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href="#Social_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Social status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditions_of_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditions_of_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Conditions of service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditions_of_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Military role</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In France</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_France-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In France subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_16th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_16th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>The 16th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_16th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Later history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_into_a_paramilitary_police_force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_into_a_paramilitary_police_force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Evolution into a paramilitary police force</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_into_a_paramilitary_police_force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" 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Available in 14 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-14" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">14 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chent_d%27armas" title="Chent d'armas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chent d'armas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_d%27armes" title="Home d'armes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Home d'armes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbrojno%C5%A1" title="Zbrojnoš – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zbrojnoš" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waffenknecht" title="Waffenknecht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Waffenknecht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hombre_de_armas" title="Hombre de armas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hombre de armas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armulo" title="Armulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Armulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%87" title="سرباز سنگین‌اسلحه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سرباز سنگین‌اسلحه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homme_d%27armes" title="Homme d'armes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Homme d'armes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%A8%EC%95%B3%EC%95%94%EC%A6%88" title="맨앳암즈 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="맨앳암즈" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-at-arms" title="Man-at-arms – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Man-at-arms" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homem_de_armas" title="Homem de armas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Homem de armas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Оклопник – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Оклопник" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-at-arms" title="Man-at-arms – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Man-at-arms" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Man_at_arms&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Man at arms">Man at arms</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">European fully-armoured heavy cavalrymen</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about a type of Medieval and Renaissance soldier. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Man_at_arms_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Man at arms (disambiguation)">Man at arms (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Armsman" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Standard-bearer" title="Standard-bearer">Standard-bearer</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Master-at-arms" title="Master-at-arms">Master-at-arms</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duerer_-_Studie_Reiter_1495.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Duerer_-_Studie_Reiter_1495.jpg/250px-Duerer_-_Studie_Reiter_1495.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Duerer_-_Studie_Reiter_1495.jpg/375px-Duerer_-_Studie_Reiter_1495.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Duerer_-_Studie_Reiter_1495.jpg/500px-Duerer_-_Studie_Reiter_1495.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1283" /></a><figcaption>German man-at-arms 1498 by <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>. The equipment is that of a <a href="/wiki/Demi-lancer" title="Demi-lancer">demi-lancer</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>man-at-arms</b> was a <a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">soldier</a> of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Medieval</a> to <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> periods who was typically well-versed in the use of <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">arms</a> and served as a fully-<a href="/wiki/Armour" title="Armour">armoured</a> <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalryman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A man-at-arms could be a <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a>, or other <a href="/wiki/Nobleman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobleman">nobleman</a>, a member of a knight's or nobleman's retinue, or a <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenary</a> in a company serving under a captain. Such men could serve for pay or through a <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> obligation. The terms <i>knight</i> and <i>man-at-arms</i> are often used interchangeably, but while all knights equipped for war were men-at-arms, not all men-at-arms were knights. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though in English the term man-at-arms is a fairly straightforward rendering of the French <i>homme d'armes</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the Middle Ages, there were numerous terms for this type of soldier, referring to the type of arms he would be expected to provide: In France, he might be known as a <i><a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">lance</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Glaive" title="Glaive">glaive</a></i>, while in Germany, <i>Spieß</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Helmet" title="Helmet">Helm</a></i> or <i>Gleve</i>, and in various places, a <i><a href="/wiki/Bascinet" title="Bascinet">bascinet</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEContamine1984126_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContamine1984126-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Italy, the term <i><a href="/wiki/Barbute" title="Barbute">barbuta</a></i> was used,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in England from the late 14th century, men-at-arms were known as <i>lances</i> or <i>spears</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellCurryKingSimpkin2013101–2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellCurryKingSimpkin2013101–2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Medieval</a> period, any well-equipped horseman could be described as a "knight", or in Latin, <i>miles</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the course of the <a href="/wiki/12th_century" title="12th century">12th century</a> knighthood became a social rank with a distinction being made between <i>milites gregarii</i> (non-noble cavalrymen) and <i>milites nobiles</i> (true knights).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a fully armoured cavalryman could be of a lesser social status than a knight, an alternative term describing this type of soldier came into use which was, in French, <i>homme d'armes</i> or <i>gent d'armes</i>, and in English man-at-arms. This evolution differed in detail and timeline across Europe but by 1300, there was a clear distinction between the military function of the man-at-arms and the social rank of knighthood. The term man-at-arms thus primarily denoted a military function, rather than a social rank.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_function">Military function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Military function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The military function that a man-at-arms performed was serving as a fully-armoured heavy cavalryman; though he could, and in the <a href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">14th</a> and <a href="/wiki/15th_century" title="15th century">15th centuries</a> often did, also fight on foot. In the course of the <a href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">16th century</a>, the man-at-arms was gradually replaced by other cavalry types, the <a href="/wiki/Demi-lancer" title="Demi-lancer">demi-lancer</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cuirassier" title="Cuirassier">cuirassier</a>, characterised by less-extensive armour coverage and the use of weapons other than the heavy lance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arms_and_armour">Arms and armour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arms and armour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurfurst_Otto_Heinrich,_Pfalzgraf_bei_Rhein_by_Wendelin_Boeheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Kurfurst_Otto_Heinrich%2C_Pfalzgraf_bei_Rhein_by_Wendelin_Boeheim.jpg/150px-Kurfurst_Otto_Heinrich%2C_Pfalzgraf_bei_Rhein_by_Wendelin_Boeheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="394" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Kurfurst_Otto_Heinrich%2C_Pfalzgraf_bei_Rhein_by_Wendelin_Boeheim.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="210" data-file-height="551" /></a><figcaption>Armour of an early 16th-century man-at-arms</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the Medieval period and into the Renaissance the armour of the man-at-arms became progressively more effective and expensive. Throughout the 14th century, the armour worn by a man-at-arms was a composite of materials. Over a quilted <a href="/wiki/Gambeson" title="Gambeson">gambeson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mail_(armour)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail (armour)">mail armour</a> covered the body, limbs and head. Increasingly during the century, the mail was supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a> on the body and limbs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198868–83_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198868–83-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 15th century, full plate armour was developed, which reduced the mail component to a few points of flexible reinforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198899–118_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198899–118-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 14th to 16th century, the primary weapon of the man at arms on horseback was the <a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">lance</a>. The lance of the 14th century was essentially a simple spear, 12 ft (3.7 m) in length, usually of ash.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198888_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198888-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the development of improved armour, however, heavier lances weighing up to 18 kg (40 lb) were developed, combined with a new method of using them in conjunction with a <a href="/wiki/Lance_rest" title="Lance rest">lance rest</a> (<i>arrêt</i>) fixed to the <a href="/wiki/Breastplate" title="Breastplate">breastplate</a>. This combination of heavy lance and <i>arrêt</i> enabled the mounted man-at-arms to enjoy a new effectiveness on the battlefields of the later 15th and 16th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all men-at-arms in the 15th century carried the heavy lance. A lighter weapon called a <a href="/wiki/Demi-lance" class="mw-redirect" title="Demi-lance">demi-lance</a> evolved and this gave its name to a new class of a lighter-equipped man-at-arms, the <a href="/wiki/Demi-lancer" title="Demi-lancer">demi-lancer</a>, towards the end of the 15th century. </p><p>When fighting on foot, men-at-arms initially modified their ordinary cavalry weapons. English men-at-arms in Italy in the 1360s are recorded as advancing in close order with two men holding a cavalry lance.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On other occasions, such as at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Battle of Agincourt</a>, men-at-arms cut down their lances to a more manageable size of 5 ft (1.5 m).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 15th century, the increased protection of plate armour led to the development of a specialist foot combat weapon, the two-handed <a href="/wiki/Poleaxe" title="Poleaxe">poleaxe</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horses">Horses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Horses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Horses_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Horses in the Middle Ages">Horses in the Middle Ages</a></div> <p>The horse was an essential part of a man-at-arm's equipment. The type of horse, however, varied according to wealth and status. Andrew Ayton in an in-depth study of English warhorses of the 13th and 14th centuries has shown that three types predominate: the <a href="/wiki/Destrier" title="Destrier">destrier</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Courser_(horse)" title="Courser (horse)">courser</a> and an animal simply known as a "horse" (<i>L:equus Med Fr : chival</i>). Destriers were both rare and expensive, making up 5% of men-at-arms horses.