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class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Handbook_on_Procedures_and_Criteria_for_Determining_Refugee_Status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>National law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-National_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle National law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-National_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selective_conscientious_objection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selective_conscientious_objection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Selective conscientious objection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selective_conscientious_objection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_motives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_motives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Religious motives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_motives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives_for_objectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives_for_objectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Alternatives for objectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternatives_for_objectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conscientious_objection_around_the_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conscientious_objection_around_the_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Conscientious objection around the world</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conscientious_objection_around_the_world-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conscientious objection around the world subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conscientious_objection_around_the_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Belgium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colombia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colombia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Colombia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colombia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czechoslovakia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czechoslovakia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Czechoslovakia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czechoslovakia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Denmark</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eritrea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eritrea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Eritrea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eritrea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Finland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9</span> <span>Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nazi_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazi_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9.1</span> <span>Nazi Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazi_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9.2</span> <span>East Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-West_Germany_and_reunified_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#West_Germany_and_reunified_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9.3</span> <span>West Germany and reunified Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-West_Germany_and_reunified_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.10</span> <span>Hungary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.11</span> <span>Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.12</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marshall_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marshall_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.13</span> <span>Marshall Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marshall_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.14</span> <span>The Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.15</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.16</span> <span>Romania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.17</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.18</span> <span>Serbia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.19</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.20</span> <span>South Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.21</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.22</span> <span>Taiwan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.23</span> <span>Turkey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.24</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.25</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.26</span> <span>Other countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conscientious_objection_in_professional_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conscientious_objection_in_professional_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Conscientious objection in professional forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conscientious_objection_in_professional_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_viewing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_viewing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further viewing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_viewing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Conscientious objector</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gewetensbeswaarde" title="Gewetensbeswaarde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gewetensbeswaarde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="معارضو الخدمة العسكرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معارضو الخدمة العسكرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicdanl%C4%B1_etiraz%C3%A7%C4%B1" title="Vicdanlı etirazçı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vicdanlı etirazçı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objecci%C3%B3_de_consci%C3%A8ncia" title="Objecció de consciència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Objecció de consciència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwrthwynebydd_cydwybodol" title="Gwrthwynebydd cydwybodol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwrthwynebydd cydwybodol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milit%C3%A6rn%C3%A6gter" title="Militærnægter – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Militærnægter" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrdienstverweigerer" title="Wehrdienstverweigerer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wehrdienstverweigerer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%81%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Αντιρρησίας συνείδησης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αντιρρησίας συνείδησης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%91%EC%8B%AC%EC%A0%81_%EB%B3%91%EC%97%AD_%EA%B1%B0%EB%B6%80" title="양심적 병역 거부 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="양심적 병역 거부" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penolak_berdasarkan_hati_nurani" title="Penolak berdasarkan hati nurani – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penolak berdasarkan hati nurani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99" title="סרבן מצפוני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סרבן מצפוני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reda_wijdan%C3%AE" title="Reda wijdanî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Reda wijdanî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detrectator_militiae" title="Detrectator militiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Detrectator militiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembantah_ikut_naluri" title="Pembantah ikut naluri – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembantah ikut naluri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obd%C5%BCektor" title="Obdżektor – Polish" lang="pl" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about freedom of conscience in the military. For conscientious objection in medicine, see <a href="/wiki/Conscience_clause_in_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="Conscience clause in medicine in the United States">Conscience clause in medicine in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_to_abortion" title="Conscientious objection to abortion">Conscientious objection to abortion</a>. For the documentary film about Desmond Doss, see <a href="/wiki/The_Conscientious_Objector" title="The Conscientious Objector"><i>The Conscientious Objector</i></a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Objector" redirects here. For the 1966 Australian television play, see <a href="/wiki/Objector_(Australian_Playhouse)" title="Objector (Australian Playhouse)">Objector (<i>Australian Playhouse</i>)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ddddff;"><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Caricature-1780-press_gang.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1780 caricature of a press gang"><img alt="1780 caricature of a press gang" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Caricature-1780-press_gang.jpg/250px-Caricature-1780-press_gang.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Caricature-1780-press_gang.jpg/375px-Caricature-1780-press_gang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Caricature-1780-press_gang.jpg/500px-Caricature-1780-press_gang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1471" data-file-height="954" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">1780 caricature of a <a href="/wiki/Press_gang" class="mw-redirect" title="Press gang">press gang</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_civilian_service" title="Alternative civilian service">Alternative civilian service</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_conscription" title="Civil conscription">Civil conscription</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conscientious objector</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_crisis" title="Conscription crisis">Conscription crisis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">Counter-recruitment</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Draft-card_burning" title="Draft-card burning">Draft-card burning</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Draft_evasion" title="Draft evasion">Draft evasion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">Levée en masse</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Military service</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/National_service" title="National service">National service</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> By historical country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Conscription in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Conscription in the Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Conscription in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Conscription#By_country" title="Conscription">By modern country</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Argentina" title="Conscription in Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Australia" title="Conscription in Australia">Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Azerbaijan" title="Conscription in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Military_service#Bermuda" title="Military service">Bermuda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Brazil" title="Conscription in Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Canada" title="Conscription in Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_China" title="Conscription in China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Conscription in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo-Kinshasa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Child_soldiers_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">child soldiers</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Cuba" title="Conscription in Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Cyprus" title="Conscription in Cyprus">Cyprus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reduction_of_military_conscription_in_Cyprus" title="Reduction of military conscription in Cyprus">reduction</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Denmark" title="Conscription in Denmark">Denmark</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Egypt" title="Conscription in Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Eritrea" title="Conscription in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Finland" title="Conscription in Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_France" title="Conscription in France">France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Georgia" title="Conscription in Georgia">Georgia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Germany" title="Conscription in Germany">Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Greece" title="Conscription in Greece">Greece</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Israel" title="Conscription in Israel">Israel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Iran" title="Conscription in Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_North_Korea" title="Conscription in North Korea">North Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_South_Korea" title="Conscription in South Korea">South Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_National_Armed_Forces#Conscription" title="Latvian National Armed Forces">Latvia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Armed_Forces#Conscription" title="Lithuanian Armed Forces">Lithuania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Myanmar" title="Conscription in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Netherlands" title="Conscription in the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_military_training_in_New_Zealand" title="Compulsory military training in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscription in Norway">Norway</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Mexico" title="Conscription in Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Monaco" title="Conscription in Monaco">Monaco</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Mozambique" title="Conscription in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Philippines" title="Conscription in the Philippines">the Philippines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Russia" title="Conscription in Russia">Russia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Serbia" title="Conscription in Serbia">Serbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/National_service_in_Singapore" title="National service in Singapore">Singapore</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_South_Africa" title="Conscription in South Africa">South Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Conscription in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Sweden" title="Conscription in Sweden">Sweden</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Switzerland" title="Conscription in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Taiwan" title="Conscription in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Turkey" title="Conscription in Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Conscription in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conscription in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Ukraine" title="Conscription in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Vietnam" title="Conscription in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> By geographical area</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Ireland" title="Conscription in Ireland">Ireland</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conscription" title="Template:Conscription"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conscription" title="Template talk:Conscription"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conscription" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conscription"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>conscientious objector</b> is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform <a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">military service</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the grounds of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_conscience" title="Freedom of conscience">freedom of conscience</a> or <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term has also been extended to objecting to working for the <a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">military–industrial complex</a> due to a crisis of conscience.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to an alternative <a href="/wiki/Civilian_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilian service">civilian service</a> as a substitute for <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> or military service. </p><p>A number of organizations around the world celebrate the principle on May 15 as International Conscientious Objection Day.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 8, 1995, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights</a> resolution 1995/83 stated that "persons performing military service should not be excluded from the right to have conscientious objections to military service".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was re-affirmed on April 22, 1998, when resolution 1998/77 recognized that "persons [already] performing military service may <i>develop</i> conscientious objections".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-D._CHRISTOPHER_DECKER,_AND_LUCIA_FRESA_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D._CHRISTOPHER_DECKER,_AND_LUCIA_FRESA-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Deserter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Deserter.jpg/250px-The_Deserter.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Deserter.jpg/375px-The_Deserter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Deserter.jpg/500px-The_Deserter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption><i>The Deserter</i> by <a href="/wiki/Boardman_Robinson" title="Boardman Robinson">Boardman Robinson</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Masses" title="The Masses">The Masses</a></i>, 1916</figcaption></figure> <p>Many conscientious objectors have been executed, imprisoned, or otherwise penalized when their beliefs led to actions conflicting with their society's legal system or government. The legal definition and status of conscientious objection has varied over the years and from nation to nation. Religious beliefs were a starting point in many nations for legally granting conscientious objector status. </p><p>The earliest recorded conscientious objector, <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_of_Tebessa" title="Maximilian of Tebessa">Maximilianus</a>, was conscripted into the Roman Army in the year 295, but "told the Proconsul in Numidia that because of his religious convictions he could not serve in the military". He was executed for this, and was later canonized as Saint Maximilian.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An early recognition of conscientious objection was granted by <a href="/wiki/William_the_Silent" title="William the Silent">William the Silent</a> to the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Mennonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mennonite">Mennonites</a> in 1575. They could refuse military service in exchange for a monetary payment.<sup id="cite_ref-co_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-co-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Formal legislation to exempt objectors from fighting was first granted in mid-18th-century <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a> following problems with attempting to force <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a> into military service. In 1757, when the first attempt was made to establish a <a href="/wiki/Militia_(Great_Britain)" title="Militia (Great Britain)">British Militia</a> as a professional national military reserve, a clause in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Militia_Ballot_Act_1757&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Militia Ballot Act 1757 (page does not exist)">Militia Ballot Act 1757</a> allowed Quakers exemption from military service.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, conscientious objection was permitted from the country's founding, although regulation was left to individual states prior to the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-co_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-co-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_law">International law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: International law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Universal Declaration of Human Rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1948, the issue of the right to "conscience" was dealt with by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> in Article 18 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. It reads: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.</p></blockquote> <p>The proclamation was <a href="/wiki/Ratified" class="mw-redirect" title="Ratified">ratified</a> during the General Assembly on 10 December 1948 by a vote of 48 in favour, 0 against, with 8 abstentions.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muhammad_Ali_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Muhammad_Ali_NYWTS.jpg/220px-Muhammad_Ali_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Muhammad_Ali_NYWTS.jpg/330px-Muhammad_Ali_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Muhammad_Ali_NYWTS.jpg/440px-Muhammad_Ali_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2932" data-file-height="3669" /></a><figcaption>Refusing to serve in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, boxer <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a> stated "I ain't got no quarrel with them <a href="/wiki/Viet_Cong" title="Viet Cong">Viet Cong</a> ... They never called me <a href="/wiki/Nigger" title="Nigger">nigger</a>." in 1966</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1974, the Assistant <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General of the United Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_MacBride" title="Seán MacBride">Seán MacBride</a> said, in his Nobel Lecture, "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is '<a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#"The_Right_to_Refuse_to_Kill"" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">The Right to Refuse to Kill</a>'."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1976, the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> <a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">entered into force</a>. It was based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and was originally created in 1966. Nations that have signed this treaty are bound by it. Its Article 18 begins: "Everyone shall have the right to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a>, conscience and religion."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights left the issue of conscientious objection inexplicit, as in this quote from <a href="/wiki/War_Resisters_International" class="mw-redirect" title="War Resisters International">War Resisters International</a>: "Article 18 of the Covenant does put some limits on the right [to freedom of thought, conscience and religion], stating that [its] manifestations must not infringe on public safety, order, health or morals. Some states argue that such limitations [on the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion] would [derivatively] permit them to make conscientious objection during time of war a threat to public safety, or mass conscientious objection a disruption to public order, ... [Some states] even [argue] that it is a 'moral' duty to serve the state in its military."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 30 July 1993, explicit clarification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 18 was made in the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights Committee">Human Rights Committee</a> general comment 22, Paragraph 11: "The Covenant does not explicitly refer to a right to conscientious objection, but the Committee believes that such a right can be derived from article 18, inasmuch as the obligation to use lethal force may seriously conflict with the freedom of conscience and the right to manifest one's religion or belief."