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<span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vesting_Clause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vesting_Clause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Vesting Clause</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vesting_Clause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Take_Care_Clause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Take_Care_Clause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Take Care Clause</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Take_Care_Clause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opinion_Clause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opinion_Clause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Opinion Clause</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opinion_Clause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-King_of_Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King_of_Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>King of Great Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King_of_Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discussion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discussion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Discussion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discussion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Background subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Founding_debate_of_one_or_multiple_executives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_debate_of_one_or_multiple_executives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Founding debate of one or multiple executives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_debate_of_one_or_multiple_executives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_decisions" 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class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Practical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive_power_in_other_democracies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive_power_in_other_democracies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Executive power in other democracies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Executive_power_in_other_democracies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Executive power in other democracies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Executive_power_in_other_democracies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Governors_and_the_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)" title="Freedom of Information Act (United States)">Freedom of Information Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Environmental_Policy_Act" title="National Environmental Policy Act">National Environmental Policy Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_the_Sunshine_Act" title="Government in the Sunshine Act">Government in the Sunshine Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Emergencies_Act" title="National Emergencies Act">National Emergencies Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inspector_General_Act_of_1978" title="Inspector General Act of 1978">Inspector General Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_Flexibility_Act" title="Regulatory Flexibility Act">Regulatory Flexibility Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paperwork_Reduction_Act" title="Paperwork Reduction Act">Paperwork Reduction Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfunded_Mandates_Reform_Act_of_1995" title="Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995">Unfunded 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Noel Canning">Noel Canning</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_oversight" title="Congressional oversight">Congressional oversight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorization_bill" title="Authorization bill">Authorization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_statute_(United_States)" title="Organic statute (United States)">Organic statute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_hearing" title="United States congressional hearing">Hearings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_positions_filled_by_presidential_appointment_with_Senate_confirmation" title="List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation">Senate confirmation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seila_Law_LLC_v._Consumer_Financial_Protection_Bureau" title="Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau">Seila Law</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_veto_in_the_United_States" title="Legislative veto in the United States">Legislative veto</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service_v._Chadha" title="Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha">Chadha</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Regulated fields (and agencies)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">Antitrust and competition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">FTC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Consumer_Product_Safety_Commission" title="U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission">CPSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_Financial_Protection_Bureau" title="Consumer Financial Protection Bureau">CFPB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation_in_the_United_States" title="Bank regulation in the United States">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Treasury</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_of_the_Currency" title="Office of the Comptroller of the Currency">OCC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">FDIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Board_of_Governors" title="Federal Reserve Board of Governors">FRB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">FCC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_energy_law" title="United States energy law">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">DOE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Energy_Regulatory_Commission" title="Federal Energy Regulatory Commission">FERC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_environmental_law" title="United States environmental law">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service" title="United States Fish and Wildlife Service">FWS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">FDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Health care</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">HHS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Immigration policy of the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">DHS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_for_Immigration_Review" title="Executive Office for Immigration Review">EOIR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">Labor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">DOL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">NLRB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_patent_law" title="United States patent law">Patent</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_trademark_law" title="United States trademark law">trademark</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">PTO</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_securities_regulation" title="United States securities regulation">Securities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">SEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_Futures_Trading_Commission" title="Commodity Futures Trading Commission">CFTC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">IRS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Tax_Court" title="United States Tax Court">TC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">DOC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">ITC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_transportation" title="Department of transportation">DOT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_Transportation_Board" title="Surface Transportation Board">STB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Transportation_Safety_Board" title="National Transportation Safety Board">NTSB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Administration" title="Social Security Administration">SSA</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_interpretation" title="Statutory interpretation">Statutory interpretation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_administrative_law" title="Template:US administrative law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_administrative_law" title="Template talk:US administrative law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_administrative_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US administrative law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/American_law" class="mw-redirect" title="American law">American law</a>, the <b>unitary executive theory</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a> theory according to which the President of the United States has sole authority over the <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch_of_the_United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch of the United States government">executive branch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is "an expansive interpretation of presidential power that aims to centralize greater control over the government in the White House".<sup id="cite_ref-:10_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory often comes up in <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudential</a> disagreements about the president's ability to remove employees within the executive branch; transparency and access to information; discretion over the implementation of new laws; and the ability to influence agencies' rule-making.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is disagreement about the doctrine's strength and scope, with more expansive versions of the theory becoming the focus of modern political debate. These expansive versions are controversial for both constitutional and practical reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodds_2023_487–517_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds_2023_487–517-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan administration">Reagan administration</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> has embraced a stronger unitary executive, which has been championed primarily by its conservative justices, the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">Federalist Society</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">Heritage Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory is largely based on the <a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting Clause</a>, which singularly<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="Who says this? (February 2025)">weasel words</span></a></i>]</sup> grants<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the president with the "executive Power" and places the office atop the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:24_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics debate over how much power and discretion the vesting clause gives a president,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:25_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and emphasize other countermeasures in the Constitution that provide <a href="/wiki/Checks_and_balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Checks and balances">checks and balances</a> on executive power. In the 2020s, the Supreme Court held that, regarding the powers granted by the vesting clause, "the entire 'executive Power' belongs to the President alone".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since its inception, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> has exercised significant authority over the executive branch, but presidents have often sought to expand their reach. This has led to conflicts with Congress and its legislative powers, in addition to its powers to delegate under the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a>. <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_agency" title="Regulatory agency">Independent agencies</a> and personnel such as the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Special_counsel" title="Special counsel">special counsels</a> have been created outside the president's authority.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These limits on unitary executive power can be created by the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_branch_of_the_United_States_federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative branch of the United States federal government">legislative branch</a> via <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> passing legislation, or by the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Branch_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial Branch of the United States">judicial branch</a> via Supreme Court decisions. Since the founding of the country, positions independent of the executive have included <a href="/wiki/Comptroller_General_of_the_United_States" title="Comptroller General of the United States">Comptroller</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sinking_Fund_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinking Fund Commission">Sinking Fund Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Reagan administration, including the justices it appointed to the Supreme Court, was the first presidential administration to cite unitary executive theory.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It then entered public discourse with the <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Bush administration">George W. Bush administration</a> and found a strong advocate in <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Presidents of both parties tend to view the idea that they should have increased power more favorably when in office.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beyond disputing its constitutionality,<sup id="cite_ref-:42_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:14_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Manheim_Ides_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manheim_Ides-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:15_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> common criticisms include the ideas that the theory could lead to poor outcomes, including more corruption and less qualified employees.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some critics point to countries where similar changes to a more unitary executive have resulted in <a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding" title="Democratic backsliding">democratic backsliding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:17_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:16_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or to the vast majority of democracies (including U.S. states and local governments) that give their executive leader less power.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:13_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "unitary executive" dates back to the Reagan administration,<sup id="cite_ref-:10_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but supporters of the unitary executive theory, sometimes referred to as "unitarians", contend the principle dates to the founding.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What is the general scholarly consensus as to when the theory originated? (February 2025)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is no single canonical interpretation of the theory, with different academics defining it differently.