone, for example, that finds the oxygen concentration has dropped too low may feed closer to the benthic zone. A fish might also alter its residence during different parts of its life history: hatching in a sediment nest, then moving to the weedy benthic zone to develop in a protected environment with food resources, and finally into the pelagic zone as an adult. </p><p>Other vertebrate taxa inhabit lentic systems as well. These include <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Salamander" title="Salamander">salamanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">frogs</a>), <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alligator" title="Alligator">alligators</a>), and a large number of <a href="/wiki/Waterfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterfowl">waterfowl</a> species.<sup id="cite_ref-moss:1998_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss:1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these vertebrates spend part of their time in terrestrial habitats, and thus, are not directly affected by abiotic factors in the lake or pond. Many fish species are important both as consumers and as prey species to the larger vertebrates mentioned above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trophic_relationships">Trophic relationships</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Trophic relationships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_producers_2">Primary producers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Primary producers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lentic systems gain most of their energy from photosynthesis performed by aquatic plants and algae.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/autochthonous" class="extiw" title="wikt:autochthonous">autochthonous</a> process involves the combination of carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy to produce carbohydrates and dissolved oxygen. Within a lake or pond, the potential rate of photosynthesis generally decreases with depth due to light attenuation.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Photosynthesis, however, is often low at the top few millimeters of the surface, likely due to inhibition by ultraviolet light. The exact depth and photosynthetic rate measurements of this curve are system-specific and depend upon: 1) the total biomass of photosynthesizing cells, 2) the amount of light attenuating materials, and 3) the abundance and frequency range of light absorbing pigments (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Chlorophylls" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorophylls">chlorophylls</a>) inside of photosynthesizing cells.<sup id="cite_ref-moss:1998_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss:1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The energy created by these primary producers is important for the community because it is transferred to higher <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic levels</a> via consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria_2">Bacteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The vast majority of bacteria in lakes and ponds obtain their energy by decomposing vegetation and animal matter. In the pelagic zone, dead fish and the occasional <a href="/wiki/Allochthonous" class="mw-redirect" title="Allochthonous">allochthonous</a> input of litterfall are examples of coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM>1 mm). Bacteria degrade these into fine particulate organic matter (FPOM<1 mm) and then further into usable nutrients. Small organisms such as plankton are also characterized as FPOM. Very low concentrations of nutrients are released during decomposition because the bacteria are utilizing them to build their own biomass. Bacteria, however, are consumed by <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, which are in turn consumed by zooplankton, and then further up the <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic levels</a>. Elements other than carbon, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are regenerated when protozoa feed on bacterial prey <sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this way, nutrients become once more available for use in the water column. This regeneration cycle is known as the <a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">microbial loop</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is a key component of lentic food webs.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decomposition of organic materials can continue in the benthic and profundal zones if the matter falls through the water column before being completely digested by the pelagic bacteria. Bacteria are found in the greatest abundance here in sediments, where they are typically 2-1000 times more prevalent than in the water column.<sup id="cite_ref-gliwicz:2004_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gliwicz:2004-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benthic_invertebrates">Benthic invertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Benthic invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Benthic invertebrates, due to their high level of species richness, have many methods of prey capture. <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">Filter feeders</a> create currents via siphons or beating cilia, to pull water and its nutritional contents, towards themselves for straining. <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazers</a> use scraping, rasping, and shredding adaptations to feed on periphytic algae and macrophytes. Members of the collector guild browse the sediments, picking out specific particles with raptorial appendages. Deposit feeding invertebrates indiscriminately consume sediment, digesting any organic material it contains. Finally, some invertebrates belong to the <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predator</a> guild, capturing and consuming living animals.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jonasson:2003_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jonasson:2003-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The profundal zone is home to a unique group of filter feeders that use small body movements to draw a current through burrows that they have created in the sediment. This mode of feeding requires the least amount of motion, allowing these species to conserve energy.