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, the committee has found for the first time a right to conscientious objection under article 18, although not unanimously.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1997, an announcement of <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>'s forthcoming campaign and briefing for the <a href="/wiki/UN_Commission_on_Human_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Commission on Human Rights">UN Commission on Human Rights</a> included this quote: "The right to conscientious objection to military service is not a marginal concern outside the mainstream of international human rights protection and promotion."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1998, the Human Rights Commission reiterated previous statements and added "states should ... refrain from subjecting conscientious objectors ... to repeated punishment for failure to perform military service".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also encouraged states "to consider granting asylum to those conscientious objectors compelled to leave their country of origin because they fear persecution owing to their refusal to perform military service ..."<sup id="cite_ref-D._CHRISTOPHER_DECKER,_AND_LUCIA_FRESA_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D._CHRISTOPHER_DECKER,_AND_LUCIA_FRESA-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2001, <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union">Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union</a> recognised the right to conscientious objection.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Handbook_on_Procedures_and_Criteria_for_Determining_Refugee_Status">Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status (the Handbook) of the Office of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees</a> (UNHCR) states: </p> <blockquote><p>171. Not every conviction, genuine though it may be, will constitute a sufficient reason for claiming <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a> status after <a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">desertion</a> or draft-evasion. It is not enough for a person to be in disagreement with his government regarding the political justification for a particular military action. Where, however, the type of military action, with which an individual does not wish to be associated, is condemned by the <a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">international community</a> as contrary to basic rules of human conduct, punishment for desertion or draft-evasion could, in the light of all other requirements of the definition, in itself be regarded as persecution.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_law">National law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: National law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At least two state constitutions have recognized an individual right not to bear arms. Pennsylvania's Constitution of 1790 states "Those who conscientiously scruple to bear arms, shall not be compelled to do so; but shall pay an equivalent for personal service."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New Hampshire's Constitution of 1784 states "No person, who is conscientiously scrupulous about the lawfulness of bearing arms, shall be compelled thereto."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selective_conscientious_objection">Selective conscientious objection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Selective conscientious objection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Air_Commodore" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Commodore">Air Commodore</a> <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Charlton" title="Lionel Charlton">Lionel Charlton</a>, of the British Royal Air Force (RAF), served in the military from 1898 to 1928. In 1923 he selectively refused to serve in the <a href="/wiki/RAF_Iraq_Command" title="RAF Iraq Command">RAF Iraq Command</a>. (He later went on to serve as <a href="/wiki/Air_Officer_Commanding" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Officer Commanding">Air Officer Commanding</a> <a href="/wiki/No._3_Group_RAF" title="No. 3 Group RAF">No 3 Group</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 4 June 1967, <a href="/wiki/John_Courtney_Murray" title="John Courtney Murray">John Courtney Murray</a>, an American <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Priesthood (Catholic Church)">priest</a> and theologian, delivered an address at <a href="/wiki/Western_Maryland_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Maryland College">Western Maryland College</a> concerning a more specific type of conscientious objection: "the issue of selective conscientious objection, conscientious objection to particular wars, or as it is sometimes called, discretionary armed service."<sup id="cite_ref-Murray_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murray-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 8 March 1971, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> ruled in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Gillette_v._United_States" title="Gillette v. United States">Gillette v. United States</a></i> that "the exemption for those who oppose 'participation in war in any form' applies to those who oppose participating in all war and not to those who object to participation in a particular war only."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 14 September 2003, in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refusal_to_serve_in_the_IDF#Pilots'_letter_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Refusal to serve in the IDF">27 reserve pilots and former pilots refused to serve in only specific missions</a>. These specific missions included "civilian population centers" in "the [occupied] territories". These pilots clarified: "We ... shall continue to serve in the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israel Defense Forces</a> and the Air Force for every mission in defense of the state of Israel."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 25 May 2005, journalist Jack Random wrote the following: "The case of Sergeant <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Benderman" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevin Benderman">Kevin Benderman</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Iraq_War_resisters" title="List of Iraq War resisters">Iraq War Resister</a>) raises the burning issue of selective conscientious objection: While it is universally accepted that an individual cannot be compelled against conscience to war in general, does the same hold for an individual who objects, in the depths of the soul, to a particular war?"<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_motives">Religious motives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Religious motives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_pacifist_faiths" class="mw-redirect" title="List of pacifist faiths">List of pacifist faiths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></div> <p>Cases of behavior which could be considered as religiously motivated conscientious objection are historically attested long before the modern term appeared. For example, the Medieval <i><a href="/wiki/Orkneyinga_Saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Orkneyinga Saga">Orkneyinga Saga</a></i> mentions that <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Erlendsson,_Earl_of_Orkney" title="Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney">Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney</a> – the future Saint Magnus – had a reputation for piety and gentleness, and because of his religious convictions refused to fight in a Viking raid on <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, instead staying on board his ship singing <a href="/wiki/Psalm" class="mw-redirect" title="Psalm">psalms</a>. </p><p>The reasons for refusing to perform military service are varied. Many conscientious objectors cite religious reasons. <a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Unitarian Universalists">Unitarian Universalists</a> object to war in their sixth principle "The goal of world community with peace, liberty and justice for all". Members of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_Churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace Churches">Historic Peace Churches</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, Anabaptists (<a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Order_Mennonite" title="Old Order Mennonite">Old Order Mennonite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Mennonites" title="Conservative Mennonites">Conservative Mennonites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bruderhof_Communities" title="Bruderhof Communities">Bruderhof Communities</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Brethren" title="Church of the Brethren">Church of the Brethren</a>), as well as Holiness Pacifists such as the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Free_Methodist_Church" title="Reformed Free Methodist Church">Reformed Free Methodist Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Association_of_Churches" title="Emmanuel Association of Churches">Emmanuel Association of Churches</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Missionary_Church" title="Immanuel Missionary Church">Immanuel Missionary Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Church_of_God_(Guthrie,_Oklahoma)" title="Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)">Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)</a>, object to war from the conviction that Christian life is incompatible with military action, because <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> enjoins his followers to love their enemies and to refuse violence.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis2001_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis2001-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RFMC1960_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RFMC1960-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Discipline" title="Book of Discipline">Book of Discipline</a> of the Reformed Free Methodist Church teaches:<sup id="cite_ref-RFMC1960_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RFMC1960-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Militarism is contrary to the spirit of the New Testament and the teachings of Jesus Christ. Even from humanitarian principles alone, it is utterly indefensible. It is our profound and God-given conviction that none of our people be required to participate in war of any form and that these God-given convictions of our members be respected.<sup id="cite_ref-RFMC1960_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RFMC1960-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Since the American Civil War, <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventists</a> have been known as non-combatants, and have done work in hospitals or to give medical care rather than combat roles, and the church has upheld the non-combative position.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a> refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe they should be neutral in worldly conflicts and often cite the latter portion of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah+2:4%E2%80%932:4&version=nrsv">Isaiah 2:4</a> which states, "...neither shall they learn war anymore". Other objections can stem from a deep sense of responsibility toward humanity as a whole, or from simple denial that any government possesses the <a href="/wiki/Moral_authority" title="Moral authority">moral authority</a> to command warlike behavior from its citizens. </p><p>The varied experiences of non-combatants are illustrated by those of Seventh-day Adventists when there was mandatory military service: "Many Seventh-day Adventists refuse to enter the army as combatants, but participate as medics, ambulance drivers, etc. During World War II in Germany, many SDA conscientious objectors were sent to concentration camps or mental institutions; some were executed. Some Seventh-day Adventists volunteered for the US Army's <a href="/wiki/Operation_Whitecoat" title="Operation Whitecoat">Operation Whitecoat</a>, participating in research to help others. The Church preferred to call them "conscientious participants", because they were willing to risk their lives as test subjects in potentially life-threatening research. Over 2,200 Seventh-day Adventists volunteered in experiments involving various infectious agents during the 1950s through the 1970s in Fort Detrick, MD."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier, a <a href="/wiki/Schism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schism (religion)">schism</a> arose during and after World War I between Seventh-day Adventists in Germany who agreed to serve in the military if conscripted and those who rejected all participation in warfare—the latter group eventually forming a separate church (the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Day_Adventist_Reform_Movement" title="Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement">Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blessed_are_the_Peacemakers.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Blessed_are_the_Peacemakers.gif/220px-Blessed_are_the_Peacemakers.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Blessed_are_the_Peacemakers.gif/330px-Blessed_are_the_Peacemakers.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Blessed_are_the_Peacemakers.gif 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption><i>Blessed are the Peacemakers</i> (1917) by <a href="/wiki/George_Bellows" title="George Bellows">George Bellows</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian Church">early Christian Church</a> followers of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> refused to take up arms. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In as much as they [Jesus' teachings] ruled out as illicit all use of violence and injury against others, clearly implied [was] the illegitimacy of participation in war ... The early Christians took Jesus at his word, and understood his inculcations of gentleness and non-resistance in their literal sense. They closely identified their religion with peace; they strongly condemned war for the bloodshed which it involved.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> officially embraced <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">just war theory</a> was developed in order to reconcile warfare with Christian belief. After Theodosius I made Christianity an official religion of the Empire, this position slowly developed into the official position of the Western Church. In the 11th century, there was a further shift of opinion in the Latin-Christian tradition with the <a href="/wiki/Crusade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusade">crusades</a>, strengthening the idea and acceptability of <a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">holy war</a>. Objectors became a minority. Some theologians see the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a> and the loss of <a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Christian pacifism</a> as <a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">the great failing</a> of the Church. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ben_Salmon" title="Ben Salmon">Ben Salmon</a> was a Catholic conscientious objector during World War I and outspoken critic of Just War theology. The Catholic Church denounced him and <i>The New York Times</i> described him as a "spy suspect". The US military (in which he was never inducted) charged him with desertion and spreading propaganda, then sentenced him to death (this was later revised to 25 years hard labor).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 5, 1917, Salmon wrote in a letter to President Wilson: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Regardless of nationality, all men are brothers. God is "our Father who art in heaven". The commandment "Thou shalt not kill" is unconditional and inexorable. ... The lowly Nazarene taught us the doctrine of non-resistance, and so convinced was he of the soundness of that doctrine that he sealed his belief with death on the cross. When human law conflicts with Divine law, my duty is clear. Conscience, my infallible guide, impels me to tell you that prison, death, or both, are infinitely preferable to joining any branch of the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Nowadays, the Catholic Church teaches that "<i>Public authorities should make equitable provision for those who for reasons of conscience refuse to bear arms; these are nonetheless obliged to serve the human community in some other way.</i>" (point 2311 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of their conscientious objection to participation in military service, whether armed or unarmed, Jehovah's Witnesses have often faced imprisonment or other penalties. In <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, for example, before the introduction of alternative civilian service in 1997, hundreds of Witnesses were imprisoned, some for three years or even more for their refusal. In <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, young Jehovah's Witnesses were imprisoned because of their conscientious objection to military service; this was discontinued in November 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government of South Korea also imprisons hundreds for refusing the draft. In <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, virtually every Jehovah's Witness is exempted from military service. </p><p>For believers in <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>, the opposition to warfare may be based on either the general idea of <i><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a>, or on an explicit prohibition of violence by their religion, e.g., for a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">five precepts</a> is "Pānātipātā veramaṇi sikkhāpadam samādiyāmi", or "I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures", which is in obvious opposition to the practice of warfare. The <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a> has stated that war "should be relegated to the dustbin of history". On the other hand, many Buddhist sects, especially in Japan, have been thoroughly militarized, warrior monks (<i>yamabushi</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dhei" title="Sōhei">sōhei</a></i>) participating in the civil wars. Hindu beliefs do not go against the concept of war, as seen in the <a href="/wiki/Gita" class="mw-redirect" title="Gita">Gita</a>. Both Sikhs and Hindus believe war should be a last resort and should be fought to sustain life and morality in society. </p><p>Followers of the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a> are advised to do social service instead of active army service, but when this is not possible because of obligations in certain countries, the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_laws" title="Baháʼí laws">Baháʼí laws</a> include <i>loyalty to one's government</i>, and the individual should perform the army service.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ud1_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ud1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some practitioners of <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan religions</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a>, may object on the grounds of the <a href="/wiki/Wiccan_rede" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiccan rede">Wiccan rede</a>, which states "An it harm none, do what ye will" (or variations). The <a href="/wiki/Threefold_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Threefold law">threefold law</a> may also be grounds for objection. </p><p>A notable example of a conscientious objector was the <a href="/wiki/Austrians" title="Austrians">Austrian</a> devout <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> Christian <a href="/wiki/Franz_J%C3%A4gerst%C3%A4tter" title="Franz Jägerstätter">Franz Jägerstätter</a>, who was executed on August 9, 1943, for openly refusing to serve in the Nazi <i><a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></i>, consciously accepting the penalty of death. He was <a href="/wiki/Beatification" title="Beatification">declared Blessed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> in 2007 for dying for his beliefs, and is viewed as a symbol of self-sacrificing resistance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternatives_for_objectors">Alternatives for objectors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Alternatives for objectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some conscientious objectors are unwilling to serve the military in any capacity, while others accept noncombatant roles. While conscientious objection is usually the refusal to collaborate with military organizations, as a combatant in war or in any supportive role, some advocate compromising forms of conscientious objection. One compromising form is to accept <a href="/wiki/Non-combatant" title="Non-combatant">non-combatant</a> roles during conscription or <a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">military service</a>. Alternatives to military or civilian service include serving an imprisonment or other punishment for refusing conscription, falsely claiming unfitness for duty by feigning an allergy or a heart condition, delaying conscription until the maximum drafting age, or seeking refuge in a country which does not extradite those wanted for military conscription. Avoiding military service is sometimes labeled <a href="/wiki/Draft_dodger" class="mw-redirect" title="Draft dodger">draft dodging</a>, particularly if the goal is accomplished through dishonesty or evasive maneuvers. However, many people who support conscription will distinguish between "<a href="/wiki/Bona_fide" class="mw-redirect" title="Bona fide">bona fide</a>" <i>conscientious objection</i> and <i>draft dodging</i>, which they view as evasion of military service without a valid excuse. </p><p>Conservative Mennonites do not object to serving their country in peaceful alternatives (<a href="/wiki/Alternative_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative service">alternative service</a>) such as hospital work, farming, forestry, road construction and similar occupations. Their objection is in being part in any military capacity whether noncombatant or regular service. During World War II and the Korean, Vietnam war eras they served in many such capacities in alternative I-W service programs initially through the Mennonite Central Committee and now through their own alternatives. </p><p>Despite the fact that international institutions such as the United Nations (UN) and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> (CoE) regard and promote conscientious objection as a human right,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as of 2004<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, it still does not have a legal basis in most countries. Among the roughly one-hundred countries that have conscription, only thirty countries have some legal provisions, 25 of them in Europe. In Europe, most countries with conscription more or less fulfill international guidelines on conscientious objection legislation (except for <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Greece" title="Conscription in Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Cyprus" title="Conscription in Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Turkey" title="Conscription in Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Finland" title="Conscription in Finland">Finland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Russia" title="Conscription in Russia">Russia</a>) today. In many countries outside Europe, especially in armed conflict areas (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>), conscientious objection is punished severely. </p><p>In 1991, The Peace Abbey established the National Registry for Conscientious Objection where people can publicly state their refusal to participate in armed conflict. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conscientious_objection_around_the_world">Conscientious objection around the world</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Conscientious objection around the world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgium">Belgium</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Belgium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conscription was mandatory to all able-bodied <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> males until 1994, when it was suspended. Civilian service was possible since 1963. Objectors could apply for the status of conscience objector. When granted, they did an alternative service with the civil service or with a socio-cultural organisation. The former would last 1.5 times as long as the shortest military service, the latter twice as long. </p><p>After their service, objectors are not allowed to take jobs that require them to carry weapons, such as police jobs, until the age of 42. </p><p>Since conscription was suspended in 1994 and military service is voluntary, the status of conscience objector can not be granted anymore in Belgium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Canada_and_Iraq_War_resisters" class="mw-redirect" title="Canada and Iraq War resisters">Canada and Iraq War resisters</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_Resisters_Support_Campaign" title="War Resisters Support Campaign">War Resisters Support Campaign</a></div> <p>Mennonites and other similar peace churches in Canada were automatically exempt from any type of service during <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Canada_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Canada during World War I">Canada's involvement in World War I</a> by provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Order_in_Council" title="Order in Council">Order in Council</a> of 1873 yet initially, many were imprisoned until the matter was again resettled. With pressure of public opinion, the Canadian government barred entry of additional <a href="/wiki/Mennonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Mennonite">Mennonite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hutterite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hutterite">Hutterite</a> immigrants, rescinding the privileges of the Order in Council.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Canada_during_the_Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Canada during the Second World War">Canada's involvement in World War II</a>, Canadian conscientious objectors were given the options of noncombatant military service, serving in the medical or dental corps under military control or working in parks and on roads under civilian supervision. Over 95% chose the latter and were placed in Alternative Service camps.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially the men worked on road building, forestry and firefighting projects. After May 1943, as the labour shortage developed within the nation and another <a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1944" title="Conscription Crisis of 1944">Conscription Crisis</a> burgeoned, men were shifted into agriculture, education and industry. The 10,700 Canadian objectors were mostly Mennonites (63%) and <a href="/wiki/Doukhobor" class="mw-redirect" title="Doukhobor">Dukhobors</a> (20%).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colombia">Colombia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Colombia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conscientious objection is recognised in Colombia.<sup id="cite_ref-gobiernobogota_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gobiernobogota-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Czechoslovakia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, those not willing to enter mandatory military service could avoid it by signing a contract for work lasting years in unattractive occupations, such as mining. Those who did not sign were imprisoned. Both numbers were tiny. After the <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">communist party lost its power</a> in 1989, alternative civil service was established. As of 2006, both the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> have abolished conscription. The <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_and_Freedoms" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms">Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms</a> in both countries now guarantees the right to refuse military service on grounds on conscience or religious belief. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denmark">Denmark</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Denmark"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any male getting drafted, but unwilling to serve, has the possibility to avoid military service by instead serving community service for the duration of the conscription. According to a poll from July 2011, 2 out of 3 Danes want conscription abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eritrea">Eritrea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Eritrea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is no right to conscientious objection to military service in <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> – which is of an <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Eritrea" title="Conscription in Eritrea">indefinite length</a> – and those who refuse the draft are imprisoned. Some Jehovah's Witness conscientious objectors have been in jail since 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finland">Finland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Siviilipalvelus" title="Siviilipalvelus">Siviilipalvelus</a></div> <p>Finland introduced conscription in 1881, but its enforcement was suspended in 1903 as part of <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Civil_War" title="Finnish Civil War">Finnish Civil War</a> in 1918, conscription was reintroduced for all able-bodied men. In 1922, the option of noncombatant military service was introduced, but service in the military remained compulsory on pain of imprisonment. After the struggle of pacifist <a href="/wiki/Arndt_Pekurinen" title="Arndt Pekurinen">Arndt Pekurinen</a> a law was passed providing for a peacetime-only alternative to military service, or civilian service (Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">siviilipalvelus</i></span>). The law was dubbed "Lex Pekurinen" after him. During the <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a>, Pekurinen and other conscientious objectors were imprisoned, and Pekurinen was eventually executed at the front in 1941, during the <a href="/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Continuation War</a>. </p><p>After the war, a conscientious objector's civilian service lasted 16 months, whereas military service was 8 months at its shortest. To qualify for civilian service, an objector had to explain his conviction before a board of inspection that included military officers and clergymen. In 1987, the duration of the service was shortened to 13 months and the board of inspection was abolished. In 2008, the term was further shortened to 12 months to match the duration of the longest military service (that of officer trainees and technical crew). Today, a person subject to conscription may apply for civilian service at any time before or during his military service, and the application is accepted as a matter of course. A female performing voluntary military service can quit her service anytime during the first 45 days, however, if she wants to quit after those 45 days she would be treated like a male and assigned to civilian service. </p><p>Persons who have completed their civilian service during peacetime have, according to the legislation enacted in 2008, the right to serve in non-military duties also during a crisis situation. They may be called to serve in various duties with the rescue services or other necessary work of a non-military nature. Persons who declare themselves to be conscientious objectors only after a crisis has started must, however, prove their conviction before a special board. Before the new legislation, the right to conscientious objection was acknowledged only in peacetime. The changes to the service term and to the legal status of objectors during a crisis situation were made as a response to human rights concerns voiced by several international bodies,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who are overseeing the implementation of human rights agreements. These organisations had demanded Finland to take measures to improve its legislation concerning conscientious objectors, which they considered discriminatory. None of these organisations have yet raised concerns on the current legislation. </p><p>There are a small number of total objectors who refuse even civilian service, and are imprisoned for six months. This is not registered into the person's criminal record. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Objecteurs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Objecteurs.jpg/180px-Objecteurs.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Objecteurs.jpg/270px-Objecteurs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Objecteurs.jpg/360px-Objecteurs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>Stamp created by the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Centre de défense des objecteurs de conscience</i></span> (around 1936)</figcaption></figure> <p>The creation of a legal status for conscientious objectors in France was the subject of a long struggle involving for instance or the much-publicised trials of Protestant activists <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Martin_(pacifist)" title="Jacques Martin (pacifist)">Jacques Martin</a>, Philippe Vernier and Camille Rombault in 1932–1933<sup id="cite_ref-JPC_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JPC-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the hunger strike of <a href="/wiki/Anarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist">anarchist</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Lecoin" title="Louis Lecoin">Louis Lecoin</a> in 1962. </p><p>The legal status law was passed in December 1963, 43 years (and many prison sentences) after the first requests. </p><p>In 1983, a new law passed by socialist Interior Minister <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Joxe" title="Pierre Joxe">Pierre Joxe</a> considerably improved this status, simplifying the conditions under which the status would be granted. Conscientious objectors were then free to choose an activity in the social realm where they would spend their civil service time. However, in order to avoid too many applications for civil service at the expense of the military, the duration of the civil service is however kept twice as long as the military service. </p><p>The effect of these laws was suspended in 2001 when compulsory military service was abolished in France. The special prison at Strasbourg for Jehovah's Witnesses, who refuse to join any military, was also abolished. </p><p>Since 1986, the associations defending conscientious objection in France have chosen to celebrate their cause on 15 May.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Germany" title="Conscription in Germany">Conscription in Germany</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nazi_Germany">Nazi Germany</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nazi Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, conscientious objection was not recognized in the law. In theory, objectors would be drafted and then court-martialled for desertion. The practice was even harsher: going beyond the letter of an already extremely flexible law, conscientious objection was considered <a href="/wiki/Wehrkraftzersetzung" title="Wehrkraftzersetzung">subversion of military strength</a>, a crime normally punished with death. On 15 September 1939, August Dickmann, a Jehovah's Witness, and the first conscientious objector of the war to be executed, died by a firing squad at the <a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen concentration camp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among others, <a href="/wiki/Franz_J%C3%A4gerst%C3%A4tter" title="Franz Jägerstätter">Franz Jägerstätter</a> was executed after his conscientious objection, on the grounds that he could not fight for an evil force. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="East_Germany">East Germany</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: East Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_in_East_Germany" title="Conscientious objection in East Germany">Conscientious objection in East Germany</a></div> <p>After World War II in <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, there was no official right to conscientious objection. Nevertheless, and uniquely among the Eastern bloc, objections were accepted and the objectors assigned to construction units. They were however part of the military, so that a fully civilian alternative did not exist. Also, "<a href="/wiki/Construction_soldier" title="Construction soldier">construction soldiers</a>" were discriminated against in their later professional life.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="West_Germany_and_reunified_Germany">West Germany and reunified Germany</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: West Germany and reunified Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Article 4(3) of the <a href="/wiki/Grundgesetz" class="mw-redirect" title="Grundgesetz">German constitution</a>: "No person may be forced against their conscience to perform armed military service. Details shall be regulated by a federal law." </p><p>According to Article 12a, a law may be passed to require every male from the age of 18 to military service called <i>Wehrdienst</i>; also, a law can require conscientious objectors to perform non-military service instead called <i>Wehrersatzdienst</i>, literally "military replacement service", or colloquially <i><a href="/wiki/Zivildienst" title="Zivildienst">Zivildienst</a></i>. These laws were applicable and demanded compulsory service in the German <a href="/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr">armed forces</a> (German: <i>Bundeswehr</i>) until the abolition of draft in 2011. Initially, each conscientious objector had to appear in person to a panel hearing at the draft office (or contest a negative decision at the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_court" title="Administrative court">administrative court</a>). The suspension of the procedure (1977), allowing to "object with a post card", was ruled unconstitutional in 1978. Beginning in 1983, competence was shifted to the <i>Kreiswehrersatzamt</i> (district military replacement office), which had discretion to either approve or reject a conscientious objection, which had to consist of a detailed written statement by an applicant giving reasons as to why the applicant was conscientiously objecting. This was generally just a formality, and objections were not often rejected. In later years in particular however, with the rise of the Internet, conscientious objections fell into disrepute because of the ease of being able to simply download existing example objections. It earned some conscientious objections the suspicion of an applicant simply attempting an easy way out of military service. On the other hand, certain organizations within the German peace movement had been offering pamphlets for decades giving suggestions to applicants as to the proper wording and structure of an objection which would have the greatest chances of success. </p><p>Following a 1985 Federal Constitution Court decision, Wehrersatzdienst could be no simple choice of convenience for an applicant, but he had to cite veritable conflict of conscience which made him unable to perform any kind of military service at all. If there was doubt about the true nature of an objector's application, he could be summoned to appear before a panel at the Kreiswehrersatzamt to explain his reasons in person. An approved conscientious objection in any case then meant that an applicant was required by law to perform Wehrersatzdienst. Complete objection both to military and replacement service was known as <i>Totalverweigerung</i>; it was illegal and could be punished with a fine or a suspended custodial sentence. </p><p>Nearly the only legal way to get both out of military service and replacement service was to be deemed physically unfit for military service. Both men who entered military service and those who wanted to go into replacement service had to pass a military physical examination at the military replacement office. Five categories/levels of physical fitness, or <i>Tauglichkeitsstufen</i>, existed. <i>Tauglichkeitsstufe 5</i>, in short <i>T5</i>, meant that a person was rejected for military service and thus also did not need to enter replacement service. <i>T5</i> status was usually only granted if a person had physical or mental disabilities or was otherwise significantly impaired, such as due to very poor eyesight or debilitating chronic illnesses. However, in the last years of the draft, T5 was increasingly given to potential recruits with only minor physical or mental handicaps. </p><p>Another way to get out of service completely was the <i>two brothers rule</i>, which stated that if two older brothers had already served in the military, any following male children of a family were exempt from service. </p><p>Due to <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a>'s special status between the end of the Second World War and 1990 as a city governed by foreign military powers, draft did not apply within its borders. This made Berlin a safe haven for many young people who chose to move to the city to prevent criminal court repercussions for <i>Totalverweigerung</i>. As <i>Totalverweigerer</i> were often part of the far-left political spectrum, this was one factor which spawned a politically active left-wing and left-wing radical scene in the city. </p><p>Wehrersatzdienst was for a long time considerably longer than military service, by up to a third, even when the duration of service was gradually reduced following reunification and the end of the Cold War. This was held by some as a violation of constitutional principles, but was upheld in several court decisions based on the reasoning that former service personnel could be redrafted for military exercises called <i>Wehrübungen</i>, while somebody who had served out his replacement service could not. Moreover, work conditions under military service typically involved more hardship and inconvenience than Wehrersatzdienst. In 2004, military service and Wehrersatzdienst were then made to last equal lengths of time. </p><p>Military service and draft were controversial during much of their existence. Reasons included the consideration that Germans could be made to fight against their fellow Germans in East Germany. Moreover, draft only applied to men, which was seen as gender based discrimination by some, but was often countered by the argument that women usually gave up their careers either temporarily or permanently to raise their children. With the end of the Cold War and the German military's primary purpose of defending its home territory increasingly looking doubtful, draft also began to become more arbitrary, as only certain portions of a particular birth year were drafted (usually those in very healthy physical condition), while others were not. This was seen as a problem of <i>Wehrgerechtigkeit</i>, or equal justice of military service. </p><p>Then-German President <a href="/wiki/Roman_Herzog" title="Roman Herzog">Roman Herzog</a> said in a 1994 speech (which was frequently cited as an argument for draft abolition) that only the necessity for national defense, not any other arguments can justify draft. On the other hand, this logic tended to not be extended to men serving Wehrersatzdienst, as they usually worked in fields of public health, <a href="/wiki/Elderly_care" title="Elderly care">elderly care</a>, medical assistance or assistance for the disabled. Their relatively low-paid work was seen as an ever more important backbone of a health sector which was grappling with rapidly increasing costs of care. </p><p>In 2011 the mandatory draft was abolished in Germany, mainly due to a perceived lack of aforementioned necessity. The <i>Bundeswehr</i> now solely relies on service members who deliberately choose it as a career path. Neither Article 12a (establishing the possibility of draft) nor Article 4 (3) (permitting conscientious objection) have been removed from the German Constitution. In theory, this makes a full reversion to draft (and Wehrersatzdienst) possible, if it is thought to be necessary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hungary">Hungary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hungary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conscription was suspended in Hungary in 2004. Before being drafted anyone can apply for the status of conscientious objector and fulfill his duties in unarmed military service or civilian service. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Refusal_to_serve_in_the_IDF" class="mw-redirect" title="Refusal to serve in the IDF">Refusal to serve in the IDF</a></div> <p>All <a href="/wiki/Israeli_citizenship_law" title="Israeli citizenship law">Israeli citizens</a> and permanent residents are liable to military service. However, the Ministry of Defense has used its discretion under article 36 of this law to automatically exempt all non-Jewish women and all Arab men, except for the <a href="/wiki/Druze_in_Israel" title="Druze in Israel">Druze</a>, from military service ever since Israel was established. <a href="/wiki/Arab_citizens_of_Israel" title="Arab citizens of Israel">Israeli Arabs</a> may volunteer to perform military service, but very few do so (except among the <a href="/wiki/Negev_Bedouin" title="Negev Bedouin">Bedouin population of Israel</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-wri-irg.org_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wri-irg.org-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In discussing the status of the armed forces shortly after the founding of the State of Israel, representatives of orthodox religious parties argued that <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshiva</a> students should be exempt from military service. This derives from the Jewish tradition that if a man wants to dedicate his life to religious study, society must allow him to do so. The request of orthodox political parties to "prevent neglect of studying the Torah" was granted by the authorities. But in recent years this exemption practice has become the subject of debate in Israeli society, as the absolute and the relative numbers of the men who received this exemption rose sharply.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, the Israeli Supreme Court ruled in the case of <i>Ressler et al. v. The Knesset et al.</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-test_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the blanket exemption granted to ultra-Orthodox yeshiva students was <i>ultra vires</i> the authority of the Minister of Defence, and that it violated Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty and was, therefore, unconstitutional. </p><p>As for conscientious objection, in 2002, in the case of <i>David Zonschein et al. v. Military Advocate General et al.</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-test_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Supreme Court reiterated its position that selective conscientious objection was not permitted, adding that conscientious objection could only be recognized in cases of general objection to military service. </p><p>Women can claim exemption from military service on grounds of conscience under arts. 39 (c) and 40 of the Defense Service Law, according to which religious reasons can be grounds for exemption.<sup id="cite_ref-wri-irg.org_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wri-irg.org-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until 2004 conscription was mandatory to all able-bodied <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> males. Those who were born in the last months of the year typically used to serve in the Navy, unless judged unable for ship service (in this case they could be sent back to Army or Air Force). Until 1972, objectors were considered as <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">traitors</a> and tried by a military tribunal; after 1972, objectors could choose an alternative civilian service, which was eight months longer than standard military service (fifteen months, then twelve, as for Army and Air Force, 24 months, then eighteen, then twelve as for the Navy)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Since such length was judged too punitive, an arrangement was made to make the civilian service as long as the military service. Since 2004, Italian males no longer need to object because military service has been turned into volunteer for both males and females. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marshall_Islands">Marshall Islands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Marshall Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of the Marshall Islands">Republic of the Marshall Islands</a> no person can be conscripted if, after being afforded a reasonable opportunity to do so, he has established that he is a conscientious objector to participation in war (Marshall Islands Constitution Article II Section 11). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Netherlands">The Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: The Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Conscription was mandatory to all able-bodied Dutch males until 1 May 1997, when it was suspended. The Law on conscientious objections military services <sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is active since 27 September 1962. Objectors have to work a third time longer in civil service than is normal for military service. The civil service have to be provided by government services, or by institutions designated for employment of conscientious objectors designated by the Secretary of Social Affairs and Employment, who work in the public interest.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waikeria_Prison_for_WW1_objectors,_c.1923_(27160240521).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Waikeria_Prison_for_WW1_objectors%2C_c.1923_%2827160240521%29.jpg/220px-Waikeria_Prison_for_WW1_objectors%2C_c.1923_%2827160240521%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Waikeria_Prison_for_WW1_objectors%2C_c.1923_%2827160240521%29.jpg/330px-Waikeria_Prison_for_WW1_objectors%2C_c.1923_%2827160240521%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Waikeria_Prison_for_WW1_objectors%2C_c.1923_%2827160240521%29.jpg/440px-Waikeria_Prison_for_WW1_objectors%2C_c.1923_%2827160240521%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1983" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Waikeria" title="Waikeria">Waikeria</a> Prison for WW1 objectors, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1923</span> </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1916 conscription was introduced in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, with only <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventists</a> having automatic exemption from the conscription.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the First World War, between 1,500 and 2,000 objectors and defaulters were convicted, or came under state control, for their opposition to war. At least 64 of these were still at <a href="/wiki/Waikeria" title="Waikeria">Waikeria</a> Prison on 5 March 1919 – some of whom had gone on hunger strike in protest. </p><p>Also during the First World War fourteen objectors, including <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Baxter" title="Archibald Baxter">Archibald Baxter</a>, were forcibly sent to the front lines and were subject to <a href="/wiki/Field_punishment" title="Field punishment">Field Punishment</a> No. 1, which "involved being tethered tightly by the wrists to a sloping pole to ensure their bodies hung with their hands taking all their weight."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During World War Two, conscription was re-introduced in 1940 and 5000 men applied for an exemption on the grounds of conscientious objection.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, 800 were imprisoned for the length of the war, and were barred from voting for ten years when they were released following the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the contemporary setting, there is no statute or case law which deal with conscientious objection.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">OHCHR</a> believes that the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Bill_of_Rights_Act_1990" title="New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990">Bill of Rights Act 1990</a> and the ratification of <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> creates a legal framework which enables conscientious objection.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romania">Romania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Romania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, as of 23 October 2006 conscription was suspended, therefore, the status of conscience objector does not apply.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This came about due to a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Romania" title="Constitution of Romania">2003 constitutional amendment</a> which allowed the parliament to make military service optional. The <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Parliament">Romanian Parliament</a> voted to abolish conscription in October 2005, with the vote formalizing one of many military modernization and reform programs that Romania agreed to when it joined <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Russia" title="Conscription in Russia">Conscription in Russia</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> allowed <a href="/wiki/Russian_Mennonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Mennonite">Russian Mennonites</a> to run and maintain <a href="/wiki/Forestry_service_(Russia)" title="Forestry service (Russia)">forestry service</a> units in South Russia in lieu of their military obligation. The program was under church control from 1881 through 1918, reaching a peak of seven thousand conscientious objectors during World War I. An additional five thousand Mennonites formed complete hospital units and transported wounded from the battlefield to <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ekaterinoslav" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekaterinoslav">Ekaterinoslav</a> hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> issued a decree allowing alternative service for religious objectors whose sincerity was determined upon examination.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Chertkov" title="Vladimir Chertkov">Vladimir Chertkov</a>, a follower of <a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, chaired the <i>United Council of Religious Fellowships and Groups</i>, which successfully freed 8000 conscientious objectors from military service during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>. The law was not applied uniformly and hundreds of objectors were imprisoned and over 200 were executed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>The United Council was forced to cease activity in December 1920, but alternative service was available under the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> until it was abolished in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the earlier forestry and hospital service, later conscientious objectors were classified "enemies of the people" and their alternative service was performed in remote areas in a <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">gulag</a>-like environment in order to break their resistance and encourage enlistment.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the present day,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (July 2015)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> Russian draft legislation allows people to choose an alternative civilian service for religious or ideological reasons. Most objectors are employed in healthcare, construction, forestry and post industries, serving 18 to 21 months. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Serbia">Serbia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Serbia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Serbia introduced civil service for Conscientious objectors in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the service lasted 9 months and people serving were task to help out in government facilities such as post offices, kindergartens, hospitals etc. In 2020 during covid-19 they were called to help prepare military hospitals for the influx of military and civilian patients. When civil service was introduced the mandatory military service period was reduced from 12 months to 6 months. Mandatory military service was abolished in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/South_African_resistance_to_war" title="South African resistance to war">South African resistance to war</a> and <a href="/wiki/End_Conscription_Campaign" title="End Conscription Campaign">End Conscription Campaign</a></div> <p>During the 1980s, hundreds<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of South African white males dodged the draft, refused the call-up or objected to conscription in the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Defence_Force" title="South African Defence Force">South African Defence Force</a>. Some simply deserted, or joined organisations such as the <a href="/wiki/End_Conscription_Campaign" title="End Conscription Campaign">End Conscription Campaign</a>, an anti-war movement banned in 1988, while others fled into exile and joined the <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_South_African_War_Resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee on South African War Resistance">Committee on South African War Resistance</a>. Most lived in a state of internal exile, forced to go underground within the borders of the country until a moratorium on conscription was declared in 1993. <a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">Opposition to the Angolan War</a>, was rife in English-speaking campuses, and later the war in the townships became the focus of these groupings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: South Korea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_in_South_Korea" title="Conscientious objection in South Korea">Conscientious objection in South Korea</a></div> <p>The terminology conscientious objector technically has not existed in Korean dictionary until recently. In fact, significant majority of Korean citizens simply associate conscientious objectors with draft dodging, and are unaware of the fact that conscientious objector draftees in other westernized countries are required to serve in alternative services. Since the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Korea">Republic of Korea</a>, thousands of conscientious objectors had no choice but to be imprisoned as criminals. Every year about 500 young men, mostly Jehovah's Witnesses,<sup id="cite_ref-jw-media_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jw-media-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are arrested for refusing the draft.<sup id="cite_ref-nojail_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nojail-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>South Korea's stance has drawn criticism from The U.N. Human Rights Committee, which argues that South Korea is violating article 18 of the ICCPR, which guarantees freedom of thought and conscience. In 2006, 2010, and again in 2011 the U.N. Human Rights Committee, after reviewing petitions from South Korean conscientious objectors, declared that the government was violating Article 18 of the ICCPR, the provision that guarantees the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-koreaherald.heraldm.com_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koreaherald.heraldm.com-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government's National Action Plan <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120402150820/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/plan_actions/docs/Korea_Summary_NHRAP.doc">(NAP)</a> for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights has not shown a clear stance on the pressing human rights issues such as, among other things, the rights of conscientious objectors to military service.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2007, the government announced a program to give conscientious objectors an opportunity to participate in alternative civilian service.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program stipulates three years of civilian service that is not connected with the military in any way. However, that program has been postponed indefinitely after the succeeding administration took office in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-koreaherald.heraldm.com_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koreaherald.heraldm.com-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government argues that introducing an alternative service would jeopardize national security and undermine social equality and cohesion. This is amid an increasing number of countries which retain compulsory service have introduced alternatives. In addition, some countries, including those with national security concerns have shown that alternative service can be successfully implemented.<sup id="cite_ref-koreaherald.heraldm.com_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koreaherald.heraldm.com-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 15 January 2009 the Korean Presidential Commission on Suspicious Deaths in the Military released its decision acknowledging that the government was responsible for the deaths of five young men, who were Jehovah's Witnesses and had forcibly been conscripted into the army. The deaths resulted from "the state's anti-human rights violence" and "its acts of brutality" during the 1970s that continued into the mid-1980s. This decision is significant since it is the first one recognizing the state's responsibility for deaths resulting from violence within the military.<sup id="cite_ref-deaths_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deaths-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the commission's decision, "the beatings and acts of brutality committed against them by military officials were attempts to compel and coerce them to act against their conscience (religion) and were unconstitutional, anti-human rights acts that infringed severely upon the freedom of conscience (religion) guaranteed in the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-deaths_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deaths-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The records of conscientious objectors to military service are kept by a governmental investigative body as criminal files for five years. As a consequence, conscientious objectors are not allowed to enter a government office and apply for any type of national certification exam. It is also very unlikely that they will be employed by any company that inquires about criminal records.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Conscientious objectors ... often spend the rest of their lives tainted by their decision... Criminal records from draft dodging make it difficult for objectors to find good jobs and the issue of army service is often raised by potential employers during job interviews.<sup id="cite_ref-nojail_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nojail-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>From 2000 to 2008, Korean Military Manpower Administration said that at least 4,958 men have objected to service in the military because of religious beliefs. Among those, 4,925 were Jehovah's Witnesses, 3 were Buddhists, and the other 30 refused the mandatory service because of conscientious objections other than religious reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1950, there have been more than 16,000 Jehovah's Witnesses sentenced to a combined total of 31,256 years for refusing to perform military service. If alternative service is not provided, some 500 to 900 young men will continue to be added each year to the list of conscientious objectors criminalized in Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, Lee Yeda was the first conscientious objector to be allowed to live in France via asylum.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2018, the Constitutional Court ruled 6–3 that Article 5 of the country's Military Service Act is unconstitutional because it fails to provide an alternative civilian national service for conscientious objectors. As of 2018<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, 19,300 South Korean conscientious objectors had gone to prison since 1953. The Defense Ministry said it would honor the ruling by introducing alternative services as soon as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 1 November 2018, the Supreme Court of Korea decided that conscientious objection is a valid reason to refuse mandatory military service, and vacated and remanded the appellate court's decision finding a Jehovah's Witness guilty of the objection.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conscientious objection was not permitted in <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Francoist Spain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conscientious objectors usually refused to serve on religious grounds, such as being Jehovah's Witnesses, and were placed in prison for the duration of their sentences. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1978" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Constitution of 1978">Spanish Constitution of 1978</a> acknowledged conscientious objectors.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish parliament established a longer service (<span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Prestación Social Sustitutoria</i></span>) as an alternative to the Army. In spite of this, a strong movement appeared that refused both services. The <a href="/wiki/Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a> was the only important organisation employing objectors. Because of this, the waiting lists for the PSS were long, especially in areas like <a href="/wiki/Navarre" title="Navarre">Navarre</a>, where pacifism, <a href="/wiki/Basque_nationalism" title="Basque nationalism">Basque nationalism</a> and a low unemployment rate discouraged young males from the army<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (January 2011)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup>. Thousands of <i>insumisos</i> (non-submittants) publicly refused the PSS, and hundreds were imprisoned. In addition a number of those in the military decided to refuse further duties. A number of people not liable for military service made declarations of self-incrimination, stating that they had encouraged <i>insumisión</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ordás-García_2022_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ordás-García_2022-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government, fearing popular reaction, reduced the length of service and instead of sentencing <i>insumisos</i> to prison declared them unfit for public service. </p><p>Fronting the decreasing birth rate and the popular opposition to an army seen as a continuating institution of one of the pillars of the dictatorship's regime, the Spanish government tried to modernise the model carried from the <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a> era, professionalizing it and thus bringing an end to conscription by the end of 2001. The new army tried to provide an education for civilian life and participated in peace operations in <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Insubordinate_movement_in_Spain" title="Insubordinate movement in Spain">Insubordinate movement in Spain</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Taiwan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is the possibility of avoiding military service by instead serving civilian services for the duration of the conscription. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Turkey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conscientious objection is highly controversial <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Turkey#Conscientious_objection" title="Conscription in Turkey">in Turkey</a>. Turkey and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> are the only two countries refusing to recognize conscientious objection and sustain their membership in the Council of Europe. In January 2006, the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights" title="European Court of Human Rights">European Court of Human Rights</a> (ECHR) found Turkey had violated article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights (prohibition of degrading treatment) in a case dealing with the conscientious objection of <a href="/wiki/Osman_Murat_%C3%9Clke" title="Osman Murat Ülke">Osman Murat Ülke</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, <a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Tarhan" title="Mehmet Tarhan">Mehmet Tarhan</a> was sentenced to four years in a military prison as a conscientious objector (he was unexpectedly released in March 2006). Journalist <a href="/wiki/Perihan_Ma%C4%9Fden" title="Perihan Mağden">Perihan Mağden</a> was tried by a Turkish court for supporting Tarhan and advocating conscientious objection as a human right; but later, she was acquitted. </p><p>As of March 2011<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, there were 125 objectors including 25 female objectors in Turkey. Another 256 people of Kurdish origin also had announced their conscientious objection to military service.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conscientious objector <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0nan_S%C3%BCver" title="İnan Süver">İnan Süver</a> was named a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_conscience" title="Prisoner of conscience">prisoner of conscience</a> by Amnesty International.<sup id="cite_ref-AI_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AI-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 14 November 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Turkey)" title="Ministry of Justice (Turkey)">Ministry of Justice</a> announced a draft proposal to legalise conscientious objection in Turkey and that it was to take effect two weeks after approval by the President to the change.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decision to legalize by the Turkish government was because of pressure from the European Court of Human Rights. The ECHR gave the Turkish government a deadline until the end of 2011 to legalize conscientious objection. The draft was withdrawn afterwards. </p><p>A commission was founded within the <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">National Assembly of the Republic</a> to write a new constitution in 2012. The commission is still in negotiations on various articles and conscientious objection is one of the most controversial issues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conscription in the United Kingdom">Conscription in the United Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conscientious_Objector_memorial,_Tavistock_Sq_Gardens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Conscientious_Objector_memorial%2C_Tavistock_Sq_Gardens.jpg/220px-Conscientious_Objector_memorial%2C_Tavistock_Sq_Gardens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Conscientious_Objector_memorial%2C_Tavistock_Sq_Gardens.jpg/330px-Conscientious_Objector_memorial%2C_Tavistock_Sq_Gardens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Conscientious_Objector_memorial%2C_Tavistock_Sq_Gardens.jpg/440px-Conscientious_Objector_memorial%2C_Tavistock_Sq_Gardens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Conscientious Objector memorial in <a href="/wiki/Tavistock_Square" title="Tavistock Square">Tavistock Square</a> Gardens, London—dedicated on <a href="/wiki/May_15#Holidays_and_observances" title="May 15">15 May</a> 1994</figcaption></figure> <p>The United Kingdom recognised the right of individuals not to fight in the 18th century following major problems with attempting to force <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> into military service. The Militia Ballot Act of 1757 allowed Quakers to be excluded from service in the <a href="/wiki/Militia_(Great_Britain)" title="Militia (Great Britain)">Militia</a>. It then ceased to be a major issue, since Britain's armed forces were generally all-volunteer. <a href="/wiki/Press_gangs" class="mw-redirect" title="Press gangs">Press gangs</a> were used to strengthen army and navy rolls on occasions from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. Pressed men did have the right of appeal, in the case of sailors, to the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_(United_Kingdom)" title="Admiralty (United Kingdom)">Admiralty</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> last took pressed men during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. </p><p>A more general right to refuse military service was not introduced until the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>. Britain introduced conscription with the <a href="/wiki/Military_Service_Act_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Service Act (United Kingdom)">Military Service Act</a> of January 1916, which came into full effect on 2 March 1916. The Act allowed for objectors to be absolutely exempted, to perform alternative civilian service or to serve as a non-combatant in the army <a href="/wiki/Non-Combatant_Corps" title="Non-Combatant Corps">Non-Combatant Corps</a>, according to the extent to which they could convince a <a href="/wiki/Military_Service_Tribunals" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Service Tribunals">Military Service Tribunal</a> of the quality of their objection.