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id="toc-Macroscopic_view_of_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specific_volume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_volume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Specific volume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_volume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Density</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microscopic_view_of_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microscopic_view_of_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Microscopic view of gases</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Microscopic_view_of_gases-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Microscopic view of gases subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Microscopic_view_of_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kinetic_theory_of_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinetic_theory_of_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Kinetic theory of gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinetic_theory_of_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermal_motion_and_statistical_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_motion_and_statistical_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Thermal motion and statistical mechanics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_motion_and_statistical_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brownian_motion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brownian_motion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Brownian motion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brownian_motion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermolecular_forces_-_the_primary_difference_between_Real_and_Ideal_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermolecular_forces_-_the_primary_difference_between_Real_and_Ideal_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Intermolecular forces - the primary difference between <i>Real</i> and <i>Ideal</i> gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermolecular_forces_-_the_primary_difference_between_Real_and_Ideal_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematical_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Mathematical models</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mathematical_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mathematical models subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mathematical_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ideal_and_perfect_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ideal_and_perfect_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Ideal and perfect gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ideal_and_perfect_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Real_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Real_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Real gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Real_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permanent_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permanent_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Permanent gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permanent_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Historical research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historical research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Boyle's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boyle's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Boyle's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boyle's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Charles's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gay-Lussac's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gay-Lussac's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Gay-Lussac's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gay-Lussac's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avogadro's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avogadro's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Avogadro's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avogadro's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dalton's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dalton's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Dalton's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dalton's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Special topics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Special_topics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Special topics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Special_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compressibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compressibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Compressibility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compressibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boundary_layer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boundary_layer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Boundary layer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boundary_layer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turbulence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turbulence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Turbulence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turbulence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viscosity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viscosity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Viscosity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viscosity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reynolds_number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reynolds_number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Reynolds number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reynolds_number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maximum_entropy_principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maximum_entropy_principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Maximum entropy principle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maximum_entropy_principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermodynamic_equilibrium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermodynamic_equilibrium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Thermodynamic equilibrium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermodynamic_equilibrium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gas</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 156 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-156" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">156 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B8" title="गैस – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="गैस" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyft" title="Lyft – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Lyft" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="غاز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غاز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%A6" title="Կազ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Կազ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9B" title="গেছ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="গেছ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B8" title="गैस – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="गैस" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pytundyry" title="Pytundyry – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Pytundyry" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaz" title="Qaz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qaz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="قاز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قاز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5" title="গ্যাসীয় পদার্থ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গ্যাসীয় পদার্থ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%AC-th%C3%A9" title="Khì-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khì-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B8" title="गैस – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="गैस" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plin" title="Plin – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Plin" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Хии – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хии" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_(kimika)" title="Gas (kimika) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Gas (kimika)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plyn" title="Plyn – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Plyn" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasi" title="Gasi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Gasi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nwy" title="Nwy – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Nwy" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DD%A3%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="ݣاز – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ݣاز" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaas" title="Gaas – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Gaas" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Αέριο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αέριο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%8F" title="Лекся – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Лекся" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaso" title="Gaso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gaso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="گاز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گاز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1s" title="Gás – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gás" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81" title="વાયુ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="વાયુ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-th%C3%AD" title="Hi-thí – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hi-thí" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EC%B2%B4" title="기체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%A6" title="Գազ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գազ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B8" title="गैस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गैस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plin" title="Plin – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Plin" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaso" title="Gaso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Gaso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/UHowo" title="UHowo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="UHowo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%96" title="גז – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גז" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2" title="ಅನಿಲ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅನಿಲ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="აირი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აირი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesi" title="Gesi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Gesi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%81ze" title="Gāze – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gāze" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dujos" title="Dujos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dujos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaas" title="Gaas – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Gaas" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/gapci" title="gapci – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="gapci" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1z" title="Gáz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gáz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Гас – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Гас" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etona" title="Etona – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Etona" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="വാതകം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വാതകം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82" title="वायू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वायू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="აირი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აირი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="غاز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="غاز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9-t%C4%81%CC%A4" title="Ké-tā̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ké-tā̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Хий – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хий" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B7" title="အငွေ့ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အငွေ့" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasi" title="Kasi – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Kasi" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_(aggregatietoestand)" title="Gas (aggregatietoestand) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gas (aggregatietoestand)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="ग्यास – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ग्यास" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81" title="वायु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="वायु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%97%E4%BD%93" title="気体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="気体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ggas" title="Ggas – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Ggas" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gass" title="Gass – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gass" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gass" title="Gass – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gass" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gase" title="Gase – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Gase" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaazii" title="Gaazii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Gaazii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazlar" title="Gazlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gazlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%82" title="ਫੂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="گیس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="گیس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AB%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="ګاز – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ګاز" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gias" title="Gias – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Gias" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1s" title="Gás – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gás" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaro" title="Zaro – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Zaro" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wapsi" title="Wapsi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Wapsi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Гаас – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Гаас" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="گیس – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="گیس" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazi" title="Gazi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gazi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94" title="වායු – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වායු" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%8A%D8%B3" title="گيس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="گيس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plyn" title="Plyn – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Plyn" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plin" title="Plin – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Plin" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goz" title="Goz – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Goz" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawo" title="Hawo – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Hawo" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B2" title="گاز – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گاز" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Гас – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гас" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaasu" title="Kaasu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kaasu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="வளிமம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வளிமம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urrig" title="Urrig – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Urrig" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81_(%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82)" title="వాయువు (భౌతిక శాస్త్రం) – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వాయువు (భౌతిక శాస్త్రం)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%8A%E0%B8%AA" title="แก๊ส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แก๊ส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Хей – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Хей" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Газ – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Газ" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="گیس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گیس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas" title="Gas – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Gas" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Gaz" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%A5t_kh%C3%AD" title="Chất khí – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chất khí" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A5z" title="Gåz – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Gåz" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a 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							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Gas">reviewed</a> on <i>26 March 2025</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">State of matter</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the state of matter. For liquified petroleum gas used as an automotive fuel, see <a href="/wiki/Autogas" title="Autogas">autogas</a>. For gasoline ("gas"), see <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>. For the uses of gases, and other meanings, see <a href="/wiki/Gas_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Gas (disambiguation)">Gas (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Purplesmoke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Purplesmoke.jpg/220px-Purplesmoke.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Purplesmoke.jpg/330px-Purplesmoke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Purplesmoke.jpg/440px-Purplesmoke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Drifting <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a> particles <a href="/wiki/Environmental_indicator" title="Environmental indicator">indicate</a> the movement of the surrounding gas.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Gas</b> is one of the four fundamental <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">states of matter</a>. The others are <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A pure gas may be made up of individual <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a> (e.g. a <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a> like <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>), <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elemental</a> molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>), or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compound</a> molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>). A gas <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a>, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes gases from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a>. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. </p><p>The gaseous state of matter occurs between the liquid and plasma states,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the latter of which provides the upper-temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are gaining increasing attention.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-density atomic gases super-cooled to very low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either <a href="/wiki/Bose_gas" title="Bose gas">Bose gases</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gases</a>. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter" title="List of states of matter">list of states of matter</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elemental_gases">Elemental gases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Elemental gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The only <a href="/wiki/Chemical_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical elements">chemical elements</a> that are stable <a href="/wiki/Diatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomic">diatomic</a> <a href="/wiki/Homonuclear" class="mw-redirect" title="Homonuclear">homonuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecular</a> gases at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">STP</a> are <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (H<sub>2</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> (N<sub>2</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O<sub>2</sub>), and two <a href="/wiki/Halogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Halogens">halogens</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> (F<sub>2</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> (Cl<sub>2</sub>). When grouped with the <a href="/wiki/Monatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monatomic">monatomic</a> <a href="/wiki/Noble_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble gases">noble gases</a> – <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> (He), <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a> (Ne), <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a> (Ar), <a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">krypton</a> (Kr), <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a> (Xe), and <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> (Rn) – these gases are referred to as "elemental gases". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>gas</i> was first used by the early 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Flemish_people" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a> chemist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He identified <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, the first known gas other than air.<sup id="cite_ref-ley196606_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ley196606-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">χάος</span></span> <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text"><a href="/wiki/Chaos_(cosmogony)#Greco-Roman_tradition" title="Chaos (cosmogony)">chaos</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> – the <i>g</i> in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> being pronounced like <i>ch</i> in "<a href="/wiki/Loch" title="Loch">loch</a>" (voiceless velar fricative, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/x/: 'ch' in 'loch'">x</span></span>/</a></span></span>) – in which case Van Helmont simply was following the established <a href="/wiki/Alchemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemical">alchemical</a> usage first attested in the works of <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a>. According to Paracelsus's terminology, <i>chaos</i> meant something like <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">ultra-rarefied water</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-et_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-et-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An alternative story is that Van Helmont's term was derived from "<i>gahst</i> (or <i>geist</i>), which signifies a ghost or spirit".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That story is given no credence by the editors of the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the French-American historian <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Jacques Barzun</a> speculated that Van Helmont had borrowed the word from the German <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Gäscht</i></span>, meaning the froth resulting from <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_characteristics">Physical characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Physical characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because most gases are difficult to observe directly, they are described through the use of four <a href="/wiki/Physical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical properties">physical properties</a> or <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_scale" title="Macroscopic scale">macroscopic</a> characteristics: <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volume_(thermodynamics)" title="Volume (thermodynamics)">volume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_of_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Number of particles">number of particles</a> (chemists group them by <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">moles</a>) and temperature. These four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Jacques Charles</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gay-Lussac" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Gay-Lussac">Joseph Gay-Lussac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see <a href="#Ideal_and_perfect_gas">§ Ideal and perfect gas</a> section below). </p><p>Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and consequently, have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermolecular forces">intermolecular forces</a> result from electrostatic interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another; gases that contain permanently charged <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a> are known as <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a>. Gaseous compounds with <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polar covalent</a> bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although the compound's net charge remains neutral. Transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a> of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">Van der Waals forces</a>. The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A comparison of <i>boiling points</i> for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compared to the other states of matter, gases have low <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a> and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume. This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as <i>compressibility</i>. This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following <a href="/wiki/List_of_refractive_indices" title="List of refractive indices">list of refractive indices</a>. Finally, gas particles spread apart or <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffuse</a> in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any container. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Macroscopic_view_of_gases">Macroscopic view of gases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Macroscopic view of gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gas_kinetics" title="Gas kinetics">Gas kinetics</a></div> <p>When observing gas, it is typical to specify a frame of reference or <a href="/wiki/Length_scale" title="Length scale">length scale</a>. A larger length scale corresponds to a <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> or global point of view of the gas. This region (referred to as a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces the "average" behavior (i.e. velocity, temperature or pressure) of all the gas particles within the region. In contrast, a smaller length scale corresponds to a <a href="/wiki/Microscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic">microscopic</a> or particle point of view. </p><p>Macroscopically, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). For example, Robert Boyle studied <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_chemistry" title="Pneumatic chemistry">pneumatic chemistry</a> for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related the <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment used a J-tube <a href="/wiki/Manometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Manometer">manometer</a> which looks like a <a href="/wiki/Test_tube" title="Test tube">test tube</a> in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an <a href="/wiki/Inert_gas" title="Inert gas">inert</a> gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, thereby making the number of particles and the temperature constant. He observed that when the pressure was increased in the gas, by adding more mercury to the column, the trapped gas' volume decreased (this is known as an <a href="/wiki/Inverse_proportion" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse proportion">inverse</a> relationship). Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation, the <a href="/wiki/Product_(mathematics)" title="Product (mathematics)">product</a> was constant. This relationship held for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CFD_Shuttle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CFD_Shuttle.jpg/250px-CFD_Shuttle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CFD_Shuttle.jpg/330px-CFD_Shuttle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CFD_Shuttle.jpg/500px-CFD_Shuttle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase</figcaption></figure> <p>There are many mathematical tools available for analyzing gas properties. Boyle's lab equipment allowed the use of just a simple calculation to obtain his analytical results. His results were possible because he was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations where they behaved in an "ideal" manner. These ideal relationships apply to safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on the materials in use. However, the high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal" manner. As gases are subjected to extreme conditions, tools to interpret them become more complex, from the <a href="/wiki/Euler_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler equations">Euler equations</a> for inviscid flow to the <a href="/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations" title="Navier–Stokes equations">Navier–Stokes equations</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that fully account for viscous effects. This advanced math, including statistics and <a href="/wiki/Multivariable_calculus" title="Multivariable calculus">multivariable calculus</a>, adapted to the conditions of the gas system in question, makes it possible to solve such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. An example is the analysis of the space shuttle reentry pictured to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are appropriate. In this flight situation, the gas is no longer behaving ideally. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pressure">Pressure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a></div> <p>The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is <b>"p"</b> or <b>"P"</b> with SI units of <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascals</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg/220px-Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg/330px-Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg/440px-Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="218" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing particles' movement as lines.</figcaption></figure> <p>When describing a container of gas, the term <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> (or absolute pressure) refers to the average force per unit area that the gas exerts on the surface of the container. Within this volume, it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they collide with the container (see diagram at top). The force imparted by a gas particle into the container during this collision is the change in <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> of the particle.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a collision only the <a href="/wiki/Normal_(geometry)" title="Normal (geometry)">normal</a> component of velocity changes. A particle traveling parallel to the wall does not change its momentum. Therefore, the average force on a surface must be the average change in <a href="/wiki/Linear_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear momentum">linear momentum</a> from all of these gas particle collisions. </p><p>Pressure is the sum of all the <a href="/wiki/Normal_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal component">normal components</a> of force exerted by the particles impacting the walls of the container divided by the surface area of the wall. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Nitrogen.ogv/230px--Nitrogen.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="230" height="173" data-durationhint="15" data-mwtitle="Nitrogen.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Nitrogen.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f4/Nitrogen.ogv/Nitrogen.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Nitrogen.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f4/Nitrogen.ogv/Nitrogen.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f4/Nitrogen.ogv/Nitrogen.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Air balloon shrinks after submersion in liquid nitrogen</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></div><p> The symbol used to represent <i>temperature</i> in equations is <i>T</i> with SI units of <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a>. </p><p>The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its <a href="/wiki/Absolute_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute temperature">absolute temperature</a>. The volume of the balloon in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition of extremely cold nitrogen. The temperature of any <a href="/wiki/Physical_system" title="Physical system">physical system</a> is related to the motions of the particles (molecules and atoms) which make up the [gas] system.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a molecule (also known as the thermal energy). The methods of storing this energy are dictated by the <a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)" title="Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)">degrees of freedom</a> of the molecule itself (<a href="/wiki/Energy_level#Molecules" title="Energy level">energy modes</a>). Thermal (kinetic) energy added to a gas or liquid (an <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a> process) produces translational, rotational, and vibrational motion. In contrast, a solid can only increase its internal energy by exciting additional vibrational modes, as the crystal lattice structure prevents both translational and rotational motion. These heated gas molecules have a greater speed range (wider distribution of speeds) with a higher average or <i>mean</i> speed. The variance of this distribution is due to the speeds of individual particles constantly varying, due to repeated collisions with other particles. The speed range can be described by the <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a>. Use of this distribution implies <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">ideal gases</a> near <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a> for the system of particles being considered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specific_volume">Specific volume</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Specific volume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Specific_volume" title="Specific volume">Specific volume</a></div> <p>The symbol used to represent specific volume in equations is <b>"v"</b> with SI units of cubic meters per kilogram. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Volume_(thermodynamics)" title="Volume (thermodynamics)">Volume (thermodynamics)</a></div> <p>The symbol used to represent volume in equations is <b>"V"</b> with SI units of cubic meters. </p><p>When performing a <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic">thermodynamic</a> analysis, it is typical to speak of <a href="/wiki/Intensive_and_extensive_properties" title="Intensive and extensive properties">intensive and extensive properties</a>. Properties which depend on the amount of gas (either by mass or volume) are called <i>extensive</i> properties, while properties that do not depend on the amount of gas are called intensive properties. Specific volume is an example of an intensive property because it is the ratio of volume occupied by a <i>unit of mass</i> of a gas that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1000 atoms a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are <a href="/wiki/Incompressible" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompressible">incompressible</a> compared to gases. However, volume itself --- not specific --- is an extensive property. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Density">Density</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Density"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a></div> <p>The symbol used to represent density in equations is <b>ρ</b> (rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term is the <a href="/wiki/Multiplicative_inverse" title="Multiplicative inverse">reciprocal</a> of specific volume. </p><p>Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is normally characterized by density. Density is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance, or the inverse of specific volume. For gases, the density can vary over a wide range because the particles are free to move closer together when constrained by pressure or volume. This variation of density is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Compressibility" title="Compressibility">compressibility</a>. Like pressure and temperature, density is a <a href="/wiki/State_variable" title="State variable">state variable</a> of a gas and the change in density during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. For a <a href="/wiki/Fluid_statics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid statics">static gas</a>, the density is the same throughout the entire container. Density is therefore a <a href="/wiki/Scalar_(physics)" title="Scalar (physics)">scalar quantity</a>. It can be shown by kinetic theory that the density is inversely proportional to the size of the container in which a fixed mass of gas is confined. In this case of a fixed mass, the density decreases as the volume increases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microscopic_view_of_gases">Microscopic view of gases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Microscopic view of gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_particle_movement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Gas_particle_movement.svg/250px-Gas_particle_movement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="184" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Gas_particle_movement.svg/276px-Gas_particle_movement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Gas_particle_movement.svg/368px-Gas_particle_movement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption> Gas-phase particles (<a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>) move