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small number of invertebrate taxa are predators in the profundal zone. These species are likely from other regions and only come to these depths to feed. The vast majority of invertebrates in this zone are deposit feeders, getting their energy from the surrounding sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-jonasson:2003_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jonasson:2003-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fish size, mobility, and sensory capabilities allow them to exploit a broad prey base, covering multiple zonation regions. Like invertebrates, fish feeding habits can be categorized into guilds. In the pelagic zone, <a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">herbivores</a> graze on periphyton and macrophytes or pick phytoplankton out of the water column. <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a> include fishes that feed on zooplankton in the water column (zooplanktivores), insects at the water's surface, on benthic structures, or in the sediment (<a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">insectivores</a>), and those that feed on other fish (<a href="/wiki/Piscivore" title="Piscivore">piscivores</a>). Fish that consume detritus and gain energy by processing its organic material are called <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a>. Omnivores ingest a wide variety of prey, encompassing floral, faunal, and detrital material. Finally, members of the <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a> guild acquire nutrition from a host species, usually another fish or large vertebrate.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fish taxa are flexible in their feeding roles, varying their diets with environmental conditions and prey availability. Many species also undergo a diet shift as they develop. Therefore, it is likely that any single fish occupies multiple feeding guilds within its lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-windfield:2003_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-windfield:2003-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lentic_food_webs">Lentic food webs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lentic food webs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted in the previous sections, the lentic biota are linked in complex web of trophic relationships. These organisms can be considered to loosely be associated with specific trophic groups (e.g. primary producers, herbivores, primary carnivores, secondary carnivores, etc.). Scientists have developed several theories in order to understand the mechanisms that control the abundance and diversity within these groups. Very generally, <a href="/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design#Ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Top-down and bottom-up design">top-down</a> processes dictate that the abundance of prey taxa is dependent upon the actions of consumers from higher <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic levels</a>. Typically, these processes operate only between two trophic levels, with no effect on the others. In some cases, however, aquatic systems experience a <a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">trophic cascade</a>; for example, this might occur if primary producers experience less grazing by herbivores because these herbivores are suppressed by carnivores. <a href="/wiki/Top-down_and_bottom-up_design#Ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Top-down and bottom-up design">Bottom-up</a> processes are functioning when the abundance or diversity of members of higher trophic levels is dependent upon the availability or quality of resources from lower levels. Finally, a combined regulating theory, bottom-up:top-down, combines the predicted influences of consumers and resource availability. It predicts that trophic levels close to the lowest trophic levels will be most influenced by bottom-up forces, while top-down effects should be strongest at top levels.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Community_patterns_and_diversity">Community patterns and diversity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Community patterns and diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_species_richness">Local species richness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Local species richness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The biodiversity of a lentic system increases with the surface area of the lake or pond. This is attributable to the higher likelihood of partly terrestrial species of finding a larger system. Also, because larger systems typically have larger populations, the chance of extinction is decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-browne:1982_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-browne:1982-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional factors, including temperature regime, pH, nutrient availability, habitat complexity, speciation rates, competition, and predation, have been linked to the number of species present within systems.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keddy_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keddy-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Succession_patterns_in_plankton_communities_–_the_PEG_model"><span id="Succession_patterns_in_plankton_communities_.E2.80.93_the_PEG_model"></span>Succession patterns in plankton communities – the PEG model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Succession patterns in plankton communities – the PEG model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phytoplankton and zooplankton communities in lake systems undergo seasonal succession in relation to nutrient availability, predation, and competition. Sommer <i>et al.</i><sup id="cite_ref-sommer:1986_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sommer:1986-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> described these patterns as part of the Plankton Ecology Group (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Plankton_Ecology_Group_model&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plankton Ecology Group model (page does not exist)">PEG</a>) model, with 24 statements constructed from the analysis of numerous systems. The following includes a subset of these statements, as explained by Brönmark and Hansson<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> illustrating succession through a single seasonal cycle: </p><p><i>Winter</i><br /> 1. Increased nutrient and light availability result in rapid phytoplankton growth towards the end of winter. The dominant species, such as diatoms, are small and have quick growth capabilities. 2. These plankton are consumed by zooplankton, which become the dominant plankton taxa. </p><p><i>Spring</i><br /> 3. A <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clear_water_phase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clear water phase (page does not exist)">clear water phase</a> occurs, as phytoplankton populations become depleted due to increased predation by growing numbers of zooplankton. </p><p><i>Summer</i><br /> 4. Zooplankton abundance declines as a result of decreased phytoplankton prey and increased predation by juvenile fishes.<br /> 5. With increased nutrient availability and decreased predation from zooplankton, a diverse phytoplankton community develops.<br /> 6. As the summer continues, nutrients become depleted in a predictable order: phosphorus, <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>. The abundance of various phytoplankton species varies in relation to their biological need for these nutrients.<br /> 7. Small-sized zooplankton become the dominant type of zooplankton because they are less vulnerable to fish predation. </p><p><i>Fall</i><br /> 8. Predation by fishes is reduced due to lower temperatures and zooplankton of all sizes increase in number. </p><p><i>Winter</i><br /> 9. Cold temperatures and decreased light availability result in lower rates of primary production and decreased phytoplankton populations. 