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ayton also calculated the value of the average man-at-arm's horse in thirteen campaigns between 1282 and 1364, showing it varied between £7.6 and £16.4.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In only two campaigns in the mid-14th century did the majority of horses cost more than £10.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The horse was, therefore, a major item of expenditure in the equipment of a man-at-arms. It has been calculated that a French gendarme's horse in the mid-15th century cost the equivalent of six months' wages.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cost of horses meant that the professional soldier might not wish to risk his expensive asset in combat. A system evolved in the 13th century for employers to compensate for horses lost in action. In England this was called by the Latin name <i>restauro equorum</i><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and similar systems were in use in France and Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEContamine1984130–31_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEContamine1984130–31-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to secure this insurance scheme, the man-at-arms had the value of his horse assessed and details of its appearance recorded. The assessment system also allowed employers to insist on a minimum value (and hence quality) of horse be presented at muster. In 14th-century England, the minimum value appears in most cases to be 100 shillings (£5).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Horse_armour">Horse armour</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Horse armour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As early as the late 13th century, Edward I decreed that all his men-at-arms should be mounted on <i>equus coopertus</i>, that is armoured, or <a href="/wiki/Barding" title="Barding">barded</a>, horses.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horse armour was not at that time always made of metal, with leather and quilted fabric armour also in use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198861–62_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198861–62-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metal horse armours were made from mail or <a href="/wiki/Brigandine" title="Brigandine">brigandine</a>, with plate reserved for the head in the form of a <i><a href="/wiki/Chamfron" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamfron">chamfron</a></i>. In the 15th century, plate armour for horses was introduced and was a common feature of the equipment of the gendarme into the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1968140–41_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1968140–41-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_England">In England</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Mary,_North_Leigh,_Oxon_-_Brass_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1624443.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/St_Mary%2C_North_Leigh%2C_Oxon_-_Brass_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1624443.jpg/150px-St_Mary%2C_North_Leigh%2C_Oxon_-_Brass_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1624443.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/St_Mary%2C_North_Leigh%2C_Oxon_-_Brass_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1624443.jpg/225px-St_Mary%2C_North_Leigh%2C_Oxon_-_Brass_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1624443.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/St_Mary%2C_North_Leigh%2C_Oxon_-_Brass_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1624443.jpg 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>English man-at-arms, funerary brass <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1431</span></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_status">Social status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Social status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The social structure of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Norman</a> society of England was relatively rigid. One of the easiest ways for a man to improve his social rank was through military service; another method was through the church. In the Norman states, unlike in many other contemporary societies, the knighting of men of common birth who had demonstrated ability and courage on the field of battle was possible. Although rare, some non-knightly men-at-arms did advance socially to the status of knights. The knighting of <a href="/wiki/Squire" title="Squire">squires</a> and men-at-arms was sometimes done in an ignoble manner, simply to increase the number of knights within an army (such practice was common during the Hundred Years' War). In chivalric theory, any knight could bestow knighthood on another, however, in practice this was usually done by sovereigns and the higher nobility. It is recorded that the great mercenary captain Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Hawkwood" title="John Hawkwood">John Hawkwood</a> knighted a number of his followers, as many as twenty on one occasion, though he could reasonably be expected to provide the income his created knights required to maintain their new status.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attempts to restrict the power of commanders to make knights would increase during the 16th century and by the end of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>'s reign, the practice had all but ceased.