around freely in the absence of an applied <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>If one could observe a gas under a powerful microscope, one would see a collection of particles without any definite shape or volume that are in more or less random motion. These gas particles only change direction when they collide with another particle or with the sides of the container. This <a href="/wiki/Microscopic_scale" title="Microscopic scale">microscopic</a> view of gas is well-described by <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, but it can be described by many different theories. The <i>kinetic theory of gases</i>, which makes the assumption that these collisions are perfectly <a href="/wiki/Elastic_collision" title="Elastic collision">elastic</a>, does not account for intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinetic_theory_of_gases">Kinetic theory of gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kinetic theory of gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">Kinetic theory of gases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a></div> <p><b>Kinetic theory</b> provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. Starting with the definitions of <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one can use the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_law_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation law (physics)">conservation of momentum</a> and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macroscopic system properties of temperature and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule. The theory provides averaged values for these two properties. </p><p>The <i>kinetic theory of gases</i> can help explain how the system (the collection of gas particles being considered) responds to changes in temperature, with a corresponding change in <i>kinetic energy</i>. </p><p>For example: Imagine you have a sealed container of a fixed-size (a <i>constant</i> volume), containing a fixed-number of gas particles; starting from <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a> (the theoretical temperature at which atoms or molecules have no thermal energy, i.e. are not moving or vibrating), you begin to add energy to the system by heating the container, so that energy transfers to the particles inside. Once their <a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">internal energy</a> is above <a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">zero-point energy</a>, meaning their <i>kinetic</i> energy (also known as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy"><i>thermal</i> energy</a>) is non-zero, the gas particles will begin to move around the container. As the box is further heated (as more energy is added), the individual particles increase their average speed as the system's total internal energy increases. The higher average-speed of all the particles leads to a greater <a href="/wiki/Rate_(mathematics)" title="Rate (mathematics)">rate</a> at which <a href="/wiki/Collision" title="Collision">collisions</a> happen (i.e. greater number of collisions per unit of time), between particles and the container, as well as between the particles themselves. </p><p>The <i>macro</i>scopic, measurable quantity of <i>pressure,</i> is the direct result of these <i>micro</i>scopic particle collisions with the surface, over which, individual molecules exert a small force, each contributing to the total force applied within a specific area. (<i>Read <a href="#Pressure">§ Pressure</a>.</i>) </p><p>Likewise, the macroscopically measurable quantity of <i>temperature</i>, is a quantification of the overall amount of <i>motion, or kinetic energy</i> that the particles exhibit. (<i>Read <a href="#Temperature">§ Temperature</a>.</i>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thermal_motion_and_statistical_mechanics">Thermal motion and statistical mechanics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Thermal motion and statistical mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>kinetic theory of gases</i>, kinetic energy is assumed to purely consist of linear translations according to a <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">speed distribution</a> of <i>particles</i> in the system. However, in <i><b>real gases</b></i> and other real substances, the motions which define the kinetic energy of a system (which collectively determine the temperature), are much more complex than simple linear <a href="/wiki/Translation_(geometry)" title="Translation (geometry)">translation</a> due to the more complex structure of molecules, compared to single atoms which act similarly to <a href="/wiki/Point_particle" title="Point particle">point-masses</a>. In real thermodynamic systems, quantum phenomena play a large role in determining thermal motions. The random, thermal motions (kinetic energy) in molecules is a combination of a finite set of possible motions including translation, rotation, and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_vibration" title="Molecular vibration">vibration</a>. This finite range of possible motions, along with the finite set of molecules in the system, leads to a finite number of <i><a href="/wiki/Microstate_(statistical_mechanics)" title="Microstate (statistical mechanics)">microstates</a></i> within the system; we call the set of all microstates an <i><a href="/wiki/Statistical_ensemble_(mathematical_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical ensemble (mathematical physics)">ensemble</a>.</i> Specific to atomic or molecular systems, we could potentially have three different kinds of ensemble, depending on the situation: <a href="/wiki/Microcanonical_ensemble" title="Microcanonical ensemble">microcanonical ensemble</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canonical_ensemble" title="Canonical ensemble">canonical ensemble</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Grand_canonical_ensemble" title="Grand canonical ensemble">grand canonical ensemble</a>. Specific combinations of microstates within an ensemble are how we truly define <i>macrostate</i> of the system (temperature, pressure, energy, etc.). In order to do that, we must first count all microstates though use of a <i><a href="/wiki/Partition_function_(statistical_mechanics)" title="Partition function (statistical mechanics)">partition function</a>.</i> The use of statistical mechanics and the partition function is an important tool throughout all of physical chemistry, because it is the key to connection between the microscopic states of a system and the macroscopic variables which we can measure, such as temperature, pressure, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy, just to name a few. (<i>Read</i>: <a href="/wiki/Partition_function_(statistical_mechanics)#Meaning_and_significance" title="Partition function (statistical mechanics)">Partition function Meaning and significance</a>) </p><p> Using the partition function to find the energy of a molecule, or system of molecules, can sometimes be approximated by the <a href="/wiki/Equipartition_theorem" title="Equipartition theorem">Equipartition theorem</a>, which greatly-simplifies calculation. However, this method assumes all molecular <a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)" title="Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)">degrees of freedom</a> are equally populated, and therefore equally utilized for storing energy within the molecule. It would imply that internal energy changes linearly with temperature, which is not the case. This ignores the fact that <a href="/wiki/Molar_heat_capacity" title="Molar heat capacity">heat capacity</a> changes with temperature, due to certain degrees of freedom being unreachable (a.k.a. "frozen out") at lower temperatures. As internal energy of molecules increases, so does the ability to store energy within additional degrees of freedom. As more degrees of freedom become available to hold energy, this causes the molar heat capacity of the substance to increase.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diffusion_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Diffusion_animation.gif/220px-Diffusion_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Diffusion_animation.gif/330px-Diffusion_animation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Diffusion_animation.gif 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="344" /></a><figcaption>Random motion of gas particles results in <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brownian_motion">Brownian motion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Brownian motion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brownian_motion" title="Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a></div><p>Brownian motion is the mathematical model used to describe the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid. The gas particle animation, using pink and green particles, illustrates how this behavior results in the spreading out of gases (<a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>). These events are also described by <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particle theory</a>. </p><p>Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions about how they move, but their motion is different from Brownian motion because Brownian motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas molecules, punctuated by violent collisions of an individual (or several) gas molecule(s) with the particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course, yet not so jagged as would be expected if an individual gas molecule were examined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intermolecular_forces_-_the_primary_difference_between_Real_and_Ideal_gases">Intermolecular forces - the primary difference between <i>Real</i> and <i>Ideal</i> gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Intermolecular forces - the primary difference between Real and Ideal gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals force</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">Intermolecular force</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lennard-Jones_potential" title="Lennard-Jones potential">Lennard-Jones potential</a></div> <p>Forces between two or more molecules or atoms, either attractive or repulsive, are called <i>intermolecular forces</i>. Intermolecular forces are experienced by molecules when they are within physical proximity of one another.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These forces are very important for properly modeling molecular systems, as to accurately predict the microscopic behavior of molecules in <i>any</i> system, and therefore, are necessary for accurately predicting the physical properties of gases (and liquids) across wide variations in physical conditions. </p><p>Arising from the study of <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a>, one of the most prominent intermolecular forces throughout physics, are <i><a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals forces</a></i>. Van der Waals forces play a key role in determining nearly all <a href="/wiki/Physical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical properties">physical properties</a> of fluids such as <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_flow_rate" title="Mass flow rate">flow rate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gas_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas dynamics">gas dynamics</a> (see physical characteristics section). The van der Waals interactions between gas molecules, is the reason why modeling a "real gas" is more mathematically difficult than an "<i>ideal</i> gas". Ignoring these proximity-dependent forces allows a <a href="/wiki/Real_gas" title="Real gas">real gas</a> to be treated like an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">ideal gas</a>, which greatly simplifies calculation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png/400px-Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png/600px-Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png/800px-Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Isothermal curves depicting the non-ideality of a <i>real gas.</i> The changes in volume (depicted by Z, <a href="/wiki/Compressibility_factor" title="Compressibility factor">compressibility factor</a>) which occur as the pressure is varied. The compressibility factor Z, is equal to the ratio Z = PV/nRT. An ideal gas, with compressibility factor Z = 1, is described by the horizontal line where the y-axis is equal to 1. Non-ideality can be described as the deviation of a gas above or below Z = 1.</figcaption></figure> <p>The intermolecular attractions and repulsions between two gas molecules depend on the distance between them. The combined attractions and repulsions are well-modelled by the <a href="/wiki/Lennard-Jones_potential" title="Lennard-Jones potential">Lennard-Jones potential</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is one of the most extensively studied of all <a href="/wiki/Interatomic_potential" title="Interatomic potential">interatomic potentials</a> describing the <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> of molecular systems. Due to the general applicability and importance, the Lennard-Jones model system is often referred to as 'Lennard-Jonesium'.