10. Reproduction in zooplankton decreases due to lower temperatures and less prey. </p><p>The PEG model presents an idealized version of this succession pattern, while natural systems are known for their variation.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latitudinal_patterns">Latitudinal patterns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Latitudinal patterns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a well-documented global pattern that correlates decreasing plant and animal diversity with increasing latitude, that is to say, there are fewer species as one moves towards the poles. The cause of this pattern is one of the greatest puzzles for ecologists today. Theories for its explanation include energy availability, climatic variability, disturbance, competition, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this global diversity gradient, this pattern can be weak for freshwater systems compared to global marine and terrestrial systems.<sup id="cite_ref-hillebrand:2004_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hillebrand:2004-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be related to size, as Hillebrand and Azovsky<sup id="cite_ref-hillebrand:2001_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hillebrand:2001-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found that smaller organisms (protozoa and plankton) did not follow the expected trend strongly, while larger species (vertebrates) did. They attributed this to better dispersal ability by smaller organisms, which may result in high distributions globally.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_lake_lifecycles">Natural lake lifecycles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Natural lake lifecycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lake_creation">Lake creation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Lake creation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lakes can be formed in a variety of ways, but the most common are discussed briefly below. The oldest and largest systems are the result of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a> activities. The rift lakes in Africa, for example are the result of seismic activity along the site of separation of two tectonic plates. Ice-formed lakes are created when <a href="/wiki/Glaciers" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciers">glaciers</a> recede, leaving behind abnormalities in the landscape shape that are then filled with water. Finally, <a href="/wiki/Oxbow_lake" title="Oxbow lake">oxbow lakes</a> are <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">fluvial</a> in origin, resulting when a meandering river bend is pinched off from the main channel.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_extinction">Natural extinction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Natural extinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All lakes and ponds receive sediment inputs. Since these systems are not really expanding, it is logical to assume that they will become increasingly shallower in depth, eventually becoming wetlands or terrestrial vegetation. The length of this process should depend upon a combination of depth and sedimentation rate. Moss<sup id="cite_ref-moss:1998_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss:1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gives the example of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tanganyika" title="Lake Tanganyika">Lake Tanganyika</a>, which reaches a depth of 1500 m and has a sedimentation rate of 0.5 mm/yr. Assuming that sedimentation is not influenced by anthropogenic factors, this system should go extinct in approximately 3 million years. Shallow lentic systems might also fill in as swamps encroach inward from the edges. These processes operate on a much shorter timescale, taking hundreds to thousands of years to complete the extinction process.<sup id="cite_ref-moss:1998_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss:1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_impacts">Human impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Human impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acidification">Acidification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Acidification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a> are naturally released from volcanoes, organic compounds in the soil, wetlands, and marine systems, but the majority of these compounds come from the combustion of coal, oil, gasoline, and the smelting of ores containing sulfur.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These substances dissolve in atmospheric moisture and enter lentic systems as <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brown:1987_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lakes and ponds that contain bedrock that is rich in carbonates have a natural buffer, resulting in no alteration of pH. Systems without this bedrock, however, are very sensitive to acid inputs because they have a low neutralizing capacity, resulting in pH declines even with only small inputs of acid.<sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a pH of 5–6 algal species diversity and biomass decrease considerably, leading to an increase in water transparency – a characteristic feature of acidified lakes. As the pH continues lower, all fauna becomes less diverse. The most significant feature is the disruption of fish reproduction. Thus, the population is eventually composed of few, old individuals that eventually die and leave the systems without fishes.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acid rain has been especially harmful to lakes in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, west <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and the north eastern United States. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Eutrophication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophic</a> systems contain a high concentration of phosphorus (~30 μg/L), nitrogen (~1500 μg/L), or both.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phosphorus enters lentic waters from <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">sewage treatment</a> effluents, discharge from raw sewage, or from runoff of farmland. Nitrogen mostly comes from <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">agricultural fertilizers</a> from runoff or leaching and subsequent groundwater flow. This increase in nutrients required for primary producers results in a massive increase of phytoplankton growth, termed a "<a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">plankton bloom</a>." This bloom decreases water transparency, leading to the loss of submerged plants.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resultant reduction in habitat structure has negative impacts on the species that utilize it for spawning, maturation, and general survival. Additionally, the large number of short-lived phytoplankton result in a massive amount of dead biomass settling into the sediment.