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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Roman Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_leadership_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_leadership_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In leadership theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_leadership_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>British Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Праконсул – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Праконсул" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Проконсул – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Проконсул" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%B2nsol" title="Procònsol – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Procònsol" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsul" title="Prokonsul – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Prokonsul" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsul" title="Prokonsul – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Prokonsul" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ανθύπατος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανθύπατος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%B3nsul" title="Procónsul – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Procónsul" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsulo" title="Prokonsulo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Prokonsulo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokontsul" title="Prokontsul – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Prokontsul" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84_(%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85)" title="پروکنسول (روم) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پروکنسول (روم)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_(Rome_antique)" title="Proconsul (Rome antique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Proconsul (Rome antique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC" title="Պրոկոնսուլ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պրոկոնսուլ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsulo" title="Prokonsulo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Prokonsulo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsul" title="Prokonsul – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Prokonsul" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsole" title="Proconsole – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Proconsole" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="პროკონსული – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პროკონსული" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Проконсул – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Проконсул" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Proconsul" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsulas" title="Prokonsulas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Prokonsulas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Proconsul" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="პროკონსული – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პროკონსული" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Proconsul" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E3%83%AB" title="プロコンスル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プロコンスル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsul" title="Prokonsul – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Prokonsul" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsul" title="Prokonsul – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prokonsul" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proc%C3%B4nsul" title="Procônsul – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Procônsul" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Proconsul" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB" title="Проконсул – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Проконсул" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonzul_(starovek%C3%BD_R%C3%ADm)" title="Prokonzul (staroveký Rím) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Prokonzul (staroveký Rím)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonzul" title="Prokonzul – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prokonzul" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonzul" title="Prokonzul – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prokonzul" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsuli" title="Prokonsuli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Prokonsuli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokonsul" title="Prokonsul – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Prokonsul" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokons%C3%BCl" title="Prokonsül – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Prokonsül" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Проконсул Стародавнього Риму – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Проконсул Стародавнього Риму" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B5%84%E6%B7%B1%E6%89%A7%E6%94%BF%E5%AE%98" title="资深执政官 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="资深执政官" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="mw-redirect" title="Proconsul (ancient Rome)">Proconsul (ancient Rome)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Governor of a province in the Roman republic</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the primate genus, see <a href="/wiki/Proconsul_(mammal)" title="Proconsul (mammal)">Proconsul (mammal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Sulla_(Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek,_Copenhagen)_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bust_of_Sulla_%28Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen%29_2.jpg/220px-Bust_of_Sulla_%28Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen%29_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bust_of_Sulla_%28Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen%29_2.jpg/330px-Bust_of_Sulla_%28Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen%29_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bust_of_Sulla_%28Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen%29_2.jpg/440px-Bust_of_Sulla_%28Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen%29_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="723" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a>, one of Rome's greatest commanders, was a proconsul during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>. He was one of the few proconsuls who did not first serve as consul.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>proconsul</b> was an official of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> who acted on behalf of a <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a>. A proconsul was typically a former consul. The term is also used in recent history for officials with delegated authority. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, military command, or <i><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a></i>, could be exercised constitutionally only by a consul. Only two consuls served at a time, each elected to a one-year term. They could not normally serve two terms in a row; if a military campaign was in progress at the end of a consul's term, the consul in command might have his command <a href="/wiki/Prorogatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Prorogatio">prorogued</a>, allowing him to continue in command. This custom allowed for continuity of command despite the high turnover of consuls. In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, proconsul was a title held by a civil governor and did not imply military command. </p><p>In modern times, various officials with notable delegated authority have been referred to as proconsuls. Studies of leadership typically divide leaders into policymakers and subordinate administrators. The proconsul occupies a position between these two categories. Max Weber classified leadership as <a href="/wiki/Traditional_authority" title="Traditional authority">traditional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">rational-legal</a> (bureaucratic), and <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_authority" title="Charismatic authority">charismatic</a>. A proconsul could be both a rule-following bureaucrat and charismatic personality. The rise of bureaucracy and rapid communication has reduced the scope for proconsular freelancing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CILI(2)p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CILI%282%29p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg/220px-CILI%282%29p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CILI%282%29p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg/330px-CILI%282%29p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/CILI%282%29p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg/440px-CILI%282%29p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1107" data-file-height="1197" /></a><figcaption>A tablet of <i>Acta Triumphalia</i> is displayed in the Capitoline Museums in Rome. This fragment covers the consulship of <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Cornelius_Scipio_Asina" title="Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina">Asina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Duilius" title="Gaius Duilius">Duilius</a> (260 BC). Two proconsuls are mentioned, C.A. Quillius and M.A. Lucius.