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some distinguish between stronger and weaker versions; most contemporary definitions focus on one of the theory's stronger versions. Broadly speaking, strong versions of the theory hold that the President has control over all officials in the executive branch; a weak version holds that Congress can significantly limit the President's authority, despite residing in a separate branch of government.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The unitary executive theory has sparked significant debate as to what the Constitution says about presidential power.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory is often advanced by proponents in debates arguing for more presidential power when it comes to hiring and firing members of the executive branch, including historically independent <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law_judge" title="Administrative law judge">administrative law judges</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prosecutors (like special counsels) and <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Inspector_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Office of the Inspector General of the United States Army">inspectors general</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:26_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:26-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vesting_Clause">Vesting Clause</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vesting Clause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Vesting Clause</a> of <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II</a>, perhaps the most cited clause in favor of a stronger executive, reads, "The executive Power [of the United States] shall be vested in a President of the United States of America." Some have suggested that interpreting the vesting clause is difficult and may have simply been an attempt by the founders to reject the idea of an executive council, which was widely discussed at the time, rather than advocating a strong executive.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jed Handelsman Shugerman looks at the context of how the word "vest" was used before the constitution, finding that it may signify significantly less completeness in the power it gives than it seems today.<sup id="cite_ref-:25_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars maintain that the vesting clause is clear and that, "At a minimum, [the] Vesting Clause establishes an executive office to be occupied by an individual."<sup id="cite_ref-:24_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 that, under the Vesting Clause, "the entire 'executive Power' belongs to the President alone".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 2020s, the Supreme Court held that, regarding the powers granted by the vesting clause, "the entire 'executive Power'<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What does that mean? what does that apply to? (February 2025)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> belongs to the President alone".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Take_Care_Clause">Take Care Clause</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Take Care Clause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proponents of unitary executive theory additionally argue that the <a href="/wiki/Take_Care_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Take Care Clause">Take Care Clause</a> ("The President shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed") creates a "hierarchical, unified executive department under the direct control of the President".<sup id="cite_ref-plural_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plural-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics point out that the clause does not specify that the president should be the one to execute the laws, but to make sure that others are faithfully executing their responsibilities. Critics also point to "faithfully executed" as meaning to follow court rulings and legislative statutes regardless of whether a president agrees with them.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opinion_Clause">Opinion Clause</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Opinion Clause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Opponents of the theory point to the <a href="/wiki/Opinion_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Opinion clause">Opinion clause</a>, which says only that a president may ask for the opinion in writing of a department officer about any subject related to their department, which seems superfluous if the president was supposed to have extensive power.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King_of_Great_Britain">King of Great Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: King of Great Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proponents have made claims about the powers wielded by the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Great_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Great Britain">King of Great Britain</a> (often inaccurately referred to in this context as the "King of England") at the time of the founding and their relationship to the founding intent of the executive branch to justify the theory. The actual powers held by the Crown are disputed by legal historians as "conventional wisdoms", as Parliament held significant power over appointments and dismissals of some executive personnel, while others served for life and were independent of the king. Law professor Daniel Birk argues there was no evidence that the king had such powers outside specific areas like foreign policy and the military, saying the king could not direct most law enforcement, regulatory or administrative officials.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Invoking the king as an argument for expanded executive power was first made by the Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/Myers_v._United_States" title="Myers v. United States">Myers v. United States</a></i> (1926), a decision delivered by Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>, a former president of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eric Nelson argued that some Founders wanted more checks on a president because unlike a hereditary monarch, their well-being was not as intrinsically tied to the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discussion">Discussion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Discussion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to law professors <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a> in 1994, "No one denies that in some sense the framers created a unitary executive; the question is in what sense. Let us distinguish between a strong and a weak version."<sup id="cite_ref-Lessig_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lessig-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>:8-9</sup> In either a stronger or a weaker form, the theory would limit Congress's power to divest the president of control of the executive branch. The hypothetical "strongly unitary" theory posits stricter limits on Congress than the "weakly unitary" theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Lessig_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lessig-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> But parts of the Constitution grant Congress extensive powers. Article I of the Constitution gives it the exclusive power to make laws, which the president then must execute, provided that those laws are constitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Article I, Section 8, clause 18, known as the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a>, grants Congress the power to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution all Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Constitution also <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Enumerated_powers" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">grants Congress power</a> "To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces." </p><p>Most believers in the theory think that, "at a minimum, the President should be able to remove all executive-branch officers, including the heads of <a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">independent regulatory agencies</a>, at any time and for any reason."<sup id="cite_ref-:62_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:62-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of a strong unitary theory argue that the president possesses <i>all</i> the executive power and can therefore control subordinate officers and agencies of the executive branch. This implies that Congress's power to remove executive agencies or officers from presidential control is limited. Thus, under the strongly unitary executive theory, independent agencies and counsels are unconstitutional to the extent that they exercise discretionary executive power not controlled by the president.<sup id="cite_ref-plural_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plural-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But independent regulatory commissions have existed for at least a century, and removal protections for their commissioners were upheld by the Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor v. United States</a></i> (1935). Some interpret the unitary executive theory to mean that <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal courts">federal courts</a> cannot adjudicate disputes between <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States federal agencies">agencies</a>, arguing it would violate the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Others have pointed to the indirect selection of the president as not designed to put a strong president into office. The framers expected measured analysis by specially chosen electors who would act to choose a safe presidential candidate, and if none could be found, rely on Congress to choose one, and potentially negotiate power.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More extreme forms of the theory have developed according to which the president's wishes may supersede the law. Former <a href="/wiki/White_House_Counsel" title="White House Counsel">White House Counsel</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Dean" title="John Dean">John Dean</a> said: "In its most extreme form, unitary executive theory can mean that neither Congress nor the federal courts can tell the President what to do or how to do it, particularly regarding national security matters."<sup id="cite_ref-Dean_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dean-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, law professor <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Somin" title="Ilya Somin">Ilya Somin</a> argued that "no serious advocate of the theory claims that anything the president does is legal"—just within the powers vested in the executive branch.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is disagreement about the doctrine's strength and scope. In 2008, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Calabresi" title="Steven Calabresi">Steven Calabresi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Yoo" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Yoo">Christopher Yoo</a> said the unitary executive theory ensured that "the federal government will execute the law in a consistent manner and in accordance with the president's wishes".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stands in contrast to other scholarly literature, such as MacKenzie in 2008<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and Crouch, Rozell, and Sollenberger in 2020,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that stresses that federal employees must faithfully execute the laws enacted according to the process the Constitution prescribes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_debate_of_one_or_multiple_executives">Founding debate of one or multiple executives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Founding debate of one or multiple executives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phrase "unitary executive" was discussed as early as the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Convention">Philadelphia Convention</a> in 1787, and referred only to having a single individual fill the office of president, as proposed in the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a>. The alternative was to have several executives or an executive council, as proposed in the <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a> and as promoted by <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Randolph" title="Edmund Randolph">Edmund Randolph</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> was a leading advocate of the unitary executive and successfully argued in favor of the president's power to remove administrative appointees under the Constitution in the <a href="/wiki/Decision_of_1789" title="Decision of 1789">Decision of 1789</a>. Madison said in 1789, "if any power whatsoever is in its nature Executive, it is the power of appointing, overseeing, and controlling those who execute the laws." He had reservations about removal power extending to the <a href="/wiki/Comptroller" title="Comptroller">comptroller</a> of the Treasury Department, as he believed that office would share both judicial and executive responsibilities. Other legislators, such as <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Sedgwick" title="Theodore Sedgwick">Theodore Sedgwick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Jenifer_Stone" title="Michael Jenifer Stone">Michael Jenifer Stone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egbert_Benson" title="Egbert Benson">Egbert Benson</a> argued that the role would primarily be executive and should fall under the president's power. Madison ultimately withdrew his proposal to exempt the comptroller from the president's removal power.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1788, the pseudonymous letters of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Farmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Farmer">Federal Farmer</a> defended the proposed unitary executive, arguing that "a single man seems to be peculiarly well circumstanced to superintend the execution of laws with discernment and decision, with promptitude and uniformity."<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Federalist_No._77" title="Federalist No. 77">Federalist No. 77</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> wrote with regard to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> and presidential appointments that "The consent of that body would be necessary to displace as well as to appoint". Hamilton's usage of "displace" has traditionally been thought to mean "removal", and thus a limit on presidential power. Other legal scholars have interpreted "displace" to mean replacement of an appointee with another, not removal itself.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, as part of the campaign to support ratification, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> contrasted the powers of the presidency and those of the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">King of Great Britain</a>. Namely, the King exercised powers in military affairs that would be delegated to Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prosecutorial powers have never been wielded solely by the president either at the time of the founding or since, but is instead a relatively new idea increasingly embraced by the conservative majority on the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-:26_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:26-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judicial_decisions">Judicial decisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Judicial decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></div> <p>In the 1926 case of <i><a href="/wiki/Myers_v._United_States" title="Myers v. United States">Myers v. United States</a></i>, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the president has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (July 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The court also wrote: </p> <blockquote><p>The ordinary duties of officers prescribed by statute come under the general administrative control of the President by virtue of the general grant to him of the executive power, and he may properly supervise and guide their construction of the statutes under which they act in order to secure that unitary and uniform execution of the laws which article 2 of the Constitution evidently contemplated in vesting general executive power in the President alone.