<sup id="cite_ref-moss:1998_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moss:1998-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacteria need large amounts of oxygen to decompose this material, thus reducing the oxygen concentration of the water. This is especially pronounced in <a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">stratified lakes</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a> prevents oxygen-rich water from the surface to mix with lower levels. Low or anoxic conditions preclude the existence of many taxa that are not physiologically tolerant of these conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasive_species">Invasive species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Invasive species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> have been introduced to lentic systems through both purposeful events (e.g. stocking game and food species) as well as unintentional events (e.g. in <a href="/wiki/Ballast_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballast water">ballast water</a>). These organisms can affect natives via competition for prey or habitat, predation, habitat alteration, <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridization</a>, or the introduction of harmful diseases and parasites.<sup id="cite_ref-giller:1998_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-giller:1998-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With regard to native species, invaders may cause changes in size and age structure, distribution, density, population growth, and may even drive populations to extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of prominent invaders of lentic systems include the <a href="/wiki/Zebra_mussel" title="Zebra mussel">zebra mussel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_lamprey" title="Sea lamprey">sea lamprey</a> in the Great Lakes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/28px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/42px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/56px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_aeration" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake aeration">Lake aeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_lentic_water_bodies_of_Maharashtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Man-made lentic water bodies of Maharashtra">Man-made lentic water bodies of Maharashtra</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-brown:1987-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown:1987_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrown1987" class="citation book cs1">Brown, A. L. (1987). <i>Freshwater Ecology</i>. Heinimann Educational Books, London. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0435606220" title="Special:BookSources/0435606220"><bdi>0435606220</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freshwater+Ecology&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Heinimann+Educational+Books%2C+London&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0435606220&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALake+ecosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bronmark:2005-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bronmark:2005_2-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrönmarkL._A._Hansson2005" class="citation book cs1">Brönmark, C.; L. A. Hansson (2005). <i>The Biology of Lakes and Ponds</i>. Oxford University Press, Oxford. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198516134" title="Special:BookSources/0198516134"><bdi>0198516134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biology+of+Lakes+and+Ponds&rft.pages=285&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+Oxford&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0198516134&rft.aulast=Br%C3%B6nmark&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=L.+A.+Hansson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALake+ecosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kalff:2002-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kalff:2002_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalff2002" class="citation book cs1">Kalff, J. (2002). <i>Limnology</i>. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, NJ. p. 592. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0130337757" title="Special:BookSources/0130337757"><bdi>0130337757</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Limnology&rft.pages=592&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall%2C+Upper+Saddle%2C+NJ&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0130337757&rft.aulast=Kalff&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALake+ecosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander1999" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, David E. 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(February 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9628596">"Perceptions of Freshwater Algal Blooms, Causes and Health among New Brunswick Lakefront Property Owners"</a>. <i>Environmental Management</i>. <b>71</b> (2): 249–259. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00267-022-01736-2">10.1007/s00267-022-01736-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0364-152X">0364-152X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9628596">9628596</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36318287">36318287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Management&rft.atitle=Perceptions+of+Freshwater+Algal+Blooms%2C+Causes+and+Health+among+New+Brunswick+Lakefront+Property+Owners&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=249-259&rft.date=2023-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9628596%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0364-152X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36318287&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00267-022-01736-2&rft.aulast=Birk&rft.aufirst=Sapriya&rft.au=Miller%2C+J.+David&rft.au=MacMullin%2C+Aidan&rft.au=Patterson%2C+R.+Timothy&rft.au=Villeneuve%2C+Paul+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9628596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALake+ecosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Sullivan,_PatrickReynolds,_C._S.2005" class="citation book cs1">O'Sullivan, Patrick; Reynolds, C. 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Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-04795-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-04795-6"><bdi>978-0-632-04795-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lakes+Handbook%3A+Lake+Restoration+and+Rehabilitation&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-632-04795-6&rft.au=O%27Sullivan%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+C.