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<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> <HTML> <HEAD> <TITLE>Festus: Breviarium - translation</TITLE> <META content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" http-equiv=Content-Type> <META NAME="description" content="Festus: Breviarium, translated by Thomas M. Banchich and Jennifer A. Meka"> <META NAME="viewport" CONTENT="width=device-width"> <LINK REL="stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="../styles.css"> <LINK rel="shortcut icon" href="../favicon2.ico" /> </HEAD> <BODY CLASS="margins"> <A HREF="index.html"><IMG SRC="../back.jpg" ALT="back" ALIGN=RIGHT></A> <H1>Festus : Breviarium</H1>       of the accomplishments of the Roman people <A HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festus_%28historian%29">Festus</A> wrote this little compendium of Roman history in about 370 A.D., during the reign of the emperor Valens. The translation is by Thomas M. Banchich and Jennifer A. Meka (Canisius College Translated Texts, Number 2, 2001). It is already available on the <A HREF="http://www.roman-emperors.org/festus.htm">Roman Emperors website</A>, but has been copied here and re-formatted to make it simpler to link to the translation. See <A HREF="../info/translate_key.html">key to translations</A> for an explanation of the format of the translation. Click on the <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml"> L</A> symbols to go to the Latin text of each chapter ( based on the edition by <A HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml&doc.view=popup&ed-note=yes">J.W. Eadie</A> ). <HR> <A CLASS="ref" NAME="1">[1]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e170"> L</A>   Your Clemency {<A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/valens.html#1">Valens</A>} enjoined that a summary be made. To be sure, I, in whom the facility of broader discourse is lacking, shall comply happily with what has been enjoined. And, having followed the fashion of accountants, who express immense sums through fewer numbers, I shall indicate, not explicate, past events. Receive, therefore, what has been succinctly summed up in very concise sayings, so you may seem, most glorious <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A>, not so much to recite as to enumerate to yourself the years and duration of the state and the events of yore. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="2">[2]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e174"> L</A>   From the foundation of the city to the rise of Your Perpetuity, by which Rome has been allotted a very prosperous <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A> of brothers, are reckoned 1,117 years. Thus, under kings are reckoned 243 years {753-510 B.C.}; under consuls, 467 years {509-43 B.C.}; under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperatores</A>, 407 years {43 B.C. - 364 A.D.}. 2 For 243 years, kings, seven in number, reigned in Rome. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/romulus.html#1">Romulus</A> reigned 37 years; senators for five days and one year; <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/numa.html#1">Numa</A> Pompilius reigned 43 years; Tullus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hostilius.html#1">Hostilius</A> reigned 44 years; <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/ancus.html#1">Ancus</A> Marcius reigned 24 years; Priscus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tarquinius.html#1">Tarquinius</A> reigned 38 years; Servius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tullius.html#1">Tullius</A> reigned 44 years; Lucius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tarquinius.html#2">Tarquinius</A> Superbus was expelled in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. 3 From <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/brutus.html#1">Brutus</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/poplicola.html#1">Publicola</A> to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pansa.html#2">Pansa</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hirtius.html#1">Hirtius</A> there were 916 consuls, beyond those who were those chosen as replacements in the same year by some allotment, through four hundred and sixty-seven years. For nine years, consuls were lacking in Rome, thus: for two years Rome was under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decemviri#Decemviri_Legibus_Scribundis_Consulari_Imperio">decemvirs</A>, for three years under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tribune#Republican_period">military tribunes</A>, and for four years without magistrates. 4 From Octavianus Caesar <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/augustus.html#1">Augustus</A> to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/jovianus.html#1">Jovian</A>, there were <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperatores</A>, 43 in number, through 407 years. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="3">[3]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e178"> L</A>   Therefore, how much Rome has advanced under these three types of rule - that is, regnal, consular, and imperial - I shall briefly sketch. Under seven kings through 243 years, Roman <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A> did not advance beyond <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portus">Portus</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/ostia.html#1">Ostia</A>, within 18 miles from the gates of the city of Rome, seeing that she was as yet small and founded by shepherds, while neighboring cities were hemming her in. 2 At the same time, through 467 years under consuls, among whom there sometimes were <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator">dictators</A>, too, Italy was occupied as far as beyond the Po, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/africa.html#1">Africa</A> was subjugated, the Spains added, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gaul.html#1">Gaul</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/britain.html#1">Britain</A> made tributaries. As for <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/illyricum.html#1">Illyricum</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/istria.html#1">Histri</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/liburnia.html#1">Libyrni</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/dalmatia.html#1">Dalmatae</A> were mastered; it passed to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/achaea.html#2">Achaea</A>; <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/macedonia.html#1">Macedonians</A> were subjugated; with <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/dardani.html#1">Dardanians</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/moesia.html#1">Moesians</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/thrace.html#1">Thracians</A> it warred; and it reached all the way to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/danube.html#1">Danube</A>. 3 After <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/antiochus.html#3">Antiochus</A> had been expelled, Romans first set foot in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/asia.html#1">Asia</A>; when <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mithridates.html#6">Mithridates</A> had been conquered, his kingdom was occupied; <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#2">Armenia</A> Minor, which he likewise had held, was obtained by arms; a Roman army reached <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mesopotamia.html#1">Mesopotamia</A>; a treaty was initiated with the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/parthia.html#1">Parthians</A>; against <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gordyene.html#1">Carduenians</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/saracens.html#1">Saracens</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/arabia.html#2">Arabs</A> it warred; all of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/judaea.html#1">Judaea</A> was conquered; <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cilicia.html#1">Cilicia</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syria.html#1">Syria</A> came into the power of the Roman people. Egypt's kings became allies. 4 Moreover, under the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperatores</A>, through 407 years, while many <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">principes</A> were directing the diverse fortune of the state, the Maritime <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/alps.html#1">Alps</A>, Cottian, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/rhaetia.html#1">Raetian</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/noricum.html#1">Norican</A> Alps, the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pannonia.html#1">Pannonias</A>, and the Moesias accrued to the Roman world, and the entire bank of the Danube was reduced to provinces. All <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pontus.html#1">Pontus</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#1">Armenia</A> Major, all <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/oriens.html#1">Oriens</A></A>, with Mesopotamia, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/assyria.html#1">Assyria</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/arabia.html#1">Arabia</A>, and Egypt, passed under the jurisdiction of Roman <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A>. