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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classes of solids</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classes_of_solids-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classes of solids subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classes_of_solids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Metals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Minerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ceramics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ceramics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Ceramics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ceramics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glass_ceramics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glass_ceramics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Glass ceramics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glass_ceramics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_solids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_solids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Organic solids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_solids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Wood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Polymers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composite_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composite_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Composite materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composite_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semiconductors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semiconductors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Semiconductors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semiconductors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanomaterials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanomaterials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Nanomaterials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanomaterials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biomaterials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biomaterials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Biomaterials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biomaterials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physical properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physical properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mechanical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mechanical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Thermal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Electrical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electro-mechanical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electro-mechanical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Electro-mechanical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electro-mechanical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Optical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opto-electronic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opto-electronic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Opto-electronic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opto-electronic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fields_of_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fields_of_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fields of study</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fields_of_study-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fields of study subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fields_of_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Solid-state_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid-state_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Solid-state physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid-state_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid-state_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid-state_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Solid-state chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid-state_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Materials science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Solid</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 130 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-130" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">130 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaste_stof" title="Vaste stof – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vaste stof" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festk%C3%B6rper" title="Festkörper – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Festkörper" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8" title="ठोस – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="ठोस" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="حالة صلبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حالة صلبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="কঠিন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কঠিন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3lidu" title="Sólidu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sólidu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C9%99rk_cisim" title="Bərk cisim – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bərk cisim" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D8%AC%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="برک جیسم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="برک جیسم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5" title="কঠিন পদার্থ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কঠিন পদার্থ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B2%CD%98-th%C3%A9" title="Kò͘-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kò͘-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Ҡаты есем – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡаты есем" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D1%91%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Цвёрдае цела – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цвёрдае цела" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%91%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Цьвёрдае цела – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Цьвёрдае цела" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Твърдо тяло – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Твърдо тяло" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cvrsto_stanje" title="Čvrsto stanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Čvrsto stanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%83_%D0%B1%D1%8D%D0%B5" title="Хатуу бэе – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хатуу бэе" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B2lid" title="Sòlid – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sòlid" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8B%D1%82%C4%83_%C4%95%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Хытă ĕскер – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хытă ĕскер" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido_(butang)" title="Solido (butang) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Solido (butang)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pevn%C3%A1_l%C3%A1tka" title="Pevná látka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pevná látka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godo" title="Godo – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Godo" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Solid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_form" title="Fast form – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fast form" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AD" title="قاسح – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="قاسح" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festk%C3%B6rper" title="Festkörper – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Festkörper" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahkis" title="Tahkis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tahkis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%8C" title="Στερεό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στερεό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3lido" title="Sólido – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sólido" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3liu" title="Sóliu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Sóliu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF" title="جامد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Solid" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tat_solide" title="État solide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="État solide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solad" title="Solad – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Solad" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stooaltane" title="Stooaltane – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Stooaltane" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3lido" title="Sólido – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sólido" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%98%E0%AA%A8" title="ઘન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઘન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku-th%C3%AD" title="Ku-thí – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ku-thí" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%B2%B4" title="고체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daskararre" title="Daskararre – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daskararre" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A4_%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Պինդ մարմին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պինդ մարմին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8" title="ठोस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ठोस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krutine" title="Krutine – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Krutine" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padat" title="Padat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Padat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solide" title="Solide – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Solide" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-solid" title="I-solid – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-solid" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isinqumela" title="Isinqumela – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isinqumela" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storkuhamur" title="Storkuhamur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Storkuhamur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%A7" title="מוצק – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוצק" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%98%E0%B2%A8" title="ಘನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಘನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="მყარი სხეული – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მყარი სხეული" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Қатты дене – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қатты дене" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango" title="Mango – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mango" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Solid" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biring" title="Biring – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Biring" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%83_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Катуу зат – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Катуу зат" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidum" title="Solidum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Solidum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cietviela" title="Cietviela – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Cietviela" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kietasis_k%C5%ABnas" title="Kietasis kūnas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kietasis kūnas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaste_stof" title="Vaste stof – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Vaste stof" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sligu" title="sligu – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sligu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szil%C3%A1rd_halmaz%C3%A1llapot" title="Szilárd halmazállapot – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szilárd halmazállapot" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Цврста состојба на материјата – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Цврста состојба на материјата" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vainga" title="Vainga – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vainga" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഖരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഖരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A8" title="صلب – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="صلب" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepejal" title="Pepejal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pepejal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B3-t%C4%81%CC%A4" title="Gó-tā̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gó-tā̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%83" title="Хатуу – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хатуу" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%81%E1%80%B2" title="အစိုင်အခဲ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အစိုင်အခဲ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaukauwa" title="Kaukauwa – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Kaukauwa" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaste_stof" title="Vaste stof – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vaste stof" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cr mw-list-item"><a href="https://cr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid – Cree" lang="cr" hreflang="cr" data-title="Solid" data-language-autonym="Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ" data-language-local-name="Cree" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8" title="ठोस – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ठोस" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="ठोस पदार्थ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ठोस पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E4%BD%93" title="固体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="固体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A4%C3%A4ststoof" title="Fääststoof – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Fääststoof" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faststoff" title="Faststoff – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Faststoff" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_stoff" title="Fast stoff – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fast stoff" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solide" title="Solide – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Solide" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Solid" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jajjaboo" title="Jajjaboo – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Jajjaboo" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qattiq_jism" title="Qattiq jism – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qattiq jism" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B8" title="ਠੋਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਠੋਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ٹھوس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ٹھوس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF" title="جامد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جامد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B2lid_(f%C3%ACsica)" title="Sòlid (fìsica) – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Sòlid (fìsica)" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faststoff" title="Faststoff – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Faststoff" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cia%C5%82o_sta%C5%82e" title="Ciało stałe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ciało stałe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3lido" title="Sólido – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sólido" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Solid" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinchiyasqa" title="Sinchiyasqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sinchiyasqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B2%D1%91%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Твёрдое тело – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Твёрдое тело" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngurt%C3%ABsia" title="Ngurtësia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ngurtësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9D%E0%B6%B1" title="ඝන – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඝන" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid" title="Solid – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Solid" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DA%BE%D8%B1%D9%88" title="نھرو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نھرو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pevn%C3%A1_l%C3%A1tka" title="Pevná látka – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pevná látka" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trdnina" title="Trdnina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Trdnina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adke" title="Adke – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Adke" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%95%D9%82" title="ڕەق – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕەق" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Чврсто агрегатно стање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Чврсто агрегатно стање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cvrsto_agregatno_stanje" title="Čvrsto agregatno stanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Čvrsto agregatno stanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiinte%C3%A4_olomuoto" title="Kiinteä olomuoto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiinteä olomuoto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_form" title="Fast form – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fast form" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="திண்மம் (இயற்பியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="திண்மம் (இயற்பியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%98%E0%B0%A8_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%82" title="ఘన పదార్థం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఘన పదార్థం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%87" title="ของแข็ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ของแข็ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%B2%E1%8F%92" title="ᎤᏍᏓᏲᏒ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᏍᏓᏲᏒ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kat%C4%B1" title="Katı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Katı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Тверде тіло – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тверде тіло" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ٹھوس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ٹھوس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kova_hibj" title="Kova hibj – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kova hibj" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BA%A5t_r%E1%BA%AFn" title="Chất rắn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chất rắn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E9%AB%94" title="固體 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="固體" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaste_stoffe" title="Vaste stoffe – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Vaste stoffe" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solido" title="Solido – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Solido" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E4%BD%93" title="固体 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="固体" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="סאלידער קערפער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סאלידער קערפער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E9%AB%94" title="固體 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="固體" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hest" title="Hest – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Hest" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%97its_k%C5%ABns" title="Kėits kūns – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kėits kūns" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E4%BD%93" title="固体 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="固体" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11438#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum mechanics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J=-D{\frac {d\varphi }{dx}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>J</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>φ</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J=-D{\frac {d\varphi }{dx}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1856f88def2056f28ed27c7d31180a6240820ea6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:11.874ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J=-D{\frac {d\varphi }{dx}}}" /></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_laws_of_diffusion" title="Fick's laws of diffusion">Fick's laws of diffusion</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Laws</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> Conservations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">Momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Energy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> Inequalities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clausius%E2%80%93Duhem_inequality" title="Clausius–Duhem inequality">Clausius–Duhem (entropy)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">Solid mechanics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_(physics)" title="Deformation (physics)">Deformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">Elasticity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_elasticity" title="Linear elasticity">linear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity 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href="/wiki/Fracture_mechanics" title="Fracture mechanics">Fracture mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Fluid_mechanics" title="Fluid mechanics">Fluid mechanics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;"> <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">Fluids</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="wraplinks"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">Statics</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle" title="Archimedes' principle">Archimedes' principle</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle" title="Bernoulli's principle">Bernoulli's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations" title="Navier–Stokes equations">Navier–Stokes equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagen%E2%80%93Poiseuille_equation" title="Hagen–Poiseuille equation">Poiseuille equation</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_law" title="Pascal's law">Pascal's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Newtonian_fluid" title="Newtonian fluid">Newtonian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid" title="Non-Newtonian fluid">non-Newtonian</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Mixing_(process_engineering)" title="Mixing (process engineering)">Mixing</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;"> <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquids</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhesion" title="Adhesion">Adhesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">Capillary action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(chemistry)" title="Cohesion (chemistry)">Cohesion (chemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">Surface tension</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;"> <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gases</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">Atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles%27s_law" title="Charles's law">Charles's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_gas_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined gas law">Combined gas law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Fick's law">Fick's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay-Lussac%27s_law" title="Gay-Lussac's law">Gay-Lussac's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham%27s_law" title="Graham's law">Graham's law</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;"> <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></th></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Rheology" title="Rheology">Rheology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viscoelasticity" title="Viscoelasticity">Viscoelasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheometry" title="Rheometry">Rheometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheometer" title="Rheometer">Rheometer</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;"> <a href="/wiki/Smart_fluid" title="Smart fluid">Smart fluids</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrorheological_fluid" title="Electrorheological fluid">Electrorheological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetorheological_fluid" title="Magnetorheological fluid">Magnetorheological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrofluid" title="Ferrofluid">Ferrofluids</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Bernoulli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy" title="Augustin-Louis Cauchy">Cauchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Charles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Euler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eugen_Fick" title="Adolf Eugen Fick">Fick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Gay-Lussac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Graham_(chemist)" title="Thomas Graham (chemist)">Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Louis_Navier" title="Claude-Louis Navier">Navier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Noll" title="Walter Noll">Noll</a></li> <li><a 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:QuantumPhaseTransition.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/QuantumPhaseTransition.svg/250px-QuantumPhaseTransition.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/QuantumPhaseTransition.svg/330px-QuantumPhaseTransition.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/QuantumPhaseTransition.svg/500px-QuantumPhaseTransition.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="369" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">Phase transition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_critical_point" title="Quantum critical point">QCP</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States of matter</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Solid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bose_gas" title="Bose gas">Bose gas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">Fermionic condensate</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fermi_liquid_theory" title="Fermi liquid theory">Fermi liquid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Supersolid" title="Supersolid">Supersolid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">Superfluidity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Luttinger_liquid" title="Luttinger liquid">Luttinger liquid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Phase phenomena</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Order_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Order parameter">Order parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">Phase transition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_critical_point" title="Quantum critical point">QCP</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Electronic phases</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">Electronic band structure</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">Insulator</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mott_insulator" title="Mott insulator">Mott insulator</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Semimetal" title="Semimetal">Semimetal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">Conductor</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">Superconductor</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect" title="Thermoelectric effect">Thermoelectric</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Piezoelectricity" title="Piezoelectricity">Piezoelectric</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectricity" title="Ferroelectricity">Ferroelectric</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Topological_insulator" title="Topological insulator">Topological insulator</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_gapless_semiconductor" title="Spin gapless semiconductor">Spin gapless semiconductor</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Electronic phenomena</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect" title="Quantum Hall effect">Quantum Hall effect</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_Hall_effect" title="Spin Hall effect">Spin Hall effect</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kondo_effect" title="Kondo effect">Kondo effect</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Magnetic