History of medicine | History & Facts

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class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="372460"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine">history of medicine</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/science/history-of-medicine">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref35641"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine#ref35641">Medicine and surgery before 1800</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35642"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine#ref35642">Early medicine and folklore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine#ref35643">The ancient Middle East and Egypt</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Traditional-medicine-and-surgery-in-Asia">Traditional medicine and surgery in Asia</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Traditional-medicine-and-surgery-in-Asia#ref35645">India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35646"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/China">China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35647"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan">Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35648"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan#ref35648">The roots of Western medicine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35649"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan#ref35649">Early Greece</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35650"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan#ref35650">Hippocrates</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35651"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine">Hellenistic and Roman medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35652"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35652">Christian and Muslim reservoirs of learning</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35653"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35653">Translators and saints</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35654"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35654">Arabian medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35655"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35655">Medieval and Renaissance Europe</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35656"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35656">Salerno and the medical schools</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35657"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning">The spread of new learning</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35658"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning#ref35658">The Enlightenment</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35659"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning#ref35659">Harvey and the experimental method</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35660"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning#ref35660">The futile search for an easy system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35661"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century">Medicine in the 18th century</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref35662"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century#ref35662">The rise of scientific medicine in the 19th century</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35663"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century#ref35663">Physiology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35664"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory">Verification of the germ theory</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35665"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory#ref35665">Discoveries in clinical medicine and anesthesia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35666"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory#ref35666">Advances at the end of the century</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref35667"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century">Medicine in the 20th century</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35668"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35668">Infectious diseases and chemotherapy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35669"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35669">Ehrlich and arsphenamine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35670"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35670">Sulfonamide drugs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35671" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35671">Antibiotics</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35672"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35672">Penicillin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35673"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35673">Antituberculous drugs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35674"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35674">Other antibiotics</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35675"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology">Immunology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35676" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35676">Antibacterial vaccination</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35677"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35677">Typhoid</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35678"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35678">Tetanus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35679"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35679">Diphtheria</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35680"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35680">BCG vaccine for tuberculosis</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35681"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunization-against-viral-diseases">Immunization against viral diseases</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35682"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunization-against-viral-diseases#ref35682">The immune response</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35683"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunization-against-viral-diseases#ref35683">Endocrinology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35684"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin">Insulin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35685"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin#ref35685">Cortisone</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35686"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin#ref35686">Sex hormones</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35687"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin#ref35687">Vitamins</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35688"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease">Malignant disease</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35689"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35689">Tropical medicine</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref35690"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35690">Surgery in the 20th century</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35691">The opening phase</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35692"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35692">The situation encountered</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35693" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I">Changes before World War I</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35694"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35694">Abdominal surgery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35695"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35695">Neurosurgery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35696"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35696">Radiology</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35697"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35697">World War I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35698"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35698">Between the World Wars</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35699"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-problem-of-shock">The problem of shock</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35700"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-problem-of-shock#ref35700">Anesthesia and thoracic surgery</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmedicin035119mbp" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Internet Archive - "A History Of Medicine"</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://historyworld.net/history/Medicine/668?section=PreGreek" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">History World - History of Medicine</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://archives.history.ac.uk/makinghistory/resources/articles/history_of_medicine.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Institute of Historical Research - Making History - A brief history of medical history</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Short-History-Of-Medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Historic UK - A Short History of Medicine</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4379645/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - History of Medicine Timeline</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/William-Archibald-Robson-Thomson/2964" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">William Archibald Robson Thomson</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Editor, <i>The Practitioner, </i>1944–73. Author of <i>The Searching Mind in Medicine </i>and others; coeditor of <i>Black's Medical Dictionary.