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="4">[4]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e182"> L</A>   Moreover, in what order the Roman state acquired individual provinces is described below. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/sicily.html#1">Sicily</A> was made first of the provinces. When <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hieron.html#2">Hieron</A>, King of the Sicilians, had been defeated, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/marcellus.html#4">Marcellus</A> obtained her. Then directed by <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetor">praetors</A>, she afterward was committed to <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeses">praesides</A>; now she is administered by consulars. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/metellus.html#9">Metellus</A> conquered <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/sardinia.html#1">Sardinia</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/corsica.html#1">Corsica</A>; he celebrated a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumph</A> over the Sardinians; the Sardinians have often rebelled. There had come to be a joint administration of these islands; afterward <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetor">praetors</A> held them; now they are ruled individually by <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeses">praesides</A>. 3 Roman arms were sent across to Africa for the defense of the Sicilians. Thrice Africa rebelled; in the end, after <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/carthage.html#1">Carthage</A> had been destroyed by <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/scipio.html#21">Scipio</A> Africanus, she was made a province; now she functions under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsuls</A>. 4 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/numidia.html#1">Numidia</A> used to be held by friendly kings, but war was declared against <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/jugurtha.html#1">Jugurtha</A> because of the murder of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/adherbal.html#3">Adherbal</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hiempsal.html#1">Hiempsal</A>, sons of King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/micipsa.html#1">Micipsa</A>; and after he had been worn down by the consul <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/metellus.html#14">Metellus</A> and captured by <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/marius.html#1">Marius</A>, Numidia came into the power of the Roman people. The <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mauretania.html#1">Mauretanias</A> were obtained from <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/bocchus.html#2">Bocchus</A>. But, with all Africa subjugated, King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/juba.html#1">Juba</A> was still holding the Moors - he who, after he had been conquered by <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/augustus.html#1">Augustus</A> Caesar in the course of the civil war, voluntarily committed suicide. 5 Thus did the Mauretanias begin to be ours and six provinces were made through all Africa; Africa itself, where Carthage is, is <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsular</A>, Numidia consular, <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzacena">Byzacium</A> consular, <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripolis_(region_of_Africa)">Tripolis</A> and the two Mauretanias - that is, Sitifensis and Caesariensis - are <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeses"><A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeses">praesidal</A></A>. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="5">[5]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e186"> L</A>   Through <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/scipio.html#12">Scipio</A> we first bore aid to Spaniards against the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/africa.html#1">Africans</A>. We obtained the rebelling <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/lusitania.html#1">Lusitanians</A> in Spain through Decimus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/brutus.html#15">Brutus</A> and we attained the sea from <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gades.html#1">Gades</A> to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/ocean.html#1">Ocean</A>. Afterward, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/sulla.html#5">Sylla</A>, having been dispatched against the Spaniards, who were in an uproar, conquered them. 2 The <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/celtiberia.html#1">Celtiberians</A> in Spain often rebelled, but, when <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/scipio.html#21">Scipio</A> the Younger had been dispatched, they were, with the destruction of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/numantia.html#1">Numantia</A>, subjugated. Nearly all Spain was brought under sway through <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/metellus.html#19">Metellus</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pompeius.html#22">Pompeius</A> on the occasion of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/sertorius.html#1">Sertorian</A> War; afterward, when his <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A> had been extended for five years, they were subdued by Pompeius. 3 Ultimately, too, the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cantabri.html#1">Cantabrians</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Asturias">Asturians</A>, who, relying on the mountains, were resisting, were destroyed by Octavianus Caesar Augustus. 4 And now through all Spain there are six provinces: <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis">Tarraconensis</A>, Carthaginensis, Lusitania, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gallaecia.html#1">Gallaecia</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/baetica.html#1">Baetica</A>, also across the strait in the soil of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/africa.html#2">African</A> land is a province of the Spains, which is named Tingimauritania. Of these, Baetica and Lusitania are consular, the others <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeses">praesidal</A>. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="6">[6]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e191"> L</A>   With the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gaul.html#2">Gauls</A> the Roman people had the gravest wars. For the Gauls also used to hold the part of Italy in which <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mediolanum.html#1">Mediolanum</A> now is as far as to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/rubicon.html#1">Rubicon</A> River, trusting in a number of men so great that in a war they assailed Rome herself, and, when the Roman armies had been destroyed, entered the walls of the city and besieged the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/capitol.html#1">Capitolium</A>, to the citadel of which 600 most noble senators had fled: it was these who ransomed themselves from the siege with 1000 pounds of gold. Afterward, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/camillus.html#1">Camillus</A>, who was in exile, with a multitude gathered from the fields, defeated the Gauls as they were returning with victory; the gold and standards which the Gauls had taken he brought back. 2 Many consuls, <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetor">praetors</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator">dictators</A> contended with the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gaul.html#1">Gauls</A> with varied result. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/marius.html#1">Marius</A> drove the Gauls from Italy; when the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/alps.html#1">Alps</A> had been crossed, he battled successfully against them. 3 C. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/caesar.html#18">Caesar</A>, with ten legions which had 3,000 Italian soldiers each, over nine years subjugated the Gauls from the Alps as far as to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/rhine.html#1">Rhine</A>, battled with barbarians settled beyond the Rhine, crossed to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/britain.html#1">Britain</A>, and, in the tenth year, made the Gauls and Britains tributaries. 