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Lennard-Jones potential between molecules can be broken down into two separate components: a long-distance attraction due to the <a href="/wiki/London_dispersion_force" title="London dispersion force">London dispersion force</a>, and a short-range repulsion due to electron-electron <a href="/wiki/Exchange_interaction" title="Exchange interaction">exchange interaction</a> (which is related to the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>). </p><p>When two molecules are relatively distant (meaning they have a high <i>potential</i> energy), they experience a weak attracting force, causing them to move toward each other, lowering their potential energy. However, if the molecules are <i>too far</i> away, then they would not experience attractive force of any significance. Additionally, if the molecules get <i>too close</i> then they will collide, and experience a <i>very high</i> repulsive force (modelled by <a href="/wiki/Hard_spheres" title="Hard spheres">Hard spheres</a>) which is a <i>much stronger force</i> than the attractions, so that any attraction due to proximity is disregarded. </p><p>As two molecules approach each other, from a distance that is <i>neither</i> too-far, <i>nor</i> too-close, their attraction increases as the magnitude of their potential energy increases (becoming more negative), and lowers their total internal energy.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attraction causing the molecules to get closer, can only happen if the molecules remain in proximity for the duration of time it takes to physically <i>move</i> closer. Therefore, the attractive forces are strongest when the molecules move at <i>low speeds</i>. This means that the attraction between molecules is <i>significant</i> when gas temperatures is <i>low</i>. However, if you were to isothermally compress this cold gas into a small volume, <i>forcing</i> the molecules into close proximity, and raising the pressure, the repulsions will begin to dominate over the attractions, as the rate at which collisions are happening will increase significantly. Therefore, at low temperatures, and low pressures, <i>attraction</i> is the dominant intermolecular interaction. </p><p>If two molecules are moving at high speeds, in arbitrary directions, along non-intersecting paths, then they will not spend enough time in proximity to be affected by the attractive London-dispersion force. If the two molecules collide, they are moving too fast and their kinetic energy will be much greater than any attractive potential energy, so they will only experience repulsion upon colliding. Thus, attractions between molecules can be neglected at <i>high temperatures</i> due to high speeds. At high temperatures, and high pressures, <i>repulsion</i> is the dominant intermolecular interaction. </p><p>Accounting for the above stated effects which cause these attractions and repulsions, <b>real gases</b>, delineate from the <i>ideal gas</i> model by the following generalization:<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>At low temperatures, and low pressures, the volume occupied by a real gas, is <i>less than</i> the volume predicted by the ideal gas law.</li> <li>At high temperatures, and high pressures, the volume occupied by a real gas, is <i>greater than</i> the volume predicted by the ideal gas law.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematical_models">Mathematical models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mathematical models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">Equation of state</a></div> <p>An <i>equation of state</i> (for gases) is a mathematical model used to roughly describe or predict the state properties of a gas. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all gases under all conditions. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases in specific temperature and pressure ranges. The "gas models" that are most widely discussed are "perfect gas", "ideal gas" and "real gas". Each of these models has its own set of assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ideal_and_perfect_gas">Ideal and perfect gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ideal and perfect gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perfect_gas" title="Perfect gas">Perfect gas</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">equation of state</a> for an ideal or perfect gas is the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_law" title="Ideal gas law">ideal gas law</a> and reads </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PV=nRT,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PV=nRT,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f59f6195da1eadbfc33124aa89dd3fc8d9eefe1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.073ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PV=nRT,}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>P</i> is the pressure, <i>V</i> is the volume, <i>n</i> is amount of gas (in mol units), <i>R</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Universal_gas_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal gas constant">universal gas constant</a>, 8.314 J/(mol K), and <i>T</i> is the temperature. Written this way, it is sometimes called the "chemist's version", since it emphasizes the number of molecules <i>n</i>. It can also be written as </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle P=\rho R_{s}T,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>T</mi> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P=\rho R_{s}T,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a1f36ea7ddd5e588e3d7745bd479f96478ff7ca" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.096ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P=\rho R_{s}T,}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{s}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{s}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/19598a1629ee9016913aae8f0d3215dc4a030e9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.767ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{s}}" /></span> is the specific gas constant for a particular gas, in units J/(kg K), and ρ = m/V is density. This notation is the "gas dynamicist's" version, which is more practical in modeling of gas flows involving acceleration without chemical reactions. </p><p>The ideal gas law does not make an assumption about the <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a> of a gas. In the most general case, the specific heat is a function of both temperature and pressure. If the pressure-dependence is neglected (and possibly the temperature-dependence as well) in a particular application, sometimes the gas is said to be a <a href="/wiki/Perfect_gas" title="Perfect gas">perfect gas</a>, although the exact assumptions may vary depending on the author and/or field of science. </p><p>For an ideal gas, the ideal gas law applies without restrictions on the specific heat. An ideal gas is a simplified "real gas" with the assumption that the <a href="/wiki/Compressibility_factor" title="Compressibility factor">compressibility factor</a> <i>Z</i> is set to 1 meaning that this pneumatic ratio remains constant. A compressibility factor of one also requires the four state variables to follow the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_law" title="Ideal gas law">ideal gas law</a>. </p><p>This approximation is more suitable for applications in engineering although simpler models can be used to produce a "ball-park" range as to where the real solution should lie. An example where the "ideal gas approximation" would be suitable would be inside a <a href="/wiki/Combustor" title="Combustor">combustion chamber</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may also be useful to keep the elementary reactions and chemical dissociations for calculating <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">emissions</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Real_gas">Real gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Real gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MountRedoubtEruption.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MountRedoubtEruption.jpg/220px-MountRedoubtEruption.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MountRedoubtEruption.jpg/330px-MountRedoubtEruption.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MountRedoubtEruption.jpg/440px-MountRedoubtEruption.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>21 April 1990 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Redoubt" title="Mount Redoubt">Mount Redoubt</a>, Alaska, illustrating real gases not in thermodynamic equilibrium.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Real_gas" title="Real gas">Real gas</a></div> <p>Each one of the assumptions listed below adds to the complexity of the problem's solution. As the density of a gas increases with rising pressure, the intermolecular forces play a more substantial role in gas behavior which results in the ideal gas law no longer providing "reasonable" results. At the upper end of the engine temperature ranges (e.g. combustor sections – 1300 K), the complex fuel particles absorb internal energy by means of rotations and vibrations that cause their specific heats to vary from those of diatomic molecules and noble gases. At more than double that temperature, electronic excitation and dissociation of the gas particles begins to occur causing the pressure to adjust to a greater number of particles (transition from gas to <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, all of the thermodynamic processes were presumed to describe uniform gases whose velocities varied according to a fixed distribution. Using a non-equilibrium situation implies the flow field must be characterized in some manner to enable a solution. One of the first attempts to expand the boundaries of the ideal gas law was to include coverage for different <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_process" title="Thermodynamic process">thermodynamic processes</a> by adjusting the equation to read <i>pV<sup>n</sup> = constant</i> and then varying the <i>n</i> through different values such as the <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity_ratio" title="Heat capacity ratio">specific heat ratio</a>, <i>γ</i>. </p><p>Real gas effects include those adjustments made to account for a greater range of gas behavior: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compressibility_factor" title="Compressibility factor">Compressibility effects</a> (<i>Z</i> allowed to vary from 1.0)</li> <li>Variable <a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacity</a> (specific heats vary with temperature)</li> <li>Van der Waals forces (related to compressibility, can substitute other equations of state)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics" title="Non-equilibrium thermodynamics">Non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects</a></li> <li>Issues with molecular <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elementary_reaction" title="Elementary reaction">elementary reactions</a> with variable composition.</li></ul> <p>For most applications, such a detailed analysis is excessive. Examples where real gas effects would have a significant impact would be on the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_reentry" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric reentry">re-entry</a> where extremely high temperatures and pressures were present or the gases produced during geological events as in the image of the 1990 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Redoubt" title="Mount Redoubt">Mount Redoubt</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Permanent_gas">Permanent gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Permanent gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Permanent gas is a term used for a gas which has a critical temperature below the range of normal human-habitable temperatures and therefore cannot be liquefied by pressure within this range. Historically such gases were thought to be impossible to liquefy and would therefore permanently remain in the gaseous state. The term is relevant to ambient temperature storage and transport of gases at high pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Reference_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Reference-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_research">Historical research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Historical research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gas_laws" title="Gas laws">Gas laws</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fluid_and_continuum_mechanics" title="Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics">Timeline of fluid and continuum mechanics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boyle's_law"><span id="Boyle.27s_law"></span>Boyle's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Boyle's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boyle_air_pump.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Boyle_air_pump.jpg/170px-Boyle_air_pump.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Boyle_air_pump.jpg/255px-Boyle_air_pump.