phases</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diamagnetism" title="Diamagnetism">Diamagnet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Superdiamagnetism" title="Superdiamagnetism">Superdiamagnet</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">Paramagnet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Superparamagnetism" title="Superparamagnetism">Superparamagnet</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">Ferromagnet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">Antiferromagnet</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Metamagnetism" title="Metamagnetism">Metamagnet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_glass" title="Spin glass">Spin glass</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soft_matter" title="Soft matter">Soft matter</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">Amorphous solid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">Colloid</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Granular_material" title="Granular material">Granular material</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">Liquid crystal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Onnes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">von Laue</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">Bragg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Debye</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Onsager</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="Neville Mott">Mott</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Peierls</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Luttinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Luttinger">Luttinger</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Anderson</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hubbard_(physicist)" title="John Hubbard (physicist)">Hubbard</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" class="mw-redirect" title="William Bradford Shockley">Shockley</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Louis Néel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Kohn</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Kadanoff</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fisher" title="Michael Fisher">Fisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">Wilson</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Georg_Bednorz" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Alexander_M%C3%BCller" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Alexander Müller">Müller</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Yang</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alexei_Alexeyevich_Abrikosov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov">Abrikosov</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Lazarevich_Ginzburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christof_Wetterich" title="Christof Wetterich">Wetterich</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Perdew" title="John Perdew">Perdew</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/20px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/40px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/40px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Condensed_matter_physics" title="Category:Condensed matter physics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Condensed_matter_physics" title="Template:Condensed matter physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Condensed_matter_physics" title="Template talk:Condensed matter physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Condensed_matter_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Condensed matter physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Solid</b> is one of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter#Four_fundamental_states" title="State of matter">four fundamental states of matter</a> (along with liquid, gas, and plasma),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is a way in which all matter can be arranged on a microscopic scale under certain conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">Molecules</a> in a solid are closely packed and do not slide past each other as is the case for <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluids</a>. Solids resist compression, expansion, or external forces that would alter its shape, with the degree to which they are resisted dependent upon the specific material under consideration.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Solids also always possess the least amount of kinetic energy per atom/molecule relative to other phases<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or, equivalently stated, solids are formed when matter in the liquid / gas phase is cooled below a certain temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This temperature is called the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of that substance and is an <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic">intrinsic</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> property, i.e. independent of how much of the matter there is. </p><p>Solids are characterized by <a href="/wiki/Structural_rigidity" title="Structural rigidity">structural rigidity</a> and resistance to applied external forces and pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike liquids, solids do not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire available volume like a gas.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much like the other three fundamental phases, solids also <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">expand when heated</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the thermal energy put into increasing the distance and reducing the <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> between atoms. However, solids do this to a much lesser extent.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When heated to its melting point or <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation point</a>, solids melt into a liquid or <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimate</a> directly into a gas, respectively. For solids that directly <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimate</a> into a gas, the melting point is replaced by the sublimation point.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a rule of thumb, melting will occur if the subjected pressure is higher than the substance's <a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a>'s pressure,<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sublimation will occur otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melting and melting points refer exclusively to transitions between solids and liquids.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melting occurs across a great extent of temperatures, ranging from 0.10 K for <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a> under 30 bars (3 MPa) of pressure,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to around 4,200 K at 1 atm for the composite <a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</a> material <a href="/wiki/Hafnium_carbonitride" title="Hafnium carbonitride">hafnium carbonitride</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other in one of two ways: regular <a href="/wiki/Geometric_lattice" title="Geometric lattice">geometric lattices</a> called <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline solids</a> (e.g. metals, <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">water ice</a>), or irregular arrangements called <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous solids</a> (e.g. glass, plastic).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Molecules and atoms forming crystalline lattices usually organize themselves in a few well-characterized packing structures,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as body-centered cubic. The adopted structure can and will vary between various pressures and temperatures, as can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagrams</a> of the material (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram#/media/File:Phase_diagram_of_water.svg" title="Phase diagram">that of water</a>, see left and upper). When the material is composed of a single species of atom/molecule, the phases are designated as <a href="/wiki/Allotropy" title="Allotropy">allotropes</a> for atoms (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> / <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> for <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>), and as <a href="/wiki/Crystal_polymorphism" title="Crystal polymorphism">polymorphs</a> (e.g. calcite / aragonite for <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for molecules. </p><p>Non-<a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porous</a> solids invariably strongly resist any amount of <a href="/wiki/Compression_(physics)" title="Compression (physics)">compression</a> that would otherwise result in a decrease of total <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> regardless of temperature,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> owing to the <a href="/wiki/Electron_degeneracy_pressure" title="Electron degeneracy pressure">mutual-repulsion</a> of neighboring electron clouds among its constituent atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to solids, gases are <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_law" title="Ideal gas law">very easily compressed</a> as the molecules in a gas are far apart with few intermolecular interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some solids, especially metallic alloys, can be <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(physics)" title="Deformation (physics)">deformed</a> or pulled apart with enough force. The degree to which this solid resists deformation in differing directions and axes are quantified by the <a href="/wiki/Elastic_modulus" title="Elastic modulus">elastic modulus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength" title="Ultimate tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specific_strength" title="Specific strength">specific strength</a>, as well as other measurable quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the vast majority of substances, the solid phases have the highest <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> moderately higher than that of the liquid phase (if there exists one), and solid blocks of these materials will sink below their liquids.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exceptions include water (<a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a>), <a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All naturally occurring elements on the periodic table has a melting point at standard atmospheric pressure, with three exceptions: the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a> <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, which remains a liquid even at absolute zero owing to <a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">zero-point energy</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">metalloid</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, sublimating around 900 K;<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the life-forming element carbon, which sublimates around 3,950 K.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When applied pressure is released, solids will (very) rapidly re-expand and release the stored energy in the process<sup id="cite_ref-:3_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a manner somewhat similar to those of gases. An example of this is the (oft-attempted) confinement of freezing water in an inflexible container (of steel, for example).<sup id="cite_ref-:7_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gradual freezing results in an increase in volume,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as ice is less dense than water.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With no additional volume to expand into, <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">water ice</a> subjects the interior to intense pressures, causing the container to explode with great force.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Solids' properties on a macroscopic scale can also depend on whether it is contiguous or not. Contiguous (non-aggregate) solids are characterized by <a href="/wiki/Structural_rigidity" title="Structural rigidity">structural rigidity</a> (as in <a href="/wiki/Rigid_body" title="Rigid body">rigid bodies</a>) and strong resistance to applied forces.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For solids aggregates (e.g. gravel, sand, dust on lunar surface<sup id="cite_ref-:5_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), solid particles can easily slip past one another,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though changes of individual particles (<a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> particles for sand) will still be greatly hindered.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This leads to a perceived softness and ease of compression by operators.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An illustrating example is the non-firmness of coastal sand<sup id="cite_ref-:4_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>and of the lunar regolith.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The branch of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> that deals with solids is called <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is a major branch of <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a> (which includes liquids).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a>, also one of its numerous branches, is primarily concerned with the way in which a solid's composition and its properties are intertwined.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microscopic_description">Microscopic description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Microscopic description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fcc_lattice_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Fcc_lattice_4.jpg/220px-Fcc_lattice_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Fcc_lattice_4.jpg/330px-Fcc_lattice_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Fcc_lattice_4.jpg/440px-Fcc_lattice_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Model of closely packed atoms within a crystalline solid</figcaption></figure> <p>The atoms, molecules or ions that make up solids may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>. In some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a <a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">single crystal</a>. Solid objects that are large enough to see and handle are rarely composed of a single crystal, but instead are made of a large number of single crystals, known as <a href="/wiki/Crystallite" title="Crystallite">crystallites</a>, whose size can vary from a few nanometers to several meters. Such materials are called <a href="/wiki/Polycrystal" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycrystal">polycrystalline</a>. Almost all common metals, and many <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a>, are polycrystalline. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Silica.