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Latin word <i>prōconsul</i> is a shortened form of <i>prō consule</i>, meaning "(one acting) on behalf of the consul."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears on inscriptions beginning in 135 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-pauly_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pauly-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient historians describe <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Publilius_Philo" title="Quintus Publilius Philo">Quintus Publilius Philo</a>, the first proconsul, as acting <i>prō consule</i> for 326 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glare_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glare-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For later proconsuls, the same sources use the shortened form.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Suetonius_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suetonius-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Glare_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glare-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roman Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A proconsul was endowed with full consular authority outside the city of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-pauly_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pauly-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> notes that this did not include the right to consult <a href="/wiki/Auguries" class="mw-redirect" title="Auguries">auguries</a>: "Our ancestors would not undertake any military enterprise without consulting the auspices; but now, for many years, our wars have been conducted by pro-consuls and propraetors, who do not have the right to take auspices."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The position was created to deal with a constitutional peculiarity of the Roman Republic. Only a consul could command an army, but the high turnover of consuls could disrupt continuity of command. If a consul's term ended in the midst of a campaign, he could be <a href="/wiki/Prorogatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Prorogatio">prorogued</a> and continue to command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Publilius_Philo" title="Quintus Publilius Philo">Quintus Publilius Philo</a> was one of two consuls for the year 327 BC. When his term expired at the end of the year, his army was in the midst of besieging the city of Neapolis (modern <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>). Rather than risk a change of command at such a delicate moment, the people voted that he should "conduct the campaign in place of a consul (<i>prō consule</i>)" after his term expired. Publilius thus became the first proconsul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a23_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="adr"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of ancient Rome">Politics of ancient Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/150px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/225px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/300px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></a></span></th></tr><tr><th style="border-bottom: #aaa 1px solid"></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></b><br />753–509 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></b><br />509–27 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></b><br />27 BC – AD 395</li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a><br />27 BC – AD 284</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a><br />AD 284–641</li></ul> </div> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire"><b>Western</b></a><br />AD 395–476</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire"><b>Eastern</b></a><br />AD 395–1453</li></ul> </div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></b></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Sullan republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">Augustan reforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Political institutions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Ordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Extraordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrector" title="Corrector">Corrector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Public law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">Ius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum" title="Senatus consultum">Senatus consultum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quaestio_perpetua" title="Quaestio perpetua">Quaestio perpetua</a></i></li></ul> </div> <i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">Senatus consultum ultimum</a></i></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Titles and honours</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">Praeses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvir_monetalis" title="Triumvir monetalis">Triumvir monetalis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid"> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template talk:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>With territorial expansion beyond Italy and the annexation of territories as Roman provinces, the proconsul became one of two types of Roman provincial governors. The other was the <a href="/wiki/Propraetor" class="mw-redirect" title="Propraetor">propraetor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In theory, proconsuls held delegated authority and acted on behalf of the consuls. In practice, a proconsulship was often treated as an extension of a consul's term. This extension applied only outside the city walls of Rome. It was an extension of the military command of the consul, but not of his public office.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the number of <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> was increased, there was a need to increase the number of military commanders. The office of the <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> was introduced in 366 BC. The praetors were the chief justices of the city. They were also given <i>imperium</i> so that they could also command an army.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Samnite_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Samnite War">Second Samnite War</a>, Rome increased the number of her legions. The position of propraetor was instituted. These were praetors whose <i>imperium</i> was extended and were given the task to command a reserve army. Propraetors had the power to command one army, whereas proconsuls had the power to command two armies.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (November 2021)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Proconsul#Dubious" title="Talk:Proconsul">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 307 BC, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Rullianus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus">Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus</a>, who was consul the previous year, was elected as proconsul to conduct the campaign in <a href="/wiki/Samnium" title="Samnium">Samnium</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Third_Samnite_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Samnite War">Third Samnite War</a> (298–290 BC) the consuls of the previous year, Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus and <a href="/wiki/Publius_Decius_Mus_(consul_312_BC)" title="Publius Decius Mus (consul 312 BC)">Publius Decius Mus</a>, were given a six-month extension of their authority to carry on the war in Samnium. In 291 BC <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Gurges_(consul_292_BC)" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges (consul 292 BC)">Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges</a> had his command extended and to carry out mop up operations towards the end of the war. He defeated the <a href="/wiki/Pentri" title="Pentri">Pentri</a>, the largest <a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnite</a> tribe.