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although a knight bachelor, a knight banneret and all grades of nobility usually served as men-at-arms when called to war, the bulk of men-at-arms from the later 13th century came from an evolving social group which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a>. The man-at-arms could be a wealthy mercenary of any social origin, but more often he had some level of social rank based on income, usually from land. Some came from the class known as <a href="/wiki/Serjeant-at-Arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Serjeant-at-Arms">serjeants</a> but increasingly during the 14th century they were drawn from an evolving class of <a href="/wiki/Esquire" title="Esquire">esquire</a>. Esquires were frequently of families of knightly rank, wealthy enough to afford the arms of a knight but who had thus far not been advanced to knightly status or perhaps had avoided it because they did not want the costs and responsibilities of that rank. Also found serving as men-at-arms were the lowest social group of the gentry, known by the 15th century simply as <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentlemen">gentlemen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoss1993127–133_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoss1993127–133-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proportion of knights among the men-at-arms varied through time. Between the 1280s and 1360s, figures between 20 and 30% were commonplace. Thereafter, there was a rapid decline, with the figure dropping to 6.5% in 1380. A slight rise is recorded to 8% at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Agincourt</a>, perhaps because this was a royal army, but thereafter the figure continued to decline and by 1443, the <a href="/wiki/John_Beaufort,_1st_Duke_of_Somerset" title="John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset">Duke of Somerset</a> mustered only 1.3% knights among his men-at-arms.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conditions_of_service">Conditions of service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Conditions of service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social status affected the types of military service performed by men-at-arms. Garrison duty was considered unattractive and was often carried out by soldiers of lesser status. For example, the English garrison in the Scottish town of Roxburgh in 1301 consisted of just three knights compared to twenty seven men-at-arms of lesser status.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The social stratification of men who served as men-at-arms is illustrated by their rates of pay on campaign. In the mid 1340s a knight was paid two shillings a day, an ordinary man-at-arms was paid half this amount; for comparison a foot archer received two or three pence (12 pennies to the shilling). A man-at-arms was also recompensed differentially according to the quality of his principal war-horse, if the horse was to die or was killed in battle. An ordinary esquire might own a war-horse worth only five pounds whilst a great nobleman might own a horse worth up to 100 pounds.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_role">Military role</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Military role"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>English men-at-arms before the second quarter of the 14th century were indistinguishable from their continental counterparts, serving as heavy cavalry on the field of battle. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dupplin_Moor" title="Battle of Dupplin Moor">Battle of Dupplin Moor</a> in 1332, against the Scots, signalled a major change in the battlefield role of the English man-at-arms. This battle was the first major encounter where the tactical combination of dismounted men-at-arms with <a href="/wiki/Longbow" title="Longbow">longbow</a>-armed archers was deployed; the men-at-arms functioning as heavy close-combat infantry. This combination was later employed very effectively against the French in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. The English man-at-arms remained highly trained in mounted combat, though his use of the warhorse became largely confined to the pursuit of a broken enemy, skirmishing and in the <i><a href="/wiki/Chevauch%C3%A9e" title="Chevauchée">chevauchée</a></i>. In the late 15th century a resurgence in the effectiveness of the heavy lancer in combat took place in Europe. This was reflected to some extent in England, exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a>'s mounted charge at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Bosworth">Battle of Bosworth</a> (1485) and the English cavalry charge at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Spurs" title="Battle of the Spurs">Battle of the Spurs</a> (1513).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last major battle in which English men-at-arms were prominent was fought against a Scottish army in 1547 at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinkie_Cleugh" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Pinkie Cleugh">Pinkie Cleugh</a>. The outnumbered Scots cavalry were easily driven off by the English horse (the Scots cavalry having lost heavily in an engagement the day before), the Scots then made a sudden advance with their massed pikemen. To slow their onset and give time for the English infantry to receive them the English heavy horse (men-at-arms and demi-lancers) were thrown against the pikes. The English cavalry crashed into the pikemen with great elan but sustained considerable losses. However, they halted the Scots attack, buying time for the English infantry and artillery to deploy effectively; the battle resulted in a heavy defeat for the Scots.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_France">In France</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1518_Altdorfer_Sieg_Karls_des_Grossen_ueber_die_Awaren_anagoria_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/1518_Altdorfer_Sieg_Karls_des_Grossen_ueber_die_Awaren_anagoria_%28cropped%29.JPG/300px-1518_Altdorfer_Sieg_Karls_des_Grossen_ueber_die_Awaren_anagoria_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/1518_Altdorfer_Sieg_Karls_des_Grossen_ueber_die_Awaren_anagoria_%28cropped%29.JPG/450px-1518_Altdorfer_Sieg_Karls_des_Grossen_ueber_die_Awaren_anagoria_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/1518_Altdorfer_Sieg_Karls_des_Grossen_ueber_die_Awaren_anagoria_%28cropped%29.JPG/600px-1518_Altdorfer_Sieg_Karls_des_Grossen_ueber_die_Awaren_anagoria_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1493" data-file-height="1017" /></a><figcaption>Fully armoured <a href="/wiki/Gendarme_(historical)" title="Gendarme (historical)">gendarmes</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> (mid 16th century).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gendarme_(historical)" title="Gendarme (historical)">Gendarme (historical)</a></div> <p>French men-at-arms were, as elsewhere, drawn from the broad class of <i>gentil hommes</i>. Up to the middle of the 14th century, they attended the royal army either in company of their feudal lords or as individuals. In 1351, the first in a series of <i>ordonnances</i> was proclaimed, attempting to regularise the organisation of men-at-arms into units of 25 to 80 combatants. New <i>ordonnances</i> were issued occasionally to either reinforce or reform previous ones. The <i>ordonnance</i> of 1363 attempted to create a standing army of 6,000 men-at-arms, although it might not have achieved more than 3,000 in reality. In 1445, a more radical overhaul was attempted. 