4 There are in Gaul, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/aquitania.html#1">Aquitania</A>, and the Britains eighteen provinces: the Maritime Alps, the province of Viennensis, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/narbonensis.html#1">Narbonensis</A>, Novempopulana, two Aquitanias, the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graian_Alps">Graian</A> Alps, <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxentius">Maxima</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/sequani.html#1">Sequanorum</A>, two <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/germany.html#1">Germanies</A>, two Belgicas, two <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/lugdunensis.html#1">Lugdunenses</A>; in Britannia, <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxima_Caesariensis">Maxima</A> Caesariensis, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/f/flavia.html#1">Flavia</A> Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, and Britannia Secunda. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="7">[7]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e195"> L</A>   From the shore of the sea, we gradually moved on <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/illyricum.html#1">Illyricum</A>. The consul <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/laevinus.html#2">Laevinus</A>, having first entered the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/adriatic.html#1">Adriatic</A> and the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/ionian.html#1">Ionian</A> Sea, obtained the coastal cities. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/crete.html#1">Crete</A> was made a province by the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsul</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/metellus.html#23">Metellus</A>, who was called "Creticus." 2 When Greeks were seeking succor in our protection, we came to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/achaea.html#2">Achaea</A>. The Athenians sought our aid against <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/philippus.html#5">Philippus</A>, King of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/macedonia.html#1">Macedonians</A>. For a while Achaea was free under our good offices; finally, when ambassadors of the Romans had been done violence at <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/corinth.html#1">Corinth</A>, after Corinth had been captured by the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsul</A> Lucius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mummius.html#3">Mummius</A>, all Achaea was obtained. 3 The <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/epirus.html#1">Epirotes</A>, who once with <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pyrrhus.html#1">Pyrrhus</A> the king had even presumed to cross to Italy, and the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/thessaly.html#1">Thessalians</A>, when they had been conquered, were added together with our territories of Achaea and Macedon. 4 Macedonia thrice rebelled - under Philippus, under <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/perseus.html#2">Perseus</A>, under <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/andriscus.html#1">Pseudo-Philippus</A>. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/f/flamininus.html#4">Flamininus</A> defeated Philippus, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/paullus.html#4">Paulus</A> Perseus, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/metellus.html#5">Metellus</A> Pseudo-Philippus, by whose <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumphs</A> Macedonia was joined to the Roman people. 5 The <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/illyria.html#1">Illyrians</A>, who had borne aid to the Macedonians, we conquered on that same occasion through Lucius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gallus.html#4">Ancius</A>, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetor">praetor</A>, and we received them, with King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/genthius.html#1">Gentius</A>, in capitulation. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/curio.html#3">Curio</A>, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsul</A>, subjugated the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/dardani.html#1">Dardanians</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/moesia.html#1">Moesiacians</A> and was the first commander of Romans to penetrate all the way to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/danube.html#1">Danube</A>. 6 Under Julius Octavianus Caesar <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/augustus.html#1">Augustus</A>, a road was made through the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Alps">Julian</A> Alps; when all the Alpini had been conquered, the provinces of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/noricum.html#1">Norici</A> were added. After Batho, King of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pannonia.html#1">Pannonians</A>, had been subdued, the Pannonias came under our sway. After the Amantians between the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/save.html#1">Save</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/drave.html#1">Drave</A> had been laid low, the area adjoining the Save and environs of Pannonia Secunda were obtained. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="8">[8]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e202"> L</A>   The <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcomanni">Marcomanni</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadi">Quadi</A> were driven from the environs of <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia_Valeria">Valeria</A>, which are between the Danube and Drave, and a frontier between Romans and barbarians was established from <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsburg">Augusta</A> Vindelicum through Noricum, Pannonia, and Moesia. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/trajanus.html#1">Trajan</A> conquered the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/dacia.html#1">Dacians</A>, under King <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decebalus">Decibalus</A>, and made Dacia, across the Danube in the soil of barbary, a province which in circumference had 1,000 miles; but it was lost under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gallienus.html#1">Gallienus</A>, and, after Romans had been transferred from there by <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/aurelianus.html#1">Aurelian</A>, two Dacias were made in the regions of Moesia and Dardania. 3 Illyricus has 18 provinces: two of Noricas, two of Pannonias, Valeria, Savia, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/dalmatia.html#1">Dalmatia</A>, Moesia Superior, Dardania, two of Dacias, and in the Macedonic <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_diocese">diocese</A> are seven provinces: Macedonia, Thessaly, Achaea, two Epiruses, <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praevalitana">Praevalis</A>, and Crete. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="9">[9]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e209"> L</A>   It was run across to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/thrace.html#1">Thrace</A> on the occasion of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/macedonia.html#1">Macedonian</A> War. The Thracians were the most savage of all races. The <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/scordisci.html#1">Scordisci</A>, equally cruel and cunning, also used to dwell in the environs of Thrace. Many tales are told about the savagery of their divinatory rites, that to their own gods they sometimes made sacrifices of prisoners, that they were accustomed to drink human blood in skulls. 2 A Roman army was often destroyed by them. Marcus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/didius.html#1">Didius</A> checked the wandering Thracians, Marcus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/drusus.html#4">Drusus</A> confined them within their own borders, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/rufus.html#5">Minucius</A> annihilated them in the ice of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritsa">Hebrus</A> River. Through Appius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/claudius.html#34">Claudius</A>, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsul</A>, those who used to inhabit <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/rhodope.html#1">Rhodope</A> were conquered. Earlier a Roman fleet obtained the coastal cities of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/europe.html#1">Europe</A>. Through Thrace, Marcus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/lucullus.html#6">Lucullus</A> first clashed with the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/bessi.html#1">Bessi</A>. 