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were two republican proconsuls who did not previously hold the position of consul. During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> (218–201 BC) <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a> volunteered to lead the second Roman expedition against the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a> in Spain. He was too young to have been a consul. He was made proconsul by a vote of the Popular Assembly. When Scipio left Spain after his victory in 205 BC, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Lentulus_(consul_199_BC)" title="Lucius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 199 BC)">Lucius Cornelius Lentulus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Manlius_Acidinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Manlius Acidinus">Lucius Manlius Acidinus</a> were sent as commanders without public office (<i>sine magistratus</i>). This was done because Manlius Acidinus had not been a consul before.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Rome acquired territory, the need for provincial governors grew. The province of <a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicily</a> was created in 241 BC, while Corsica and Sardinia was created in 238 BC. In 227 BC, two praetors were assigned the administration of these two provinces. Two more praetors were added when the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Citerior" title="Hispania Citerior">Hispania Citerior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hispania_Ulterior" title="Hispania Ulterior">Hispania Ulterior</a> were created in 197 BC. After this, no praetors were added even when the number of provinces increased. It became customary to extend the authority of consuls and the praetors at the end of their annual terms. The provinces were assigned by lot to proconsuls and propraetors. The proconsuls were assigned the provinces which contained the larger number of troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy418_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy418-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Lex_Sempronia_Agraria" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Sempronia Agraria">Lex Sempronia</a>, enacted in 123 BC, the senate determined the allocation of the provinces before the next consular elections.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 81 BC, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Sulla</a> added two praetors so that the two proconsuls and six propraetors could be assigned to govern the ten provinces Rome ruled at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy418_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy418-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sulla made the governorships annual and required the holder to leave the province within thirty days after the arrival of his successor.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 67 BC, <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> <a href="/wiki/Lex_Gabinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Gabinia">received</a> extraordinary powers and an unprecedented multiyear proconsulship to deal with the problem of piracy. The "<a href="/wiki/First_triumvirate" class="mw-redirect" title="First triumvirate">first triumvirate</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, Pompey and <a href="/wiki/Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus">Crassus</a> also received multiyear proconsulships in 59 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a44_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a44-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a> was also granted this power in 38 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Weigel,_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weigel,-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the Republic, consuls and proconsuls had raised and commanded armies loyal to themselves. <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, Rome's first emperor, replaced these essentially private armies with a standing imperial army. The consuls and proconsuls lost their military authority, but the titles retained considerable prestige.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a24,_45_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a24,_45-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The provinces were divided between <a href="/wiki/Imperial_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial provinces">imperial provinces</a>, which were under the jurisdiction of the emperor, and <a href="/wiki/Senatorial_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Senatorial provinces">senatorial provinces</a>, which were under the jurisdiction of the senate. The imperial provinces were mostly the border provinces, where most of the legions were stationed. This allowed the emperor to retain control of the army. In the senatorial provinces, the governors were called proconsuls. Tenure was generally restricted to one year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a46_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a46-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The more important provinces, which could not with ease or safety be entrusted to the government of annual magistrates, [Augustus] reserved for his own administration: the rest he distributed by lot amongst the proconsuls; but sometimes he made exchanges, and frequently visited most of both kinds in person.<sup id="cite_ref-Suetonius_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suetonius-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Augustus decreed that the governors of the senatorial provinces would receive the title proconsul, regardless of whether they had served as praetor or consul. These were chosen by lot, with the result ratified by the Senate. In the imperial provinces, the emperors appointed governors who held the title of <i><a href="/wiki/Legatus_Augusti_pro_praetore" title="Legatus Augusti pro praetore">legatus Augusti pro praetore</a></i>, or pro-praetor, regardless of what position they had held previously.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a46_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a46-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A passage in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> notes that cases might be judged by a proconsul: "If therefore Demetrius and the artisans with him have a complaint against anyone, the courts are open, and there are proconsuls; let them bring charges there against one another."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a></i>, an early fifth-century imperial chancery document, mentions three proconsuls but no propraetors. These outranked vicars in precedence, though administratively they were subordinates like all governors. They governed the provinces of: Asia, comprising the central part of the western <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolian</a> coast; <a href="/wiki/Achaea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea (Roman province)">Achaea</a>, comprising the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a> and most of <a href="/wiki/Central_Greece_(geographic_region)" title="Central Greece (geographic region)">Central Greece</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Africa</a>, the northern part of modern <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_leadership_theory">In leadership theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In leadership theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although "proconsul" is an official title only with respect to <a href="/wiki/Magistrates_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Magistrates of ancient Rome">magistrates of ancient Rome</a>, the word has also been applied to various British, U.S., and French officials. In the modern context, it is rarely a compliment. The terms <i><a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a></i> (from Persian) and <i><a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">viceroy</a></i> (from French) are both used in a similar way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the gulf between ancient and modern proconsuls, writer Carnes Lord has proposed a single definition to allow the phenomenon to be analyzed in the context of leadership theory: "delegated political-military leadership that rises in the best case to statesmanship."