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Subsequent cases such as <i><a href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor v. United States</a></i> (presidential removal of certain kinds of officers), and <i><a href="/wiki/Bowsher_v._Synar" title="Bowsher v. Synar">Bowsher v. Synar</a></i> (control of executive functions) have flexed the doctrine's reach back and forth. <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Justice Scalia</a> in his solitary dissent in <i><a href="/wiki/Morrison_v._Olson" title="Morrison v. Olson">Morrison v. Olson</a></i> argued for an unlimited presidential removal power of all persons exercising executive branch powers, which he argued included the <a href="/wiki/Independent_counsel" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent counsel">independent counsel</a>; the court disagreed, but later moved closer to Scalia's position in <i><a href="/wiki/Edmond_v._United_States" title="Edmond v. United States">Edmond v. United States</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the proponents clerked for Justice Scalia.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent years, the Supreme Court has expressed more support for the theory.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/Seila_Law_LLC_v._Consumer_Financial_Protection_Bureau" title="Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau">Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Collins_v._Yellen" title="Collins v. Yellen">Collins v. Yellen</a></i>, the Court held that some attempts to curtail presidential removal power of agencies with a single director violate the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a>. Justice Samuel Alito went so far as to write, "The Constitution prohibits even 'modest restrictions' on the President's power to remove the head of an agency with a single top officer." The Court reiterated that the only exceptions to the president's removal power were those precedents found in <i>Humphrey's Executor</i> and <i>Morrison</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-reason_decision_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reason_decision-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four justices appointed by a Democratic president dissented in <i>Seila</i>, arguing that the constitution makes no such claims.<sup id="cite_ref-:252_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:252-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Collins</i> was a very similar case taken up the next year, and the precedent of <i>Seila</i> was applied to <i>Collins</i> in a 7−2 ruling.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_of_presidential_powers">Growth of presidential powers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Growth of presidential powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The power of the presidency has grown since the 1970s due to key events and to Congress or the Courts not being willing or able to rein in presidential power.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With strong incentives to grow their own power, presidents of both parties became natural advocates for the theory<sup id="cite_ref-:22_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and rarely gave up powers exercised by their predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Republican presidents, including Trump, did not follow through on promises to use unitary executive power to shrink government, instead opting to use the administration to advance their policies.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory originated in conservative legal circles, most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">Federalist Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Reagan administration took the advice in the <i><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Leadership" title="Mandate for Leadership">Mandate for Leadership</a></i> published by the <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">Heritage Foundation</a> to hire 5000 enthusiastic supporters of the Reagan-Bush campaign to fill the 5000 new political appointee positions created by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_Reform_Act_of_1978" title="Civil Service Reform Act of 1978">1978 Civil Service Reform Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The administration also made use the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Information_and_Regulatory_Affairs" title="Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs">Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs</a>, signed into law by <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> in 1980, to short-circuit any regulations the administration did not agree with.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Reagan era is cited as a major catalyst in growing presidential power,<sup id="cite_ref-:7_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with significant growth post-9/11 as conservatives have most readily embraced the idea of a unitary executive.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">George W. Bush administration</a> supported the theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnsen_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnsen-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Bush once wrote in a signing statement that he would, "construe Title X in Division A of the Act, relating to detainees, in a manner consistent with the constitutional authority of the President to supervise the unitary executive branch and as Commander in Chief and consistent with the constitutional limitations on the judicial power."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics acknowledge that part of the president's duty is to "interpret what is, and is not constitutional, at least when overseeing the actions of executive agencies"; at the same time, they accused Bush of overstepping that duty by his perceived willingness to overrule U.S. courts.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his confirmation hearing to become an associate justice on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a> seemed to endorse a weaker version of the unitary executive theory.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> campaigned against the theory but embraced some aspects of it after the <a href="/wiki/2010_midterm_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="2010 midterm elections">2010 midterm elections</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> exerted the greatest control over the executive during <a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">his presidency</a> than any other modern president, often citing Article II of the Constitution. In 2019, he said, "I have an Article II, where I have the right to do whatever I want as president."<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_Presidential_Power2_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_Presidential_Power2-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dodds_2023_487–517_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodds_2023_487–517-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_Barr" title="William Barr">Bill Barr</a> notably supported the theory before his confirmation as attorney general in a 2018 memo criticizing the <a href="/wiki/Mueller_special_counsel_investigation" title="Mueller special counsel investigation">Russia probe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Project_2025#Expansion_of_presidential_powers" title="Project 2025">Project 2025 proposes</a> using the theory as justification to give Trump or the next Republican president maximum control over the executive branch.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_2024_presidential_campaign#Expansion_of_executive_and_presidential_power" title="Donald Trump 2024 presidential campaign">Trump 2024 campaign platform includes an expansion of executive power</a> grounded in this theory.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_Presidential_Power_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_Presidential_Power-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2024 Supreme Court ruling in <a href="/wiki/Trump_v._United_States_(2024)" title="Trump v. United States (2024)">Trump v. United States</a> could make the president even more powerful, with some interpreting it as an endorsement of the unitary executive theory.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Schedule_F_appointment#Response" title="Schedule F appointment">Schedule F appointment § Response</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Project_2025#Reactions_and_responses" title="Project 2025">Project 2025 § Reactions and responses</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional">Constitutional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Constitutional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Skowronek" title="Stephen Skowronek">Stephen Skowronek</a>, John A. Dearborn, and <a href="/wiki/Desmond_King_(professor)" title="Desmond King (professor)">Desmond King</a> argue that the unitary executive theory is a constitutional nightmare that would cause disruption and consequences the founders hoped to avoid.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Loyola_Law_School" title="Loyola Law School">Loyola Law School</a> professors Karl Manheim and <a href="/wiki/Allan_Ides" title="Allan Ides">Allan Ides</a> write, "the separation among the branches is not and never was intended to be airtight" and point to the president's veto power as an example of the executive exercising legislative power. They also cite other examples of quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial power exercised by the executive branch as necessary elements of the administrative state, but contend that ultimately all administrative power belongs to Congress, not the President, and the only true "executive" powers are those explicitly described in the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-Manheim_Ides_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manheim_Ides-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this, Manheim and Ides follow in the footsteps of Lessig and Sunstein.<sup id="cite_ref-Lessig_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lessig-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag may be based upon an improper synthesis of sources. (February 2025)">improper synthesis?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_J._Barron" title="David J. Barron">David J. Barron</a> (now a federal judge) and <a href="/wiki/Marty_Lederman" title="Marty Lederman">Marty Lederman</a> have criticized the unitary executive theory. They acknowledge that there is a compelling case for some form of a unitary executive within the armed forces,<sup id="cite_ref-Barron-Lederman_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barron-Lederman-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but argue that the Constitution does not provide for an equally strong unitary executive outside the military context, and that the <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_Command_of_military;_Opinions_of_cabinet_secretaries;_Pardons" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Commander in Chief Clause</a> would be superfluous if the same kind of unitary presidential authority resulted from the general constitutional provision vesting executive power in the president.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> has called the theory "controversial",<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> called it "contested"<sup id="cite_ref-:3_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a "quasi legal doctrine".<sup id="cite_ref-:42_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ornstein" title="Norman Ornstein">Norman Ornstein</a> wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i> that an overwhelming majority of constitutional scholars and historians find the theory "laughable".<sup id="cite_ref-:14_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democracy">Democracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Democracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding_in_the_United_States#Unitary_Executive_Theory" title="Democratic backsliding in the United States">Democratic backsliding in the United States § Unitary Executive Theory</a></div> <p>Graham Dodds and Christopher Kelley worry about the constitutional implications of relegating the legislative branch to secondary status as well as the implications of the theory for democracy, especially under a Trump presidency.<sup id="cite_ref-:17_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ian Millhiser called it a "worst-case scenario for liberal democracy".<sup id="cite_ref-:21_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steven Greenhut argues the theory is a prescription for abuse and authoritarianism.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Driesen argues that unitary control over the executive is a defining characteristic of autocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i> wrote that "the vain and tyrannical whims of an emperor-president would emerge from the rubble."<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike many other countries' modern constitutions, which specify when and how a state of emergency may be declared and which rights may be suspended, the U.S. Constitution includes no comprehensive separate regime for emergencies. Some legal scholars believe the Constitution gives the president inherent emergency powers by making him commander in chief of the armed forces, or by vesting in him a broad, undefined "executive power."<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congress has delegated at least 136 distinct statutory emergency powers to the president, each available upon the declaration of an emergency. Only 13 of these require a declaration from Congress; the rest are assumed by an executive declaration with no further congressional input.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congressionally authorized emergency presidential powers are sweeping and dramatic, ranging from seizing control of the internet to declaring martial law.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i> to write that "the misuse of emergency powers is a standard gambit among leaders attempting to consolidate power",<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because, in the words of Justice <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>'s dissent in <i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i>, the 1944 Supreme Court decision that upheld the <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese-Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Internment of Japanese-Americans">internment of Japanese-Americans</a>, each emergency power "lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need."