3 The head of our race conquered Thrace herself. He subjugated the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/haemimontus.html#1">Haemimontani</A>, Eumolpiada - which is now called Philippopolis - , Uscudama - which presently is called <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hadrianopolis.html#1">Hadrianopolis</A> - he brought under our sway, he took <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cabyle.html#1">Cabyle</A>. He occupied cities situated above <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/euxine.html#1">Pontus</A>: <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/apollonia.html#4">Apollonia</A>, Calathum, Parthenopolis, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tomis.html#1">Tomi</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/istria.html#2">Hister</A>; reaching all the way to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/danube.html#1">Danube</A>, he displayed Roman arms to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/scythia.html#1">Scythians</A>. 4 Thus were the six provinces of Thrace added to the sway of our state: Thrace, Haemimontus, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/moesia.html#1">Moesia</A> Inferior, Scythia, Rhodope, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/europa.html#3">Europa</A>, in which now have been established the secondary defenses of the Roman world. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="10">[10]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e213"> L</A>   Now the Eastern parts and the entire <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/oriens.html#1">Oriens</A></A> and the provinces simply located in the vicinity, which have furnished authors for your scepters, I shall explicate, so that the interest of Your Clemency {<A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/valens.html#1">Valens</A>}, which you have in these same being preserved, may be more amply aroused. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/asia.html#1">Asia</A> became known to the Romans through the partnership of King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/attalus.html#1">Attalus</A>, and we took possession of it by the law of inheritance, when it had been bequeathed in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/attalus.html#3">Attalus</A>' will. Nevertheless, lest the Roman people should hold anything not obtained by strength, it was delivered by means of arms by us from <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/antiochus.html#3">Antiochus</A>, the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syria.html#1">Syrians</A>' greatest king. 3 On the same occasion, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/lydia.html#1">Lydia</A>, ancient seat of kings, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/caria.html#1">Caria</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hellespont.html#1">Hellespontus</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/phrygia.html#1">Phrygia</A> came under the power of the Roman people. 4 Having contended with <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/rhodes.html#1">Rhodes</A> and the peoples of the islands, at first extremely hostile, we afterward began to employ these same as most trustworthy assistants. Thus, at first, Rhodes and the islands were conducting affairs independently; afterward, when the Romans kindly invited them, they attained to the status of dependent and, under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/vespasianus.html#1">Vespasian</A>, the province of the Islands was created. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="11">[11]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e217"> L</A>   The <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsul</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/vatia.html#1">Servilius</A>, who had been dispatched to a pirate war, obtained <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pamphylia.html#1">Pamphylia</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/lycia.html#1">Lycia</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pisidia.html#1">Pisidia</A>. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/bithynia.html#1">Bithynia</A> we attained through the will of the late King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/nicomedes.html#4">Nicomedes</A>. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/galatia.html#1">Gallograecia</A> - that is Galatia (and indeed, as the name echoes, "Galatians" is from "<A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gaul.html#1">Gauls</A>") - we invaded because it had supplied aid to Antiochus against the Romans. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/vulso.html#8">Mummius</A>, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsul</A>, pursued the Galatians and, when some of them fled toward <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/olympus.html#2">Olympus</A>, some toward Mount Magaba (which now is called Modiacus), forced them from the heights to the plains, and, after they had been conquered, reduced them to perpetual peace. Afterward, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/deiotarus.html#1">Deiotarus</A> the tetrarch controlled Galatia with our permission. In the end, under Octavianus Caesar <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/augustus.html#1">Augustus</A>, Galatia was reduced to the status of a province and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/lollius.html#5">Lollius</A>, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/propraetor/">propraetor</A>, first administered her. 3 The <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cappadocia.html#1">Cappadocians</A> first sought our partnership under King Epafrax, and, afterward, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/ariobarzanes.html#1">Ariobarzanes</A>, King of Cappadocia, who had been expelled by <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mithridates.html#6">Mithridates</A>, was restored by Roman arms. The Cappadocians always were among our assistants and so nurtured the Roman majesty that Mazaca, the greatest city in Cappadocia, was named <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/caesareia.html#2">Caesarea</A> in honor of Caesar Augustus. Ultimately, under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/claudius.html#1">Claudius</A> Caesar, when <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/archelaus.html#10">Archelaus</A>, King of the Cappadocians, had come to Rome and, having been detained there a long while, gone to his rest, Cappadocia changed to the status of a province. 4 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pontus.html#1">Pontus</A>, after Mithridates, King of Pontus, had been conquered by <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pompeius.html#22">Pompeius</A>, received the form of a province. King Pylaemenes, a friend of the Roman people, controlled <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/paphlagonia.html#1">Paphlagonia</A>. Having often been driven thence from his kingdom, he was restored by us and, with his death, the legal status of a province was imposed on Paphlagonia. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="12">[12]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e222"> L</A>   In what manner Roman control spread beyond the heights of Mount <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/taurus.html#1">Taurus</A> will be demonstrated through a consecutive arrangement of locations rather than of times. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/antiochus.html#3">Antiochus</A>, the most powerful king of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syria.html#1">Syria</A>, waged a formidable war on the Roman people. He had 300,000 armed men, and also drew up a battle line of scythed chariots and elephants. After he had been conquered in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/asia.html#1">Asia</A> at <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/magnesia.html#2">Magnesia</A> by the consul <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/scipio.html#13">Scipio</A>, brother of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/scipio.html#12">Scipio</A> Africanus, when a peace had been agreed upon, he was allowed to reign beyond the Taurus. His sons retained the rule of Syria under the patronage of the Roman people. When these had died, we acquired the provinces of the Syrias. 