15 companies of the ordonnance were created, each of 100 <a href="/wiki/Lances_fournies" class="mw-redirect" title="Lances fournies">lances</a>. Each lance contained a man-at-arms, a <a href="/wiki/Coustillier" class="mw-redirect" title="Coustillier">coustillier</a>, three mounted archers and a <a href="/wiki/Page_(occupation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Page (occupation)">page</a>. In 1446, the scheme was extended to add another five companies, giving a total of 2,000 men-at-arms. Eventually, the number of these <i>gens d'ordonnance du roi</i> raised by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI" title="Louis XI">Louis XI</a> would reach 15,816 men, including 2,636 men-at-arms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler1980101–2,_134–7_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler1980101–2,_134–7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_16th_century">The 16th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The 16th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of men-at-arms would continue to fluctuate, dependent on military circumstances, into the 16th century. In the first quarter of the century, they varied between a peacetime minimum of 1500 lances in 1505 and a wartime maximum of 3847 in 1523. The changes were made both by raising and disbanding whole companies and by varying the number of men in <i>ordonnance</i> companies. In 1559, for example, <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_France" title="Francis II of France">Francis II</a> reduced the number of lances in each company by 20.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter200880–3_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter200880–3-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1580s the traditional French gendarme, as a lance-armed heavily armoured cavalryman, was in sharp decline. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Coutras" title="Battle of Coutras">Battle of Coutras</a> (October 20, 1587), between <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France" title="Henry IV of France">Henry of Navarre</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Duke_of_Joyeuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne, Duke of Joyeuse">Duc de Joyeuse</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a>, illustrates the demise of the heavy lancer. Navarre's cavalry were 1,300 armoured pistoleers whilst the Royalists under Joyeuse were 2,000 heavy lancers (gendarmes). Within a few minutes of combat the lancers had been routed, many being captured and held for ransom.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All later French cavalry named 'gendarmes' were more lightly armoured, eventually becoming unarmoured, and employed firearms and a sword, rather than the heavy lance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_history">Later history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Later history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> on his accession to the throne found only eight companies of gendarmes surviving out of an original total of more than one hundred, but after the victory of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1690)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1690)">Fleurus</a> (1690), which had been decided by their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four first companies were designated by the names of <i>Gendarmes ecossais</i>, <i>Gendarmes anglais</i>, <i>Gendarmes bourguignons</i> and <i>Gendarmes flamands</i>, from the nationality of the soldiers who had originally composed them, but at that time they consisted entirely of French soldiers and officers. These four companies had a captain-general, who was the king. The fifth company was that of the queen and the others bore the name of the princes who respectively commanded them. This organisation was dissolved in 1788.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911Gendarmerie_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911Gendarmerie-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_into_a_paramilitary_police_force">Evolution into a paramilitary police force</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Evolution into a paramilitary police force"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A military corps having such duties was first created in 1337 and was placed under the orders of the <a href="/wiki/Constable_of_France" title="Constable of France">Constable of France</a> (<i>connétable</i>), and therefore named <i>connétablie</i>. In 1626 after the abolition of the title of connétable, it was put under the command of the <i>Maréchal of France</i>, and renamed <i><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%A9chauss%C3%A9e" title="Maréchaussée">Maréchaussée</a></i>. Its main mission was protecting the roads from <a href="/wiki/Highwayman" title="Highwayman">highwaymen</a>. In 1720 the <i>maréchaussée</i> was subordinated to the <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">gendarmerie</a>; after the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> the <i>maréchaussée</i> was abolished and the gendarmerie took over its duties in 1791. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Spain">In Spain</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_chivalry" title="Spanish chivalry">Spanish chivalry</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArmeriaPalacioRealMadrid.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/ArmeriaPalacioRealMadrid.JPG/250px-ArmeriaPalacioRealMadrid.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/ArmeriaPalacioRealMadrid.JPG/375px-ArmeriaPalacioRealMadrid.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/ArmeriaPalacioRealMadrid.JPG/500px-ArmeriaPalacioRealMadrid.JPG 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>Armour for man-at-arms and fully barded horse, Royal Armory of Madrid</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> had multiple factors contributing to the strong chivalric ethos exemplified by Spanish knights and men-at-arms. One factor leading to the prominence of chivalric orders in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, is the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> in which Christian kingdoms attempted to regain land from, and eventually expel from the peninsula, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> states. The greatest foes of the Spanish Christian knight were, above all, Muslims; who were a local and deeply entrenched enemy, not as distant as the 'infidel' was for the knights of other European regions. However, warfare between the Christian states of the Iberian Peninsula was also not uncommon.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be argued that in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> the existence of a common enemy had some role in uniting Christian kingdoms in the cause of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> and Reconquista.