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Atoms of Si and O; each atom has the same number of bonds, but the overall arrangement of the atoms is random." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Silica.svg/200px-Silica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Silica.svg/300px-Silica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Silica.svg/400px-Silica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SiO%C2%B2_Quartz.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Regular hexagonal pattern of Si and O atoms, with a Si atom at each corner and the O atoms at the centre of each side." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/SiO%C2%B2_Quartz.svg/200px-SiO%C2%B2_Quartz.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/SiO%C2%B2_Quartz.svg/300px-SiO%C2%B2_Quartz.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/SiO%C2%B2_Quartz.svg/400px-SiO%C2%B2_Quartz.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Schematic representation of a random-network glassy form (left) and ordered crystalline lattice (right) of identical chemical composition.</div></div></div></div> <p>In other materials, there is no long-range order in the position of the atoms. These solids are known as <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous solids</a>; examples include <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> and glass. </p><p>Whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the conditions in which it was formed. Solids that are formed by slow cooling will tend to be crystalline, while solids that are frozen rapidly are more likely to be amorphous. Likewise, the specific <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved and on how it was formed. </p><p>While many common objects, such as an ice cube or a coin, are chemically identical throughout, many other common materials comprise a number of different substances packed together. For example, a typical <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_(geology)" title="Aggregate (geology)">aggregate</a> of several different minerals and <a href="/wiki/Mineraloid" title="Mineraloid">mineraloids</a>, with no specific chemical composition. Wood is a natural organic material consisting primarily of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> fibers embedded in a matrix of organic <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>. In materials science, <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composites</a> of more than one constituent material can be designed to have desired properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classes_of_solids">Classes of solids</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classes of solids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bonding_in_solids" title="Bonding in solids">Bonding in solids</a></div> <p>The forces between the atoms in a solid can take a variety of forms. For example, a crystal of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (common salt) is made up of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionic</a> <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, which are held together by <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bonds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In diamond<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or silicon, the atoms share <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and form <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In metals, electrons are shared in <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metallic bonding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some solids, particularly most organic compounds, are held together with <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals forces</a> resulting from the polarization of the electronic charge cloud on each molecule. The dissimilarities between the types of solid result from the differences between their bonding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metals">Metals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Metals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chrysler_Building_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Chrysler_Building_detail.jpg/250px-Chrysler_Building_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Chrysler_Building_detail.jpg/330px-Chrysler_Building_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Chrysler_Building_detail.jpg/500px-Chrysler_Building_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The pinnacle of New York's <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Building" title="Chrysler Building">Chrysler Building</a>, the world's tallest steel-supported brick building, is clad with stainless steel.</figcaption></figure> <p>Metals typically are strong, dense, and good conductors of both <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conduction">electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heat_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat conduction">heat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bulk of the elements in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, those to the left of a diagonal line drawn from <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> to <a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">polonium</a>, are metals. Mixtures of two or more elements in which the major component is a metal are known as <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. </p><p>People have been using metals for a variety of purposes since prehistoric times. The <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reliability" class="extiw" title="wikt:reliability">reliability</a> of metals has led to their widespread use in construction of buildings and other structures, as well as in most vehicles, many appliances and tools, pipes, road signs and railroad tracks. Iron and aluminium are the two most commonly used structural metals. They are also the most abundant metals in the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)#Earth's_crust" title="Crust (geology)">Earth's crust</a>. Iron is most commonly used in the form of an alloy, steel, which contains up to 2.1% <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, making it much harder than pure iron. </p><p>Because metals are good conductors of electricity, they are valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> over long distances with little energy loss or dissipation. Thus, electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for example, are wired with copper for its good conducting properties and easy machinability. The high <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> of most metals also makes them useful for stovetop cooking utensils. </p><p>The study of metallic elements and their <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> makes up a significant portion of the fields of solid-state chemistry, physics, materials science and engineering. </p><p>Metallic solids are held together by a high density of shared, delocalized electrons, known as "<a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metallic bonding</a>". In a metal, atoms readily lose their outermost ("valence") <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, forming positive <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>. The free electrons are spread over the entire solid, which is held together firmly by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud.<sup id="cite_ref-mortimer_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mortimer-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large number of <a href="/wiki/Free_electron_model" title="Free electron model">free electrons</a> gives metals their high values of electrical and thermal conductivity. The free electrons also prevent transmission of visible light, making metals opaque, shiny and <a href="/wiki/Lustrous" class="mw-redirect" title="Lustrous">lustrous</a>. </p><p>More advanced models of metal properties consider the effect of the positive ions cores on the delocalised electrons. As most metals have crystalline structure, those ions are usually arranged into a periodic lattice. Mathematically, the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models, the simplest being the <a href="/wiki/Nearly_free_electron_model" title="Nearly free electron model">nearly free electron model</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minerals">Minerals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Minerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Different_minerals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Different_minerals.jpg/220px-Different_minerals.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Different_minerals.jpg/330px-Different_minerals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Different_minerals.jpg/440px-Different_minerals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A collection of various minerals.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">Minerals</a></div> <p>Minerals are naturally occurring solids formed through various geological processes<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under high pressures. To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must have a <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> with uniform physical properties throughout. Minerals range in composition from <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element#Chemically_pure_and_isotopically_pure" title="Chemical element">pure elements</a> and simple <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a> to very complex <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicates</a> with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a> sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or <a href="/wiki/Mineraloid" title="Mineraloid">mineraloids</a>, and has no specific chemical composition. The vast majority of the rocks of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a> consist of quartz (crystalline SiO<sub>2</sub>), feldspar, mica, <a href="/wiki/Chlorite_group" title="Chlorite group">chlorite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaolin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaolin">kaolin</a>, calcite, <a href="/wiki/Epidote" title="Epidote">epidote</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augite" title="Augite">augite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hornblende" title="Hornblende">hornblende</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limonite" title="Limonite">limonite</a> and a few other minerals. Some minerals, like <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a> or <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> are common, while others have been found in only a few locations worldwide. The largest group of minerals by far is the <a href="/wiki/Silicate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate minerals">silicates</a> (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, with the addition of ions of aluminium, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, iron, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and other metals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ceramics">Ceramics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ceramics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Si3N4bearings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Si3N4bearings.jpg/250px-Si3N4bearings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Si3N4bearings.jpg/330px-Si3N4bearings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Si3N4bearings.jpg/500px-Si3N4bearings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> ceramic bearing parts</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></div> <p>Ceramic solids are composed of inorganic compounds, usually <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a> of chemical elements.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are chemically inert, and often are capable of withstanding chemical erosion that occurs in an acidic or caustic environment. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures ranging from 1,000 to 1,600 °C (1,830 to 2,910 °F). Exceptions include non-oxide inorganic materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Nitride" title="Nitride">nitrides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boride" title="Boride">borides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbide" title="Carbide">carbides</a>. </p><p>Traditional ceramic raw materials include <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a>, more recent materials include aluminium oxide (<a href="/wiki/Alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumina">alumina</a>). The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tungsten_carbide" title="Tungsten carbide">tungsten carbide</a>. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in such applications as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. </p><p>Most ceramic materials, such as alumina and its compounds, are <a href="/wiki/Ceramics_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramics processing">formed</a> from fine powders, yielding a fine grained <a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycrystalline">polycrystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a> that is filled with <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">light-scattering</a> centers comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a>. Thus, they are generally opaque materials, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Transparent_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparent materials">transparent materials</a>. Recent nanoscale (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Sol-gel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sol-gel">sol-gel</a>) technology has, however, made possible the production of polycrystalline <a href="/wiki/Transparent_ceramics" title="Transparent ceramics">transparent ceramics</a> such as transparent alumina and alumina compounds for such applications as high-power lasers. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and electronics industries. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a> is the science and technology of creating solid-state ceramic materials, parts and devices. This is done either by the action of heat, or, at lower temperatures, using <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation reactions</a> from chemical solutions. The term includes the purification of raw materials, the study and production of the chemical compounds concerned, their formation into components, and the study of their structure, composition and properties. </p><p>Mechanically speaking, ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression and weak in shearing and tension. <a href="/wiki/Brittle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle">Brittle</a> materials may exhibit significant <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> by supporting a static load. <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">Toughness</a> indicates how much energy a material can absorb before mechanical failure, while <a href="/wiki/Fracture_toughness" title="Fracture toughness">fracture toughness</a> (denoted K<sub>Ic</sub>) describes the ability of a material with inherent <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_defect" title="Crystallographic defect">microstructural flaws</a> to resist fracture via crack growth and propagation. If a material has a large value of <a href="/wiki/Fracture_toughness" title="Fracture toughness">fracture toughness</a>, the basic principles of <a href="/wiki/Fracture_mechanics" title="Fracture mechanics">fracture mechanics</a> suggest that it will most likely undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of most <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic Engineering">ceramic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">glass-ceramic</a> materials that typically exhibit low (and inconsistent) values of K<sub>Ic</sub>. </p><p>For an example of applications of ceramics, the extreme hardness of <a href="/wiki/Zirconium_dioxide" title="Zirconium dioxide">zirconia</a> is utilized in the manufacture of knife blades, as well as other industrial cutting tools. Ceramics such as <a href="/wiki/Alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumina">alumina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boron_carbide" title="Boron carbide">boron carbide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a> have been used in <a href="/wiki/Bulletproof_vest" title="Bulletproof vest">bulletproof vests</a> to repel large-caliber rifle fire. <a href="/wiki/Silicon_nitride" title="Silicon nitride">Silicon nitride</a> parts are used in ceramic ball bearings, where their high hardness makes them wear resistant. In general, ceramics are also chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would be susceptible to oxidation (or rust). </p><p>As another example of ceramic applications, in the early 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Toyota" title="Toyota">Toyota</a> researched production of an <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic">adiabatic</a> ceramic engine with an <a href="/wiki/Operating_temperature" title="Operating temperature">operating temperature</a> of over 6,000 °F (3,320 °C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency. In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts. Work is also being done in developing ceramic parts for <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> <a href="/wiki/Heat_engine" title="Heat engine">engines</a>. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel. Such engines are not in production, however, because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the sufficient precision and durability is difficult and costly. Processing methods often result in a wide distribution of microscopic flaws that frequently play a detrimental role in the sintering process, resulting in the proliferation of cracks, and ultimate mechanical failure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glass_ceramics">Glass ceramics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Glass ceramics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">Glass-ceramic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceranfeld.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ceranfeld.jpg/220px-Ceranfeld.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ceranfeld.jpg/330px-Ceranfeld.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ceranfeld.jpg/440px-Ceranfeld.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2618" data-file-height="1413" /></a><figcaption>A high strength glass-ceramic cooktop with negligible <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glasses and <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Ceramic_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic materials">ceramics</a>. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment, producing both <a href="/wiki/Amorphous" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorphous">amorphous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> phases so that crystalline grains are embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase. </p><p>Glass-ceramics are used to make cookware (originally known by the brand name <a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a>) and stovetops that have high resistance to <a href="/wiki/Thermal_shock" title="Thermal shock">thermal shock</a> and extremely low <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(fluid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (fluid)">permeability</a> to liquids. The negative <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">coefficient of thermal expansion</a> of the crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive coefficient of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net coefficient of thermal expansion close to zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C. </p><p>Glass ceramics may also occur naturally when <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> strikes the crystalline (e.g. quartz) grains found in most beach <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>. In this case, the extreme and immediate heat of the lightning (~2500 °C) creates hollow, branching rootlike structures called <a href="/wiki/Fulgurite" title="Fulgurite">fulgurite</a> via <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">fusion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organic_solids">Organic solids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Organic solids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic chemistry</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PaperAutofluorescence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/PaperAutofluorescence.jpg/250px-PaperAutofluorescence.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/PaperAutofluorescence.jpg/500px-PaperAutofluorescence.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="6400" data-file-height="4800" /></a><figcaption>The individual wood pulp fibers in this sample are around 10 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a> in diameter.</figcaption></figure> <p>Organic chemistry studies the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation by synthesis (or other means) of chemical compounds of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, which may contain any number of other elements such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and the halogens: <a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">bromine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>. Some organic compounds may also contain the elements <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>. Examples of organic solids include wood, <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">paraffin wax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naphthalene" title="Naphthalene">naphthalene</a> and a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wood">Wood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Wood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></div> <p>Wood is a natural organic material consisting primarily of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> fibers embedded in a matrix of <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a>. Regarding mechanical properties, the fibers are strong in tension, and the lignin matrix resists compression. Thus wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters and using boats. Wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as <i><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a></i> or <i>timber</i>. In construction, wood is not only a structural material, but is also used to form the mould for concrete. </p><p>Wood-based materials are also extensively used for packaging (e.g. cardboard) and paper, which are both created from the refined pulp. The chemical pulping processes use a combination of high temperature and alkaline (kraft) or acidic (sulfite) chemicals to break the chemical bonds of the lignin before burning it out. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Polymers">Polymers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Polymers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg/250px-Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg/330px-Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg/440px-Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>STM image of self-assembled <a href="/wiki/Supramolecular" class="mw-redirect" title="Supramolecular">supramolecular</a> chains of the <a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductor</a> <a href="/wiki/Quinacridone" title="Quinacridone">quinacridone</a> on <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></div> <p>One important property of carbon in organic chemistry is that it can form certain compounds, the individual molecules of which are capable of attaching themselves to one another, thereby forming a chain or a network. The process is called polymerization and the chains or networks polymers, while the source compound is a monomer. Two main groups of polymers exist: those artificially manufactured are referred to as industrial polymers or synthetic polymers (plastics) and those naturally occurring as biopolymers. </p><p>Monomers can have various chemical substituents, or functional groups, which can affect the chemical properties of organic compounds, such as solubility and chemical reactivity, as well as the physical properties, such as hardness, density, mechanical or tensile strength, abrasion resistance, heat resistance, transparency, color, etc.. In proteins, these differences give the polymer the ability to adopt a biologically active conformation in preference to others (see <a href="/wiki/Self-assembly" title="Self-assembly">self-assembly</a>). </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plastic_household_items.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/250px-Plastic_household_items.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Plastic_household_items.jpg/500px-Plastic_household_items.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Household items made of various <a href="/wiki/Kinds_of_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinds of plastic">kinds of plastic</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>People have been using natural organic polymers for centuries in the form of waxes and <a href="/wiki/Shellac" title="Shellac">shellac</a>, which is classified as a thermoplastic polymer. A plant polymer named <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> provided the tensile strength for natural fibers and ropes, and by the early 19th century natural rubber was in widespread use. Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what are commonly called plastics. Plastics are the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. Polymers that have been around, and that are in current widespread use, include carbon-based <a href="/wiki/Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">polyethylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">polyvinyl chloride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a>, nylons, <a href="/wiki/Polyester" title="Polyester">polyesters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acrylic_resin" title="Acrylic resin">acrylics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">polycarbonates</a>, and silicon-based <a href="/wiki/Silicone" title="Silicone">silicones</a>. Plastics are generally classified as "commodity", "specialty" and "engineering" plastics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composite_materials">Composite materials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Composite materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stsheat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Stsheat.jpg/250px-Stsheat.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Stsheat.jpg/375px-Stsheat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Stsheat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Simulation of the outside of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> as it heats up to over 1500 °C during re-entry</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kohlenstofffasermatte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Kohlenstofffasermatte.jpg/250px-Kohlenstofffasermatte.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Kohlenstofffasermatte.jpg/500px-Kohlenstofffasermatte.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A cloth of woven <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fiber">carbon fiber</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiber" title="Fiber">filaments</a>, a common element in <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite materials</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite material</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Composite_material" title="Composite material">Composite materials</a> contain two or more macroscopic phases, one of which is often ceramic. For example, a continuous matrix, and a dispersed phase of ceramic particles or fibers. </p><p>Applications of composite materials range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermally insulative tiles that play a key and integral role in NASA's <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_thermal_protection_system" title="Space Shuttle thermal protection system">Space Shuttle thermal protection system</a>, which is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_Carbon-Carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Reinforced Carbon-Carbon">Reinforced Carbon-Carbon</a> (RCC), the light gray material that withstands reentry temperatures up to 1,510 °C (2,750 °F) and protects the nose cap and leading edges of Space Shuttle's wings. RCC is a <a href="/wiki/Laminated" class="mw-redirect" title="Laminated">laminated</a> composite material made from <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> <a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a> cloth and impregnated with a <a href="/wiki/Phenolic_resin" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenolic resin">phenolic resin</a>. After curing at high temperature in an autoclave, the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with <a href="/wiki/Furfural" title="Furfural">furfural</a> alcohol in a vacuum chamber, and cured/pyrolized to convert the furfural alcohol to carbon. In order to provide oxidation resistance for reuse capability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to silicon carbide. </p><p>Domestic examples of composites can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so on. These plastic casings are usually a composite made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as <a href="/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> (ABS) in which <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> chalk, <a href="/wiki/Talc" title="Talc">talc</a>, glass fibers or carbon fibers have been added for strength, bulk, or electro-static dispersion. These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose. </p><p>Thus, the matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials provides the designer with the choice of an optimum combination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semiconductors">Semiconductors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Semiconductors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png/250px-Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png/330px-Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png/500px-Siliconchip_by_shapeshifter.png 2x" data-file-width="1276" data-file-height="891" /></a><figcaption>Semiconductor chip on crystalline silicon substrate.