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLHc9uAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALake+ecosystem" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General_components_and_freshwater_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General components and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Trophic_relationships">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ponds,_pools,_and_puddles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ponds" title="Template:Ponds"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ponds" title="Template talk:Ponds"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ponds" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ponds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ponds,_pools,_and_puddles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Ponds</a>, pools, and <a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">puddles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Ponds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash_pond" title="Ash pond">Ash pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_lake" title="Balancing lake">Balancing lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballast_pond" title="Ballast pond">Ballast pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beel" title="Beel">Beel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_pond" title="Cooling pond">Cooling pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_pond" title="Dew pond">Dew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation_pond" title="Evaporation pond">Evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon" title="Facultative lagoon">Facultative lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_pond" title="Garden pond">Garden pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_pond" title="Ice pond">Ice pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion pond">Immersion pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kettle_(landform)" title="Kettle (landform)">Kettle pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_pond" title="Log pond">Log pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melt_pond" title="Melt pond">Melt pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_pond" title="Mill pond">Mill pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon#Subsequent_polishing_ponds" title="Facultative lagoon">Polishing pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceway_pond" title="Raceway pond">Raceway pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sag_pond" title="Sag pond">Sag pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_evaporation_pond" title="Salt evaporation pond">Salt evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_basin" title="Sediment basin">Sediment pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settling_basin" title="Settling basin">Settling pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">Stepwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stew_pond" title="Stew pond">Stew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Tailings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarn_(lake)" title="Tarn (lake)">Tarn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_pond" title="Waste pond">Waste pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_stabilization_pond" title="Waste stabilization pond">Waste stabilization pond</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/160px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/240px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg/320px-Small_pond_on_the_West_branch_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchialine_system" title="Anchialine system">Anchialine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">Brine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinity_pool" title="Infinity pool">Infinity pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural pool">Natural pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_pool" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean pool">Ocean pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunge_pool" title="Plunge pool">Plunge pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflecting_pool" title="Reflecting pool">Reflecting pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">Spent fuel pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_pool" title="Swimming pool">Swimming pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernal_pool" title="Vernal pool">Vernal pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">Puddles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_bath" title="Bird bath">Bird bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_ring_effect" title="Coffee ring effect">Coffee ring effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puddle" title="Puddle">Puddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_tension#Puddles_on_a_surface" title="Surface tension">Puddles on a surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seep_(hydrology)" title="Seep (hydrology)">Seep puddle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_dam" title="Beaver dam">Beaver dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duck_pond" title="Duck pond">Duck pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfish_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Goldfish pond">Goldfish pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koi_pond" title="Koi pond">Koi pond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">Freshwater ecosystem</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lake ecosystem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerated_lagoon" title="Aerated lagoon">Aerated lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakki_shower" title="Bakki shower">Bakki shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big-fish%E2%80%93little-pond_effect" title="Big-fish–little-pond effect">Big fish–little pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">Body of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_pond" title="Full pond">Full pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydric_soil" title="Hydric soil">Hydric soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytotelma" title="Phytotelma">Phytotelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond_of_Abundance" title="Pond of Abundance">Pond of Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond_liner" title="Pond liner">Pond liner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponding" title="Ponding">Ponding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puddle_(M._C._Escher)" title="Puddle (M. C. Escher)"><i>Puddle</i> (M C Escher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_hole" title="Swimming hole">Swimming hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_aeration" title="Water aeration">Water aeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_Lilies_(Monet_series)" title="Water Lilies (Monet series)"><i>Water Lilies</i> (Monet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&oldid=1229707729">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lake_ecosystem&oldid=1229707729</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_biomes" title="Category:Aquatic biomes">Aquatic biomes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Aquatic ecology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ecosystems" title="Category:Ecosystems">Ecosystems</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_August_2021" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from August 2021">Articles needing additional references from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 June 2024, at 08:38<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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