3 Servilius, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(ancient_Rome)">proconsul</A>, having been dispatched to a bandit war, subjugated he <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cilicia.html#1">Cilicians</A> and the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/isauria.html#1">Isaurians</A>, who had allied themselves with pirates and seagoing marauders, and first established a road through Mount Taurus; and he celebrated a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumph</A> over the Cilicians and Isaurians and thus received the cognomen "Isauricus." <A CLASS="ref" NAME="13">[13]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e226"> L</A>   <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cyprus.html#1">Cyprus</A>, renowned for riches, seduced the poverty of the Roman people in order to be occupied. A federate king was ruling her, but so great was the poverty of Roman finances and so immense the report of the wealth of Cyprus that, after a law had been issued, Cyprus was ordered confiscated. When this announcement had been received, the Cyprian king took poison in order to forfeit his life before his riches. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cato.html#9">Cato</A> transported the Cyprian wealth to Rome by means of ships. Thus, more avariciously than justly, did we attain jurisdiction of the island. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cyrene.html#1">Cyrene</A>, together with the other cities of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/libya.html#1">Libya</A>'s Pentapolis, were obtained through the liberality of an older <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/ptolemy.html#8">Ptolemy</A>. We acquired Libya after the mastery of King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/ptolemy.html#36">Appion</A> had been suppressed. 3 All Egypt had been subject to friendly kings, but, when <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/cleopatra.html#7">Cleopatra</A>, together with <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/antonius.html#12">Antonius</A>, had been conquered, in the times of Octavianus Caesar <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/augustus.html#1">Augustus</A> she took the form of a province and first among the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/alexandria.html#1">Alexandrians</A> Cornelius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gallus.html#8">Gallus</A>, a Roman judge, took charge. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="14">[14]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e230"> L</A>   Through the confines of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#1">Armenia</A>, under Lucius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/lucullus.html#4">Lucullus</A>, Roman arms were first sent across the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/taurus.html#1">Taurus</A>. The <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylarch">phylarchs</A> of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/saracens.html#1">Saracens</A>, after they had been defeated, withdrew to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/osroene.html#1">Osrhoene</A>. In <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mesopotamia.html#1">Mesopotamia</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/nisibis.html#1">Nisibis</A> was captured by the same Lucullus. 2 Afterward, through <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pompeius.html#22">Pompeius</A>, these same locations were obtained by arms. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syria.html#1">Syria</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/phoenicia.html#1">Phoenicia</A> were received in a war with <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tigranes.html#1">Tigranes</A>, King of the Armenians. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/arabia.html#2">Arabs</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/judaea.html#1">Judaeans</A> were conquered in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/palestine.html#1">Palestine</A>. 3 In the end, under the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/trajanus.html#1">Trajan</A> the crown of the King of Armenia Major was offered, and through Trajan Armenia, Mesopotamia, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/assyria.html#1">Assyria</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/arabia.html#1">Arabia</A> were made provinces and an eastern frontier was established above the banks of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tigris.html#1">Tigris</A>. 4 But <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hadrianus.html#1">Hadrian</A>, who succeeded Trajan, envying Trajan's glory, returned Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria of his own volition and wanted the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/euphrates.html#1">Euphrates</A> to be a median between <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persians</A> and Romans. 5 But afterward, under the two Antonines, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/aurelius.html#1">Marcus</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/verus.html#1">Verus</A>, and under <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/severus.html#1">Severus</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pertinax.html#1">Pertinax</A>, and other Roman <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">principes</A> who battled against the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/parthia.html#1">Parthians</A> with varied result, Mesopotamia was four times lost and four times regained. 6 In the times of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/diocletianus.html#1">Diocletian</A>, after the Romans had been defeated in an initial encounter, when, however, King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/narses.html#1">Narses</A>, had been overcome in a second engagement and his wife and daughters had been captured and cared for with the utmost concern for their chastity, when peace had been made, Mesopotamia was restored and the frontier above the banks of the Tigris was reformed, so that we attained sway over five peoples settled beyond the Tigris. The terms of this treaty, having been preserved, endured to the time of the Divine <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/constantinus.html#1">Constantine</A>. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="15">[15]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e234"> L</A>   Now I know, Renowned <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A>, where your intent is heading. You assuredly seek to know how often the arms of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/babylonia.html#1">Babylonia</A> and Rome were joined and in what places spears contended with arrows. The outcomes of wars I shall briefly enumerate. In a few, you will discover the enemy, as a result of stealth, to have rejoiced; however, you will judge the Romans always to have been revealed victors as a result of genuine courage. 2 First, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mithridates.html#10">Arsaces</A>, King of the Parthians, after a delegation had been dispatched, asked and obtained from Lucius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/sulla.html#5">Sylla</A> the good offices of the Roman people. 3 Lucius Lucullus pursued to Armenia <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mithridates.html#6">Mithridates</A>, who had been deprived of the rule of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pontus.html#1">Pontus</A>. The same man, with 18,000 Romans, conquered Tigranes, the Armenians' king, with 7,000 armored horsemen and 2,000 archers. He subdued <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tigranocerta.html#1">Tigranocerta</A>, the greatest city of Armenia. He obtained Madaena, a rich region of Armenia, he descended through <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/melitene.html#1">Melitene</A> to Mesopotamia, and took Nisibis, along with the king's brother. After he had prepared to march against Persia, he accepted a successor. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="16">[16]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e238"> L</A>   Cn. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pompeius.html#22">Pompeius</A>, of proven good fortune, after he had been dispatched to a <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mithridatic.html#1">Mithridatic</A> War, having attacked Mithridates in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#2">Armenia</A> Minor, prevailed in a night battle and, when forty-two thousand of the enemy had been killed, he occupied his camp. Mithridates, with his wife and two companions, fled to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/bosporus.html#1">Bosphorus</A> and when, in desperation of his affairs, he drank poison, and when the poison's strength did not prove sufficient, he commanded that he be run through with a sword by one of his own soldiers. 2 Pompeius pursued <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tigranes.html#1">Tigranes</A>, King of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#1">Armenians</A>, Mithridates' supporter; the latter, after the crown had been offered, gave himself up near <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/artaxata.html#1">Artaxata</A>. By him were received <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mesopotamia.html#1">Mesopotamia</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syria.html#1">Syria</A>, and a considerable part of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/phoenicia.html#1">Phoenicia</A>; and he also was allowed to reign within Armenia Major. 