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title="Imbangala – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imbangala" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbangala" title="Imbangala – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imbangala" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbangala" title="Imbangala – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Imbangala" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbangalai" title="Imbangalai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Imbangalai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7" title="مبانجالا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مبانجالا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbangalas" title="Imbangalas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Imbangalas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbangalat" title="Imbangalat – 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0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Historical states of present-day Angola</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Angola.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="(Emblem of Angola)"><img alt="(Emblem of Angola)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Emblem_of_Angola.svg/100px-Emblem_of_Angola.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Emblem_of_Angola.svg/150px-Emblem_of_Angola.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Emblem_of_Angola.svg/200px-Emblem_of_Angola.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="390" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Matamba" title="Kingdom of Matamba">Kingdom of Matamba</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Matamba" title="List of rulers of Matamba">Rulers of Matamba</a>)<br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Kingdom of Ndongo</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Ngolas_of_Ndongo" title="List of Ngolas of Ndongo">List of Ngolas</a>)<br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Kongo" title="List of rulers of Kongo">List of Manikongo</a>)<br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Imbangala</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kasanje_Kingdom" title="Kasanje Kingdom">Kasanje Kingdom</a><br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Lunda">Kingdom of Lunda</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_the_Lunda_Empire" title="List of rulers of the Lunda Empire">List of rulers of the Lunda Empire</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Baixa_de_Kassanje" class="mw-redirect" title="Baixa de Kassanje">Baixa de Kassanje</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Kambamba_Kulaxingo" title="Kambamba Kulaxingo">Kambamba Kulaxingo</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mbwila" title="Mbwila">Mbwila</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ngoyo" title="Ngoyo">Ngoyo</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mbunda_Kingdom" title="Mbunda Kingdom">Mbunda Kingdom</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_The_Rulers_of_the_Mbunda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom">List of The Rulers of the Mbunda Kingdom</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_West_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese West Africa">Portuguese West Africa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Republic of Angola</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Angola" title="President of Angola">President of Angola</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Angola_state" title="Template:Angola state"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Angola_state" title="Template talk:Angola state"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Angola_state" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Angola state"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Imbangala</b> or <b>Mbangala</b> were divided groups of warriors and marauders who worked as hired mercenaries in 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later founded the <a href="/wiki/Kasanje_Kingdom" title="Kasanje Kingdom">Kasanje Kingdom</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imbangala&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Imbangala were people, possibly from Central Africa, who appeared in Angola during the early 17th century. Their origins are still debated. There is general agreement that they were not the same <a href="/wiki/Jagas" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagas">Jagas</a> that attacked the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_I_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro I of Kongo">Alvaro I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Vansina" title="Jan Vansina">Jan Vansina</a> and David Birmingham hypothesized that the oral traditions of the <a href="/wiki/Lunda_Empire" title="Lunda Empire">Lunda Empire</a> suggested that both groups of Jaga marauders originated in the Lunda Empire (present-day <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratric Republic of Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>) under leader Kinguri and had fled 1550 and 1612.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another theory is that the Imbangala were a local people of southern Angola originating from the <a href="/wiki/Bi%C3%A9_Plateau" title="Bié Plateau">Bie Plateau</a> or the coastal regions west of the highlands.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first witness account of the Imbangala, written by an English sailor named <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Battel" title="Andrew Battel">Andrew Battell</a>, who lived with them for 16 months around 1600–1601, places them firmly in the coastal regions and highlands of modern <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, just south of the <a href="/wiki/Kwanza_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwanza River">Kwanza River</a>. Their leaders told Battell that they had come from a place called <i>Elembe</i> and that they had originated from a "page" in its army. Battell's story was published by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Purchas" title="Samuel Purchas">Samuel Purchas</a> partially in 1614 and fully in 1625. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lifestyle_and_customs">Lifestyle and customs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imbangala&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Lifestyle and customs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Battell went to their country with Portuguese merchants buying their war captives to sell as slaves. At this time the Imbangala were marauders whose primary interest seemed to be pillaging the country, especially to obtain large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">palm wine</a>, which they produced by a wasteful method of chopping down trees and tapping their fermented contents over a few months. </p><p>The Imbangala did not permit female members to give birth in their <i>kilombo</i> (Portuguese <i><a href="/wiki/Quilombo" title="Quilombo">quilombo</a></i>), or armed camp. Instead, they replenished their numbers by capturing adolescents and forcing them to serve in their army. This social structure made the Imbangala warbands ideal slavers, as non-male prisoners had little use in their society and as such could be easily sold to the Portuguese.