<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical">Practical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Practical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Writing in <i><a href="/wiki/Reason_(magazine)" title="Reason (magazine)">Reason</a></i>, Ilya Somin argued that concentrating more power in the president would make the president less accountable and run contrary to the ideals of the founders, who were concerned about the concentration of power.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concern about the effects on the Justice Department's investigatorial independence and anti-corruption efforts is a recurring theme in criticism of the unitary executive theory.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another concern revolves around the more practical implications of a brain drain of expertise in the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ian_Millhiser" title="Ian Millhiser">Ian Millhiser</a> critiques weaker versions of the theory as giving presidents power to manipulate elections and interfere with technocratic aspects of government typically removed from politics, such as the Federal Reserve.<sup id="cite_ref-:21_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars oppose even the weaker theory of a unitary executive. Some favor a plural executive, such as in the many state governments that separately elect an attorney general.<sup id="cite_ref-Berry_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berry-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others favor a system in which Congress and the president share control over the bureaucracy. Both would likely require a constitutional amendment to add these checks on the executive that are common in other democracies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Executive_power_in_other_democracies">Executive power in other democracies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Executive power in other democracies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governors_and_the_states">Governors and the states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Governors and the states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Plural_executive"></span>Unitary executive theory does not exist at the state or local level in the United States. In contrast to a single elected executive officer such as the president, <b>plural executives</b> exist in virtually all non-national governments, with states where executive officers such as <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">lieutenant governor</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">attorney general</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comptroller#United_States" title="Comptroller">comptroller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(U.S._state_government)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State (U.S. state government)">secretary of state</a>, and others, are elected independently of the <a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">state's governor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The executive branches of <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Texas" title="Government of Texas">Texas</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, for example, maintain a plural executive whereby other elected executive officers can curb the chief executive's actions. The group of North Carolina executive officers, the <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Council_of_State" title="North Carolina Council of State">North Carolina Council of State</a>, wields considerable statutory power when approving the state government's monetary and property transactions.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_New_York" title="Constitution of New York">New York Constitution</a> contained Take Care and Vesting Clauses "precisely mirroring the U.S. Constitution's clauses, but did not allow the Governor to either appoint or remove officers, vesting those functions in a council."<sup id="cite_ref-:13_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outside_the_United_States">Outside the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Outside the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>David Driesen argues that similar reforms led to significant <a href="/wiki/Democratic_backsliding" title="Democratic backsliding">democratic backsliding</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Susan Hennessey and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wittes" title="Benjamin Wittes">Benjamin Wittes</a> said that "the American presidency, in its unity, is profoundly dissimilar from nearly all other executives in democratic systems that have persisted over time. The founders of other democracies have, quite intentionally, decided differently from the founders of this one."<sup id="cite_ref-:18_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_film">In film</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 2018 biographical film <a href="/wiki/Vice_(2018_film)" title="Vice (2018 film)"><i>Vice</i></a>, directed by <a href="/wiki/Adam_McKay" title="Adam McKay">Adam McKay</a>, the unitary executive theory is explored in some detail and dramatized.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vice President <a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a>, the film's subject, his lawyer <a href="/wiki/David_Addington" title="David Addington">David Addington</a>, deputy assistant attorney general in the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Legal_Counsel" title="Office of Legal Counsel">Office of Legal Counsel</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Yoo" title="John Yoo">John Yoo</a>, and Supreme Court justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> figure prominently in the theory's development and promotion.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They brought it to the foreground of modern discussions on the topic of executive power beginning in 2001, continuing throughout the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">Bush administration</a> and beyond. The application of this legal doctrine has implications for the prosecution of the <a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a>, the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Iraq">2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq</a>, the use of <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_interrogation_techniques" title="Enhanced interrogation techniques">enhanced interrogation techniques</a> at sites such as <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp">Guantanamo Bay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ghraib_torture_and_prisoner_abuse" title="Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse">Abu Ghraib</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance_in_the_United_States" title="Mass surveillance in the United States">mass surveillance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_aggrandizement" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive aggrandizement">Executive aggrandizement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%BChrerprinzip" title="Führerprinzip">Führerprinzip</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_state_legislature_theory" title="Independent state legislature theory">Independent state legislature theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system#Presidentialism_metrics" title="Presidential system">Presidential system#Presidentialism metrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schedule_F_appointment" title="Schedule F appointment">Schedule F appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoils_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoils System">Spoils System</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Cornell Law School <i>Legal Information Institute Unitary Executive Theory (UET).</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/unitary_executive_theory_%28uet%29">[1]</a>Web. Retrieved September 24, 2024. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/us/politics/unitary-executive-executive-power.html">"The 2024 Executive Power Survey – Unitary Executive"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. September 15, 2023. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2024</span>. <q>Lawyers in the Reagan-era Justice Department developed the so-called unitary executive theory, an expansive interpretation of presidential power that aims to centralize greater control over the government in the White House. Under stronger versions of this vision, Congress cannot fracture the president's control of federal executive power, such as by vesting the power to make certain decisions in an agency head even if the president orders the agency to make a different decision, or by limiting a president's ability to enforce his desires by removing any executive branch official – including the heads of 'independent' agencies – at will.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+2024+Executive+Power+Survey+%E2%80%93+Unitary+Executive&rft.date=2023-09-15&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2023%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Funitary-executive-executive-power.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsKelley2024" class="citation cs2">Dodds, Graham G.; Kelley, Christopher S. (2024), Akande, Adebowale (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22">"Presidential Leadership and the Unitary Executive Theory: Temptations and Troubles"</a>, <i>Leadership and Politics</i>, Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, p. 541, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22">10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7"><bdi>978-3-031-56414-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Leadership+and+Politics&rft.atitle=Presidential+Leadership+and+the+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+Temptations+and+Troubles&rft.pages=541&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rft.isbn=978-3-031-56414-7&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Graham+G.&rft.au=Kelley%2C+Christopher+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dodds_2023_487–517-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds_2023_487–517_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodds_2023_487–517_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodds2023" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Graham G. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36099-2_21">"Is the President a King? The Unitary Executive Theory and the Presidency of Donald J. Trump"</a>. In Akande, Adebowale (ed.). <i>U.S. Democracy in Danger: The American Political System Under Assault</i>. Springer Studies on Populism, Identity Politics and Social Justice. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. pp. <span class="nowrap">487–</span>517. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-36099-2_21">10.1007/978-3-031-36099-2_21</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-36099-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-36099-2"><bdi>978-3-031-36099-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+the+President+a+King%3F+The+Unitary+Executive+Theory+and+the+Presidency+of+Donald+J.+Trump&rft.btitle=U.S.+Democracy+in+Danger%3A+The+American+Political+System+Under+Assault&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Springer+Studies+on+Populism%2C+Identity+Politics+and+Social+Justice&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E487-%3C%2Fspan%3E517&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Switzerland&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-36099-2_21&rft.isbn=978-3-031-36099-2&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Graham+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-36099-2_21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWendling2024" class="citation news cs1">Wendling, Mike (July 7, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c977njnvq2do">"Project 2025: A wish list for a Trump presidency, explained"</a>. BBC. <q>...a controversial idea known as 'unitary executive theory'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Project+2025%3A+A+wish+list+for+a+Trump+presidency%2C+explained&rft.date=2024-07-07&rft.aulast=Wendling&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Fc977njnvq2do&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsKelley2024" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Graham G.; Kelley, Christopher S. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22">"Presidential Leadership and the Unitary Executive Theory: Temptations and Troubles"</a>. In Akande, Adebowale (ed.). <i>Leadership and Politics</i>. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. p. 547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22">10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7"><bdi>978-3-031-56414-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2024</span>. <q>Constitutionally, the unitary executive theory is not some long-established doctrine that is widely accepted by courts and other political actors. Far from it, the constitutional status of the theory is rather controversial.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Presidential+Leadership+and+the+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+Temptations+and+Troubles&rft.btitle=Leadership+and+Politics&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=547&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Switzerland&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rft.isbn=978-3-031-56414-7&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Graham+G.&rft.au=Kelley%2C+Christopher+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhardori2024" class="citation news cs1">Khardori, Ankush (August 12, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2024/08/12/what-jd-vance-gets-wrong-about-the-supreme-court-00173445">"JD Vance's 'Constitutional Crisis' in the Making"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Politico" title="Politico">Politico</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politico&rft.atitle=JD+Vance%27s+%27Constitutional+Crisis%27+in+the+Making&rft.date=2024-08-12&rft.aulast=Khardori&rft.aufirst=Ankush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine%2F2024%2F08%2F12%2Fwhat-jd-vance-gets-wrong-about-the-supreme-court-00173445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrón-López2024" class="citation web cs1">Barrón-López, Laura (July 9, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/a-look-at-the-project-2025-plan-to-reshape-government-and-trumps-links-to-its-authors">"A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump's links to its authors"</a>. <i>PBS News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS+News&rft.atitle=A+look+at+the+Project+2025+plan+to+reshape+government+and+Trump%27s+links+to+its+authors&rft.date=2024-07-09&rft.aulast=Barr%C3%B3n-L%C3%B3pez&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnewshour%2Fshow%2Fa-look-at-the-project-2025-plan-to-reshape-government-and-trumps-links-to-its-authors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage2024" class="citation news cs1">Savage, Charlie (July 4, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/04/us/politics/conservative-legal-movement-supreme-court.html">"Legal Conservatives' Long Game: Amp Up Presidential Power but Kneecap Federal Agencies"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Legal+Conservatives%27+Long+Game%3A+Amp+Up+Presidential+Power+but+Kneecap+Federal+Agencies&rft.date=2024-07-04&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2024%2F07%2F04%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fconservative-legal-movement-supreme-court.