3 Likewise, Pompeius imposed a king, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/aristarchus.html#6">Aristarchus</A>, on the Bosphorians and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/colchis.html#1">Colchians</A>; fought with the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/albania.html#1">Albani</A>; granted peace to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/oroeses.html#1">Orhodes</A>, King of the Albani, after he had thrice been defeated; received in surrender <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/iberia.html#1">Hiberia</A>, with King <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/artoces.html#1">Atrax</A>; and defeated <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/saracens.html#1">Saracens</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/arabia.html#2">Arabs</A>. After <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/judaea.html#1">Judaea</A> had been captured, he obtained Jerusalem and made a treaty with the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persians</A>. 4 Returning to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/antioch.html#1">Antioch</A>, he, delighted by the loveliness of the place and its abundance of waters, consecrated the grove belonging to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/daphne.html#2">Daphne</A>, with a wood added on. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="17">[17]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e242"> L</A>   Marcus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/crassus.html#17">Crassus</A>, a consul, was dispatched against rebelling <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/parthia.html#1">Parthians</A>. He, when he was asked for peace by a legation dispatched from Persia, said that he would respond at <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/ctesiphon.html#1">Ctesiphon</A>. He crossed the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/euphrates.html#1">Euphrates</A> at <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/z/zeugma.html#1">Zeugma</A>, and, having been guided by a deserter, a certain Mazzarus, descended into an remote wilderness of plains. 2 There the army was surrounded by formations of archers flying around them from all sides, with Silas and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/surenas.html#1">Surenas</A>, the King's prefects, and was overwhelmed by the impact of the missiles. Crassus himself - when, after he had been enticed to a parlay, he was nearly captured alive - had escaped while his <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tribune">tribunes</A> resisted, and, seeking flight, was killed. 3 His severed head, with his right hand, were borne to the king and then maintained for sport, so that molten gold might be poured into his throat: to wit, in order that he who, burning with lust for plunder, after he had been asked by the king to grant peace, had declined, flames of gold might consume his remains even after he perished. 4 Lucius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/longinus.html#11">Cassius</A>, Crassus' <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaestor">quaestor</A>, a vigorous man, gathered the remains of the scattered army. Against the Persians, who were rushing toward Syria, he thrice contended in most admirable fashion and, after they had been repelled across the Euphrates, he ravaged them. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="18">[18]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e247"> L</A>   The Parthians, with <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/l/labienus.html#2">Labienus</A>, who had been of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pompeius.html#22">Pompeian</A> faction and, having been defeated, had fled to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persia</A>, commander, rushed toward <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syria.html#1">Syria</A> and occupied the whole province. 2 On Mount Caper, P. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/ventidius.html#1">Ventidius</A> Bassus, with a few men, engaged the Parthians who had invaded Syria with Labenius in command, escaped, killed Labienus, and, pursuing the Persians, cast them into utter destruction. In this engagement, he killed <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/pacorus.html#1">Pacorus</A>, the king's son, on the same day on which Crassus had been defeated, lest the death of a Roman commander ever be left unavenged. 3 Ventidius first celebrated a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumph</A> over the Persians. M. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/antonius.html#12">Antonius</A>, having invaded <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/media.html#1">Media</A>, which now is called Madaena, waged war against the Parthians and defeated them in initial battles. Afterward, after two legions had been lost, when he was being overwhelmed with famine, pestilence, and tempests, he barely withdrew the army through <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#1">Armenia</A>, with the Persians in pursuit, shocked with so much terror as a result of how times had changed that he contemplated being run through by one of his own gladiators, lest he come alive in the enemies' power. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="19">[19]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e251"> L</A>   Under Octavianus <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/caesar.html#25">Caesar</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/augustus.html#1">Augustus</A>, Armenia conspired with <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/parthia.html#1">Parthia</A>. 2 Claudius Caesar, grandson of Augustus, when he been dispatched to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/oriens.html#1">Oriens</A></A> with an army, when he had settled everything for the benefit of the majesty of the Roman name, and the Armenians, who, with the Parthians, were then the stronger at the time, had surrendered themselves to him, Claudius Caesar appointed to the aforementioned peoples judges on the basis of Pompeius's settlement. 3 A certain Donnes, whom <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/phraates.html#5">Arsaces</A> had put in command of the Parthians, through an orchestrated treachery, offered a book in which treasures were contained, inscribed. While the Roman <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A> was reading very intently, having attacked with a knife, he wounded Claudius. The assassin was indeed killed by soldiers. Claudius, after he had returned to Syria, died from the wound. 4 The Persians, for satisfaction of such an outrage, having been granted an audience, then first gave hostages to Octavianus Caesar Augustus and returned the standards taken under <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/crassus.html#17">Crassus</A>. When the peoples of <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East">Oriens</A> had been pacified, Augustus Caesar also first received a legation of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/india.html#1">Indians</A>. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="20">[20]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e255"> L</A>   <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/nero.html#1">Nero</A>, the vilest <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A> the Roman state has endured, lost <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#1">Armenia</A>. Then two Roman legions, having been sent under the yoke by the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persians</A>, defiled with the utmost infamy the military oaths of the Roman army. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/trajanus.html#1">Trajan</A>, who, after <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/augustus.html#1">Augustus</A>, set in motion the muscle of the Roman state, regained Armenia from the Parthians, and, after the crown had been offered, abolished the kingdom of Armenia Major. He gave a king to the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/albania.html#1">Albani</A>; received <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/i/iberia.html#1">Hiberians</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/bosporus.html#1">Bosphorians</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/colchis.html#1">Colchians</A> into the protection of Roman sway; occupied localities of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/osroene.html#1">Osrhoenians</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/arabia.html#2">Arabs</A>; obtained the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gordyene.html#1">Carduenians</A> and Marcomedians; received and maintained Anthemusia - Persia's finest region - , <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/seleuceia.html#1">Seleucia</A>, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/ctesiphon.html#1">Ctesiphon</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/babylon.html#1">Babylon</A>; and, after <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/alexander.html#3">Alexander</A>, even reached the ends of India. He established a fleet in the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/r/red.html#1">Red</A> Sea. He made provinces Armenia, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/assyria.html#1">Assyria</A>, and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mesopotamia.html#1">Mesopotamia</A>, which, situated between the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tigris.html#1">Tigris</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/euphrates.html#1">Euphrates</A>, is made equal to Egypt in fecundity by the flooding rivers. 3 It is certain that <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/h/hadrianus.html#1">Hadrian</A> envied Trajan's glory. His successor in <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A>, after the armies had been recalled, he surrendered Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria on his own initiative and willed that the Euphrates be a median between Romans and Persians. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="21">[21]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e259"> L</A>   Two Antonines, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/aurelius.html#1">Marcus</A> and <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/verus.html#1">Verus</A>, that is, father-in-law and son-in-law, simultaneously Augusti, first held the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A> of the world with an equivalent power. But of them, Antoninus the Younger, having set out on a <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/parthia.html#1">Parthian</A> campaign, felicitously accomplished many and momentous things against the Persians. He took Seleucia, a city in Assyria, together with 40,000 of the enemy, and with immense glory he celebrated a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumph</A> over the Persians. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/severus.html#1">Severus</A>, by birth <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/africa.html#2">African</A>, was a most active <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A>. He quickly conquered the Parthians, annihilated the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/adiabene.html#1">Aziabeni</A>, gained control the Arabs of the interior, and made a province in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/arabia.html#1">Arabia</A>. Titles were obtained by this man for these victories: for he was given the titles "Aziabenicus," "Parthicus," and "Arabicus." 3 Antoninus, with the cognomen <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/caracalla.html#1">Caracalla</A>, son of <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A> Severus, preparing an expedition against the Persians, died a fitting death at Osrhoene, near <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/edessa.html#2">Edessa</A>, and was buried in the same spot. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="22">[22]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e263"> L</A>   Aurelius <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/severus.html#2">Alexander</A>, born as if by some destiny for the destruction of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persian</A> race, took the helm of the Roman <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A> while still a youth. He gloriously conquered Xerxes, noblest king of the Persians. He had <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/u/ulpianus.html#1">Ulpian</A>, the jurisconsult, as Master of the Secretariat. At Rome, he celebrated with remarkable pomp a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumph</A> over the Persians. 2 Under <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gordianus.html#3">Gordian</A>, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A> active through the assurance of youth, the rebelling Parthians were beaten in great battles. Returning from Persia a victor, he was killed by the treachery of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/philippus.html#30">Philippus</A>, who was his <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefect">praetorian prefect</A>. Twenty miles from Circensium the troops built for him a tumulus, which now exists, and they escorted his remains to Rome with the greatest deference of respect. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="23">[23]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e267"> L</A>   It is disgusting to report the fate of the unfortunate <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/v/valerianus.html#1">Valerian</A>. After the army had made Valerian <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A>, and the senate <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/gallienus.html#1">Gallienus</A>, Valerian, having contended against the Persians in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mesopotamia.html#1">Mesopotamia</A>, was defeated by <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_I">Sapor</A>, King of the Persians, and, having been captured, wasted away in shameful servitude. 2 Under Gallienus, when Mesopotamia had been invaded, the Persians would have begun to claim <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syria.html#1">Syria</A> for themselves, except that - it is shameful to relate - <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/odenathus.html#1">Odenathus</A>, a <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/palmyra.html#1">Palmyrene</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decurion_(administrative)">decurion</A>, by means of a conscripted force of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/syrian.html#1">Syrian</A> peasants, had resisted sharply and, after the Persians had several times been scattered, not only defended our border but also - what is astonishing to say - had, avenger of Roman <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A>, penetrated to <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/ctesiphon.html#1">Ctesiphon</A>. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="24">[24]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e272"> L</A>   <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia">Zenobia</A>, Odenathus' wife, added to the glory of <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/aurelianus.html#1">Aurelian</A>. For, after her husbandís death, she was holding the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A> of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/oriens.html#1">Oriens</A></A> by means of a feminine sway. Aurelian defeated her, relying on many thousands of armored horsemen and archers, at Immae, not far from <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/antioch.html#1">Antioch</A>, and led her captive before his chariot in a <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_triumph">triumph</A> at Rome. 2 <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">Imperator</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/carus.html#2">Carus</A>' victory over the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persians</A> seemed too mighty to the Celestial Divinity. For it must be believed to have led to the jealousy of heavenly indignation. For, after he had entered Persia, he devastated it as if no one opposed him and took Coche and Ctesiphon, the noblest cities of the Persians. While, victor over the entire race, he was occupying an encampment beyond the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tigris.html#1">Tigris</A>, he died, having been struck by a bolt of lightning. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="25">[25]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e276"> L</A>   Under <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/diocletianus.html#1">Diocletian</A>, there was observed a procession of victory over the Persians. <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/maximianus.html#1">Maximianus</A> Caesar, who had been repulsed in an initial engagement, when he had battled fiercely with a few men against a countless multitude, withdrew and was received with such great disdain by Diocletian that, garbed in purple, he ran several miles before his chariot. 