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Imbangala were a fully <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarized</a> society based entirely on <a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">initiation</a> rites as opposed to the customary <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> rites of most African ethnic groups. To keep kinship from replacing initiation, all children born inside a <i>kilombo</i> (village) were killed. Women were allowed to leave the <i>kilombo</i> to have their children, but when they returned, the child was not considered an Imbangala until undergoing initiation. In almost <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartan</a>-like program, children were trained daily in group and individual combat.<sup id="cite_ref-Honor_2008_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honor_2008-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During training, they wore a collar that could not be removed, even after initiation, until they had killed a man in battle. Aside from <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a> rituals, the Imbangala covered themselves with ointment called <i>maji a samba</i> believed to confer invulnerability as long as the soldier followed strict set of <i>yijila</i> (<a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">codes</a>), which required the infanticide, <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> and an absolute absence of <a href="/wiki/Cowardice" title="Cowardice">cowardice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Honor_2008_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honor_2008-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Battell, who lived among them for more than a year, they moved every few months to a new place, attacking the inhabitants and killing or enslaving everybody who could not escape in time.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He writes that they ate killed enemies as well as their own fighters if they lacked courage: "those that are faint-hearted, and turn their backs to the enemy, are presently condemned and killed for cowards, and their bodies eaten."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBattel190128_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBattel190128-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Boys had to prove their worth by killing an enemy in order to be accepted among the men – those who tried to run away were killed and eaten too.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBattel190185_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBattel190185-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Battell also reports of ritual <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifices</a> held before large battles and other major enterprises. During these rituals, captured enemies were killed together with cows, goats, and dogs, and the flesh of all the victims was eaten together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBattel190186–87_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBattel190186–87-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weapons_and_tactics">Weapons and tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imbangala&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Weapons and tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Imbangala fighting men were known as <i>ngunza</i> (singular: <i>gonzo</i>) and were divided into twelve squadrons, each led by a captain called a <i>musungo</i>. These twelve squadrons were part of a <i>kilombo</i>, a temporarily-fortified town surrounded by a wooden palisade. Each kilombo had twelve gates for the twelve squadrons that formed the total fighting force.<sup id="cite_ref-Honor_2008_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honor_2008-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Imbangala army took the open field or any battlefield away from their fortifications in a three-prong formation similar to the famous Zulu "bull horn" formation. The Imbangala attacked with a right horn (<i>mutanda</i>), left horn (<i>muya</i>) and vanguard (<i>muta ita</i>) in the center. Unlike the Zulu, the Imbangala fought with the same weapons as their enemies, including bows, knives and swords. Their primary weapon was the war club or hatchet.<sup id="cite_ref-Honor_2008_pg_21_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honor_2008_pg_21-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relations_with_Portuguese">Relations with Portuguese</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imbangala&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relations with Portuguese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The military capacity and ruthlessness of the Imbangala appealed to Portuguese colonists in Angola, who had been fought to a standstill in their war against the Angolan kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ndongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ndongo">Ndongo</a> during the first period of colonial rule (1575–1599). Despite professing disgust at Imbangala customs, Portuguese governors of <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a> sometimes hired them for their campaigns, beginning with Bento Banha Cardoso in 1615 but most notably after <a href="/wiki/Luis_Mendes_de_Vasconcelos" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos">Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos</a>'s 1618 assault on Ndongo. <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_II_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro II of Kongo">Álvaro II of Kongo</a> objected to the first of these alliances, complaining that the Imbangala "were 'eating' many of his subjects", but the Portuguese ignored him.