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 16,000 men were recorded as conscientious objectors, with Quakers, traditionally pacifist, forming a large proportion: 4,500 objectors were exempted on condition of doing civilian "work of national importance", such as farming, forestry or social service; and 7,000 were conscripted into the specially-created Non-Combatant Corps. Six thousand were refused any exemption and forced into main army regiments; if they then refused to obey orders, they were <a href="/wiki/Court-martial#United_Kingdom" title="Court-martial">court-martialled</a> and sent to prison. Thus, the well-known pacifist and religious writer <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Henry_Hobhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Henry Hobhouse">Stephen Henry Hobhouse</a> was called up in 1916: he and many other Quaker activists took the unconditionalist stand, refusing both military and alternative service, and on enforced enlistment were court-martialled and imprisoned for disobedience.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conscientious objectors formed only a tiny proportion of Military Service Tribunals' cases over the conscription period, estimated at 2 per cent.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tribunals were notoriously harsh towards conscientious objectors, reflecting widespread public opinion that they were lazy, degenerate, ungrateful 'shirkers' seeking to benefit from the sacrifices of others.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an attempt to press the issue, in May 1916 a group of thirty-five objectors, including the <a href="/wiki/Richmond_Sixteen" title="Richmond Sixteen">Richmond Sixteen</a>, were taken to France as conscripts and given military orders, the disobedience of which would warrant a death sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These men, known as "The Frenchmen", refused; the four ringleaders were formally sentenced to death by court-martial but immediately reprieved, with commutation to ten-years' penal servitude.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although a few objectors were accepted for non-combatant service in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps" title="Royal Army Medical Corps">Royal Army Medical Corps</a>, acting as nursing/paramedic assistants, the majority of non-combatants served in the Non-Combatant Corps on non-lethal stores, road and railway building and general labouring in the UK and France. Conscientious objectors who were deemed not to have made any useful contribution to the state were formally <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement" title="Disfranchisement">disenfranchised</a> (through a clause inserted in the <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1918" title="Representation of the People Act 1918">Representation of the People Act 1918</a> at the insistence of back-bench MPs) for the five years 1 September 1921 – 31 August 1926, but as it was a last-minute amendment there was no administrative machinery to enforce it, which was admitted to be a "dead letter".<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Britain's conscription legislation of 1916 did not apply to <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, despite it then being part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>. In 1918 the Army's manpower shortage led to passing a further act enabling conscription in Ireland if and when the government saw fit. In the event, the government never saw fit, although the legislation led to the <a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1918" title="Conscription Crisis of 1918">Conscription Crisis of 1918</a>. British conscription in the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> did not apply to <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Irishmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Irishmen">Irishmen</a> volunteered to fight in both world wars. The various parts of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> had their own laws: in general, all the larger countries of the Empire participated, and some were, in proportion to their population, major participants in the First World War. </p><p>In the Second World War, following the <a href="/wiki/National_Service_(Armed_Forces)_Act_1939" title="National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939">National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939</a>, there were nearly 60,000 registered Conscientious Objectors. Testing by tribunals resumed, this time by special Conscientious Objection Tribunals chaired by a judge, and the effects were much less harsh. If objectors were not a member of the Quakers or some similar pacifist organisation, it was generally enough to say that they objected to "warfare as a means of settling international disputes", a phrase from the <a href="/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact" title="Kellogg–Briand Pact">Kellogg–Briand Pact</a> of 1928. The tribunals could grant full exemption, exemption conditional on alternative service, exemption only from combatant duties, or dismiss the application. Of the 61,000 who were registered, 3,000 were given complete exemption; 18,000 applications were initially dismissed, but a number of such applicants succeeded at the Appellate Tribunal, sometimes after a "qualifying" sentence of three-months' imprisonment for an offence deemed to have been committed on grounds of conscience. Of those directed to non-combatant military service almost 7,000 were allocated to the Non-Combatant Corps, re-activated in mid-1940; its companies worked in clothing and food stores, in transport, or any military project not requiring the handling of "material of an aggressive nature". In November 1940 it was decided to allow troops in the NCC to volunteer for work in <a href="/wiki/Bomb_disposal" title="Bomb disposal">bomb disposal</a> and over 350 men volunteered.<sup id="cite_ref-UXB92_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UXB92-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other non-combatants worked in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps" title="Royal Army Medical Corps">Royal Army Medical Corps</a>. For conscientious objectors exempted conditional upon performing civil work, acceptable occupations were <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farm</a> work, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firefighting" title="Firefighting">firefighting</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_medical_services" title="Emergency medical services">ambulance service</a>. About 5,500 objectors were imprisoned, most charged with refusal to attend a medical examination as a necessary preliminary to call-up after being refused exemption, and some charged with non-compliance with the terms of conditional exemption. A further 1,000 were court-martialled by the armed forces and sent to military detention barracks or civil prisons. Unlike the First World War, most sentences were relatively short, and there was no pattern of continually repeated sentences. The social stigma attached to 'conchies' (as they were called) was considerable; regardless of the genuineness of their motives, cowardice was often imputed. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conscription in the United Kingdom">Conscription in the United Kingdom</a> was retained, with rights of conscientious objection, as <a href="/wiki/National_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="National Service">National Service</a> until the last call-up in 1960 and the last discharge in 1963. The use of all volunteer soldiers was hoped to remove the need to consider conscientious objectors. Ever since the First World War, there have been volunteer members of the armed forces who have developed a conscientious objection to service; a procedure was devised for them in the Second World War and with adaptations, it continues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_2">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_in_the_United_States" title="Conscientious objection in the United States">Conscientious objection in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/New_York_Draft_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Draft Riots">New York Draft Riots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">Conscription in the United States</a></div> <p>There are currently legal provisions in the United States for recognizing conscientious objection, both through the <a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_System" title="Selective Service System">Selective Service System</a> and through the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a>. The United States recognizes religious and moral objections, but not selective objections. Conscientious objectors in the United States may perform either civilian work or noncombatant service in lieu of combatant military service.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, conscientious objectors have been persecuted in the United States. After the Selective Service System was founded during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, such persecutions decreased in frequency, and recognition for conscientious objectors grew.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_countries">Other countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Other countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2005, conscientious objectors in several countries may serve as field paramedics in the army (although some do not consider this a genuine alternative, as they feel it merely helps to make war more humane instead of preventing it). Alternatively, they may serve without arms, although this, too, has its problems. In certain European countries such as <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, Greece and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, there is the option of performing an alternative civilian service, subject to the review of a written application or after a hearing about the state of conscience. In Greece, the alternative civilian service is twice as long as the corresponding military service; in Austria <i><a href="/wiki/Zivildienst_in_Austria" title="Zivildienst in Austria">Zivildienst</a></i> is one-third times longer, the Swiss <i><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Civilian_Service" title="Swiss Civilian Service">Zivildienst</a></i> is one and one-half times longer than military service. In 2005, the Swiss parliament considered whether willingness to serve one and a half times longer than an army recruit was sufficient proof of sincerity, citing that the cost of judging the state of conscience of a few thousand men per year was too great. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conscientious_objection_in_professional_forces">Conscientious objection in professional forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Conscientious objection in professional forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Only two European Union countries – Germany and the Netherlands – recognize the right to conscientious objection for contract and professional military personnel.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, military personnel who come to a conviction of conscientious objection during their tour of duty must appear in front of a panel of experts, which consists of psychiatrists, military chaplains and officers. </p><p>In Switzerland, the panel consists entirely of civilians, and military personnel have no authority whatsoever. In Germany, the draft has been suspended since 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (August 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Antimilitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_for_Conscientious_Objectors" title="Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors">Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_on_Conscience_%26_War" title="Center on Conscience & War">Center on Conscience & War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_Objectors_Commemorative_Stone" title="Conscientious Objectors Commemorative Stone">Conscientious Objectors Commemorative Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_to_military_taxation" title="Conscientious objection to military taxation">Conscientious objection to military taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">Counter-recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_J%C3%A4gerst%C3%A4tter" title="Franz Jägerstätter">Franz Jägerstätter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends%27_Ambulance_Unit" title="Friends' Ambulance Unit">Friends' Ambulance Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GI_Rights_Network" title="GI Rights Network">GI Rights Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Cadet_Corps" title="Medical Cadet Corps">Medical Cadet Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Christi" title="Pax Christi">Pax Christi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Pledge_Union" title="Peace Pledge Union">Peace Pledge Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_Sixteen" title="Richmond Sixteen">Richmond Sixteen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_conscientious_objection" title="Selective conscientious objection">Selective conscientious objection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntaryism" title="Voluntaryism">Voluntaryism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Resisters%27_International" title="War Resisters' International">War Resisters' International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Resisters_League" title="War Resisters League">War Resisters League</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On July 30, 2001, explicit clarification of the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> Article 18 was made in the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights Committee">Human Rights Committee</a> general comment 22, Para. 11: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200106042616/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomReligion/Pages/IstandardsI3k.aspx">"Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief. Framework for communications. Conscientious Objection"</a>. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomReligion/Pages/IstandardsI3k.aspx">the original</a> on 6 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Special+Rapporteur+on+freedom+of+religion+or+belief.+Framework+for+communications.+Conscientious+Objection&rft.pub=Office+of+the+United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FEN%2FIssues%2FFreedomReligion%2FPages%2FIstandardsI3k.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CCPR.aspx">"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conscientious+objection+to+military+service%2C+Commission+on+Human+Rights+resolution+1998%2F77%2C+Navigation+to+document%3A+press+%22next%22+four+times%2C+see+bottom+listing%2C+and+at+the+right+choose+letter+for+language+%28%22E%22+for+English%29+Document%3A+CHR+54th+4%2F22%2F1998E%2FCN.4%2FRES%2F1998%2F77&rft.pub=United+Nations+Human+Rights%2C+Office+of+the+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights&rft.date=1998&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fap.ohchr.org%2Fdocuments%2Fsdpage_e.aspx%3Fb%3D1%26se%3D10%26t%3D11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-D._CHRISTOPHER_DECKER,_AND_LUCIA_FRESA-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-D._CHRISTOPHER_DECKER,_AND_LUCIA_FRESA_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-D._CHRISTOPHER_DECKER,_AND_LUCIA_FRESA_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFD._CHRISTOPHER_DECKERAND_LUCIA_FRESA2001" class="citation web cs1">D. CHRISTOPHER DECKER; AND LUCIA FRESA (29 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111122030613/http://www1.law.nyu.edu/journals/jilp/issues/33/pdf/33n.pdf">"THE STATUS OF CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTION UNDER ARTICLE 4 OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, 33 N.Y.U. J. INT'L L. & POL. 379 (2000); See pages 412–424, (or PDF pages 34–36)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York University School of Law, Issues – Volume 33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.law.nyu.edu/journals/jilp/issues/33/pdf/33n.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 22 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=THE+STATUS+OF+CONSCIENTIOUS+OBJECTION+UNDER+ARTICLE+4+OF+THE+EUROPEAN+CONVENTION+ON+HUMAN+RIGHTS%2C+33+N.Y.U.+J.+INT%27L+L.+%26+POL.+379+%282000%29%3B+See+pages+412%E2%80%93424%2C+%28or+PDF+pages+34%E2%80%9336%29&rft.pub=New+York+University+School+of+Law%2C+Issues+%E2%80%93+Volume+33&rft.date=2001-03-29&rft.au=D.+CHRISTOPHER+DECKER&rft.au=AND+LUCIA+FRESA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.law.nyu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fjilp%2Fissues%2F33%2Fpdf%2F33n.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights2012" class="citation web cs1">The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/ConscientiousObjection_en.pdf">"Conscientious objection to military service"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conscientious+objection+to+military+service&rft.date=2012&rft.au=The+Office+of+the+United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FDocuments%2FPublications%2FConscientiousObjection_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-co-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-co_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-co_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1996" class="citation book cs1">Churchill, Robert Paul (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000unse_z7e9/page/98/mode/2up">"Conscientious Objection"</a>. In Donald K. Wells (ed.). <i>An Encyclopedia of War and Ethics</i>. Greenwood Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">99–</span>102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313291160" title="Special:BookSources/0313291160"><bdi>0313291160</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conscientious+Objection&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+War+and+Ethics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0313291160&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Robert+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofwa0000unse_z7e9%2Fpage%2F98%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quakersintheworld.org/quakers-in-action/171">"Conscientious Objection"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conscientious+Objection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quakersintheworld.org%2Fquakers-in-action%2F171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120912162219/http://www.unac.org/rights/question.html">"Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unac.org/rights/question.html">the original</a> on 12 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2004</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Questions+and+answers+about+the+Universal+Declaration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unac.org%2Frights%2Fquestion.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span> under "Who are the signatories of the Declaration?"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1974/macbride-lecture.html">"The Imperatives of Survival"</a>. Nobel Foundation. 1974<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Imperatives+of+Survival&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft.date=1974&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fpeace%2Flaureates%2F1974%2Fmacbride-lecture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080705115024/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm">"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights"</a>. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm">the original</a> on 5 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Covenant+on+Civil+and+Political+Rights&rft.pub=Office+of+the+United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ohchr.org%2Fenglish%2Flaw%2Fccpr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515162443/http://www.wri-irg.org/books/co-guide-un.htm">"A Conscientious Objector's Guide to the UN Human Rights System"</a>. War Resisters International. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wri-irg.org/books/co-guide-un.htm">the original</a> on 15 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Conscientious+Objector%27s+Guide+to+the+UN+Human+Rights+System&rft.pub=War+Resisters+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wri-irg.org%2Fbooks%2Fco-guide-un.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080517135236/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/religion/I3k.htm">"Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief. Framework for communications. Conscientious Objection"</a>. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/religion/I3k.htm">the original</a> on 17 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Republic of Korea, communications nos. 1321-1322/2004"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HRC+views+in+case+Yoon+and+Choi+v.+Republic+of+Korea%2C+communications+nos.+1321-1322%2F2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bayefsky.com%2Fpdf%2Fkorea_t5_iccpr_1321_1322_2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur01/004/1997/en/">"Out of the margins: The right to conscientious objection to military service in Europe. An announcement of amnesty international's forthcoming campaign and briefing for the UN commission on Human Rights"</a>. 31 March 1997.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+margins%3A+The+right+to+conscientious+objection+to+military+service+in+Europe.+An+announcement+of+amnesty+international%27s+forthcoming+campaign+and+briefing+for+the+UN+commission+on+Human+Rights&rft.date=1997-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Feur01%2F004%2F1997%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3b00f0be10.html">"Conscientious objection to military service; E/CN.4/RES/1998/77; See Point #5"</a>. UN Commission on Human Rights. 22 April 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conscientious+objection+to+military+service%3B+E%2FCN.4%2FRES%2F1998%2F77%3B+See+Point+%235&rft.pub=UN+Commission+on+Human+Rights&rft.date=1998-04-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2Frefworld%2Fdocid%2F3b00f0be10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights1998" class="citation web cs1">United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (22 April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181119071939/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/5bc5759a53f36ab380256671004b643a?Opendocument">"Conscientious objection to military service; Commission on Human Rights resolution 1998/77; see point *7"</a>. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/5bc5759a53f36ab380256671004b643a?Opendocument">the original</a> on 19 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conscientious+objection+to+military+service%3B+Commission+on+Human+Rights+resolution+1998%2F77%3B+see+point+%2A7&rft.pub=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights&rft.date=1998-04-22&rft.au=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Human+Rights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhchr.ch%2FHuridocda%2FHuridoca.nsf%2F0%2F5bc5759a53f36ab380256671004b643a%3FOpendocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union">Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union</a>, Article 10, 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3d58e13b4.pdf">Source: Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.paconstitution.org/texts-of-the-constitution/1790-2/">"Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania – 1790"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+of+the+Commonwealth+of+Pennsylvania+%E2%80%93+1790&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.paconstitution.org%2Ftexts-of-the-constitution%2F1790-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nh.gov/glance/bill-of-rights.htm">"State Constitution - Bill of Rights"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=State+Constitution+-+Bill+of+Rights&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nh.gov%2Fglance%2Fbill-of-rights.