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 12th–13th century most of the prominent Spanish Knightly orders were formed. The early history of chivalric orders in the peninsula was unstable. In <a href="/wiki/Calatrava_la_Vieja" title="Calatrava la Vieja">Calatrava</a>, during the middle of the 12th century Castilian Knights established a fortress, which would later be abandoned due to the threat of Muslim attack, then again within fifty years the castle of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Calatrava" title="Order of Calatrava">Order of Calatrava</a> was then rebuilt and became a fortified <a href="/wiki/Monastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monastic">monastic</a> community.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Italian Wars the Spanish man-at-arms was prominent in the campaigns. One example is at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cerignola" title="Battle of Cerignola">Battle of Cerignola</a>, which began with two charges by the French heavy cavalry against the center of the Spanish army, but these were scattered by Spanish heavy artillery and arquebus fire. The next assault tried to force the right flank, but many of the French cavalrymen fell into the Spanish trench and the attack was then broken by a storm of fire from the Spanish arquebusiers. </p><p>The Spanish leader <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba">Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba</a> then called for a counterattack against the now disorganized enemy by both the Spanish infantry and the heavy Spanish cavalry waiting in reserve. Mounted arquebusiers surrounded and routed the remaining French gendarmes, but the Swiss pikeman managed to retreat in a relatively organized fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Italy">In Italy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Condottieri" class="mw-redirect" title="Condottieri">Condottieri</a></div> <p>Men-at-arms formed the core troops of the Italian <i>condottiere</i> companies from the 14th to the 16th century. Although the man-at-arms always remained essentially a mounted soldier, in the 14th century, they often fought on foot, following the example of English mercenaries who, from the second half of the century, commonly fought there.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system of <i>condotte</i> or contracts which gave the condottieri their name led to the construction of armies from a number of contract holders, usually grouped under a main contractor. Perhaps the best known of these is the <a href="/wiki/White_Company" title="White Company">White Company</a> led by Sir John Hawkwood in the 14th century. Organisation of these companies was in <a href="/wiki/Lances_fournies" class="mw-redirect" title="Lances fournies"><i>lanze</i></a> of three men, initially two fighting men and a page but later a man-at-arms, an armed servant (<i>piatto</i>) and a page (<i>ragazzo</i>). 5 <i>lanze</i> were grouped to form a <i>posta</i> and five of these made a <i>bandiera</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 15th century, the structure of the companies changed. A company would be organised into a number of <a href="/wiki/Squadron_(army)" title="Squadron (army)">squadrons</a>. One of these would be the household squadron of the captain, known as the <i>casa</i>, which contained both fighting troops and headquarters staff, such as a marshal, chaplain, chancellors, cooks and servants. The size of squadrons varied but would contain about 25 <i>lanze</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the second half of the century, these structures began to be supplemented by the practice of states hiring alongside companies individual men-at-arms, who were then grouped under a commander appointed by the state. These were originally recruited from men-at-arms whose company commander had died or retired and so were known as <i>lanze spezzate</i> or broken lances.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, changes were seen in the components of the <i>lanze</i>, with the introduction of the <i>corazzo</i>, a larger unit but still containing just one man-at-arms, and the recognition of two types of men-at-arms in <i>condotte</i>; true men-at-arms known as <i>armigeri veri</i> and lighter-equipped <i>elmetti</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the 15th century, squadrons of men-at-arms begin to be organised into larger formations known as columns led by a senior <i>condottiero</i> called a <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">colonello</a>. A column typically contained eight to ten squadrons.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>: <i>gen d'armes</i>, plural <i>gens d'armes</i> or <a href="/wiki/Gendarme_(historical)" title="Gendarme (historical)">gendarmerie</a> as a collective noun, was the direct equivalent of the English 'man-at-arms'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Originally translated in English as "man-of-arms" but from the 16th century as "man-at-arms."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/236883#eid13118453">OED etymology of Man-of-arms</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEContamine1984126-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEContamine1984126_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFContamine1984">Contamine (1984)</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallett (1974), pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellCurryKingSimpkin2013101–2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellCurryKingSimpkin2013101–2_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellCurryKingSimpkin2013">Bell et al. 2013</a>, pp. 101–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church and Harvey (1994), p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church and Harvey (1994), pp. 48–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholson (2004), p. 55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198868–83-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198868–83_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgePaddock1988">Edge & Paddock (1988)</a>, pp. 68–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198899–118-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198899–118_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgePaddock1988">Edge & Paddock (1988)</a>, pp. 99–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198888-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198888_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgePaddock1988">Edge & Paddock (1988)</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vale (1981), pp. 114–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallett (1974), p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rogers (2008), pp. 90–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayton (1994), pp. 62–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayton (1994),`p. 195, Table 6.