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro2024" class="citation web cs1">Shapiro, Ari (July 2, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wfae.org/united-states-world/2024-07-02/immunity-ruling-continues-a-trend-of-expanding-presidential-power-scholar-says">"Immunity ruling continues a trend of expanding presidential power, scholar says"</a>. <i>WFAE 90.7 - Charlotte's NPR News Source</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2024</span>. <q>When the Supreme Court dramatically expanded presidential power yesterday, it continued a trend that's been going in one direction for a long time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WFAE+90.7+-+Charlotte%27s+NPR+News+Source&rft.atitle=Immunity+ruling+continues+a+trend+of+expanding+presidential+power%2C+scholar+says&rft.date=2024-07-02&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Ari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfae.org%2Funited-states-world%2F2024-07-02%2Fimmunity-ruling-continues-a-trend-of-expanding-presidential-power-scholar-says&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsKelley2024" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Graham G.; Kelley, Christopher S. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22">"Presidential Leadership and the Unitary Executive Theory: Temptations and Troubles"</a>. In Akande, Adebowale (ed.). <i>Leadership and Politics</i>. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. p. 540. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22">10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7"><bdi>978-3-031-56414-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2024</span>. <q>Unitarians fixate on the wording of Article II's 'Vesting' clause (versus the wording in Articles I and III), arguing that the president alone has all the executive power, which means any power that is executive in nature, even if it is not directly listed in the Constitution, belongs to the president</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Presidential+Leadership+and+the+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+Temptations+and+Troubles&rft.btitle=Leadership+and+Politics&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=540&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Switzerland&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rft.isbn=978-3-031-56414-7&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Graham+G.&rft.au=Kelley%2C+Christopher+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSitaraman2020" class="citation journal cs1">Sitaraman, Ganesh (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-134/the-political-economy-of-the-removal-power/">"The Political Economy of the Removal Power"</a>. <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>134</b>: 380.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Political+Economy+of+the+Removal+Power&rft.volume=134&rft.pages=380&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Sitaraman&rft.aufirst=Ganesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fharvardlawreview.org%2Fprint%2Fvol-134%2Fthe-political-economy-of-the-removal-power%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:24-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:24_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:24_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrakashSchroeder" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Saikrishna_Prakash" title="Saikrishna Prakash">Prakash, Saikrishna B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Christopher_H._Schroeder" title="Christopher H. Schroeder">Schroeder, Christopher H.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/articles/article-ii/clauses/347">"Interpretation and Debate: The Vesting Clause"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Constitution+Center&rft.atitle=Interpretation+and+Debate%3A+The+Vesting+Clause&rft.aulast=Prakash&rft.aufirst=Saikrishna+B.&rft.au=Schroeder%2C+Christopher+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconstitutioncenter.org%2Fthe-constitution%2Farticles%2Farticle-ii%2Fclauses%2F347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss1984" class="citation journal cs1">Strauss, Peter L. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1211&context=faculty_scholarship">"The Place of Agencies in Government"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_Review" title="Columbia Law Review">Columbia Law Review</a></i>. <b>84</b>: 598. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1122501">10.2307/1122501</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1122501">1122501</a>. <q>Article II speaks directly only about elected officials, chiefly the President and his powers; it describes those powers in the most summary of terms. He is vested generally with 'the executive Power,' but what that is in the domestic context does not readily appear. Putting aside foreign relations and military authority-a very large part of the Presidency, but not the focus of this essay 89-he has the following powers and/or responsibilities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Place+of+Agencies+in+Government&rft.volume=84&rft.pages=598&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1122501&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1122501%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Peter+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.columbia.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1211%26context%3Dfaculty_scholarship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:25-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:25_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:25_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShugerman2022" class="citation journal cs1">Shugerman, Jed Handelsman (June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://review.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2022/06/Shugerman-74-Stan.-L.-Rev.-1479.pdf">"Vesting"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Stanford Law Review</i>. <b>74</b>. <q>This Article offers a close textual reading of the word 'vesting' and an examination of its eighteenth-century usage and context, with the first survey of available dictionaries (from 1637 to 1846), colonial charters and state constitutions, the Constitutional Convention, and Ratification debates. Dictionaries defined 'vest' in terms of basic landed property rights, without reference to exclusivity or indefeasibility, and rarely with any reference to offices or powers. Other legal documents and digital collections of the Founders' papers indicate a range of usage, from 'fully vested' to 'simply vested' to 'partly vested,' so that the word 'vesting' by itself would signify less completeness. Meanwhile, words used in the Constitution or by the Framers to convey exclusivity or indefeasibility (for example, 'all,' 'exclusive,' 'sole,' 'alone,' or 'indefeasible') are missing from the Executive Vesting Clause. The ordinary meaning of 'vesting' was most likely a simple grant of powers without signifying the impermissibility of legislative conditions such as good-cause requirements for removals, undermining the unitary theory's originalist basis. On the other hand, the 'all' in the Legislative Vesting Clause may be more legally meaningful for nondelegation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Vesting&rft.volume=74&rft.date=2022-06&rft.aulast=Shugerman&rft.aufirst=Jed+Handelsman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freview.law.stanford.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F3%2F2022%2F06%2FShugerman-74-Stan.-L.-Rev.-1479.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Fin. Prot. Bureau</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/591/19-7/">591 U.S. 197</a>, 2197 (2021).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSitaraman2020" class="citation journal cs1">Sitaraman, Ganesh (2020). "The Political Economy of the Removal Power". <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>134</b>: 380.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Political+Economy+of+the+Removal+Power&rft.volume=134&rft.pages=380&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Sitaraman&rft.aufirst=Ganesh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChabot2020" class="citation journal cs1">Chabot, Christine Kexel (November 13, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4925&context=ndlr">"Is the Federal Reserve Constitutional? An Originalist Argument for Independent Agencies"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_Law_Review" title="Notre Dame Law Review">Notre Dame Law Review</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notre+Dame+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Is+the+Federal+Reserve+Constitutional%3F+An+Originalist+Argument+for+Independent+Agencies&rft.date=2020-11-13&rft.aulast=Chabot&rft.aufirst=Christine+Kexel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.nd.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D4925%26context%3Dndlr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwanSavageHaberman2023" class="citation news cs1">Swan, Jonathan; Savage, Charlie; Haberman, Maggie (July 17, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/17/us/politics/trump-plans-2025.html">"Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2024</span>. <q>The Supreme Court in 1935 and 1988 upheld the power of Congress to shield some executive branch officials from being fired without cause. But after justices appointed by Republicans since Reagan took control, it has started to erode those precedents.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Trump+and+Allies+Forge+Plans+to+Increase+Presidential+Power+in+2025&rft.date=2023-07-17&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Swan&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Savage%2C+Charlie&rft.au=Haberman%2C+Maggie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F07%2F17%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Ftrump-plans-2025.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkowronekDearbornKing2021" class="citation book cs1">Skowronek, Stephen; Dearborn, John A.; King, Desmond S. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1163936736"><i>Phantoms of a beleaguered republic: the deep state and the unitary executive</i></a> (New ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5"><bdi>978-0-19-754308-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1163936736">1163936736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phantoms+of+a+beleaguered+republic%3A+the+deep+state+and+the+unitary+executive&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=34&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1163936736&rft.isbn=978-0-19-754308-5&rft.aulast=Skowronek&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Dearborn%2C+John+A.&rft.au=King%2C+Desmond+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1163936736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:42-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:42_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:42_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPilkington2024" class="citation news cs1">Pilkington, Ed (June 7, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/jun/07/trump-justice-department">"Trump plots capture of DoJ in renewed assault on US justice system"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Trump+plots+capture+of+DoJ+in+renewed+assault+on+US+justice+system&rft.date=2024-06-07&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Pilkington&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2Farticle%2F2024%2Fjun%2F07%2Ftrump-justice-department&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrnstein2007" class="citation news cs1">Ornstein, Norman (June 26, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/democracy-in-america/2007/06/25/cheneys-chutzpah">"Blog: Cheney's chutzpah"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Blog%3A+Cheney%27s+chutzpah&rft.date=2007-06-26&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft.aulast=Ornstein&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fdemocracy-in-america%2F2007%2F06%2F25%2Fcheneys-chutzpah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manheim_Ides-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manheim_Ides_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manheim_Ides_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManheimIdes2006" class="citation journal cs1">Manheim, Karl; Ides, Allan (September 2006). "The Unitary Executive". <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Lawyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles Lawyer">Los Angeles Lawyer</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=943046">943046</a>. Loyola-LA Legal Studies Paper No. 2006-39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Lawyer&rft.atitle=The+Unitary+Executive&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D943046%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Manheim&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft.au=Ides%2C+Allan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:15-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:15_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarronLederman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Barron, David; Lederman, Martin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090124223310/http://harvardlawreview.org/issues/121/feb08/barron_lederman2.shtml">"The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb: A Constitutional History"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i>. <b>121</b>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>: 941. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvardlawreview.org/issues/121/feb08/barron_lederman2.shtml">the original</a> on January 24, 2009. <q>there are those who would argue that the 'unitary executive' must have effective control over all Article II functions, in which case the superintendence guaranteed by the Commander in Chief Clause would not appear to do any additional work with respect to superintendence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Commander+in+Chief+at+the+Lowest+Ebb%3A+A+Constitutional+History&rft.volume=121&rft.pages=941&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Barron&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Lederman%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvardlawreview.org%2Fissues%2F121%2Ffeb08%2Fbarron_lederman2.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:19-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:19_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:19_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSomin2018" class="citation web cs1">Somin, Ilya (May 3, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/volokh/2018/05/03/rethinking-the-unitary-executive/">"Rethinking the Unitary Executive"</a>. <i>Reason.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2024</span>. <q>UPDATE: I perhaps should have mentioned the oft-made argument that maintaining a unitary executive—even when it comes to powers beyond the scope of the original meaning of the Constitution—is desirable because it enhances political accountability. Even if true, this claim is about what is pragmatically desirable, not about the text and original meaning of the Constitution. But the claim is dubious even on its own terms. The greater the scope of executive power, the harder it is for rationally ignorant voters to keep track of more than a small fraction of it. Moreover, it becomes difficult to figure out how to weigh the president's performance in one area against what he does in others (assuming there is variation in quality, as will often be the case). It is therefore unlikely that concentrating a vast range of power in the hands of one person does much to enhance accountability.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reason.com&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Unitary+Executive&rft.date=2018-05-03&rft.aulast=Somin&rft.aufirst=Ilya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2Fvolokh%2F2018%2F05%2F03%2Frethinking-the-unitary-executive%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPilkington2024" class="citation news cs1">Pilkington, Ed (June 7, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/jun/07/trump-justice-department">"Trump plots capture of DoJ in renewed assault on US justice system"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2024</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'That's what happens in authoritarian states – there is a semblance of a legal system, but it becomes useless,' she said. 