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sven_Lindqvist" title="Sven Lindqvist">Sven Lindqvist</a>, "A History of Bombing" (<i>Nu dog du: bombernas århundrade</i>), 1999, relevant quotation at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/mydocs/culture/lawrence.htm">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Murray_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurray1967" class="citation web cs1">Murray, John Courtney (4 June 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080614225829/http://woodstock.georgetown.edu/library/Murray/1967L.htm">"Selective Conscientious Objection; Editor Note: An address given at Western Maryland College, June 4, 1967. First published as pamphlet entitled "Selective Conscientious Objection" by Our Sunday Visitor (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, Inc.). Republished as "War and Conscience" in A Conflict of Loyalties: The Case for Selective Conscientious Objected, 19–30, ed. by James Finn, (New York: Gegasus, 1968)"</a>. Woodstock Theological Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://woodstock.georgetown.edu/library/Murray/1967L.htm">the original</a> on 14 June 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Selective+Conscientious+Objection%3B+Editor+Note%3A+An+address+given+at+Western+Maryland+College%2C+June+4%2C+1967.+First+published+as+pamphlet+entitled+%22Selective+Conscientious+Objection%22+by+Our+Sunday+Visitor+%28Huntington%2C+IN%3A+Our+Sunday+Visitor%2C+Inc.%29.+Republished+as+%22War+and+Conscience%22+in+A+Conflict+of+Loyalties%3A+The+Case+for+Selective+Conscientious+Objected%2C+19%E2%80%9330%2C+ed.+by+James+Finn%2C+%28New+York%3A+Gegasus%2C+1968%29.&rft.pub=Woodstock+Theological+Center&rft.date=1967-06-04&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=John+Courtney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwoodstock.georgetown.edu%2Flibrary%2FMurray%2F1967L.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=401&invol=437">"FindLaw's United States Supreme Court case and opinions"</a>. <i>Findlaw</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Findlaw&rft.atitle=FindLaw%27s+United+States+Supreme+Court+case+and+opinions.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fcourt%3DUS%26vol%3D401%26invol%3D437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seruv.org.il/english/article.asp?msgid=55&type=news">Courage to Refuse</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100308102144/http://www.seruv.org.il/english/article.asp?msgid=55&type=news">Archived</a> 2010-03-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Pilots letter</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_Nation2003" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a> (23 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenation.com/doc/20031013/infact">"In Fact... (THE ISRAELI PEACE MOVEMENT TAKES FLIGHT)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=In+Fact...+%28THE+ISRAELI+PEACE+MOVEMENT+TAKES+FLIGHT%29&rft.date=2003-09-23&rft.au=The+Nation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Fdoc%2F20031013%2Finfact&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRandom2005" class="citation news cs1">Random, Jack (25 May 2005). "Just Say No: The Case for Selective Conscientious Objection". <i>Buzzle</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Buzzle&rft.atitle=Just+Say+No%3A+The+Case+for+Selective+Conscientious+Objection&rft.date=2005-05-25&rft.aulast=Random&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Bruderhof_Communities">"Bruderhof Communities – GAMEO"</a>. <i>gameo.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gameo.org&rft.atitle=Bruderhof+Communities+%E2%80%93+GAMEO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgameo.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DBruderhof_Communities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis2001-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis2001_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewis2001" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, James R. (2001). <i>The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions</i>. Prometheus Books. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61592-738-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61592-738-8"><bdi>978-1-61592-738-8</bdi></a>. <q>The doctrine of the Emmanuel Association is similar to that of the Pilgrim Holiness Church, but it has a very rigid behavior code called Principles of Holy Living. Members are conscientious objectors.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Cults%2C+Sects%2C+and+New+Religions&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-61592-738-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RFMC1960-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RFMC1960_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFMC1960_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RFMC1960_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Discipline of the Reformed Free Methodist Church</i>. The Sound of Trumpet Ministries. 17 March 1960. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discipline+of+the+Reformed+Free+Methodist+Church&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=The+Sound+of+Trumpet+Ministries&rft.date=1960-03-17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sidadventist.org/lead/index.php/resources/essent/89-leadership">sidadventist.org</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religioustolerance.org/sda3.htm">"The Seventh-day Adventist Church: Controversies, books and other resources"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120911050201/http://www.religioustolerance.org/sda3.htm">Archived</a> 11 September 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>, <i>religioustolerance.org</i>, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sdarm.org/origin.htm">"Origin of the Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100815073949/http://www.sdarm.org/origin.htm">Archived</a> 2010-08-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFC_John_Cadoux1919" class="citation book cs1">C John Cadoux (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://compassionatespirit.com/Books/Cadoux/Chapter-21.htm"><i>The Early Christian Attitude to War</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Christian+Attitude+to+War&rft.date=1919&rft.au=C+John+Cadoux&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcompassionatespirit.com%2FBooks%2FCadoux%2FChapter-21.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStaff_of_the_Catholic_Peace_Fellowship2007" class="citation journal cs1">Staff of the Catholic Peace Fellowship (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholicpeacefellowship.org/nextpage.asp?m=2524">"The Life and Witness of Ben Salmon"</a>. <i>Sign of Peace</i>. <b>6.1</b> (Spring 2007).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sign+of+Peace&rft.atitle=The+Life+and+Witness+of+Ben+Salmon&rft.volume=6.1&rft.issue=Spring+2007&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Staff+of+the+Catholic+Peace+Fellowship&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholicpeacefellowship.org%2Fnextpage.asp%3Fm%3D2524&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTorin_Finney1989" class="citation book cs1">Torin Finney (1989). <i>Unsung Hero of the Great War: The Life and Witness of Ben Salmon</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">118–</span>119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unsung+Hero+of+the+Great+War%3A+The+Life+and+Witness+of+Ben+Salmon&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E118-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.date=1989&rft.au=Torin+Finney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P81.HTM"><i>Catechism of the Catholic Church</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catechism+of+the+Catholic+Church&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Farchive%2FENG0015%2F__P81.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jw.org/en/news/by-region/europe/armenia/armenia-releases-imprisoned-jehovahs-witnesses/">Armenia Releases All Imprisoned Jehovah's Witnesses</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMazal1999" class="citation thesis cs1">Mazal, Peter (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bahai-library.com/mazal_comparison_christianity_bahai&chapter=1">"1. The Moral Domain"</a>. <i>Selected Topics of Comparison in Christianity and the Baháʼí Faith</i> (MA thesis). Landegg Academy<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Selected+Topics+of+Comparison+in+Christianity+and+the+Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD+Faith&rft.degree=MA&rft.inst=Landegg+Academy&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Mazal&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbahai-library.com%2Fmazal_comparison_christianity_bahai%26chapter%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ud1-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ud1_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEffendi" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shoghi_Effendi" title="Shoghi Effendi">Effendi, Shoghi</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/UD/ud-136.html"><i>Unfolding Destiny</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">134–</span>135.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unfolding+Destiny&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E134-%3C%2Fspan%3E135&rft.aulast=Effendi&rft.aufirst=Shoghi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freference.bahai.org%2Fen%2Ft%2Fse%2FUD%2Fud-136.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFD._CHRISTOPHER_DECKERAND_LUCIA_FRESA2001" class="citation web cs1">D. CHRISTOPHER DECKER; AND LUCIA FRESA (29 March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111122030613/http://www1.law.nyu.edu/journals/jilp/issues/33/pdf/33n.pdf">"THE STATUS OF CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTION UNDER ARTICLE 4 OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, 33 N.Y.U. J. INT'L L. & POL. 379 (2000)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York University School of Law, Issues – Volume 33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.law.nyu.edu/journals/jilp/issues/33/pdf/33n.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 22 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=THE+STATUS+OF+CONSCIENTIOUS+OBJECTION+UNDER+ARTICLE+4+OF+THE+EUROPEAN+CONVENTION+ON+HUMAN+RIGHTS%2C+33+N.Y.U.+J.+INT%27L+L.+%26+POL.+379+%282000%29&rft.pub=New+York+University+School+of+Law%2C+Issues+%E2%80%93+Volume+33&rft.date=2001-03-29&rft.au=D.+CHRISTOPHER+DECKER&rft.au=AND+LUCIA+FRESA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.law.nyu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fjilp%2Fissues%2F33%2Fpdf%2F33n.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, p. 321. The <a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Conscription Crisis of 1917</a> also barred immigrants and objectors from voting. This bar on entry was overturned in the 1920s, allowing immigrants to escape Soviet repression.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gingerich p. 420.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeter_DueckConrad_StoeszGrant_KlassenLynette_Wiebe" class="citation web cs1">Peter Dueck; Conrad Stoesz; Grant Klassen; Lynette Wiebe; Elsie Rempel; Lawrence Klippenstein; Alf Redekopp; Dan Dyck; John C. Klassen; Grant Klassen; Edward Enns; Jake K. Wiens; David Schroeder. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alternativeservice.ca/credits/index.htm">"Alternative Service in the Second World War: Conscientious Objectors in Canada: 1939 – 1945"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alternative+Service+in+the+Second+World+War%3A+Conscientious+Objectors+in+Canada%3A+1939+%E2%80%93+1945&rft.au=Peter+Dueck&rft.au=Conrad+Stoesz&rft.au=Grant+Klassen&rft.au=Lynette+Wiebe&rft.au=Elsie+Rempel&rft.au=Lawrence+Klippenstein&rft.au=Alf+Redekopp&rft.au=Dan+Dyck&rft.au=John+C.+Klassen&rft.au=Grant+Klassen&rft.au=Edward+Enns&rft.au=Jake+K.+Wiens&rft.au=David+Schroeder&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alternativeservice.ca%2Fcredits%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krahn, pp. 76–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gobiernobogota-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gobiernobogota_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221021175520/https://www.gobiernobogota.gov.co/noticias/nivel-central/objecion-conciencia-cuando-y-donde-se-puede-practicar">"Objecion conciencia cuando y donde se puede practicar"</a>. <i>gobiernobogota.gov.co</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gobiernobogota.gov.co/noticias/nivel-central/objecion-conciencia-cuando-y-donde-se-puede-practicar">the original</a> on 21 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gobiernobogota.gov.co&rft.atitle=Objecion+conciencia+cuando+y+donde+se+puede+practicar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gobiernobogota.gov.co%2Fnoticias%2Fnivel-central%2Fobjecion-conciencia-cuando-y-donde-se-puede-practicar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20151220230242/http://www.politiko.dk/nyheder/forsvarsminister-vaernepligt-skal-bevares#selection-2931.0-3131.8">"Forsvarsminister: Værnepligt skal bevares"</a>. <i>Politiko</i> (in Danish). 8 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Politiko&rft.atitle=Forsvarsminister%3A+V%C3%A6rnepligt+skal+bevares&rft.date=2011-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.today%2F20151220230242%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.politiko.dk%2Fnyheder%2Fforsvarsminister-vaernepligt-skal-bevares%23selection-2931.0-3131.8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181031214839/https://www.wri-irg.org/en/programmes/world_survey/reports/Eritrea">"Eritrea"</a>. <i>wri-irg.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/War_Resisters%27_International" title="War Resisters' International">War Resisters' International</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wri-irg.org/en/programmes/world_survey/reports/Eritrea">the original</a> on 31 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wri-irg.org&rft.atitle=Eritrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wri-irg.org%2Fen%2Fprogrammes%2Fworld_survey%2Freports%2FEritrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070726143012/http://www.aseistakieltaytyjaliitto.fi/ihmisoikeuselimet.html">"Suomi syrjii aseistakieltäytyjiä! – AKL"</a>. <i>aseistakieltaytyjaliitto.fi</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aseistakieltaytyjaliitto.fi/ihmisoikeuselimet.html">the original</a> on 26 July 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aseistakieltaytyjaliitto.fi&rft.atitle=Suomi+syrjii+aseistakielt%C3%A4ytyji%C3%A4%21+%E2%80%93+AKL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aseistakieltaytyjaliitto.fi%2Fihmisoikeuselimet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/CCPR.CO.82.FIN.En?Opendocument">"unhchr.ch"</a>. <i>unhchr.ch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unhchr.ch&rft.atitle=unhchr.ch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhchr.ch%2Ftbs%2Fdoc.nsf%2F%28Symbol%29%2FCCPR.CO.82.FIN.En%3FOpendocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JPC-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JPC_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean-Paul Cahn, Françoise Knopper, Anne-Marie Saint-Gille, De la Guerre juste à la paix juste: Aspects confessionnels de la construction de la paix dans l'espace franco-allemand (XVIe-XXe siècle), Collection Histoire et civilisations, Presses Universitaires Septentrion, 2008, 313 pages, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782757400388" title="Special:BookSources/9782757400388">9782757400388</a>, p.168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160815132422/http://www.wri-irg.org/fr/node/1394">"15 mai – Journée internationale de l'objection de conscience – Internationale des Résistant(e)s à la Guerre"</a>. <i>wri-irg.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wri-irg.org/fr/node/1394">the original</a> on 15 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wri-irg.org&rft.atitle=15+mai+%E2%80%93+Journ%C3%A9e+internationale+de+l%27objection+de+conscience+%E2%80%93+Internationale+des+R%C3%A9sistant%28e%29s+%C3%A0+la+Guerre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wri-irg.org%2Ffr%2Fnode%2F1394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">September 17, 1939 <i>The New York Times</i> See also: <i>A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust</i> by Florida Center for Instructional Technology <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/people/JWTIMELN.HTM">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bernd_Eisenfeld" title="Bernd Eisenfeld">Bernd Eisenfeld</a>: Das Verhältnis der Partei- und Staatsführung der DDR zu den Bausoldaten a) die agitatorische Diskriminierung der Bausoldaten b) die substantielle Diskriminierung der Bausoldaten. pp. 115–125. in: Kriegsdienstverweigerung in der DDR – ein Friedensdienst? Genesis, Befragung, Analyse, Dokumente. 190 Seiten + Anhang. Hrsg. Haag + Herchen, Frankfurt 1978. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-88129-158-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-88129-158-X">3-88129-158-X</a>. <i>In German</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[ * Sergej Kaledin: Das Baubataillon.Übersetzung der russischen Originalausgabe "Strojbat" (1991). Verlag Volk & Welt. Berlin 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-353-00927-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-353-00927-2">3-353-00927-2</a>. <i>In German</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wri-irg.org-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wri-irg.org_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wri-irg.org_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130121141156/http://wri-irg.org/co/co-isr-03.htm">"Conscientious objection to military service in Israel: an unrecognised human right – War Resisters' International"</a>. <i>wri-irg.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wri-irg.org/co/co-isr-03.htm">the original</a> on 21 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wri-irg.org&rft.atitle=Conscientious+objection+to+military+service+in+Israel%3A+an+unrecognised+human+right+%E2%80%93+War+Resisters%27+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwri-irg.org%2Fco%2Fco-isr-03.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From the <a href="/wiki/Torato_Omanuto" class="mw-redirect" title="Torato Omanuto">Torato Omanuto</a> entry: "from 800 men in 1968 to 41,450 in 2005 compared to 7 million for the entire population of Israel. In percentage terms, 2.4% of the soldiers enlisting to the army in 1974 were benefiting from Torato Omanuto compared to 9.2% in 1999, when it was projected that the number would reach 15% by 2012."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-test-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-test_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-test_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20131231174322/http://elyon1.court.gov.il/files/07/980/062/n18/07062980.n18.htm">"בבית המשפט העליון בשבתו כבית משפט גבוה לצדק"</a> (in Hebrew). 21 February 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elyon1.court.gov.il/files/07/980/062/n18/07062980.n18.htm">the original</a> on 31 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%91%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA+%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98+%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F+%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%95+%D7%9B%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA+%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98+%D7%92%D7%91%D7%95%D7%94+%D7%9C%D7%A6%D7%93%D7%A7&rft.date=2012-02-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felyon1.court.gov.il%2Ffiles%2F07%2F980%2F062%2Fn18%2F07062980.n18.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002386/2020-01-01">Wet gewetensbezwaren militaire dienst</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaonga" class="citation web cs1">Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/conscription-conscientious-objection-and-pacifism/page-2">"Conscientious objection"</a>. <i>teara.govt.nz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=teara.govt.nz&rft.atitle=Conscientious+objection&rft.aulast=Taonga&rft.aufirst=New+Zealand+Ministry+for+Culture+and+Heritage+Te+Manatu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fteara.govt.nz%2Fen%2Fconscription-conscientious-objection-and-pacifism%2Fpage-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/photo/field-punishment-no-1">"Field punishment No 1"</a>. <i>nzhistory.govt.nz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nzhistory.govt.nz&rft.atitle=Field+punishment+No+1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnzhistory.govt.nz%2Fmedia%2Fphoto%2Ffield-punishment-no-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_Human_Rights_Office" class="citation web cs1">United Nations Human Rights Office. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/RuleOfLaw/ConscientiousObjection/New_Zealand.pdf">"New Zealand Law and Conscientious Objection"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Zealand+Law+and+Conscientious+Objection&rft.au=United+Nations+Human+Rights+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FDocuments%2FIssues%2FRuleOfLaw%2FConscientiousObjection%2FNew_Zealand.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/view.php?StoryID=20061023-023126-3463r">Romania drops compulsory military service</a>, United Press International, 23 October 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The decree was issued in October 1918. Smith, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBraunBlockKlippenstein1989" class="citation web cs1">Braun, Abraham; Block, Th.; Klippenstein, Lawrence (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/F6717ME.html">"Forsteidienst, Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forsteidienst%2C+Global+Anabaptist+Mennonite+Encyclopedia+Online&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Braun&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft.au=Block%2C+Th.&rft.au=Klippenstein%2C+Lawrence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gameo.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Fcontents%2FF6717ME.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, p. 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Law about civil service <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/zakon_o_civilnoj_sluzbi.html">https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/zakon_o_civilnoj_sluzbi.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Decision on the suspension of the obligation to serve the military service <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/odluka_o_obustavi_obaveze_sluzenja_vojnog_roka.html">https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/odluka_o_obustavi_obaveze_sluzenja_vojnog_roka.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The National Registry of Conscientious Objectors launched in 1989, listed some 700 plus objectors for that year alone. Source: Argus, Thursday, September 21, 1989</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jw-media-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jw-media_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120525232027/http://www.jw-media.org/kor/index.htm">"South Korea"</a>. <i>Jehovah’s Witnesses Official Media Web Site</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jw-media.org/kor/index.htm">the original</a> on 25 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jehovah%E2%80%99s+Witnesses+Official+Media+Web+Site&rft.atitle=South+Korea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jw-media.org%2Fkor%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span> Imprisonment of conscientious objectors to military service]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nojail-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nojail_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nojail_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-objectors-idUSSEO29904620080902">"South Korea military objectors say don't jail pacifists"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. 2 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=South+Korea+Supreme+Court+allows+conscientious+objection+to+military+service+in+landmark+ruling&rft.date=2018-12-30&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Joyce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-southkorea-military%2Fsouth-korea-supreme-court-allows-conscientious-objection-to-military-service-in-landmark-ruling-idUSKCN1N63GZ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brock_(historian)" title="Peter Brock (historian)">Peter Brock</a> and Nigel Young, <i>Pacifism in the Twentieth Century</i>. Syracuse University Press, New York, 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-8125-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8156-8125-9">0-8156-8125-9</a> (pp. 96–7, 311).