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductors">Semiconductors</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductors</a> are materials that have an electrical resistivity (and conductivity) between that of metallic conductors and non-metallic insulators. They can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> moving diagonally downward right from <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>. They separate the electrical conductors (or metals, to the left) from the insulators (to the right). </p><p>Devices made from semiconductor materials are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers, telephones, etc. Semiconductor devices include the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>. Solar photovoltaic panels are large semiconductor devices that directly convert light into electrical energy. </p><p>In a metallic conductor, current is carried by the flow of electrons, but in semiconductors, current can be carried either by electrons or by the positively charged "<a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">electronic band structure</a> of the material. Common semiconductor materials include silicon, <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Nanomaterials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nano_Si_640x480.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Nano_Si_640x480.jpg/250px-Nano_Si_640x480.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Nano_Si_640x480.jpg/330px-Nano_Si_640x480.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Nano_Si_640x480.jpg/440px-Nano_Si_640x480.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption>Bulk silicon (left) and silicon nanopowder (right)</figcaption></figure> <p>Many traditional solids exhibit different properties when they shrink to nanometer sizes. For example, <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> of usually yellow gold and gray silicon are red in color; gold nanoparticles melt at much lower temperatures (~300 °C for 2.5 nm size) than the gold slabs (1064 °C);<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and metallic nanowires are much stronger than the corresponding bulk metals.<sup id="cite_ref-pure_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pure-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The high surface area of nanoparticles makes them extremely attractive for certain applications in the field of energy. For example, platinum metals may provide improvements as automotive fuel <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalysts</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Proton_exchange_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton exchange membrane">proton exchange membrane</a> (PEM) fuel cells. Also, ceramic oxides (or cermets) of <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">lanthanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>, manganese and nickel are now being developed as <a href="/wiki/Solid_oxide_fuel_cell" title="Solid oxide fuel cell">solid oxide fuel cells</a> (SOFC). Lithium, <a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">lithium-titanate</a> and tantalum nanoparticles are being applied in lithium-ion batteries. Silicon nanoparticles have been shown to dramatically expand the storage capacity of lithium-ion batteries during the expansion/contraction cycle. Silicon nanowires cycle without significant degradation and present the potential for use in batteries with greatly expanded storage times. Silicon nanoparticles are also being used in new forms of solar energy cells. Thin film deposition of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_quantum_dots" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon quantum dots">silicon</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">quantum dots</a> on the polycrystalline silicon substrate of a photovoltaic (solar) cell increases voltage output as much as 60% by fluorescing the incoming light prior to capture. Here again, surface area of the nanoparticles (and thin films) plays a critical role in maximizing the amount of absorbed radiation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomaterials">Biomaterials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Biomaterials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biomaterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomaterials">Biomaterials</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woven_bone_matrix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Woven_bone_matrix.jpg/250px-Woven_bone_matrix.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Woven_bone_matrix.jpg/375px-Woven_bone_matrix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Woven_bone_matrix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">Collagen</a> <a href="/wiki/Fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibers">fibers</a> of woven <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many natural (or biological) materials are complex composites with remarkable mechanical properties. These complex structures, which have risen from hundreds of million years of evolution, are inspiring materials scientists in the design of novel materials. Their defining characteristics include structural hierarchy, multifunctionality and self-healing capability. Self-organization is also a fundamental feature of many biological materials and the manner by which the structures are assembled from the molecular level up. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Self-assembly" title="Self-assembly">self-assembly</a> is emerging as a new strategy in the chemical synthesis of high performance biomaterials. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Physical properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Physical properties of elements and compounds that provide conclusive evidence of chemical composition include odor, color, volume, density (mass per unit volume), melting point, boiling point, heat capacity, physical form and shape at room temperature (solid, liquid or gas; cubic, trigonal crystals, etc.), hardness, porosity, <a href="/wiki/Index_of_refraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of refraction">index of refraction</a> and many others. This section discusses some physical properties of materials in the solid state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical">Mechanical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mechanical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Torres_del_Paine,_Patagonia_(2004).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Torres_del_Paine%2C_Patagonia_%282004%29.jpg/330px-Torres_del_Paine%2C_Patagonia_%282004%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Torres_del_Paine%2C_Patagonia_%282004%29.jpg/500px-Torres_del_Paine%2C_Patagonia_%282004%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Torres_del_Paine%2C_Patagonia_%282004%29.jpg/600px-Torres_del_Paine%2C_Patagonia_%282004%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a> rock formation in the Chilean <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a>. Like most <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a> minerals formed by oxidation in the Earth's atmosphere, granite consists primarily of <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> SiO<sub>2</sub> and <a href="/wiki/Alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumina">alumina</a> Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The mechanical properties of materials describe characteristics such as their <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">strength</a> and resistance to deformation. For example, steel beams are used in construction because of their high strength, meaning that they neither break nor bend significantly under the applied load. </p><p>Mechanical properties include <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity (physics)">plasticity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shear_strength" title="Shear strength">shear strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fracture_toughness" title="Fracture toughness">fracture toughness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a> (low in brittle materials) and <a href="/wiki/Indentation_hardness" title="Indentation hardness">indentation hardness</a>. <a href="/wiki/Solid_mechanics" title="Solid mechanics">Solid mechanics</a> is the study of the behavior of solid matter under external actions such as external forces and temperature changes. </p><p>A solid does not exhibit macroscopic flow, as fluids do. Any degree of departure from its original shape is called <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(engineering)" title="Deformation (engineering)">deformation</a>. The proportion of deformation to original size is called strain. If the applied <a href="/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">stress</a> is sufficiently low, almost all solid materials behave in such a way that the strain is directly proportional to the stress (<a href="/wiki/Hooke%27s_law" title="Hooke's law">Hooke's law</a>). The coefficient of the proportion is called the <a href="/wiki/Modulus_of_elasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulus of elasticity">modulus of elasticity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a>. This region of deformation is known as the <a href="/wiki/Linear_elasticity" title="Linear elasticity">linearly elastic</a> region. Three models can describe how a solid responds to an applied stress: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">Elasticity</a> – When an applied stress is removed, the material returns to its undeformed state.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viscoelasticity" title="Viscoelasticity">Viscoelasticity</a> – These are materials that behave elastically, but also have <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">damping</a>. When the applied stress is removed, work has to be done against the damping effects and is converted to heat within the material. This results in a <a href="/wiki/Hysteresis_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Hysteresis loop">hysteresis loop</a> in the stress–strain curve. This implies that the mechanical response has a time-dependence.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)" title="Plasticity (physics)">Plasticity</a> – Materials that behave elastically generally do so when the applied stress is less than a yield value. When the stress is greater than the yield stress, the material behaves plastically and does not return to its previous state. That is, irreversible plastic deformation (or viscous flow) occurs after yield that is permanent.</li></ul> <p>Many materials become weaker at high temperatures. Materials that retain their strength at high temperatures, called <a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory materials</a>, are useful for many purposes. For example, <a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">glass-ceramics</a> have become extremely useful for countertop cooking, as they exhibit excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C. In the aerospace industry, high performance materials used in the design of aircraft and/or spacecraft exteriors must have a high resistance to thermal shock. Thus, synthetic fibers spun out of organic polymers and polymer/ceramic/metal composite materials and fiber-reinforced polymers are now being designed with this purpose in mind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal">Thermal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Thermal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1D_normal_modes_(280_kB).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/1D_normal_modes_%28280_kB%29.gif/250px-1D_normal_modes_%28280_kB%29.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/1D_normal_modes_%28280_kB%29.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Normal_modes" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal modes">Normal modes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_vibration" title="Molecular vibration">atomic vibration</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> solid</figcaption></figure> <p>Because solids have <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a>, their atoms vibrate about fixed mean positions within the ordered (or disordered) lattice. The spectrum of lattice vibrations in a crystalline or glassy network provides the foundation for the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinetic theory of solids">kinetic theory of solids</a>. This motion occurs at the atomic level, and thus cannot be observed or detected without highly specialized equipment, such as that used in <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>. </p><p>Thermal properties of solids include <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a>, which is the property of a material that indicates its ability to <a href="/wiki/Conduction_(heat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction (heat)">conduct heat</a>. Solids also have a <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a>, which is the capacity of a material to store energy in the form of heat (or thermal lattice vibrations). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical">Electrical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Electrical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/250px--Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="250" height="176" data-durationhint="10" data-mwtitle="Flyingsuperconductor.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Flyingsuperconductor.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="342" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="342" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="204" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Flyingsuperconductor.