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayton (1994), p. 196, Table 6.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vale (1981), p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayton (1994), p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEContamine1984130–31-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEContamine1984130–31_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFContamine1984">Contamine (1984)</a>, pp. 130–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayton (1994), pp. 197–198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church and Harvey (1994), p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198861–62-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdgePaddock198861–62_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdgePaddock1988">Edge & Paddock (1988)</a>, pp. 61–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin1968140–41-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartin1968140–41_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartin1968">Martin (1968)</a>, pp. 140–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooper (2008), pp. 119–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gravett (2006), p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoss1993127–133-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoss1993127–133_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoss1993">Coss (1993)</a>, pp. 127–133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prestwich (1996), pp. 51–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simpkin (2008), pp. 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curry (1994), p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fritze and Robison, p. 236</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gravett (1999), p. 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oman, pp. 293–295</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gravett (2006), pp. 46–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler1980101–2,_134–7-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler1980101–2,_134–7_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFowler1980">Fowler (1980)</a>, pp. 101–2, 134–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotter200880–3-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotter200880–3_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPotter2008">Potter (2008)</a>, pp. 80–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oman (1998), p. 475.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911Gendarmerie-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911Gendarmerie_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm (1911)</a>, Gendarmerie.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prestage, pp. 81, 109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLudlow1910" class="citation cs2">Ludlow, James M. (1910), <i>Age of the Crusades</i>, Charles Scribner’s Sons Ltd., p. 74, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780524027035" title="Special:BookSources/9780524027035"><bdi>9780524027035</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Age+of+the+Crusades&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%E2%80%99s+Sons+Ltd.&rft.date=1910&rft.isbn=9780524027035&rft.aulast=Ludlow&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barber, p. 147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTafiłowski2007" class="citation book cs1">Tafiłowski, Piotr (2007). <i>Wojny włoskie 1494–1559</i>. Zabrze: Inforeditions. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-89943-18-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-89943-18-7"><bdi>978-83-89943-18-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wojny+w%C5%82oskie+1494%E2%80%931559&rft.place=Zabrze&rft.pub=Inforeditions&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-83-89943-18-7&rft.aulast=Tafi%C5%82owski&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooper (2008), pp. 76–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooper (2008), pp. 76–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallett (1974), pp. 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallet (1974), pp. 112–113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallett (1974), pp. 148–149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mallett (1974), pp. 150–151.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyton1994" class="citation book cs1">Ayton, Andrew (1994). <i>Knights and Warhorses</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0851157394" title="Special:BookSources/0851157394"><bdi>0851157394</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knights+and+Warhorses&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=Boydell&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0851157394&rft.aulast=Ayton&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellCurryKingSimpkin2013" class="citation book cs1">Bell, Adrian; Curry, Anne; King, Andy; Simpkin, David (2013). <i>The Soldier in Later Medieval England</i>. Oxford: OUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199680825" title="Special:BookSources/9780199680825"><bdi>9780199680825</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soldier+in+Later+Medieval+England&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199680825&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft.au=Curry%2C+Anne&rft.au=King%2C+Andy&rft.au=Simpkin%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchHarvey1994" class="citation book cs1">Church, S.; Harvey, R., eds. (1994). <i>Medieval knighthood V: papers from the sixth Strawberry Hill Conference 1994</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+knighthood+V%3A+papers+from+the+sixth+Strawberry+Hill+Conference+1994&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=1994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFContamine1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Contamine" title="Philippe Contamine">Contamine, Philippe</a> (1984). <i>War in the Middle Ages</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631131426" title="Special:BookSources/0631131426"><bdi>0631131426</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0631131426&rft.aulast=Contamine&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cooper, S. (2008). <i>Sir John Hawkwood.</i> Pen & Sword Books, Barnsley.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoss1993" class="citation book cs1">Coss, Peter (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/knightinmedieval0000coss"><i>The Knight in Medieval England 1000–1400</i></a></span>. Stroud, Glos: Alan Sutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/075090996X" title="Special:BookSources/075090996X"><bdi>075090996X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Knight+in+Medieval+England+1000%E2%80%931400&rft.place=Stroud%2C+Glos&rft.pub=Alan+Sutton&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=075090996X&rft.aulast=Coss&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fknightinmedieval0000coss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Curry, A. (ed.) (1994) <i>Arms, armies and fortifications in the Hundred Years War.