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Boyle_air_pump.jpg/340px-Boyle_air_pump.jpg 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="1116" /></a><figcaption>Boyle's equipment</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a></div> <p>Boyle's law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662 <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. The image of Boyle's equipment shows some of the exotic tools used by Boyle during his study of gases. </p><p>Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the pressure exerted by a gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if the volume is halved, the pressure is doubled; and if the volume is doubled, the pressure is halved. Given the inverse relationship between pressure and volume, the product of pressure (<i>P</i>) and volume (<i>V</i>) is a constant (<i>k</i>) for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. Stated as a formula, thus is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle PV=k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>P</mi> <mi>V</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle PV=k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ccec54c93d220c649f5ee495374ece8208247e3a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.842ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle PV=k}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>Because the before and after volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the before and after temperatures are the same both equal the constant <i>k</i>, they can be related by the equation: </p><p><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \qquad P_{1}V_{1}=P_{2}V_{2}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="2em"></mspace> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \qquad P_{1}V_{1}=P_{2}V_{2}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c935a068c15bbfa392b2141621860517a1ba046" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:18.302ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \qquad P_{1}V_{1}=P_{2}V_{2}.}" /></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles's_law"><span id="Charles.27s_law"></span>Charles's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Charles's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Charles%27s_law" title="Charles's law">Charles's law</a></div> <p>In 1787, the French physicist and balloon pioneer, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Jacques Charles</a>, found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. He noted that, for an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its temperature: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{T_{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{T_{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dac6c4cc0111f3adcee36af38f87a7de1634f9a8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:9.594ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{T_{2}}}}" /></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gay-Lussac's_law"><span id="Gay-Lussac.27s_law"></span>Gay-Lussac's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Gay-Lussac's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gay-Lussac%27s_law" title="Gay-Lussac's law">Gay-Lussac's law</a></div> <p>In 1802, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac</a> published results of similar, though more extensive experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gay-Lussac credited Charles' earlier work by naming the law in his honor. Gay-Lussac himself is credited with the law describing pressure, which he found in 1809. It states that the pressure exerted on a container's sides by an ideal gas is proportional to its temperature. </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {P_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {P_{2}}{T_{2}}}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {P_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {P_{2}}{T_{2}}}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d590baa7f3246b101d5acd4ac8c0777f774ad1b7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:10.251ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {P_{1}}{T_{1}}}={\frac {P_{2}}{T_{2}}}\,}" /></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avogadro's_law"><span id="Avogadro.27s_law"></span>Avogadro's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Avogadro's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Avogadro%27s_law" title="Avogadro's law">Avogadro's law</a></div> <p>In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro verified that equal volumes of pure gases contain the same number of particles. His theory was not generally accepted until 1858 when another Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to explain non-ideal exceptions. For his work with gases a century prior, the physical constant that bears his name (the <a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro constant</a>) is the number of atoms per mole of elemental carbon-12 (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7023602200000000000♠"></span>6.022<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>23</sup> mol<sup>−1</sup></span>). This specific number of gas particles, at standard temperature and pressure (ideal gas law) occupies 22.40 liters, which is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Molar_volume" title="Molar volume">molar volume</a>. </p><p>Avogadro's law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas is proportional to the <a href="/wiki/Amount_of_substance" title="Amount of substance">amount of substance</a> in the volume. This gives rise to the <a href="/wiki/Molar_volume" title="Molar volume">molar volume</a> of a gas, which at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">STP</a> is 22.4 dm<sup>3</sup>/mol (liters per mole). The relation is given by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{n_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{n_{2}}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{n_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{n_{2}}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/785a9dd2bbdac2157b8886fb8f572f2b4800a280" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:10.315ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{n_{1}}}={\frac {V_{2}}{n_{2}}},}" /></span> where <i>n</i> is the amount of substance of gas (the number of molecules divided by the <a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro constant</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dalton's_law"><span id="Dalton.27s_law"></span>Dalton's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Dalton's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daltons_symbols.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/250px-Daltons_symbols.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/330px-Daltons_symbols.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/500px-Daltons_symbols.gif 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">Dalton</a>'s notation.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dalton%27s_law" title="Dalton's law">Dalton's law</a></div> <p>In 1801, <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> published the law of partial pressures from his work with ideal gas law relationship: The pressure of a mixture of non reactive gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented for <i>n</i> species as: </p> <dl><dd><b>Pressure<sub>total</sub> = Pressure<sub>1</sub> + Pressure<sub>2</sub> + ... + Pressure<sub><i>n</i></sub></b></dd></dl> <p>The image of Dalton's journal depicts symbology he used as shorthand to record the path he followed. Among his key journal observations upon mixing unreactive "elastic fluids" (gases) were the following:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Unlike liquids, heavier gases did not drift to the bottom upon mixing.</li> <li>Gas particle identity played no role in determining final pressure (they behaved as if their size was negligible).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Special_topics">Special topics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Special topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compressibility">Compressibility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Compressibility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png/370px-Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png/555px-Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png/740px-Compressibility_Factor_of_Air_75-200_K.png 2x" data-file-width="1240" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>Compressibility factors for air.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Compressibility_factor" title="Compressibility factor">Compressibility factor</a></div> <p>Thermodynamicists use this factor (<i>Z</i>) to alter the ideal gas equation to account for compressibility effects of real gases. This factor represents the ratio of actual to ideal specific volumes. It is sometimes referred to as a "fudge-factor" or correction to expand the useful range of the ideal gas law for design purposes. <i>Usually</i> this <i>Z</i> value is very close to unity. The compressibility factor image illustrates how Z varies over a range of very cold temperatures. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boundary_layer">Boundary layer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Boundary layer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlierenfoto_Mach_17_Delta_-_NASA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Schlierenfoto_Mach_17_Delta_-_NASA.jpg/250px-Schlierenfoto_Mach_17_Delta_-_NASA.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Schlierenfoto_Mach_17_Delta_-_NASA.jpg/330px-Schlierenfoto_Mach_17_Delta_-_NASA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Schlierenfoto_Mach_17_Delta_-_NASA.jpg/340px-Schlierenfoto_Mach_17_Delta_-_NASA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Delta_wing" title="Delta wing">Delta wing</a> in wind tunnel. The shadows form as the indices of refraction change within the gas as it compresses on the leading edge of this wing.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Boundary_layer" title="Boundary layer">Boundary layer</a></div> <p>Particles will, in effect, "stick" to the surface of an object moving through it. This layer of particles is called the boundary layer. At the surface of the object, it is essentially static due to the friction of the surface. The object, with its boundary layer is effectively the new shape of the object that the rest of the molecules "see" as the object approaches. This boundary layer can separate from the surface, essentially creating a new surface and completely changing the flow path. The classical example of this is a <a href="/wiki/Stall_(flight)#Formal_definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Stall (flight)">stalling airfoil</a>. The delta wing image clearly shows the boundary layer thickening as the gas flows from right to left along the leading edge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turbulence">Turbulence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Turbulence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vortex-street-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Vortex-street-1.jpg/250px-Vortex-street-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Vortex-street-1.jpg/330px-Vortex-street-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Vortex-street-1.jpg/500px-Vortex-street-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2549" data-file-height="4574" /></a><figcaption>Satellite view of weather pattern in vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_Islands" title="Juan Fernández Islands">Robinson Crusoe Islands</a> on 15 September 1999, shows a turbulent cloud pattern called a <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_vortex_street" title="Kármán vortex street">Kármán vortex street</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">Turbulence</a></div> <p>In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. The satellite view of weather around Robinson Crusoe Islands illustrates one example. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viscosity">Viscosity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Viscosity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a></div> <p>Viscosity, a physical property, is a measure of how well adjacent molecules stick to one another. A solid can withstand a shearing force due to the strength of these sticky intermolecular forces. A fluid will continuously deform when subjected to a similar load. While a gas has a lower value of viscosity than a liquid, it is still an observable property. If gases had no viscosity, then they would not stick to the surface of a wing and form a boundary layer. A study of the <a href="/wiki/Delta_wing" title="Delta wing">delta wing</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren</a> image reveals that the gas particles stick to one another (see Boundary layer section). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reynolds_number">Reynolds number</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Reynolds number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reynolds_number" title="Reynolds number">Reynolds number</a></div> <p>In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces (<i>v<sub>s</sub>ρ</i>) which dominate a turbulent flow, to viscous forces (<i>μ/L</i>) which is proportional to viscosity. It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used, usually along with other dimensionless numbers, to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude. As such, the Reynolds number provides the link between modeling results (design) and the full-scale actual conditions. It can also be used to characterize the flow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maximum_entropy_principle">Maximum entropy principle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Maximum entropy principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_maximum_entropy" title="Principle of maximum entropy">Principle of maximum entropy</a></div> <p>As the total number of degrees of freedom approaches infinity, the system will be found in the <a href="/wiki/Macrostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrostate">macrostate</a> that corresponds to the highest <a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_(mathematics)" title="Multiplicity (mathematics)">multiplicity</a>. In order to illustrate this principle, observe the skin temperature of a frozen metal bar. Using a thermal image of the skin temperature, note the temperature distribution on the surface. This initial observation of temperature represents a "<a href="/wiki/Microstate_(statistical_mechanics)" title="Microstate (statistical mechanics)">microstate</a>". At some future time, a second observation of the skin temperature produces a second microstate. By continuing this observation process, it is possible to produce a series of microstates that illustrate the thermal history of the bar's surface. Characterization of this historical series of microstates is possible by choosing the macrostate that successfully classifies them all into a single grouping. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermodynamic_equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Thermodynamic equilibrium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a></div> <div style="float:right"> <table class="wikitable" style="border:none; text-align:center;"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">Phase transitions</a> of matter (<style 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.navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Table_of_phase_transitions" title="Template:Table of phase transitions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Table_of_phase_transitions" title="Template talk:Table of phase transitions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Table_of_phase_transitions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Table of phase transitions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div>) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right">To</div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left">From</div> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">Solid</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a> </th> <th><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gas</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Solid </th> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">Melting</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Liquid </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">Freezing</a> </td> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">Vaporization</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gas </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)" title="Deposition (phase transition)">Deposition</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a> </td> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">Ionization</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plasma </th> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasma_recombination" title="Plasma recombination">Recombination</a> </td> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>When energy transfer ceases from a system, this condition is referred to as thermodynamic equilibrium.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Usually, this condition implies the system and surroundings are at the same temperature so that heat no longer transfers between them. It also implies that external forces are balanced (volume does not change), and all chemical reactions within the system are complete.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The timeline varies for these events depending on the system in question. A container of ice allowed to melt at room temperature takes hours, while in semiconductors the heat transfer that occurs in the device transition from an on to off state could be on the order of a few nanoseconds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gas">"Gas"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. 7 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=Gas&rft.date=2023-08-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fgas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This early 20th century discussion infers what is regarded as the plasma state. See page 137 of American Chemical Society, Faraday Society, Chemical Society (Great Britain) <i>The Journal of Physical Chemistry, Volume 11</i> Cornell (1907).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZelevinsky2009" class="citation journal cs1">Zelevinsky, Tanya (2009-11-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.aps.org/articles/v2/94">"—just right for forming a Bose-Einstein condensate"</a>. <i>Physics</i>. <b>2</b> (20): 94. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0910.0634">0910.0634</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.103.200401">10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.200401</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20365964">20365964</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14321276">14321276</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics&rft.atitle=%E2%80%94just+right+for+forming+a+Bose-Einstein+condensate&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=94&rft.date=2009-11-09&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0910.0634&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14321276%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20365964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.103.200401&rft.aulast=Zelevinsky&rft.aufirst=Tanya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.aps.org%2Farticles%2Fv2%2F94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/11/091104140812.htm">"Quantum Gas Microscope Offers Glimpse Of Quirky Ultracold Atoms"</a>. <i>ScienceDaily</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Quantum+Gas+Microscope+Offers+Glimpse+Of+Quirky+Ultracold+Atoms&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2009%2F11%2F091104140812.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHelmont1652" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Helmont, Jan Baptist Van (1652). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c41nbl8iwrEC&pg=PA58"><i>Ortus medicine, id est initial physicae inaudita... authore Joanne Baptista Van Helmont,...</i></a> (in Latin). apud L. Elzevirium.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ortus+medicine%2C+id+est+initial+physicae+inaudita...+authore+Joanne+Baptista+Van+Helmont%2C...&rft.pub=apud+L.+Elzevirium&rft.date=1652&rft.aulast=Helmont&rft.aufirst=Jan+Baptist+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc41nbl8iwrEC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span> The word "gas" first appears on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c41nbl8iwrEC&pg=PA58">page 58</a>, where he mentions: "... Gas (meum scil. inventum) ..." (... gas (namely, my discovery) ...). On <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c41nbl8iwrEC&pg=PA59">page 59</a>, he states: "... in nominis egestate, halitum illum, Gas vocavi, non longe a Chao ..." (... in need of a name, I called this vapor "gas", not far from "chaos" ...)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ley196606-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ley196606_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLey1966" class="citation magazine cs1">Ley, Willy (June 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/Galaxy_v24n05_1966-06#page/n93/mode/2up">"The Re-Designed Solar System"</a>. For Your Information. <i>Galaxy Science Fiction</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">94–</span>106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Galaxy+Science+Fiction&rft.atitle=The+Re-Designed+Solar+System&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E94-%3C%2Fspan%3E106&rft.date=1966-06&rft.aulast=Ley&rft.aufirst=Willy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FGalaxy_v24n05_1966-06%23page%2Fn93%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-et-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-et_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=gas">"gas"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=gas&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dgas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDraper1861" class="citation book cs1">Draper, John William (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=HKwS7QDh5eMC&rdid=book-HKwS7QDh5eMC&rdot=1"><i>A textbook on chemistry</i></a>. New York: Harper and Sons. p. 178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+textbook+on+chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Harper+and+Sons&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Draper&rft.aufirst=John+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fstore%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%3Fid%3DHKwS7QDh5eMC%26rdid%3Dbook-HKwS7QDh5eMC%26rdot%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"gas, n.1 and adj."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>OED Online</i>. Oxford University Press. June 2021. <q>There is probably no foundation in the idea (found from the 18th cent. onwards, e.g. in J. Priestley On Air (1774) Introd. 3) that van Helmont modelled gas on Dutch geest spirit, or any of its cognates</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22gas%2C+n.1+and+adj.%22&rft.btitle=OED+Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021-06&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarzun2000" class="citation book cs1">Barzun, Jacques (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.harpercollins.ca/9780060928834/from-dawn-to-decadence-1500-to-the-present/"><i>For Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life</i></a>. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 199.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+Dawn+to+Decadence%3A+500+Years+of+Western+Cultural+Life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Barzun&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.harpercollins.ca%2F9780060928834%2Ffrom-dawn-to-decadence-1500-to-the-present%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The authors make the connection between molecular forces of metals and their corresponding physical properties. By extension, this concept would apply to gases as well, though not universally. Cornell (1907) pp. 164–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One noticeable exception to this physical property connection is conductivity which varies depending on the state of matter (ionic compounds in water) as described by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> in 1833 when he noted that ice does not conduct a current. See page 45 of John Tyndall's <i>Faraday as a Discoverer</i> (1868).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_S._Hutchinson2008" class="citation book cs1">John S. Hutchinson (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cnx.org/content/col10264/latest/"><i>Concept Development Studies in Chemistry</i></a>. p. 67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concept+Development+Studies+in+Chemistry&rft.pages=67&rft.date=2008&rft.au=John+S.+Hutchinson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcnx.org%2Fcontent%2Fcol10264%2Flatest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, p.501</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJ._Clerk_Maxwell1904" class="citation book cs1">J. Clerk Maxwell (1904). <i>Theory of Heat</i>. Mineola: Dover Publications. pp. <span class="nowrap">319–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-41735-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-41735-6"><bdi>978-0-486-41735-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Heat&rft.place=Mineola&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E319-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1904&rft.isbn=978-0-486-41735-6&rft.au=J.+Clerk+Maxwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See pages 137–8 of Society, Cornell (1907).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Wark1977" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Wark (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thermodynamics0003wark/page/12"><i>Thermodynamics</i></a> (3 ed.). 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Wendland, Martin (October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fluid.2023.113876">"On the history of key empirical intermolecular potentials"</a>. <i>Fluid Phase Equilibria</i>. <b>573</b>: 113876. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023FlPEq.57313876F">2023FlPEq.57313876F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fluid.2023.113876">10.1016/j.fluid.2023.113876</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fluid+Phase+Equilibria&rft.atitle=On+the+history+of+key+empirical+intermolecular+potentials&rft.volume=573&rft.pages=113876&rft.date=2023-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.fluid.2023.113876&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023FlPEq.57313876F&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Johann&rft.au=Wendland%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.fluid.2023.113876&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-391927-4.10024-6">"Intermolecular and Surface Forces"</a>, Elsevier, 2011, pp. iii, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-391927-4.10024-6">10.1016/b978-0-12-391927-4.10024-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-391927-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-391927-4"><bdi>978-0-12-391927-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-01</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intermolecular+and+Surface+Forces&rft.pages=iii&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-391927-4.10024-6&rft.isbn=978-0-12-391927-4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-391927-4.10024-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLenhardStephanHasse2024" class="citation journal cs1">Lenhard, Johannes; 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E. (October 1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.1924.0082">"On the determination of molecular fields. —II. From the equation of state of a gas"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=14.11%3A+Real+and+Ideal+Gases+-+Chemistry+LibreTexts&rft.date=2021-02-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchem.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FIntroductory_Chemistry%2FBook%3A_Introductory_Chemistry_%28CK-12%29%2F14%3A_The_Behavior_of_Gases%2F14.11%3A_Real_and_Ideal_Gases%23%3A~%3Atext%3DAn%2520ideal%2520gas%2520is%2520one%2Cconditions%2520of%2520temperature%2520and%2520pressure.%26text%3DSince%2520neither%2520of%2520those%2520conditions%2Cof%2520the%2520kinetic-molecular%2520theory.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, pp. 289–291</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John, p.205</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John, pp. 247–56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_Reference-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Reference_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100318236">"Permanent gas"</a>. <i>www.oxfordreference.com</i>. Oxford University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.oxfordreference.com&rft.atitle=Permanent+gas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100318236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, pp.52–55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, pp.55–60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_P._Millington1906" class="citation book cs1">John P. Millington (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.30924"><i>John Dalton</i></a>. pp. 72, <span class="nowrap">77–</span>78.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Dalton&rft.pages=72%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E78&rft.date=1906&rft.au=John+P.+Millington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.30924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/thermodynamic%20equilibrium?utm_source=chatgpt.com">"Definition of THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-12-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+THERMODYNAMIC+EQUILIBRIUM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fthermodynamic%2520equilibrium%3Futm_source%3Dchatgpt.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBalmer2011" class="citation journal cs1">Balmer, Robert T. (2011). "Thermodynamic Concepts". <i>Modern Engineering Thermodynamics</i>: <span class="nowrap">33–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-374996-3.00002-6">10.1016/B978-0-12-374996-3.00002-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374996-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374996-3"><bdi>978-0-12-374996-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Engineering+Thermodynamics&rft.atitle=Thermodynamic+Concepts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-374996-3.00002-6&rft.isbn=978-0-12-374996-3&rft.aulast=Balmer&rft.aufirst=Robert+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnderson,_John_D.1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_D._Anderson" title="John D. Anderson">Anderson, John D.</a> (1984). <i>Fundamentals of Aerodynamics</i>. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-001656-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-001656-9"><bdi>978-0-07-001656-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Aerodynamics&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Higher+Education&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-07-001656-9&rft.au=Anderson%2C+John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn,_James1984" class="citation book cs1">John, James (1984). <i>Gas Dynamics</i>. Allyn and Bacon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-08014-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-08014-4"><bdi>978-0-205-08014-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gas+Dynamics&rft.pub=Allyn+and+Bacon&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-205-08014-4&rft.au=John%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson,_WilliamHenderson,_William1917" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, William; Henderson, William (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anelementarystu00hendgoog"><i>An Elementary study of chemistry</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Elementary+study+of+chemistry&rft.date=1917&rft.au=McPherson%2C+William&rft.au=Henderson%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanelementarystu00hendgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gas&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gas" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:gas"> gas</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Gases" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Gases">Gases</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Philip Hill and Carl Peterson. <i>Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion: Second Edition</i> Addison-Wesley, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-14659-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-201-14659-2">0-201-14659-2</a></li> <li>National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101122124752/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/Animation/frglab.html">Animated Gas Lab</a>. Accessed February 2008.</li> <li>Georgia State University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html">HyperPhysics</a>. Accessed February 2008.</li> <li>Antony Lewis <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordwebonline.com/en/GASEOUSSTATE">WordWeb</a>. Accessed February 2008.</li> <li>Northwestern Michigan College <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217160852/http://www.nmc.edu/~bberthelsen/c9n03.htm">The Gaseous State</a>. Accessed February 2008.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewesLunge1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lewes, Vivian Byam; Lunge, Georg (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gas"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gas">"Gas" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). p. 481–493.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gas&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=481-493&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Lewes&rft.aufirst=Vivian+Byam&rft.au=Lunge%2C+Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGas" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="States_of_matter_(list,_timeline)214" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_matter" title="Template:States of matter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_matter" title="Template talk:States of matter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_matter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of matter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_matter_(list,_timeline)214" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States of matter</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter" title="List of states of matter">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_states_of_matter_and_phase_transitions" title="Timeline of states of matter and phase transitions">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">Solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">Vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">Supercritical fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_change_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/250px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/330px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="524" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Low energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">Fermionic condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">Degenerate matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect" title="Quantum Hall effect">Quantum Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rydberg_matter" title="Rydberg matter">Rydberg matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_matter" title="Strange matter">Strange matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">Superfluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersolid" title="Supersolid">Supersolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photonic_molecule" title="Photonic molecule">Photonic molecule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">High energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color-glass_condensate" title="Color-glass condensate">Color-glass condensate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">Colloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">Liquid crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_spin_liquid" title="Quantum spin liquid">Quantum spin liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a></li> <li>Magnetically ordered <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">Antiferromagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrimagnetism" title="Ferrimagnetism">Ferrimagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">Ferromagnet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String-net_liquid" title="String-net liquid">String-net liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superglass" title="Superglass">Superglass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phase_transitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase transitions">Phase transitions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">Boiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_line_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical line (thermodynamics)">Critical line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)" title="Deposition (phase transition)">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">Evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_evaporation" title="Flash evaporation">Flash evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">Freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_ionization" title="Chemical ionization">Chemical ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_point" title="Lambda point">Lambda point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">Melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_recombination" title="Plasma recombination">Recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regelation" title="Regelation">Regelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium" title="Vapor–liquid equilibrium">Saturated fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">Triple point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">Vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Enthalpy of fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_sublimation" title="Enthalpy of sublimation">Enthalpy of sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Enthalpy of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_internal_energy" title="Latent internal energy">Latent internal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trouton%27s_rule" title="Trouton's rule">Trouton's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">Volatility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">Baryonic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binodal" title="Binodal">Binodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed_fluid" title="Compressed fluid">Compressed fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_curve" title="Cooling curve">Cooling curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">Equation of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect" title="Leidenfrost effect">Leidenfrost effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_quantum_phenomena" title="Macroscopic quantum phenomena">Macroscopic quantum phenomena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpemba_effect" title="Mpemba effect">Mpemba effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order and disorder (physics)">Order and disorder (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinodal" title="Spinodal">Spinodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheated_water" title="Superheated water">Superheated vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">Superheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermo-dielectric_effect" title="Thermo-dielectric effect">Thermo-dielectric effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11432#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1793" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse 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