'If that happens here it would be extremely troubling. We're not there yet. But I do think a second term could cause significant damage that may or may not be permanent.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Trump+plots+capture+of+DoJ+in+renewed+assault+on+US+justice+system&rft.date=2024-06-07&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Pilkington&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2Farticle%2F2024%2Fjun%2F07%2Ftrump-justice-department&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:20-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:20_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:20_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/leaders/2023/07/13/how-maga-republicans-plan-to-make-donald-trumps-second-term-count">"How MAGA Republicans plan to make Donald Trump's second term count"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. July 13, 2023. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613">0013-0613</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2024</span>. <q>One reason for the professionalisation of the bureaucracy in the 19th century was to provide the ship of state with enough ballast to keep sailing from one administration to the next ... The vain and tyrannical whims of an emperor-president would emerge from the rubble.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=How+MAGA+Republicans+plan+to+make+Donald+Trump%27s+second+term+count&rft.date=2023-07-13&rft.issn=0013-0613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fleaders%2F2023%2F07%2F13%2Fhow-maga-republicans-plan-to-make-donald-trumps-second-term-count&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:17_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsKelley2024" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Graham G.; Kelley, Christopher S. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22">"Presidential Leadership and the Unitary Executive Theory: Temptations and Troubles"</a>. In Akande, Adebowale (ed.). <i>Leadership and Politics</i>. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. pp. 548, <span class="nowrap">550–</span>551. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22">10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7"><bdi>978-3-031-56414-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2024</span>. <q>Turning devoted public servants into mere servants of their master and by privileging presidential desires over institutional expertise and independence, the theory risks turning the chief executive into an absolute monarch. Moreover, by enlarging the already considerable powers of the presidency, it threatens to upset the country's delicate inter-branch balance by relegating Congress and the judiciary to inferior status ... Trump showed us what happens when you support the use of such power with a person who appears to care little about the institution, the Constitution, or America's democracy. ... Thus the United States could see the unitary executive theory employed to significantly erode basic democratic principles.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Presidential+Leadership+and+the+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+Temptations+and+Troubles&rft.btitle=Leadership+and+Politics&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=548%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E550-%3C%2Fspan%3E551&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Switzerland&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rft.isbn=978-3-031-56414-7&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Graham+G.&rft.au=Kelley%2C+Christopher+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowellMoe2021" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_G._Howell" title="William G. Howell">Howell, William</a>; <a href="/wiki/Terry_M._Moe" title="Terry M. Moe">Moe, Terry</a> (November 1, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/11/01/big-government-vastly-expanded-presidential-power-republicans-use-it-sabotage-administrative-state/">"Analysis | Big government vastly expanded presidential power. Republicans use it to sabotage the administrative state"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2024</span>. <q>The unitary executive theory provides a veneer of legal authority for an authoritarian-inclined president to engage in a range of anti-democratic behaviors. By the time George W. Bush had shown what the unitary executive could justify – torturing prisoners, surveilling ordinary citizens, ignoring congressional statutes – constitutional scholars were already pointing to presidents as the chief threat to American democracy. With the rise of right-wing populism and the election of Trump in 2016, this threat was magnified by the accompanying transformation of the Republican Party itself, with its elites in Washington and around the country abetting Trump's authoritarian behavior in office ... The Republican Party is now an anti-democracy party, and its future presidents – empowered by the unitary executive theory – threaten the fundamentals of the U.S. democratic system ... Democrats have been complicit, but Republicans have pushed the trajectory beyond democratic bounds.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Analysis+%7C+Big+government+vastly+expanded+presidential+power.+Republicans+use+it+to+sabotage+the+administrative+state&rft.date=2021-11-01&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Moe%2C+Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fpolitics%2F2021%2F11%2F01%2Fbig-government-vastly-expanded-presidential-power-republicans-use-it-sabotage-administrative-state%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_30-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriesen2020" class="citation journal cs1">Driesen, David (November 1, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.uclawsf.edu/hastings_law_journal/vol72/iss1/1">"The Unitary Executive Theory in Comparative Context"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/UC_Law_Journal" title="UC Law Journal">UC Law Journal</a></i>. <b>72</b> (1): 1. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8322">0017-8322</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UC+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Unitary+Executive+Theory+in+Comparative+Context&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2020-11-01&rft.issn=0017-8322&rft.aulast=Driesen&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.uclawsf.edu%2Fhastings_law_journal%2Fvol72%2Fiss1%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhut2024" class="citation web cs1">Greenhut, Steven (June 28, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/2024/06/28/project-2025-the-conservative-agenda-to-embrace-bigger-government-during-trumps-second-term/">"Project 2025: The Heritage Foundation's plan to embrace bigger government during Trump's second term"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reason_(magazine)" title="Reason (magazine)">Reason</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2024</span>. <q>But implementing what critics call 'unitary executive theory'—i.e., putting all aspects of the federal government under the control of the president—is a prescription for authoritarianism and abuse.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reason&rft.atitle=Project+2025%3A+The+Heritage+Foundation%27s+plan+to+embrace+bigger+government+during+Trump%27s+second+term&rft.date=2024-06-28&rft.aulast=Greenhut&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2F2024%2F06%2F28%2Fproject-2025-the-conservative-agenda-to-embrace-bigger-government-during-trumps-second-term%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:18-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:18_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:18_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennesseyWittes2020" class="citation web cs1">Hennessey, Susan; Wittes, Benjamin (January 21, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/01/trump-myth-unitary-executive/605062/">"The Disintegration of the American Presidency"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2024</span>. <q>But the American system gets sticky when you contemplate vesting the executive power in one person who cannot be easily removed when that person is as mercurial and peculiar as Trump. In such situations, the structure can start to seem downright reckless. In concentrating power so that this person directs the federal government to do things—and in making this person exceptionally difficult to depose for a protracted period of time—one has to have a certain amount of confidence in that person's intentions and abilities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Disintegration+of+the+American+Presidency&rft.date=2020-01-21&rft.aulast=Hennessey&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=Wittes%2C+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fideas%2Farchive%2F2020%2F01%2Ftrump-myth-unitary-executive%2F605062%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGersenBerry2008" class="citation web cs1">Gersen, Jacob; Berry, Christopher R. (March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?httpsredir=1&article=1349&context=public_law_and_legal_theory">"The Unbundled Executive"</a> (none). University of Chicago. pp. <span class="nowrap">10–</span>11. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1113543">1113543</a>. University of Chicago Public Law & Legal Theory Working Paper No. 214. <q>Indeed, partial unbundling of executive authority is the norm rather than an exception in virtually all levels of non-national government units in the United States, of which there are more than 80,000. Authority that the governor or mayor would otherwise exercise is frequently given to a specific state or local officer. Often these officers are directly elected by the public. Other times they are elected by the legislature; other times still, they are appointed by another state official. These arrangements are only approximations of the unbundled executive ideal because they there is residual responsibility or authority for the policy in the general purpose executive ... The average number of elected executive offices per state was 6.7 in 2002 ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Unbundled+Executive&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1113543%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Gersen&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft.au=Berry%2C+Christopher+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Fhttpsredir%3D1%26article%3D1349%26context%3Dpublic_law_and_legal_theory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerryGersen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Berry, Christopher R.; Gersen, Jacob E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27653959">"The Unbundled Executive"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Chicago_Law_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Chicago Law Review">The University of Chicago Law Review</a></i>. <b>75</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">1399–</span>1400. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0041-9494">0041-9494</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27653959">27653959</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+University+of+Chicago+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Unbundled+Executive&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1399-%3C%2Fspan%3E1400&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27653959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0041-9494&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=Christopher+R.&rft.au=Gersen%2C+Jacob+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27653959&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen2024" class="citation news cs1">Rosen, Jeffrey (July 2, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2024/07/02/nx-s1-5026545/new-presidential-immunity-ruling-supreme-court-constitutional-scholar">"Immunity ruling continues a trend of expanding presidential power, scholar says"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/All_Things_Considered" title="All Things Considered">All Things Considered</a></i>. NPR<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=All+Things+Considered&rft.atitle=Immunity+ruling+continues+a+trend+of+expanding+presidential+power%2C+scholar+says&rft.date=2024-07-02&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2024%2F07%2F02%2Fnx-s1-5026545%2Fnew-presidential-immunity-ruling-supreme-court-constitutional-scholar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThunberg2021" class="citation journal cs1">Thunberg, Michael E. (December 1, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/psq/article/136/4/770/6835193">"The Unitary Executive Theory: A Danger to Constitutional Government"</a>. <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>. <b>136</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">770–</span>771. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpolq.13274">10.1002/polq.13274</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-3195">0032-3195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+A+Danger+to+Constitutional+Government&rft.volume=136&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E770-%3C%2Fspan%3E771&rft.date=2021-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpolq.13274&rft.issn=0032-3195&rft.aulast=Thunberg&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fpsq%2Farticle%2F136%2F4%2F770%2F6835193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMosley2023" class="citation news cs1">Mosley, Tonya (December 14, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2023/12/14/1219313919/why-a-second-trump-administration-may-be-more-radical-than-the-first">"Why a second Trump administration may be more radical than the first"</a>. <i>Fresh Air on NPR</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fresh+Air+on+NPR&rft.atitle=Why+a+second+Trump+administration+may+be+more+radical+than+the+first&rft.date=2023-12-14&rft.aulast=Mosley&rft.aufirst=Tonya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F12%2F14%2F1219313919%2Fwhy-a-second-trump-administration-may-be-more-radical-than-the-first&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsKelley2024" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Graham G.; Kelley, Christopher S. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22">"Presidential Leadership and the Unitary Executive Theory: Temptations and Troubles"</a>. In Akande, Adebowale (ed.). <i>Leadership and Politics</i>. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. p. 540. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22">10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7"><bdi>978-3-031-56414-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2024</span>. <q>The term 'unitary executive' dates to the 1980s, but unitarians contend that the idea goes back to the founding era.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Presidential+Leadership+and+the+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+Temptations+and+Troubles&rft.btitle=Leadership+and+Politics&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=540&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Switzerland&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rft.isbn=978-3-031-56414-7&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Graham+G.&rft.au=Kelley%2C+Christopher+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoddsKelley2024" class="citation book cs1">Dodds, Graham G.; Kelley, Christopher S. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22">"Presidential Leadership and the Unitary Executive Theory: Temptations and Troubles"</a>. In Akande, Adebowale (ed.). <i>Leadership and Politics</i>. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. p. 539. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22">10.1007/978-3-031-56415-4_22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-56414-7"><bdi>978-3-031-56414-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 29,</span> 2024</span>. <q>There is no one canonical account of the unitary executive theory, though various academics have provided their own characterizations of it. (See Calabresi and Yoo (2008), Barilleaux and Kelley (2010), Dodds (2019), Crouch et al. (2020), and Skowronek et al. (2021).)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Presidential+Leadership+and+the+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+Temptations+and+Troubles&rft.btitle=Leadership+and+Politics&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=539&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Switzerland&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rft.isbn=978-3-031-56414-7&rft.aulast=Dodds&rft.aufirst=Graham+G.&rft.au=Kelley%2C+Christopher+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-56415-4_22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunsteinVermeule2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sunstein, Cass R.; Vermeule, Adrian (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/714860">"The Unitary Executive: Past, Present, Future"</a>. <i>The Supreme Court Review</i>. <b>2020</b>: <span class="nowrap">83–</span>117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F714860">10.1086/714860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Supreme+Court+Review&rft.atitle=The+Unitary+Executive%3A+Past%2C+Present%2C+Future&rft.volume=2020&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E117&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F714860&rft.aulast=Sunstein&rft.aufirst=Cass+R.&rft.au=Vermeule%2C+Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F714860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkowronekDearbornKing2021" class="citation book cs1">Skowronek, Stephen; Dearborn, John A.; King, Desmond S. 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New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5"><bdi>978-0-19-754308-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1163936736">1163936736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phantoms+of+a+beleaguered+republic%3A+the+deep+state+and+the+unitary+executive&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=new&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1163936736&rft.isbn=978-0-19-754308-5&rft.aulast=Skowronek&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Dearborn%2C+John+A.&rft.au=King%2C+Desmond+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1163936736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bremer, Emily S. 2024. “Presidential Adjudication.” <i>Virginia Law Review</i> 110 (8): 1749–1814.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:26-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:26_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:26_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillhiser2025" class="citation web cs1">Millhiser, Ian (February 3, 2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/scotus/397729/supreme-court-unitary-executive-donald-trump">"The legal theory that would make Trump the most powerful president in US history"</a>. <i>Vox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=The+legal+theory+that+would+make+Trump+the+most+powerful+president+in+US+history&rft.date=2025-02-03&rft.aulast=Millhiser&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fscotus%2F397729%2Fsupreme-court-unitary-executive-donald-trump&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkowronekDearbornKing2021" class="citation book cs1">Skowronek, Stephen; Dearborn, John A.; King, Desmond S. 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New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5"><bdi>978-0-19-754308-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1163936736">1163936736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phantoms+of+a+beleaguered+republic%3A+the+deep+state+and+the+unitary+executive&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1163936736&rft.isbn=978-0-19-754308-5&rft.aulast=Skowronek&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Dearborn%2C+John+A.&rft.au=King%2C+Desmond+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1163936736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Seila Law LLC v. 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"The Political Economy of the Removal Power". <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>134</b>: 380.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Political+Economy+of+the+Removal+Power&rft.volume=134&rft.pages=380&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Sitaraman&rft.aufirst=Ganesh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-plural-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-plural_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-plural_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalabresiRhodes1992" class="citation journal cs1">Calabresi, Steven & Rhodes, Kevin (1992). "The Structural Constitution: Unitary Executive, Plural Judiciary". <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i>. <b>105</b> (6): 1165. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1341727">10.2307/1341727</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1341727">1341727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Structural+Constitution%3A+Unitary+Executive%2C+Plural+Judiciary&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1165&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1341727&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1341727%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Calabresi&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Rhodes%2C+Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkowronekDearbornKing2021" class="citation book cs1">Skowronek, Stephen; Dearborn, John A.; King, Desmond S. (2021). <i>Phantoms of a beleaguered republic: the deep state and the unitary executive</i>. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5"><bdi>978-0-19-754308-5</bdi></a>. <q>The conception of 'good government' is consistent with a reading of the 'take care' clause, in which presidents are charged to enforce court rulings and congressional statutes 'faithfully', regardless of their views of the substantive merits. It is reinforced by Congress's Article I authority to set rules and regulations 'necessary and proper' for the execution of its mandates.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phantoms+of+a+beleaguered+republic%3A+the+deep+state+and+the+unitary+executive&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-754308-5&rft.aulast=Skowronek&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Dearborn%2C+John+A.&rft.au=King%2C+Desmond+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss2024" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Strauss" title="Peter L. 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(January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://review.law.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2021/01/Birk-73-Stan.-L.-Rev.-175.pdf">"Interrogating the Historical Basis for a Unitary Executive"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Law_Review" title="Stanford Law Review">Stanford Law Review</a></i>. <b>45</b> (6): 2177. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-9765">0038-9765</a>. <q>See CALABRESI & YOO , supra note 1, at 3-4; see also, e.g., Neomi Rao, Removal: Necessary and Sufficient for Presidential Control, 65 A LA. L. Rev. 1205, 1225 (2014) (asserting that '[f]or adequate constitutional control of execution, the President must have the possibility of directing discretionary legal duties, even those assigned to other officers,' and thus must be able to remove all executive officers, including the heads of independent agencies); John Harrison, Addition by Subtraction, 92 VA. L. Rev. 1853, 1859–62 (2006) (characterizing executive-branch officers as 'agents' of the President whom the President must be able to remove if they do not retain his trust); cf. Morrison, 487 U.S. at 724 n.4 (Scalia, J., dissenting) (contending that the President must have 'plenary power to remove [all] principal officers,' but that inferior officers can be made 'removable for cause' so long as their appointing officers can dismiss them for 'the failure to accept supervision' (emphasis omitted))</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Interrogating+the+Historical+Basis+for+a+Unitary+Executive&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2177&rft.date=2021-01&rft.issn=0038-9765&rft.aulast=Birk&rft.aufirst=Daniel+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freview.law.stanford.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F3%2F2021%2F01%2FBirk-73-Stan.-L.-Rev.-175.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatham2000" class="citation journal cs1">Latham, Joshua (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bc.edu/schools/law/lawreviews/meta-elements/journals/bcealr/27_3/04_FMS.htm">"The Military Munitions Rule and Environmental Regulation of Munitions"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_College_Environmental_Affairs_Law_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review">Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review</a></i>. <b>27</b>. 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(2021). <i>Phantoms of a beleaguered republic: the deep state and the unitary executive</i>. 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Viking. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brokengovernment00dean/page/102">102</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780670018208" title="Special:BookSources/9780670018208"><bdi>9780670018208</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broken+Government&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780670018208&rft.aulast=Dean&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrokengovernment00dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_59-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg2019" class="citation web cs1">Greenberg, Jon (February 8, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politifact.com/article/2019/feb/08/vice-what-movie-gets-right-and-wrong/">"What Vice gets right and wrong about Dick Cheney"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Politifact" class="mw-redirect" title="Politifact">Politifact</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Politifact&rft.atitle=What+Vice+gets+right+and+wrong+about+Dick+Cheney&rft.date=2019-02-08&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politifact.com%2Farticle%2F2019%2Ffeb%2F08%2Fvice-what-movie-gets-right-and-wrong%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalabresiYoo2008" class="citation book cs1">Calabresi, Steven; Yoo, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4sJhrLROSc8C"><i>The Unitary Executive: Presidential Power from Washington to Bush</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14538-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14538-0"><bdi>978-0-300-14538-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unitary+Executive%3A+Presidential+Power+from+Washington+to+Bush&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-14538-0&rft.aulast=Calabresi&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Yoo%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4sJhrLROSc8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrouchRozellSollenberger2020" class="citation book cs1">Crouch, Jeffrey; Rozell, Mark J.; Sollenberger, Mitchel A. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1ft83xf"><i>The Unitary Executive Theory: A Danger to Constitutional Government</i></a>. University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1ft83xf">10.2307/j.ctv1ft83xf</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-3004-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-3004-2"><bdi>978-0-7006-3004-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1ft83xf">j.ctv1ft83xf</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unitary+Executive+Theory%3A+A+Danger+to+Constitutional+Government&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv1ft83xf%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctv1ft83xf&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-3004-2&rft.aulast=Crouch&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft.au=Rozell%2C+Mark+J.&rft.au=Sollenberger%2C+Mitchel+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv1ft83xf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKetchum1986" class="citation book cs1">Ketchum, Ralph, ed. (1986). <i>The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates</i>. Signet Classic. p. 67. <q>Mr. [James] Wilson entered into a contrast of the principal points of the two plans [i.e. the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan] ... These were ... A single Executive Magistrate is at the head of the one—a plurality is held out in the other.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anti-Federalist+Papers+and+the+Constitutional+Convention+Debates&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Signet+Classic&rft.date=1986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a2_1_1s4.html">"Records of the Federal Convention, Article 2, Section 1, Clause 1"</a>. <i>The Founder's Constitution</i>. 1787.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Founder%27s+Constitution&rft.atitle=Records+of+the+Federal+Convention%2C+Article+2%2C+Section+1%2C+Clause+1&rft.date=1787&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress-pubs.uchicago.edu%2Ffounders%2Fdocuments%2Fa2_1_1s4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillhiser2020" class="citation web cs1">Millhiser, Ian (February 14, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/2020/2/14/21135083/justice-scalia-bill-barr-trump-unitary-executive-no-rule-of-law-morrison-olson">"How Justice Scalia paved the way for Trump's assault on the rule of law"</a>. <i>Vox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=How+Justice+Scalia+paved+the+way+for+Trump%27s+assault+on+the+rule+of+law&rft.date=2020-02-14&rft.aulast=Millhiser&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2020%2F2%2F14%2F21135083%2Fjustice-scalia-bill-barr-trump-unitary-executive-no-rule-of-law-morrison-olson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaryRoach2022" class="citation web cs1">Gary, Schmitt; Roach, John (June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/A-Madisonian-Footnote-to-the-Unitary-Executive.pdf?x85095">"A Madisonian Footnote to the Unitary Executive"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>AEI</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Project+2025+plan+and+Trump%27s+links+to+its+authors&rft.pub=PBS+News+Hour&rft.date=2024-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fvideo%2Ftrump-agenda-1720559568%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2024" class="citation news cs1">Tucker, Eric (July 2, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/supreme-court-opinion-conferring-broad-immunity-embolden-trump-111632671">"Supreme Court opinion conferring broad immunity could embolden Trump as he seeks to return to power"</a>. Associated Press. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'This is a full-throated endorsement of the unitary executive theory' in a dramatic way, said Cornell University law professor Michael Dorf, referring to the theory that the U.S. Constitution gives the president expansive control over the government's executive branch.