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1978/Part_I#Division_2._Rights_and_Duties_of_Citizens" class="extiw" title="s:Spanish Constitution of 1978/Part I">Spanish Constitution section 30.2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ordás-García_2022-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ordás-García_2022_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrdás_García2022" class="citation journal cs1">Ordás García, Carlos Ángel (May 2022). "The Antimilitarist Campaign against Compulsory Military Service in Spain during the 1970s and 1980s". <i><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_European_History" title="Contemporary European History">Contemporary European History</a></i>. <b>31</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">286–</span>304. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0960777322000224">10.1017/S0960777322000224</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-2171">1469-2171</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249051063">249051063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+European+History&rft.atitle=The+Antimilitarist+Campaign+against+Compulsory+Military+Service+in+Spain+during+the+1970s+and+1980s&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E286-%3C%2Fspan%3E304&rft.date=2022-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A249051063%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1469-2171&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0960777322000224&rft.aulast=Ord%C3%A1s+Garc%C3%ADa&rft.aufirst=Carlos+%C3%81ngel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2006/Jan/Chamberjudgment%C3%9ClkevTurkey240106.htm">"Chamber Judgement Ulke vs. Turkey"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061009185413/http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2006/Jan/Chamberjudgment%C3%9ClkevTurkey240106.htm">Archived</a> 2006-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Accessed June 7, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the list on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.savaskarsitlari.org/arsiv.asp?ArsivTipID=2">pages of the "opponents to war"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604020211/http://www.savaskarsitlari.org/arsiv.asp?ArsivTipID=2">Archived</a> 2011-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (tr:<i>savaş karşıtları</i>), accessed on 15 May 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AI-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AI_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur44/003/2011/en/">"Prisoner of conscience escapes and is rearrested"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>. 28 April 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prisoner+of+conscience+escapes+and+is+rearrested&rft.pub=Amnesty+International&rft.date=2011-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Feur44%2F003%2F2011%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105214759/http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25297170/">"NTV Haber – Türkiye ve Dünya Gündemi Güncel Son Dakika Haberleri"</a>. <i>ntvmsnbc.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25297170/">the original</a> on 5 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ntvmsnbc.com&rft.atitle=NTV+Haber+%E2%80%93+T%C3%BCrkiye+ve+D%C3%BCnya+G%C3%BCndemi+G%C3%BCncel+Son+Dakika+Haberleri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ntvmsnbc.com%2Fid%2F25297170%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. J. P. Taylor, <i>English History, 1914–1945</i> (Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brock, Peter,<i>These strange criminals: an anthology of prison memoirs by conscientious objectors to military service from the Great War to the Cold War</i>, p. 14, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802087078" title="Special:BookSources/0802087078">0802087078</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adrian Gregory, 'Military Service Tribunals, 1916–1918' in J. Harris (ed.) <i>Civil Society in British History</i>. (Oxford, 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lois Bibbings, <i>Telling Tales About Men</i>(Manchester University Press, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://menwhosaidno.org/Sentenced/index.html">"The Men Who Said No"</a>. Peace Pledge Union<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Men+Who+Said+No&rft.pub=Peace+Pledge+Union&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmenwhosaidno.org%2FSentenced%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/10507058.Silence_in_castle_to_honour_First_World_War_conscientious_objectors/">Silence in castle to honour First World War conscientious objectors</a> dated 25 June 2013 at <i>thenorthernecho.co.uk</i>, accessed 19 October 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor" title="A. J. P. Taylor">A. J. P. Taylor</a>, <i>English History, 1914–1945</i> (Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 116; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spartacus-educational.com/FWWpacifists.htm">FWW Pacifists</a> at spartacus-educational.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UXB92-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UXB92_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJappy2001" class="citation book cs1">Jappy, M. J (2001). <i>Danger UXB The Remarkable Story of the Disposal of Unexploded Bombs During the Second World War</i>. Channel 4 books. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7522-1938-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7522-1938-3"><bdi>0-7522-1938-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Danger+UXB+The+Remarkable+Story+of+the+Disposal+of+Unexploded+Bombs+During+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Channel+4+books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7522-1938-3&rft.aulast=Jappy&rft.aufirst=M.+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427014446/https://www.sss.gov/consobj">"Conscientious Objection and Alternative Service"</a>. <i>Selective Service System</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sss.gov/consobj">the original</a> on 27 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Selective+Service+System&rft.atitle=Conscientious+Objection+and+Alternative+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sss.gov%2Fconsobj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118175710/http://wri-irg.org/pdf/eu-rtba2008update-en.pdf">"Professional Soldiers and the Right to Conscientious Objection in the European Union"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/War_Resisters%27_International" title="War Resisters' International">War Resisters' International</a>. October 2008. p. 6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wri-irg.org/pdf/eu-rtba2008update-en.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Professional+Soldiers+and+the+Right+to+Conscientious+Objection+in+the+European+Union&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=War+Resisters%27+International&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwri-irg.org%2Fpdf%2Feu-rtba2008update-en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faz.net/">"Aktuelle Nachrichten online"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung" title="Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung">Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Frankfurter+Allgemeine+Zeitung&rft.atitle=Aktuelle+Nachrichten+online&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faz.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081229033706/http://www.apu.edu/theology/faculty/palexander/">Alexander, Paul</a>, (2008),<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cascadiapublishinghouse.com/ptw/ptw.htm"><i>Peace to War: Shifting Allegiances in the Assemblies of God</i></a>. Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing/Herald Press. A history and analysis of conscientious objection in the Assemblies of God, the largest Pentecostal denomination.</li> <li>Barker, Rachel. <i>Conscience, government and war: Conscientious objection in Great Britain 1939–45</i> (Routledge, 2021).</li> <li>Bennett, Scott H. (2003). <i>Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963.</i> (Syracuse Univ. Press).</li> <li>Brennan, Jason. "Conscientious tax objection: why the liberal state must accommodate tax resisters." <i>Public Affairs Quarterly</i> 26.2 (2012): 141–159.</li> <li>Keim, Albert N. (1990). <i>The CPS Story: An Illustrated History of Civilian Public Service</i>, pp. 75–79. Good Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56148-002-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-56148-002-9">1-56148-002-9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41697904">online</a></li> <li>Gingerich, Melvin (1949), <i>Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service</i>, Mennonite Central Committee.</li> <li>Krahn, Cornelius, Gingerich, Melvin & Harms, Orlando (Eds.) (1955). <i>The Mennonite Encyclopedia</i>, Volume I, pp. 76–78. Mennoniite Publishing House.</li> <li>Magelssen, Morten. "When should conscientious objection be accepted?" <i> Journal of Medical Ethics</i> 38.1 (2012): 18–21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=04fea098796a72e2f67364208beec94354ba5839">online</a></li> <li>Matthews, Mark (2006). <i>Smoke Jumping on the Western Fire Line: Conscientious Objectors during World War II</i>, University of Oklahoma Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806137667" title="Special:BookSources/978-0806137667">978-0806137667</a></li> <li>Moorehead, Caroline (1987). <i>Troublesome People: Enemies of War, 1916–86</i>, Hamish Hamilton Ltd, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-12105-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-241-12105-1">0-241-12105-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080609013136/http://www.quaker.org.uk/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=90045">Quakers in Britain — Conscientious Objectors</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith1981" class="citation book cs1">Smith, C. Henry (1981). <i>Smith's Story of the Mennonites</i>. Revised and expanded by Cornelius Krahn. Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">299–</span>300, 311. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87303-069-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-87303-069-9"><bdi>0-87303-069-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Smith%27s+Story+of+the+Mennonites&rft.place=Newton%2C+Kansas&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E299-%3C%2Fspan%3E300%2C+311&rft.pub=Faith+and+Life+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-87303-069-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=C.+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Robb, Linsey. "The 'Conchie Corps': Conflict, Compromise and Conscientious Objection in the British Army, 1940–1945." <i>Twentieth Century British History</i> 29.3 (2018): 411–434. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/33557/1/FINAL%20FINAL%20VERSION.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Tinnelly CM, Joseph T. "The Conscientious Objector Under the Selective Service Act of 1940." <i>St. John's Law Review</i> 15.2 (2013): 6+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5401&context=lawreview">online</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bennett, Scott H. (2005). <i>Army GI, Pacifist CO: The World War II Letters of Frank and Albert Dietrich</i> (Fordham Univ. Press).</li> <li>McNair, Donald (2008) <i>A Pacifist at War: Military Memoirs of a Conscientious Objector in Palestine 1917–1918</i> Anastasia Press, Much Hadham <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9536396-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9536396-1-8">978-0-9536396-1-8</a></li> <li>Mock, Melanie Springer (2003). <i>Writing Peace: The Unheard Voices of Great War Mennonite Objectors</i>, Cascadia Publishing House. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931038-09-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-931038-09-0">1-931038-09-0</a></li> <li>U.S. Selective Service, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sss.gov/consobj">Conscientious Objection and Alternative Service: Who Qualifies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427014446/https://www.sss.gov/consobj">Archived</a> 2017-04-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>"</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_viewing">Further viewing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further viewing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Rick Tejada-Flores, Judith Ehrlich (2000), "The good war and those who refused to fight it"; Paradigm Productions in association with the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Television_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Television Service">Independent Television Service</a>, aired on PBS.</li> <li>Catherine Ryan, Gary Weimberg (2008), "Soldiers of Conscience"; Luna Productions. Aired on the PBS nonfiction series <i>POV</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molly_Stuart" class="mw-redirect" title="Molly Stuart">Molly Stuart</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amitai_Ben-Abba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amitai Ben-Abba (page does not exist)">Amitai Ben-Abba</a> (2019), "Objector"; Java Films. A documentary about Israeli conscientious objector Atalya Ben-Abba, premiered at <a href="/wiki/International_Documentary_Film_Festival_Amsterdam" title="International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam">IDFA</a>. – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt11372324/">"Objector"</a>. <a href="/wiki/IMDb" title="IMDb">IMDb</a>. 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Objector&rft.pub=IMDb&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Ftitle%2Ftt11372324%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConscientious+objector" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conscientious_objector&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Manifesto_Against_Conscription_and_the_Military_System" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System">Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Conscientious_objector" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Schleif, Luke: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/conscientious_objectors">Conscientious Objectors</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li>Patterson, David S.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/pacifism">Pacifism</a>, in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/">1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alternativeservice.ca/">Alternative Service in the Second World War: Conscientious Objectors in Canada 1939–1945</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080919181648/http://www.peaceabbey.org/confcenter/coregistry.htm">The National Registry for Conscientious Objection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060503000503/http://www.wri-irg.org/co/15may.htm">International Conscientious Objectors' Day (War Resisters' International)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130409222531/http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/2053881B-5606-42C4-977E-120AF07B8C73/0/FICHES_Objection_de_conscience_EN.pdfEuropeanCourt">of Human Rights factsheet on case law on conscientious objection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.resisters.info/choice.html">"Making a Choice: Conscientious Objection or Refusing to Register" (Resisters.info)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebco-beoc.org/">The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070105070722/http://www.ppu.org.uk/coproject/coprojectindex.html">Refusing to Kill</a>: conscientious objection and human rights in World War I. Peace Pledge Union, 2006.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libertymagazine.org/index.php?id=1636">Watch His Conscience: A Short History Of The Conscientious Objector. By Michael D. Peabody</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholicpeacefellowship.org/nextpage.asp?m=2003">Catholic Peace Fellowship</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/index.html">The Right to Refuse to Bear Arms – the most authoritative recent world survey on provisions for conscientious objection to military service, by War Resisters' International</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515162443/http://www.wri-irg.org/books/co-guide-un.htm">A Conscientious Objector's Guide to the UN Human Rights System</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100714095733/http://www.tamera.org/index.php?id=558&L=0">You have no enemies. A Call for Conscientious Objection. By Dieter Duhm</a></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://m.imdb.com/title/tt2119532/">Hacksaw Ridge</a>" A film about conscientious objector, Desmond T.Doss who received 'Medal of Honor' in WW2.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://objectorfilm.com/">Objector</a> – a 2019 documentary about Israeli conscientious objector Atalya Ben-Abba.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ppu.org.uk/international-conscientious-objectors-day">International Conscientious Objectors' Day</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimony_of_peace" title="Testimony of peace">Testimony of peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">World peace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media and cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Anti-war_art" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Anti-war art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_with_anti-war_themes" title="List of books with anti-war themes">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concert_Yutel_for_Peace" title="Concert Yutel for Peace">Concert Yutel for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dances_of_Universal_Peace" title="Dances of Universal Peace">Dances of Universal Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_for_Peace" title="Festival for Peace">Festival for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_films" class="mw-redirect" title="List of anti-war films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagine_Piano_Peace_Project" title="Imagine Piano Peace Project">Imagine Piano Peace Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Non-Violence" title="International Day of Non-Violence">International Day of Non-Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Peace" title="International Day of Peace">International Day of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Among_Civilizations" title="Dialogue Among Civilizations">Dialogue Among Civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_prizes" title="List of peace prizes">List of peace prizes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_after_peace" title="List of places named after peace">List of places named Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peace_monuments_and_memorials" title="Category:Peace monuments and memorials">Monuments and memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother%27s_Day_Proclamation" title="Mother's Day Proclamation">Mother's Day Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize_Concert" title="Nobel Peace Prize Concert">Nobel Peace Prize Concert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_museum" title="Peace museum">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_%26_Love_(festival)" title="Peace & Love (festival)">Peace & Love (festival)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_journalism" title="Peace journalism">Peace journalism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peace_News" title="Peace News">Peace News</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promoting_Enduring_Peace" title="Promoting Enduring Peace">Promoting Enduring Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_One_Day" title="Peace One Day">Peace One Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plays_with_anti-war_themes" title="List of plays with anti-war themes">Plays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promoting_Enduring_Peace" title="Promoting Enduring Peace">Promoting Enduring Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_Peace_Concert" title="Show of Peace Concert">Show of Peace Concert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_songs" title="List of anti-war songs">Songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_symbols" title="Peace symbols">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Non-Violence_Project" title="The Non-Violence Project">The Non-Violence Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_for_Peace" title="University for Peace">University for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Peace_Bell_Association" title="World Peace Bell Association">World Peace Bell Association</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Peace_Bell" title="Japanese Peace Bell">Japanese Peace Bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Black" title="Women in Black">Women in Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_March_for_Peace_and_Nonviolence" title="World March for Peace and Nonviolence">World March for Peace and Nonviolence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slogans and tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bed-in" title="Bed-in">Bed-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Park_be-ins" title="Central Park be-ins">Central Park be-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">Conflict resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">Counter-recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-escalation" title="De-escalation">De-escalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demilitarisation" title="Demilitarisation">Demilitarisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Peace" title="Department of Peace">Department of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draft_evasion" title="Draft evasion">Draft evasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die-in" title="Die-in">Die-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sanctions" title="Economic sanctions">Economic sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower_power" title="Flower power">Flower power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Day_of_Action_on_Military_Spending" title="Global Day of Action on Military Spending">Global Day of Action on Military Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Be-In" title="Human Be-In">Human Be-In</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesson_of_Munich" title="Lesson of Munich">Lesson of Munich</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Make_love,_not_war" title="Make love, not war">Make love, not war</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">Non-aggression principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non_Violent_Resistance_(psychological_intervention)" title="Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)">Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_walk" title="Peace walk">Peace walk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_to_serve_in_the_Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces">Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Soldiers_are_murderers" title="Soldiers are murderers">Soldiers are murderers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swords_to_ploughshares" title="Swords to ploughshares">Swords to ploughshares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teach-in" title="Teach-in">Teach-in</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_whole_world_is_watching" title="The whole world is watching">The whole world is watching</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_Non-violent_Intervention" title="Third Party Non-violent Intervention">Third Party Non-violent Intervention</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Turning_the_other_cheek" title="Turning the other cheek">Turn the other cheek</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Violence_begets_violence" title="Violence begets violence">Violence begets violence</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">War tax resisters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Opposition to specific<br />wars or their aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>War of 1812 (<a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_of_1812_in_Britain" title="Opposition to the War of 1812 in Britain">UK</a>; <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_of_1812_in_the_United_States" title="Opposition to the War of 1812 in the United States">US</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_American_Civil_War" title="Opposition to the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Second_Boer_War" title="Opposition to the Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protests_against_the_Vietnam_War" title="List of protests against the Vietnam War">list of protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_war_on_terror" title="Criticism of the war on terror">War on Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Iraq_War" title="Opposition to the Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Iraq_War" title="Criticism of the Iraq War">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_Iraq_War" title="Protests against the Iraq War">Protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_the_War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="Opposition to the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">Afghanistan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_military_action_against_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to military action against Iran">Military action in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Protests against the Sri Lankan civil war">Sri Lankan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya">2011 intervention in Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_anti-war_protests_in_Russia" title="2014 anti-war protests in Russia">Anti-war protests in Russia (2014)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_against_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Protests against the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2022_anti-war_protests_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 anti-war protests in Russia">in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Far_Eastern_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Far Eastern protests">in Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_war_protests_in_the_United_States" title="Gaza war protests in the United States">Gaza War in the U.S.