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> historian John Benyon defines a proconsul as a leader with "semi-independent and extraordinary capacity to shape the periphery" of an empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a15_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern writing on leadership tends to stress the distinction between "administration" on the one hand and "policy" on the other. This emphasis can be traced to an essay by <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> written in the late 19th century. In earlier epochs, it was common for leaders to combine the two roles. Since this is no longer the case, specific terminology is required to describe such officials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his classic study, <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> distinguished among three modes of legitimate governance: traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic. In the form of bureaucracy, the rational-legal mode is dominant in the modern world. But a modern proconsul may also resort to aristocratic, or charismatic, leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, a proconsul was typically a former consul and thus an experienced commander-in-chief. Having held the Republic's highest office, he was a statesman as well as an administrator. Rome's <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician class</a> was prepared to exercise aristocratic leadership, both civil and military. </p><p>Several factors are said to limit the scope of proconsular authority in modern times. Democracies put the military under civilian authority and tend to avoid policymaking by military leaders. Modern government emphasizes bureaucracy and rulemaking, while the Romans were aristocratic. Finally, modern communications allows for greater central control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although transoceanic telegraph lines were laid by the mid-19th century, Lord describes the late 19th century as the heyday of British proconsular authority. <a href="/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon</a> in India, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard,_1st_Baron_Lugard" title="Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard">Frederick Lugard</a> in Nigeria, <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Rhodes" title="Cecil Rhodes">Cecil Rhodes</a> in South Africa, and <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Baring,_1st_Earl_of_Cromer" title="Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer">Lord Cromer</a> in Egypt all took imperial initiatives that London approved only reluctantly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a14_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a14-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As ruler of Japan and Korea after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, U.S. General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> consciously modeled himself on a Roman aristocrat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role of U.S. General <a href="/wiki/David_Petraeus" title="David Petraeus">David Petraeus</a> and others in Iraq suggests a continued need for proconsular leadership, according to Lord.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a21_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a21-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern technology makes communication easier than ever. But as email and Power Point presentations proliferate, clarity and intellectual discipline is lost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord20124–6_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord20124–6-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another factor is that civilian policymakers, whether on the spot or in the metropole, may lack the skills needed to manage military forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a21_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a21-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet proconsuls are at best an <i>ad hoc</i> solution to a reoccurring problem. Managing a large territory in occupation or conflict requires a range of skills and the ability to deal with various organizations. No one is trained as a proconsul and the available administrators have experience in at most one relevant agency or service. During the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, the U.S. attempted to deal with this issue by creating an integrated civilian-military command structure called Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support (CORDS).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a236_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a236-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_Empire">British Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: British Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>British colonial officials sometimes referred to as proconsuls include <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Milner" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Milner">Alfred Milner</a> in South Africa, <a href="/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard,_1st_Baron_Lugard" title="Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard">Lord Lugard</a> in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kitchener,_1st_Earl_Kitchener" title="Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener">Lord Kitchener</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Sudan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These leaders were able to take imperial initiatives even when the government in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> was reluctant. <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative and Unionist</a> governments were notably more tolerant of such freelancing than <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a> governments were. These proconsuls ruled in the age of the transoceanic telegraph, so rapid communication did not end proconsular independence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a14_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a14-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various American commanders and ambassadors have been referred to as proconsuls. Writer Carnes Lord discusses the following figures in the framework of proconsular authority: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> in <a href="/wiki/Insular_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" title="Insular Government of the Philippine Islands">the Philippines</a> (1900–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Wood" title="Leonard Wood">Leonard Wood</a> in <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a> in <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> in <a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_Korea" title="First Republic of Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lansdale" title="Edward Lansdale">Edward Lansdale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creighton_Abrams" title="Creighton Abrams">Creighton Abrams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Bunker" title="Ellsworth Bunker">Ellsworth Bunker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Colby" title="William Colby">William Colby</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Clark" title="Wesley Clark">Wesley Clark</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a> in 1994–99</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bremer" title="Paul Bremer">Paul Bremer</a> in <a href="/wiki/Coalition_Provisional_Authority" title="Coalition Provisional Authority">Iraq</a> in 2003<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Petraeus" title="David Petraeus">David Petraeus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> in 2004–08 and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> in 2010–11<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012avii,_21,_67,_133_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012avii,_21,_67,_133-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Prorogatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Prorogatio">Prorogatio</a></i>, the legal process of extending a Roman command</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notitia_dignitatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Notitia