</i> Boydell & Brewer, Woodbidge.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgePaddock1988" class="citation book cs1">Edge, David; Paddock, John Miles (1988). <i>Arms and Armour of the Medieval Knight</i>. London: Defoe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1870981006" title="Special:BookSources/1870981006"><bdi>1870981006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arms+and+Armour+of+the+Medieval+Knight&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Defoe&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=1870981006&rft.aulast=Edge&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Paddock%2C+John+Miles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler1980" class="citation book cs1">Fowler, Kenneth (1980) [1967]. <i>The Age of Plantagenet and Valois</i>. London: Ferndale Editions. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0905746090" title="Special:BookSources/0905746090"><bdi>0905746090</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Plantagenet+and+Valois&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Ferndale+Editions&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0905746090&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fritze, Ronald H. and Robison, William B. (eds.) (2002) <i>Historical Dictionary of Late Medieval England, 1272-1485</i>, Greenwood Publishing, Westport CT <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313291241" title="Special:BookSources/9780313291241">9780313291241</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGravett1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Gravett" title="Christopher Gravett">Gravett, Christopher</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CoJ1urwEgXsC"><i>Bosworth 1485: Last Charge of the Plantagenets</i></a>. Campaign. Vol. 66. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-863-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85532-863-1"><bdi>1-85532-863-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bosworth+1485%3A+Last+Charge+of+the+Plantagenets&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Campaign&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-85532-863-1&rft.aulast=Gravett&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCoJ1urwEgXsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gravett, C. (2006). <i>Tudor Knight.</i> Osprey, Oxford.</li> <li>Mallett, Michael (1974). <i>Mercenaries and their Masters</i>, Bodley Head, London, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0370105028" title="Special:BookSources/0370105028">0370105028</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1968" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Paul (1968). <i>Armour and Weapons</i>. London: Herbert Jenkins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armour+and+Weapons&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Herbert+Jenkins&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Nicholson, Helen J. (2004). Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300–1500. Palgrave Macmillan.</li> <li>Oman, Sir Charles W. C. (1998). <i>History of the Art of War in the 16th Century</i>, reprinted (ed.), Greenhill Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-947898-69-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-947898-69-7">0-947898-69-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2008" class="citation book cs1">Potter, David (2008). <i>Renaissance France at War</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843834052" title="Special:BookSources/9781843834052"><bdi>9781843834052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+France+at+War&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=Boydell&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781843834052&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Prestwich" title="Michael Prestwich">Prestwich, Michael</a> (1996) <i>Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience</i>, New Haven: Yale University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300076630" title="Special:BookSources/0300076630">0300076630</a></li> <li>Rogers, Clifford J. (2008). "The Battle of Agincourt", in The Hundred Years' War (Part II): Different Vistas, ed. L. J. Andrew Villalon and Donald J. Kagay, Leiden: Brill: 37–132.</li> <li>Simpkin, D, (2008) <i>The English aristocracy at war: from the Welsh wars of Edward I to the Battle of Bannockburn.</i> Boydell Press, Woodbridge.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVale1981" class="citation book cs1">Vale, Malcolm (1981). <i>War and Chivalry</i>. London: Duckworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0715610422" title="Special:BookSources/0715610422"><bdi>0715610422</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Chivalry&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0715610422&rft.aulast=Vale&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attribution">Attribution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Attribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gendarmerie" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 573.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gendarmerie&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=573&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMan-at-arms" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&oldid=1228399847">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Man-at-arms&oldid=1228399847</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cavalry" title="Category:Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Category:Military units and formations of the Hundred Years' War">Military units and formations of the Hundred Years' War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_Early_Modern_period" title="Category:Military units and formations of the Early Modern period">Military units and formations of the Early Modern period</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Combat_occupations" title="Category:Combat occupations">Combat occupations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medieval_occupations" title="Category:Medieval occupations">Medieval occupations</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2022">Use dmy dates from July 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_the_1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 11 June 2024, at 01:19<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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