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+opinion+conferring+broad+immunity+could+embolden+Trump+as+he+seeks+to+return+to+power&rft.date=2024-07-02&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FUS%2FwireStory%2Fsupreme-court-opinion-conferring-broad-immunity-embolden-trump-111632671&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkowronekDearbornKing2021" class="citation book cs1">Skowronek, Stephen; Dearborn, John A.; King, Desmond S. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1163936736"><i>Phantoms of a beleaguered republic: the deep state and the unitary executive</i></a> (New ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5"><bdi>978-0-19-754308-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1163936736">1163936736</a>. <q>...the unitary executive becomes exactly what the founders most feared, a formula for maximum disruption. It is prone to imposing decisions at will, marginalizing dissent, and to radicalizing opposition...Power hierarchically controlled, thoroughly politicized and concentrated in the executive, is a constitutional nightmare, and a bitter denouement for a beleaguered republic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phantoms+of+a+beleaguered+republic%3A+the+deep+state+and+the+unitary+executive&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=38&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1163936736&rft.isbn=978-0-19-754308-5&rft.aulast=Skowronek&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Dearborn%2C+John+A.&rft.au=King%2C+Desmond+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1163936736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barron-Lederman-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barron-Lederman_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarronLederman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Barron, David; Lederman, Martin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090125114946/http://harvardlawreview.org/issues/121/jan08/barron_lederman.shtml">"The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb: Framing The Problem, Doctrine, And Original Understanding"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i>. <b>121</b>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>: 689. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.harvardlawreview.org/issues/121/jan08/barron_lederman.shtml">the original</a> on January 25, 2009. <q>we think the text, as reinforced by historical practice, makes a strong case for at least some form of a 'unitary executive' within the armed forces, particularly as to traditional functions during armed conflicts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Commander+in+Chief+at+the+Lowest+Ebb%3A+Framing+The+Problem%2C+Doctrine%2C+And+Original+Understanding&rft.volume=121&rft.pages=689&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Barron&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Lederman%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.harvardlawreview.org%2Fissues%2F121%2Fjan08%2Fbarron_lederman.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPengelly2023" class="citation news cs1">Pengelly, Martin (September 15, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/15/project-2025-policy-manifesto-lgbtq-rights">"US hard-right policy group condemned for 'dehumanising' anti-LGBTQ+ rhetoric"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=US+hard-right+policy+group+condemned+for+%27dehumanising%27+anti-LGBTQ%2B+rhetoric&rft.date=2023-09-15&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Pengelly&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2023%2Fsep%2F15%2Fproject-2025-policy-manifesto-lgbtq-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:21-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:21_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:21_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillhiser2023" class="citation web cs1">Millhiser, Ian (November 21, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/scotus/2023/11/21/23964561/supreme-court-sec-jarkesy-donald-trump-authoritarian-unitary-executive">"A Supreme Court case about stocks could help make Trump's authoritarian dreams reality"</a>. <i>Vox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2024</span>. <q>There are weaker versions of the unitary executive theory that wouldn't allow the president to fire every FBI agent who refuses to swear personal fealty. But even these weaker versions could potentially give presidents power to manipulate elections, and to interfere with technocratic aspects of government that historically have been removed from partisan politics, such as the Federal Reserve...And, of course, looming over all of this is Trump, with his plan to replace much of the civil service with people personally loyal to him. In the worst-case scenario for liberal democracy, the Supreme Court could use the Jarkesy case to greenlight many of Trump's most authoritarian aspirations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=A+Supreme+Court+case+about+stocks+could+help+make+Trump%27s+authoritarian+dreams+reality&rft.date=2023-11-21&rft.aulast=Millhiser&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fscotus%2F2023%2F11%2F21%2F23964561%2Fsupreme-court-sec-jarkesy-donald-trump-authoritarian-unitary-executive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Atlantic201901&201902-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Atlantic201901&201902_100-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoitein2019" class="citation news cs1">Goitein, Elizabeth (January–February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200401071344/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/01/presidential-emergency-powers/576418/">"The Alarming Scope of the President's Emergency Powers"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/01/presidential-emergency-powers/576418/">the original</a> on April 1, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Alarming+Scope+of+the+President%27s+Emergency+Powers&rft.date=2019-01%2F2019-02&rft.aulast=Goitein&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2019%2F01%2Fpresidential-emergency-powers%2F576418%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200401070744/https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/guide-emergency-powers-and-their-use">"A Guide to Emergency Powers and Their Use"</a>. <i>Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/emergency-powers">the original</a> on April 1, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brennan+Center+for+Justice+at+New+York+University+School+of+Law&rft.atitle=A+Guide+to+Emergency+Powers+and+Their+Use&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brennancenter.org%2Fanalysis%2Femergency-powers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillhiser2020" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Millhiser" title="Ian Millhiser">Millhiser, Ian</a> (February 14, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/2020/2/14/21135083/justice-scalia-bill-barr-trump-unitary-executive-no-rule-of-law-morrison-olson">"How Justice Scalia paved the way for Trump's assault on the rule of law"</a>. <i>Vox</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2024</span>. <q>The facts of Morrison also highlight why prosecutorial independence is sometimes desirable. That case involved an investigation into one of the seniormost officials within the Justice Department. A rank-and-file prosecutor would understandably fear the professional consequences of leading such an investigation — for the same reason that I would be reluctant to conduct an investigation into one of Vox Media's top executives.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=How+Justice+Scalia+paved+the+way+for+Trump%27s+assault+on+the+rule+of+law&rft.date=2020-02-14&rft.aulast=Millhiser&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2020%2F2%2F14%2F21135083%2Fjustice-scalia-bill-barr-trump-unitary-executive-no-rule-of-law-morrison-olson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShugerman2020" class="citation web cs1">Shugerman, Jed Handelsman (July 6, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/imaginary-unitary-executive">"The Imaginary Unitary Executive"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lawfare" title="Lawfare">Lawfare</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lawfare&rft.atitle=The+Imaginary+Unitary+Executive&rft.date=2020-07-06&rft.aulast=Shugerman&rft.aufirst=Jed+Handelsman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawfaremedia.org%2Farticle%2Fimaginary-unitary-executive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorf2023" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Dorf" title="Michael C. Dorf">Dorf, Michael C.</a> (June 19, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://verdict.justia.com/2023/06/19/the-misguided-unitary-executive-theory-gains-ground">"Opinion: The Misguided Unitary Executive Theory Gains Ground"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Justia" title="Justia">Justia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 18,</span> 2024</span>. <q>Not only is the unitary executive theory writ large ahistorical...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Justia&rft.atitle=Opinion%3A+The+Misguided+Unitary+Executive+Theory+Gains+Ground&rft.date=2023-06-19&rft.aulast=Dorf&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fverdict.justia.com%2F2023%2F06%2F19%2Fthe-misguided-unitary-executive-theory-gains-ground&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berry-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berry_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerryGersen2008" class="citation journal cs1">Berry, Christopher & Gersen, Jacob (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807190941/http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=nwwps">"The Unbundled Executive"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Law_Review" title="University of Chicago Law Review">University of Chicago Law Review</a></i>. Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1113543">1113543</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?httpsredir=1&article=1349&context=public_law_and_legal_theory">the original</a> on August 7, 2011. <q>We certainly do not claim that the most sensible or even any plausible interpretation of the US Constitution establishes a plural unbundled executive; but perhaps it should</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Chicago+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Unbundled+Executive&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1113543%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Gersen%2C+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Fhttpsredir%3D1%26article%3D1349%26context%3Dpublic_law_and_legal_theory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.carolana.com/NC/Executive_Branch/nc_council_of_state.html">"North Carolina State Government - The Executive Branch - Council of State"</a>. <i>carolana.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=carolana.com&rft.atitle=North+Carolina+State+Government+-+The+Executive+Branch+-+Council+of+State&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.carolana.com%2FNC%2FExecutive_Branch%2Fnc_council_of_state.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkowronekDearbornKing2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Skowronek" title="Stephen Skowronek">Skowronek, Stephen</a>; Dearborn, John A. & <a href="/wiki/Desmond_King_(professor)" title="Desmond King (professor)">King, Desmond</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=068gEAAAQBAJ&q=phantoms+of+a+beleaguered+republic"><i>Phantoms of a Beleaguered Republic: The Deep State and the Unitary Executive</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-754308-5"><bdi>978-0-19-754308-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phantoms+of+a+Beleaguered+Republic%3A+The+Deep+State+and+the+Unitary+Executive&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-754308-5&rft.aulast=Skowronek&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Dearborn%2C+John+A.&rft.au=King%2C+Desmond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D068gEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dphantoms%2Bof%2Ba%2Bbeleaguered%2Brepublic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarilleauxKelley2010" class="citation book cs1">Barilleaux, Ryan J. & Kelley, Christopher S., eds. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Se-0yISldacC&dq=Barilleaux,+Ryan+J.+%26+Kelley,+Christopher+S.,+eds.+(2010).+The+Unitary+Executive+and+the+Modern+Presidency.+Texas+A%26M+University+Press.+Essays+by+presidential+scholars+on+the+origins,+history,+use,+and+future+of+the+unitary+executive+theory,+with+particular+attention+to+the+presidency+of+George+W.+Bush.&pg=PR7"><i>The Unitary Executive and the Modern Presidency</i></a>. Texas A&M University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60344-190-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60344-190-2"><bdi>978-1-60344-190-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unitary+Executive+and+the+Modern+Presidency&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60344-190-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSe-0yISldacC%26dq%3DBarilleaux%2C%2BRyan%2BJ.%2B%2526%2BKelley%2C%2BChristopher%2BS.%2C%2Beds.%2B%282010%29.%2BThe%2BUnitary%2BExecutive%2Band%2Bthe%2BModern%2BPresidency.%2BTexas%2BA%2526M%2BUniversity%2BPress.%2BEssays%2Bby%2Bpresidential%2Bscholars%2Bon%2Bthe%2Borigins%2C%2Bhistory%2C%2Buse%2C%2Band%2Bfuture%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bunitary%2Bexecutive%2Btheory%2C%2Bwith%2Bparticular%2Battention%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bpresidency%2Bof%2BGeorge%2BW.%2BBush.%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span> Essays by presidential scholars on the origins, history, use, and future of the unitary executive theory, with particular attention to the presidency of George W. Bush.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPercival2001" class="citation journal cs1">Percival, Robert V. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?51+Duke+L.+J.+963">"Presidential Management of the Administrative State: The Not-So-Unitary Executive"</a>. <i>Duke Law Journal</i>. <b>51</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">963–</span>1013. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1373182">10.2307/1373182</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1373182">1373182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Duke+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Presidential+Management+of+the+Administrative+State%3A+The+Not-So-Unitary+Executive&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E963-%3C%2Fspan%3E1013&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1373182&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1373182%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Percival&rft.aufirst=Robert+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.duke.edu%2Fshell%2Fcite.pl%3F51%2BDuke%2BL.%2BJ.%2B963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnitary+executive+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unitary_executive_theory&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculti.net/overseer-or-the-decider/">Overseer or "The Decider"? An American President In Administrative Law</a> by <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Strauss" title="Peter L. Strauss">Peter L. Strauss</a>, lecture on the history of the unitary executive theory</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States256" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States256" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lambert_(writer)" title="William Lambert (writer)">William Lambert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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