dignitatum">Notitia dignitatum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambassadors_and_envoys_from_Russia_to_Poland_(1763%E2%80%931794)" title="Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)">Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a2_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_proconsul" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=proconsul">"proconsul"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=proconsul&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dproconsul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pauly-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pauly_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pauly_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/proconsul-e1009260#e1009270">"Proconsul"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Brill%27s_New_Pauly" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill's New Pauly">Brill's New Pauly</a></i>. October 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brill%27s+New+Pauly&rft.atitle=Proconsul&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fbrill-s-new-pauly%2Fproconsul-e1009260%23e1009270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Acta Triumphalia</i> (CIL I.p.45), Livy (4–41.10; 8.23.12), and Suetonius (<i>Jul.</i> 51.4)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glare-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Glare_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Glare_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlare1982" class="citation book cs1">Glare, P. G. W. (1982). "consul, 1c". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OJgaAQAAMAAJ"><i>Oxford Latin Dictionary</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958031-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958031-6"><bdi>978-0-19-958031-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=consul%2C+1c&rft.btitle=Oxford+Latin+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958031-6&rft.aulast=Glare&rft.aufirst=P.+G.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOJgaAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Acta Triumphalia</i> 24, CIL I.p.48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy, 10.16.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Suetonius-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Suetonius_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Suetonius_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Suetonius Tranquillus, <i>Divus Augustus</i>, 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cic. Div. 2,76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a23–24_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a23-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a23_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Livy-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy, <i>The History of Rome</i>, 8.22–23, 9.42, 410.16.1–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionysius of Halicarnassus, <i>Roman antiquities,</i> 17/18.4.5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson1986" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, J. S. (1986). <i>Hispaniae: Spain and the development of Roman Imperialism, 218–82 BC</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hispaniae%3A+Spain+and+the+development+of+Roman+Imperialism%2C+218%E2%80%9382+BC&rft.pages=64-71&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Livy418-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Livy418_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy418_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy, <i>The History of Rome</i>, 41.8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>de provinciis consularibus oratio</i>, 2, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>pro Balbo</i> 27, 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>Letters to Friends</i>, 3.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a44-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a44_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weigel,-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weigel,_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weigel, <i>Lepidus: The Tarnished Triumvir</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a24,_45-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a24,_45_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. 24, 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a46-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a46_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a46_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i>, 53.13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2019:38&version=nrsv">Acts 19:38</a>, NRSV.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairly, William, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjETH6V8lJYC">Notitia Dignitatum, Or, Register of Dignitaries</a></i>, Department of history of the University of Pennsylvania, 1899: Achaea, p. 4; Africa, p. 36; Asia, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-viceroy" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=viceroy">"viceroy"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=viceroy&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dviceroy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord2012" class="citation web cs1">Lord, Carnes (September 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Proconsuls-Delegated-Political-Military-Leadership-from-Rome-to-America-Today.php">"On Proconsular Leadership"</a>. <i>The Montréal Review</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Montr%C3%A9al+Review&rft.atitle=On+Proconsular+Leadership&rft.date=2012-09&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Carnes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FProconsuls-Delegated-Political-Military-Leadership-from-Rome-to-America-Today.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a15-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a15_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3–4_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a3-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a3_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a14-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a14_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a14_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a21-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a21_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a21_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord20124–6-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord20124–6_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012">Lord 2012</a>, pp. 4–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012a236-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012a236_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Knight, Alan (1999). "Britain and Latin America". In Porter, Andrew (ed.). <i>The Oxford history of the British Empire</i>. Vol. 3, The nineteenth century. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Britain+and+Latin+America&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+history+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Dyer, Gwynne (2007). <i>After Iraq</i>. New York: St Martin's Press. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Iraq&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Gwynne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELord2012avii,_21,_67,_133-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELord2012avii,_21,_67,_133_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLord2012a">Lord 2012a</a>, pp. vii, 21, 67, 133.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proconsul&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord2012a" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Carnes (2012a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1107009618"><i>Proconsuls: Delegated Political-Military Leadership from Rome to America Today</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25469-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25469-4"><bdi>978-0-521-25469-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proconsuls%3A+Delegated+Political-Military+Leadership+from+Rome+to+America+Today&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25469-4&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Carnes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D1107009618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProconsul" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid 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