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="341" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Video of superconducting levitation of <a href="/wiki/YBCO" class="mw-redirect" title="YBCO">YBCO</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Electrical properties include both <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">electrical resistivity and conductivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_strength" title="Dielectric strength">dielectric strength</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(electromagnetism)" title="Permeability (electromagnetism)">electromagnetic permeability</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Permittivity" title="Permittivity">permittivity</a>. Electrical conductors such as metals and alloys are contrasted with electrical insulators such as glasses and ceramics. <a href="/wiki/Semiconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductors">Semiconductors</a> behave somewhere in between. Whereas conductivity in metals is caused by electrons, both electrons and holes contribute to current in semiconductors. Alternatively, ions support electric current in <a href="/wiki/Fast-ion_conductor" title="Fast-ion conductor">ionic conductors</a>. </p><p>Many materials also exhibit <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a> at low temperatures; they include metallic elements such as tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys, some heavily doped semiconductors, and certain ceramics. The electrical resistivity of most electrical (metallic) conductors generally decreases gradually as the temperature is lowered, but remains finite. In a superconductor, however, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a>, or electrical insulator, is a substance that is highly resistant to the flow of electric current. A dielectric, such as plastic, tends to concentrate an applied electric field within itself, which property is used in capacitors. A <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a> is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of closely spaced conductors (called 'plates'). When voltage is applied to the capacitor, electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, build up on each plate. Capacitors are used in electrical circuits as energy-storage devices, as well as in electronic filters to differentiate between high-frequency and low-frequency signals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electro-mechanical">Electro-mechanical</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Electro-mechanical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Piezoelectricity" title="Piezoelectricity">Piezoelectricity</a> is the ability of crystals to generate a voltage in response to an applied mechanical stress. The piezoelectric effect is reversible in that piezoelectric crystals, when subjected to an externally applied voltage, can change shape by a small amount. Polymer materials like rubber, wool, hair, wood fiber, and silk often behave as <a href="/wiki/Electret" title="Electret">electrets</a>. For example, the polymer <a href="/wiki/Polyvinylidene_fluoride" title="Polyvinylidene fluoride">polyvinylidene fluoride</a> (PVDF) exhibits a piezoelectric response several times larger than the traditional piezoelectric material quartz (crystalline SiO<sub>2</sub>). The deformation (~0.1%) lends itself to useful technical applications such as high-voltage sources, loudspeakers, lasers, as well as chemical, biological, and acousto-optic sensors and/or transducers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical">Optical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Optical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Materials can <a href="/wiki/Transparent_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparent materials">transmit</a> (e.g. glass) or reflect (e.g. metals) visible light. </p><p>Many materials will transmit some wavelengths while blocking others. For example, window glass is transparent to <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible light</a>, but much less so to most of the frequencies of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light that cause <a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">sunburn</a>. This property is used for frequency-selective optical filters, which can alter the color of incident light. </p><p>For some purposes, both the optical and mechanical properties of a material can be of interest. For example, the sensors on an <a href="/wiki/Infrared_homing" title="Infrared homing">infrared homing</a> ("heat-seeking") missile must be protected by a cover that is transparent to <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared radiation</a>. The current material of choice for high-speed infrared-guided missile domes is single-crystal <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a>. The optical transmission of sapphire does not actually extend to cover the entire mid-infrared range (3–5 μm), but starts to drop off at wavelengths greater than approximately 4.5 μm at room temperature. While the strength of sapphire is better than that of other available mid-range infrared dome materials at room temperature, it weakens above 600 °C. A long-standing trade-off exists between optical bandpass and mechanical durability; new materials such as <a href="/wiki/Transparent_ceramics" title="Transparent ceramics">transparent ceramics</a> or optical nanocomposites may provide improved performance. </p><p>Guided lightwave transmission involves the field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glasses to transmit, simultaneously and with low loss of intensity, a range of frequencies (multi-mode optical waveguides) with little interference between them. Optical waveguides are used as components in integrated optical circuits or as the transmission medium in optical communication systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Opto-electronic">Opto-electronic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Opto-electronic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></div> <p>A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. Fundamentally, the device needs to fulfill only two functions: photo-generation of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-absorbing material, and separation of the charge carriers to a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity (simply put, carrying electrons off through a metal contact into an external circuit). This conversion is called the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a>, and the field of research related to solar cells is known as photovoltaics. </p><p>Solar cells have many applications. They have long been used in situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power systems, Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, handheld calculators, wrist watches, remote radiotelephones and water pumping applications. More recently, they are starting to be used in assemblies of solar modules (photovoltaic arrays) connected to the electricity grid through an inverter, that is not to act as a sole supply but as an additional electricity source. </p><p>All solar cells require a light absorbing material contained within the cell structure to absorb photons and generate electrons via the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a>. The materials used in solar cells tend to have the property of preferentially absorbing the wavelengths of solar light that reach the earth surface. Some solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth's atmosphere, as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fields_of_study">Fields of study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fields of study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid-state_physics">Solid-state physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Solid-state physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid-state_physics&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a> is the study of rigid <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, or solids, through methods such as <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">solid-state chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>. It is the largest branch of <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>. Solid-state physics studies how the large-scale properties of solid materials result from their <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atomic</a>-scale properties. Thus, solid-state physics forms a theoretical basis of <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>. Along with <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">solid-state chemistry</a>, it also has direct applications in the technology of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid-state_chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Solid-state chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid-state_chemistry&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a>, also sometimes referred as materials chemistry, is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthesis</a>, structure, and properties of solid phase materials. It therefore has a strong overlap with <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a> with a focus on the synthesis of novel materials and their characterization. A diverse range of synthetic techniques, such as the ceramic method and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">chemical vapour depostion</a>, make solid-state materials. Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous on basis of the nature of order present in the arrangement of their constituent particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Solid-state_chemistry_West_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solid-state_chemistry_West-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their elemental compositions, microstructures, and physical properties can be characterized through a variety of analytical methods.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Materials_science">Materials science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Materials science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Materials_science&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg/330px-Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg/500px-Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg/960px-Diamond_cuboctahedron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="943" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuboctahedron" title="Cuboctahedron">cuboctahedron</a> showing seven <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystallographic">crystallographic</a> planes, imaged with <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron microscopy">scanning electron microscopy</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Materials_classification.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Six classes of conventional engineering materials." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Materials_classification.svg/250px-Materials_classification.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Materials_classification.svg/330px-Materials_classification.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Materials_classification.svg/500px-Materials_classification.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Six classes of conventional engineering materials</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> field of researching and discovering <a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">materials</a>. Materials engineering is an <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries. </p><p>The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, when researchers began to use analytical thinking from <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> to understand ancient, <a href="/wiki/Empirical_relationship" title="Empirical relationship">phenomenological</a> observations in <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Materials_science_smith_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Materials_science_smith-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. As such, the field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world created dedicated schools for its study. </p><p>Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material (<i>processing</i>) influences its structure, and thus the <a href="/wiki/Material_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Material properties">material's properties</a> and performance. The understanding of processing -structure-properties relationships is called the materials paradigm. This <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a> is used to advance understanding in a variety of research areas, including <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">biomaterials</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>. </p> Materials science is also an important part of <a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">forensic engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Failure_analysis" title="Failure analysis">failure analysis</a> –  investigating materials, products, structures or components, which fail or do not function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. Such investigations are key to understanding, for example, the causes of various <a href="/wiki/Aviation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Aviation accidents and incidents">aviation accidents and incidents</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/states-of-matter-p2-608184">"What Are the States of Matter?"</a>. <i>ThoughtCo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-03-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo&rft.atitle=What+Are+the+States+of+Matter%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fstates-of-matter-p2-608184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFupdated2022" class="citation web cs1">updated, Mary Bagley last (2022-10-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/46506-states-of-matter.html">"Matter: Definition & the Five States of Matter"</a>. <i>livescience.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-03-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=livescience.com&rft.atitle=Matter%3A+Definition+%26+the+Five+States+of+Matter&rft.date=2022-10-20&rft.aulast=updated&rft.aufirst=Mary+Bagley+last&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F46506-states-of-matter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/young-modulus-d_417.html">"Young's Modulus of Elasticity – Values for Common Materials"</a>. <i>www.engineeringtoolbox.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-03-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.engineeringtoolbox.com&rft.atitle=Young%27s+Modulus+of+Elasticity+%E2%80%93+Values+for+Common+Materials&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineeringtoolbox.com%2Fyoung-modulus-d_417.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quite possibly the only counter-example in existence is the freezing/melting of Helium-3, an isotope of the element helium. He-3 melts into a super-critical fluid when cooled below 0.1 K at around 30 atmospheres of pressure (3 MPa). 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Dog Ear Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781457552748" title="Special:BookSources/9781457552748"><bdi>9781457552748</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GENERAL+BIOLOGY+I%3A+Molecules%2C+Cells+and+Genes&rft.pub=Dog+Ear+Publishing&rft.date=2017-05-31&rft.isbn=9781457552748&rft.aulast=Holley&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_uUlDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsodium%2Bchloride%2Bmade%2Bup%2Bof%2Bionic%2Bsodium%2Band%2Bchlorine%2Bionically%2Bbonded%2Btogether%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRogersAdamsPennathur2014" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Ben; Adams, Jesse; Pennathur, Sumita (2014-10-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HI9qBAAAQBAJ&q=in+diamond++atoms+share+electrons+forming+covalent+bonds&pg=PA93"><i>Nanotechnology: Understanding Small Systems, Third Edition</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781482211726" title="Special:BookSources/9781482211726"><bdi>9781482211726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanotechnology%3A+Understanding+Small+Systems%2C+Third+Edition&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2014-10-28&rft.isbn=9781482211726&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jesse&rft.au=Pennathur%2C+Sumita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHI9qBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Din%2Bdiamond%2B%2Batoms%2Bshare%2Belectrons%2Bforming%2Bcovalent%2Bbonds%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNahumMelvin2013" class="citation book cs1">Nahum, Alan M.; Melvin, John W. 