</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calls_for_a_ceasefire_during_the_Gaza_war" title="Calls for a ceasefire during the Gaza war">Calls for a ceasefire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Ban_Landmines" title="International Campaign to Ban Landmines">Landmines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objection_to_military_taxation" title="Conscientious objection to military taxation">Military taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Nuclear disarmament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Total_Elimination_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons">International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_convention" title="Nuclear weapons convention">Nuclear weapons convention</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pacifism_in_Canada" title="Category:Pacifism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_12_of_the_Constitution_of_Costa_Rica" title="Article 12 of the Constitution of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism_in_Germany" title="Pacifism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement#Israel" title="Peace movement">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_9_of_the_Japanese_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pacifism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Category:Pacifism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism_in_Spain" title="Pacifism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Professionals_Association" title="Sudanese Professionals Association">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_neutrality" title="Swiss neutrality">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pacifism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Pacifism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism_in_the_United_States" title="Pacifism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir" title="Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir">Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-war_movement" title="Category:Anti-war movement">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anarchism662" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anarchism" title="Template:Anarchism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anarchism" title="Template talk:Anarchism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anarchism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anarchism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anarchism662" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_theory" title="Category:Anarchist theory">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_Black_Cross" title="Anarchist Black Cross">Anarchist Black Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anationalism">Anationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Anti-militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_group" title="Affinity group">Affinity group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_social_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous social center">Autonomous social center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_bloc" title="Black bloc">Black bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus decision-making</a></li> <li>Conscientious objector</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">Freethought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontalidad" title="Horizontalidad">Horizontalidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_aid_(organization_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual aid (organization theory)">Mutual aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Participatory politics">Participatory politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_autonomous_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent autonomous zone">Permanent autonomous zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefigurative_politics" title="Prefigurative politics">Prefigurative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_internationalism" title="Proletarian internationalism">Proletarian internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed" title="Propaganda of the deed">Propaganda of the deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(anarchism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewilding (anarchism)">Rewilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">Sabotage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_culture" title="Security culture">Security culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocracy" title="Sociocracy">Sociocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatherapy">Somatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Autonomous_Zone" title="Temporary Autonomous Zone">Temporary autonomous zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_egoists" title="Union of egoists">Union of egoists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">Voluntary association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">Workers' council</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Issues_in_anarchism" title="Category:Issues in anarchism">Issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_capitalism" title="Anarchism and capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_education" title="Anarchism and education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_issues_related_to_love_and_sex" title="Anarchism and issues related to love and sex">Love and sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_nationalism" title="Anarchism and nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion" title="Anarchism and religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_violence" title="Anarchism and violence">Violence</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_schools_of_thought" title="Category:Anarchist schools of thought">Schools of thought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical anarchism">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">Egoist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegalism" title="Illegalism">Illegalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-naturism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-naturism">Naturist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anarchism" title="Philosophical anarchism">Philosophical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Communist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magonism" title="Magonism">Magonist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical anarchism">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Primitivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence anarchism">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrectionary_anarchism" title="Insurrectionary anarchism">Insurrectionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-pacifism" title="Anarcho-pacifism">Pacifist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion#Religious_anarchism_and_anarchist_themes_in_religions" title="Anarchism and religion">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_religion#Buddhism" title="Anarchism and religion">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish anarchism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_without_adjectives" title="Anarchism without adjectives">Without adjectives</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_anarchism" title="Contemporary anarchism">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial anarchism">Postcolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-anarchism">Post-anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-left_anarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-left anarchy">Post-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of federation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_group" title="Affinity group">Affinity group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platformism" title="Platformism">Platformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthesis_anarchism" title="Synthesis anarchism">Synthesis anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_egoists" title="Union of egoists">Union of egoists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_economics" title="Category:Anarchist economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_the_limit_of_price" title="Cost the limit of price">Cost the limit of price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy#Decentralized_planning" title="Planned economy">Decentralized planned economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_of_producers" title="Free association of producers">Free association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">General strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Give-away_shop" title="Give-away shop">Give-away shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_voucher" title="Labour voucher">Labour voucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_bank" title="Mutual bank">Mutual bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_credit" title="Mutual credit">Mutual credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchist_culture" title="Category:Anarchist culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_las_Barricadas" title="A las Barricadas">A las Barricadas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_bookfair" title="Anarchist bookfair">Anarchist bookfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-punk" title="Anarcho-punk">Anarcho-punk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_in_the_U.K." title="Anarchy in the U.K.">Anarchy in the U.K.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_the_arts" title="Anarchism and the arts">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY ethic">DIY ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escuela_Moderna" class="mw-redirect" title="Escuela Moderna">Escuela Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infoshop" title="Infoshop">Infoshop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Media_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Media Center">Independent Media Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish anarchism">Jewish anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle anarchism">Lifestylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May Day</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/No_gods,_no_masters" class="mw-redirect" title="No gods, no masters">No gods, no masters</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_education" title="Popular education">Popular education</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_cheerleading" title="Radical cheerleading">Radical cheerleading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_environmentalism" title="Radical environmentalism">Radical environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-managed_social_center" title="Self-managed social center">Self-managed social center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_symbolism" title="Anarchist symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Anarchism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Regional_Federation_of_the_IWA" title="Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA">Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Congress_(1872)" title="Hague Congress (1872)">Hague Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonal_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonal rebellion">Cantonal rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Rome_for_the_Social_Defense_Against_Anarchists" title="International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists">International Conference of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_the_Thirty" title="Trial of the Thirty">Trial of the Thirty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Rome_for_the_Social_Defense_Against_Anarchists" title="International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists">International Conference of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrer_movement" title="Ferrer movement">Ferrer movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strandzha_Commune" title="Strandzha Commune">Strandzha Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anarchist_Congress_of_Amsterdam" title="International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam">Congress of Amsterdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragic_Week_(Spain)" title="Tragic Week (Spain)">Tragic Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Treason_Incident" title="High Treason Incident">High Treason Incident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Sixteen" title="Manifesto of the Sixteen">Manifesto of the Sixteen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">Bavarian Soviet Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_United_States_anarchist_bombings" title="1919 United States anarchist bombings">1919 United States bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biennio_Rosso" title="Biennio Rosso">Biennio Rosso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhnovshchina" title="Makhnovshchina">Makhnovshchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amakasu_Incident" title="Amakasu Incident">Amakasu Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt_Llobregat_insurrection" title="Alt Llobregat insurrection">Alt Llobregat insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_insurrection_of_January_1933" title="Anarchist insurrection of January 1933">Anarchist insurrection of January 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_insurrection_of_December_1933" title="Anarchist insurrection of December 1933">Anarchist insurrection of December 1933</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish Revolution of 1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_May_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Barcelona May Days">Barcelona May Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_inverted_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Red inverted triangle">Red inverted triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labadie_Collection" title="Labadie Collection">Labadie Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provo_(movement)" title="Provo (movement)">Provo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Sharpley_Library" title="Kate Sharpley Library">Kate Sharpley Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnival_Against_Capital" title="Carnival Against Capital">Carnival Against Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Seattle_WTO_protests" title="1999 Seattle WTO protests">1999 Seattle WTO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Really_Really_Free_Market" title="Really Really Free Market">Really Really Free Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchists" title="Category:Anarchists">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Armand" title="Émile Armand">Armand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba_Jin" title="Ba Jin">Ba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Bonanno" title="Alfredo Bonanno">Bonanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_Bourdin" title="Martial Bourdin">Bourdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltairine_de_Cleyre" title="Voltairine de Cleyre">Cleyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buenaventura_Durruti" title="Buenaventura Durruti">Durruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Faure" title="Sébastien Faure">Faure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fauset_MacDonald" title="Thomas Fauset MacDonald">Fauset MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferrer" title="Francisco Ferrer">Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severino_Di_Giovanni" title="Severino Di Giovanni">Giovanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Prada" title="Manuel González Prada">González Prada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Guillaume" title="James Guillaume">Guillaume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Zhen_(anarchist)" title="He Zhen (anarchist)">He-Yin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanno_Sugako" title="Kanno Sugako">Kanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dtoku_Sh%C5%ABsui" title="Kōtoku Shūsui">Kōtoku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Landauer" title="Gustav Landauer">Landauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shifu" title="Liu Shifu">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Flores_Mag%C3%B3n" title="Ricardo Flores Magón">Magón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Makhno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigorii_Maksimov" title="Grigorii Maksimov">Maksimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Errico_Malatesta" title="Errico Malatesta">Malatesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Mett" title="Ida Mett">Mett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Michel" title="Louise Michel">Michel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Most" title="Johann Most">Most</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Parsons" title="Lucy Parsons">Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Pi_i_Margall" title="Francesc Pi i Margall">Pi i Margall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Pouget" title="Émile Pouget">Pouget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiratsuka_Raich%C5%8D" title="Hiratsuka Raichō">Raichō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lis%C3%A9e_Reclus" title="Élisée Reclus">Reclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Abad_de_Santill%C3%A1n" title="Diego Abad de Santillán">Santillán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volin" title="Volin">Volin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Ward" title="Colin Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efim_Yarchuk" title="Efim Yarchuk">Yarchuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">Zerzan</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anarchism" title="Outline of anarchism">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarcho-punk_bands" title="List of anarcho-punk bands">Anarcho-punk bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_anarchism" title="List of books about anarchism">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_anarchists" title="List of fictional anarchists">Fictional characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_dealing_with_anarchism" title="List of films dealing with anarchism">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_anarchists" title="List of Jewish anarchists">Jewish anarchists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_musicians" title="List of anarchist musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anarchist_periodicals" title="List of anarchist periodicals">Periodicals</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Anarchism_by_region" title="Category:Anarchism by region">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Africa" title="Anarchism in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Albania" title="Anarchism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Algeria" title="Anarchism in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Andorra" title="Anarchism in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Argentina" title="Anarchism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Armenia" title="Anarchism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Australia" title="Anarchism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Austria" title="Anarchism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Azerbaijan" title="Anarchism in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bangladesh" title="Anarchism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Belarus" title="Anarchism in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Belgium" title="Anarchism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bolivia" title="Anarchism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Anarchism in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Brazil" title="Anarchism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Bulgaria" title="Anarchism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Canada" title="Anarchism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Chile" title="Anarchism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_China" title="Anarchism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Colombia" title="Anarchism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Anarchism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Croatia" title="Anarchism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Cuba" title="Anarchism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Cyprus" title="Anarchism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Anarchism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Denmark" title="Anarchism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Anarchism in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ecuador" title="Anarchism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Egypt" title="Anarchism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_El_Salvador" title="Anarchism in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Estonia" title="Anarchism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Finland" title="Anarchism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_France" title="Anarchism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_French_Guiana" title="Anarchism in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Georgia" title="Anarchism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Germany" title="Anarchism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Greece" title="Anarchism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Guatemala" title="Anarchism in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Anarchism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Hungary" title="Anarchism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Iceland" title="Anarchism in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_India" title="Anarchism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Indonesia" title="Anarchism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Iran" title="Anarchism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Ireland" title="Anarchism in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Israel" title="Anarchism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Italy" title="Anarchism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Japan" title="Anarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Korea" title="Anarchism in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a 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objector</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" 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