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mendes de Vasconcelos operated with three bands of Imbangala but soon found that they were not disciplined enough to serve the Portuguese. Kasanje's band, in particular, broke free of Portuguese control and began a long campaign of pillage that eventually established them in the <a href="/wiki/Baixa_de_Cassange" class="mw-redirect" title="Baixa de Cassange">Baixa de Cassange</a> region of modern Angola along the Kwango River. The band became the modern Angolan ethnicity that calls itself Imbangala (and ceased the militant customs of its predecessors in the late 17th century). </p><p>Another band, Kaza, joined Ndongo and opposed the Portuguese before betraying Ndongo's Queen Njinga Mbande in 1629, thus frustrating that queen's attempt to preserve Ndongo's independence from a base on islands in the Kwanza River. After Njinga's short-lived attempt to join with Kasanje in 1629–30, she went to Matamba and there formed her own (or joined with another) Imbangala band led by a man known as "Njinga Mona" (Njinga's son). Though reported to be an Imbangala herself (supposedly taking an initiation rite that involved pounding up a baby in a grain mortar), Njinga probably never really became one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_fate">Later fate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imbangala&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later fate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other bands were integrated into the Portuguese army serving as auxiliary soldiers, under their commanders and cantoned within the Portuguese territory. As the 17th century wore on, they and other bands were annihilated by one or another of the political states, such as the one formed by <a href="/wiki/Njinga" class="mw-redirect" title="Njinga">Njinga</a> in <a href="/wiki/Matamba" class="mw-redirect" title="Matamba">Matamba</a>. One rogue group of Imbangala set down roots and formed the <a href="/wiki/Kasanje_Kingdom" title="Kasanje Kingdom">Kasanje Kingdom</a>. </p><p>South of the Kwanza, in the original homeland of the Imbangala, they continued operating much as before for a least another half a century, but even there, they gradually formed partnerships with existing political entities such as <a href="/wiki/Viye" title="Viye">Bihe</a> (Viye), <a href="/wiki/Huambo" title="Huambo">Huambo</a> (Wambu) or <a href="/wiki/Bailundo_(kingdom)" title="Bailundo (kingdom)">Bailundu</a> (Mbailundu). In all these areas, their customs tended to moderate in the 18th century, cannibalism was restricted to ritual and sometimes only to symbolic occasions (for example, in the 19th century, Imbangala groups in the central highlands still practiced a ritual known as "eating the old man"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imbangala&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMiller1972" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Joseph C. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/180754">"The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History"</a>. <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 549–574. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700011932">10.1017/S0021853700011932</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8537">0021-8537</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/180754">180754</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162591680">162591680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+Imbangala+and+the+Chronology+of+Early+Central+African+History&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=549-574&rft.date=1972&rft.issn=0021-8537&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162591680%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F180754%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700011932&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Joseph+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F180754&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImbangala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Honor_2008-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Honor_2008_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Honor_2008_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Honor_2008_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_and_Desch-Obi2008" class="citation book cs1">Thomas and Desch-Obi, M and J (2008). <i>Fighting for Honor: The History of African Martial Art Traditions in the Atlantic World</i>. Univ of South Carolina Press. p. 23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+for+Honor%3A+The+History+of+African+Martial+Art+Traditions+in+the+Atlantic+World&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Univ+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Thomas+and+Desch-Obi&rft.aufirst=M+and+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImbangala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattel1901" class="citation book cs1">Battel, Andrew (1901). Ravenstein, Ernest George (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/strangeadventure00battrich"><i>The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell of Leigh, in Angola and the Adjoining Regions</i></a>. London: The Hakluyt Society. pp. 26–28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Strange+Adventures+of+Andrew+Battell+of+Leigh%2C+in+Angola+and+the+Adjoining+Regions&rft.place=London&rft.pages=26-28&rft.pub=The+Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Battel&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstrangeadventure00battrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImbangala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBattel190128-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBattel190128_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBattel1901">Battel 1901</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBattel190185-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBattel190185_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBattel1901">Battel 1901</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBattel190186–87-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBattel190186–87_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBattel1901">Battel 1901</a>, pp. 86–87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Honor_2008_pg_21-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Honor_2008_pg_21_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_and_Desch-Obi2008" class="citation book cs1">Thomas and Desch-Obi, M and J (2008). <i>Fighting for Honor: The History of African Martial Art Traditions in the Atlantic World</i>. Univ of South Carolina Press. p. 21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+for+Honor%3A+The+History+of+African+Martial+Art+Traditions+in+the+Atlantic+World&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Univ+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Thomas+and+Desch-Obi&rft.aufirst=M+and+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImbangala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_C._Miller" title="Joseph C. Miller">Miller, Joseph C.</a> (1976). <i>Kings and Kinsmen: Early Mbundu States in Angola</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>. p. 182.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kings+and+Kinsmen%3A+Early+Mbundu+States+in+Angola&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=182&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Joseph+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImbangala" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imbangala&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101005062744/http://bz.llano.net/gowen/melungia/article1.htm">Angolan Origins of Melungeons in 17th Century Virginia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080705123951/http://www.bjornthegreat.com/angola/ancient/kingdoms.php">Angolan Kingdoms</a> (archived)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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