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(1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/100337">"Size effect on the melting temperature of gold particles"</a>. <i>Physical Review A</i>. <b>13</b> (6): 2287. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976PhRvA..13.2287B">1976PhRvA..13.2287B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.13.2287">10.1103/PhysRevA.13.2287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+A&rft.atitle=Size+effect+on+the+melting+temperature+of+gold+particles&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2287&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevA.13.2287&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976PhRvA..13.2287B&rft.aulast=Buffat&rft.aufirst=Ph.&rft.au=Borel%2C+J.-P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfoscience.epfl.ch%2Frecord%2F100337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pure-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pure_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalter_H._Kohl1995" class="citation book cs1">Walter H. Kohl (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ll6qjWB-RUC&pg=PA164"><i>Handbook of materials and techniques for vacuum devices</i></a>. Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">164–</span>167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56396-387-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56396-387-6"><bdi>1-56396-387-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+materials+and+techniques+for+vacuum+devices&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E164-%3C%2Fspan%3E167&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-56396-387-6&rft.au=Walter+H.+Kohl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-Ll6qjWB-RUC%26pg%3DPA164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShpakKotrechkoMazilovaMikhailovskij2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shpak, Anatoly P.; Kotrechko, Sergiy O.; Mazilova, Tatjana I; Mikhailovskij, Igor M (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5090266">"Inherent tensile strength of molybdenum nanocrystals"</a>. <i>Science and Technology of Advanced Materials</i>. <b>10</b> (4): 045004. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009STAdM..10d5004S">2009STAdM..10d5004S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1468-6996%2F10%2F4%2F045004">10.1088/1468-6996/10/4/045004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5090266">5090266</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27877304">27877304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+and+Technology+of+Advanced+Materials&rft.atitle=Inherent+tensile+strength+of+molybdenum+nanocrystals&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=045004&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5090266%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27877304&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1468-6996%2F10%2F4%2F045004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009STAdM..10d5004S&rft.aulast=Shpak&rft.aufirst=Anatoly+P.&rft.au=Kotrechko%2C+Sergiy+O.&rft.au=Mazilova%2C+Tatjana+I&rft.au=Mikhailovskij%2C+Igor+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5090266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Solid-state_chemistry_West-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Solid-state_chemistry_West_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWest2004" class="citation book cs1">West, Anthony R. (2004). <i>Solid State Chemistry and Its Applications</i>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-253-003-7" title="Special:BookSources/981-253-003-7"><bdi>981-253-003-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+State+Chemistry+and+Its+Applications&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=981-253-003-7&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Anthony+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEddy2008" class="citation book cs1">Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1112014"><i>The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School 1750–1800</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150903230852/http://www.academia.edu/1112014/The_Language_of_Mineralogy_John_Walker_Chemistry_and_the_Edinburgh_Medical_School_1750-1800_2008_">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-09-03 – via Academia.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+Mineralogy%3A+John+Walker%2C+Chemistry+and+the+Edinburgh+Medical+School+1750%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1112014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Materials_science_smith-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Materials_science_smith_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Stanley_Smith" title="Cyril Stanley Smith">Smith, Cyril Stanley</a> (1981). <i>A Search for Structure</i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262191913" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262191913"><bdi>978-0262191913</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Search+for+Structure&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0262191913&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Cyril+Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASolid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Solid&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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<th><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Solid</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gas</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Solid </th> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">Melting</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Liquid </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">Freezing</a> </td> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">Vaporization</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gas </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)" title="Deposition (phase transition)">Deposition</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a> </td> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">Ionization</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plasma </th> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasma_recombination" title="Plasma recombination">Recombination</a> </td> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;background:linear-gradient(to top right,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 49%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 49.5%,var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1) 50.5%,var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0) 51%);line-height:1.2;padding:0.1em 0.4em;"><div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right"></div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left"></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Solid_objects288" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">State of matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase (matter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">Amorphous solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonding_in_solids" title="Bonding in solids">Bonding in solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscibility" title="Miscibility">Miscibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">Phase diagram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a 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title="Template:Fundamental aspects of materials science">Fundamental aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_informatics" title="Materials informatics">Informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Domains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Condensed-matter_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed-matter physics">Condensed-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_matter" title="Soft matter">Soft-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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science">Common</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">Material</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="States_of_matter_(list,_timeline)214" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_matter" title="Template:States of matter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_matter" title="Template talk:States of matter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_matter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of matter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_matter_(list,_timeline)214" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States of matter</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter" title="List of states of matter">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_states_of_matter_and_phase_transitions" title="Timeline of states of matter and phase transitions">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">Vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">Supercritical fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_change_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/250px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/330px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="524" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Low energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">Fermionic condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">Degenerate matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect" title="Quantum Hall effect">Quantum Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rydberg_matter" title="Rydberg matter">Rydberg matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_matter" title="Strange matter">Strange matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">Superfluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersolid" title="Supersolid">Supersolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photonic_molecule" title="Photonic molecule">Photonic molecule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">High energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color-glass_condensate" title="Color-glass condensate">Color-glass condensate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">Colloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">Liquid crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_spin_liquid" title="Quantum spin liquid">Quantum spin liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a></li> <li>Magnetically ordered <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">Antiferromagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrimagnetism" title="Ferrimagnetism">Ferrimagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">Ferromagnet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String-net_liquid" title="String-net liquid">String-net liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superglass" title="Superglass">Superglass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phase_transitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase transitions">Phase transitions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">Boiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_line_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical line (thermodynamics)">Critical line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)" title="Deposition (phase transition)">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">Evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_evaporation" title="Flash evaporation">Flash evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">Freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_ionization" title="Chemical ionization">Chemical ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_point" title="Lambda point">Lambda point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">Melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_recombination" title="Plasma recombination">Recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regelation" title="Regelation">Regelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium" title="Vapor–liquid equilibrium">Saturated fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">Triple point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">Vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Enthalpy of fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_sublimation" title="Enthalpy of sublimation">Enthalpy of sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Enthalpy of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_internal_energy" title="Latent internal energy">Latent internal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trouton%27s_rule" title="Trouton's rule">Trouton's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">Volatility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">Baryonic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binodal" title="Binodal">Binodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed_fluid" title="Compressed fluid">Compressed fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_curve" title="Cooling curve">Cooling curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">Equation of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect" title="Leidenfrost effect">Leidenfrost effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_quantum_phenomena" title="Macroscopic quantum phenomena">Macroscopic quantum phenomena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpemba_effect" title="Mpemba effect">Mpemba effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order and disorder (physics)">Order and disorder (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinodal" title="Spinodal">Spinodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheated_water" title="Superheated water">Superheated vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">Superheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermo-dielectric_effect" title="Thermo-dielectric effect">Thermo-dielectric effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4016918-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Solids"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85124647">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Solides"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119358497">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Solides"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119358497">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566774">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="pevné látky"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124066&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007556081205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 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