2 And when he had with difficulty gained that, after his army had been revived from the frontier troops of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/d/dacia.html#1">Dacia</A>, he might seek a resolution on the battlefield, in <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/armenia.html#1">Armenia</A> Major, he himself, with two horsemen, reconnoitered against the enemy and, having fallen suddenly with twenty-five thousand soldiers upon the enemy encampments, after he had attacked countless formations of Persians, he utterly annihilated them. 3 The King of the Persians, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/narses.html#1">Narses</A>, fled; his wife and daughters were captured and kept with the utmost concern for their chastity. In admiration for this, the Persians admitted that the Romans were superior not only in arms but also in behavior. They returned <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mesopotamia.html#1">Mesopotamia</A>, along with the Transtigritanian regions. The peace made endured to the benefit of the state to our own memory. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="26">[26]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e280"> L</A>   In the final portion of his life, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/constantinus.html#1">Constantine</A>, master of affairs, prepared an expedition against <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persia</A>. For, more glorious since the races throughout the world had been pacified and the recent victory over the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/goths.html#1">Goths</A>, he was descending on Persia with all his formations. 2 During his approach, the court at <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/babylonia.html#1">Babylonia</A> was so frightened that a supplicant delegation of Persians hastened to him and promised that they would obey his commands, but, in return for the constant raids which they had attempted throughout <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/o/oriens.html#1">Oriens</A></A> under <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/constantius.html#2">Constantius</A> Caesar, did not gain a pardon. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="27">[27]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e284"> L</A>   Constantius fought against the Persians with uneven and more troublesome result. In addition to minor encounters of sentries on the border, an engagement to a harsher <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mars.html#1">Mars</A> was fought nine times, seven times through his commanders, he himself present twice. 2 To be sure, at the battles of Sisara, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/s/singara.html#1">Singara</A>, and Singara again with Constantius present, and of Sicgara and also <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/constantina.html#1">Constantina</A>, and, when <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/a/amida.html#1">Amida</A> was captured, the state received a serious wound while he was <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A>. Moreover, <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/nisibis.html#1">Nisibis</A> was thrice besieged by the Persians, but, while involved in the siege, the enemy incurred its own, greater loss. 3 Moreover, at Narasara, where <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/narses.html#1">Narses</A> was killed, we departed winners. Indeed, in a night battle at Eleia, near Singara, where Constantius was present, the outcome of all the campaigns would have been offset if the <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A> himself, in adverse locations and at night, had not been able, by addressing them, to recall the soldiers, who had been aroused to fury, from the inopportune timing of the battle. Nevertheless, unconquered in strength - an unforeseen reserve against a shortage of water - , when evening was now falling, after they had attacked the encampment of the Persians and, when the wall had been breached, occupied it, and, after the king had fled, when, recovering from battle, with torches held before them, they gazed with eagerness on the water that had been obtained, they were buried by a cloud of arrows, since they themselves thoughtlessly supplied flaming torches to direct the hits more accurately through the night toward themselves. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="28">[28]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e288"> L</A>   To <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A> <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/julianus.html#1">Julian</A>, of proven good fortune against external enemies, due measure against <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/persia.html#1">Persia</A> was lacking. For he, with immense provision, in as much as he was sovereign of the entire world, set hostile standards against the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/p/parthia.html#1">Parthians</A>, and sailed through the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/e/euphrates.html#1">Euphrates</A> a fleet furnished with supplies. Relentless in his advance, he either took control of many of the Persians' cities and bases which had surrendered or took them by force. 2 When he had made camp opposite <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/c/ctesiphon.html#1">Ctesiphon</A> on the banks of the confluence of the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/t/tigris.html#1">Tigris</A> and Euphrates and was holding daily competitions in order to reduce the enemy's attentiveness, in the middle of the night he rapidly transferred to the opposite bank soldiers who had been loaded on ships. These, distinguishing themselves through hardships which would have been difficult to surmount even in daylight and with no opposition, threw the Persians into confusion by means of unexpected fright and, when the units of the entire race had been turned about, the victorious soldiery would have entered the open gates of Ctesiphon, if the opportunity for plunder had not been greater than the concern for victory. 3 Having obtained such great glory, when he was warned by his staff concerning his return, he gave his own plan more credence and, after the ships had been burnt, when, having been led on a route toward Madenea by a deserter who had delivered himself for the purpose of deceiving him, he pursued shortcuts, again traversing a route along the right bank of the Tigris, with his soldiers' flank exposed, when he wandered too incautiously through the formations and when his own men's sight had been snatched away as a result dust that had been stirred up, he was wounded, pierced through the abdomen near the groin with a lance by a cavalryman of the enemy who had encountered him. Amidst an effusion of much blood, after he, though injured, had restored the ranks of his men, having said many things to his friends, he breathed out his lingering soul. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="29">[29]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e292"> L</A>   <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/j/jovianus.html#1">Jovian</A> received an army superior in battles but confused by the sudden death of the departed <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator">imperator</A>. When supplies were deficient and a very long road loomed ahead on the return, the Persians, by swift assaults now from the front, now from the rear, and also attacking the flanks of the middle, delayed the march of the formation. After several days had been consumed, so great was the reverence of the Roman name that a discussion about peace was held first by the Persians, and the army, weakened by famine, was allowed to be withdrawn, after - what had never happened before - conditions inimical to the Roman state had been imposed, with the result that <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/n/nisibis.html#1">Nisibis</A> and part of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/m/mesopotamia.html#1">Mesopotamia</A> was surrendered, things in which, unskilled in <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium">imperium</A>, Jovian, more desirous of rule than of glory, acquiesced. <A CLASS="ref" NAME="30">[30]</A> <A CLASS="Latin" HREF="http://digiliblt.lett.unipmn.it/xtf/view?docId=dlt000183/dlt000183.xml;chunk.id=d1585e297"> L</A>   How much, in turn, must your deeds, Invincible <A CLASS="help" HREF="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeps">princeps</A>, be broadcast with a lofty voice. I, though unequal to the task of speaking and rather burdened by age, shall ready myself for these matters. May the felicity now vouchsafed by God's command and granted by the friendly Divinity in which you trust and by which you are trusted endure, so that for you the palm of a peace of <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/b/babylonia.html#1">Babylonia</A>, too, may accrue to this momentous one concerning the <A CLASS="help" HREF="../names/g/goths.html#1">Goths</A>. <HR> Copyright (C) 2001, Thomas Banchich.   |   18.01.22    |   <A HREF="../info/comments.html">Any comments?</A> </BODY> </HTML>