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> William Archibald Robson Thomson</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Robert-G-Richardson/2456" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Robert G. Richardson</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Consultant medical editor. Former Editor, <i>Abbottempo (</i>international medical journal <i>).</i> Author of <i>Surgery: Old and New Frontiers </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Robert G. Richardson</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-10-30T00:00:00CDT" >Oct 30, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Avicenna" topicid="45755">Avicenna</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/science/medicine" topicid="372431">medicine</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/history-of-medicine"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref412631"></span>history of medicine</strong>, the development of the prevention and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/therapeutics" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">treatment</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/disease" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">disease</a> from prehistoric and ancient times to the 21st century.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref35641"> <h2 class="h1">Medicine and <span id="ref412632"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/surgery-medicine" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">surgery</a> before 1800</h2> <section data-level="2" id="ref35642"> <h2 class="h2"><span id="ref412633"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/primitive-culture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Early</a> medicine and folklore</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Unwritten history is not easy to interpret, and, although much may be learned from a study of the drawings, bony remains, and surgical tools of early humans, it is difficult to reconstruct their mental attitude toward the problems of disease and death. It seems probable that, as soon as they reached the stage of reasoning, they discovered by the process of trial and error which <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">plants</a> might be used as foods, which of them were poisonous, and which of them had some medicinal <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="value" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/value" data-type="EB">value</a>. <span id="ref412634"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/folk-medicine" class="md-crosslink ">Folk medicine</a> or domestic medicine, consisting largely in the use of vegetable products, or <span id="ref412635"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/herb-culinary-and-medicinal-plant" class="md-crosslink ">herbs</a>, originated in this fashion and still persists.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">But that is not the whole story. Humans did not at first regard death and disease as natural phenomena. Common maladies, such as colds or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/constipation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">constipation</a>, were accepted as part of existence and dealt with by means of such herbal remedies as were available. Serious and disabling diseases, however, were placed in a very different category. These were of <span id="ref412636"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/indigenous-religion" class="md-crosslink ">supernatural origin</a>. They might be the result of a spell cast upon the victim by some enemy, visitation by a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="malevolent" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/malevolent" data-type="EB">malevolent</a> demon, or the work of an offended <span id="ref412637"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/supernaturalism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">god</a> who had either projected some object—a dart, a stone, a worm—into the body of the victim or had abstracted something, usually the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/soul-religion-and-philosophy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">soul</a> of the patient. The treatment then applied was to lure the errant soul back to its proper habitat within the body or to extract the evil intruder, be it dart or demon, by counterspells, incantations, potions, suction, or other means.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">One curious method of providing the disease with means of escape from the body was by making a hole, 2.5 to 5 cm across, in the skull of the victim—the practice of <span id="ref412638"></span>trepanning, or trephining. Trepanned skulls of prehistoric date have been found in Britain, France, and other parts of Europe and in Peru. Many of them show evidence of healing and, presumably, of the patient’s survival. The practice still exists among some tribal people in parts of Algeria, in Melanesia, and perhaps elsewhere, though it is fast becoming extinct.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref412639"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/magic-supernatural-phenomenon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Magic</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">religion</a> played a large part in the medicine of prehistoric or early human society. Administration of a vegetable <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/drug-chemical-agent" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">drug</a> or remedy by mouth was accompanied by incantations, dancing, <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="grimaces" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/grimaces" data-type="EB">grimaces</a>, and all the tricks of the magician. Therefore, the first doctors, or “medicine men,” were <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/witch-doctor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">witch doctors</a> or sorcerers. The use of charms and talismans, still prevalent in modern times, is of ancient origin.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/a-visit-with-the-word-doctor-medical-vocabulary-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/254328-131-8CF54640/Yorkshire-terrier-dressed-as-doctor.jpg" alt="A Yorkshire terrier dressed up as a veterinarian or doctor on a white background. (dogs)" class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">A Visit with the Word Doctor: Medical Vocabulary Quiz</div> </div> </a><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Apart from the treatment of wounds and broken <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/bone-anatomy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">bones</a>, the folklore of medicine is probably the most ancient aspect of the art of healing, for primitive physicians showed their wisdom by treating the whole person, soul as well as body. Treatments and medicines that produced no physical effects on the body could nevertheless make a patient feel better when both healer and patient believed in their <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="efficacy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/efficacy" data-type="MW">efficacy</a>. This so-called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/placebo-effect" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">placebo effect</a> is applicable even in modern clinical medicine.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref35643"> <h2 class="h2">The ancient Middle East and Egypt</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The establishment of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/calendar" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">calendar</a> and the invention of writing marked the dawn of recorded history. The clues to early knowledge are few, consisting only of clay tablets bearing <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/cuneiform" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">cuneiform</a> signs and seals that were used by physicians of ancient <span id="ref412640"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mesopotamia-historical-region-Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mesopotamia</a>. In the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Louvre-Museum" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Louvre Museum</a> in France, a stone pillar is preserved on which is <span id="ref412641"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/inscription" class="md-crosslink ">inscribed</a> the <span id="ref412642"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Code-of-Hammurabi" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Code of Hammurabi</a>, who was a <span id="ref412643"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Babylonia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Babylonian</a> king of the 18th century <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. This code includes laws relating to the practice of medicine, and the penalties for failure were severe. For example, “If the doctor, in opening an abscess, shall kill the patient, his hands shall be cut off”; if, however, the patient was a slave, the doctor was simply <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="obliged" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/obliged" data-type="EB">obliged</a> to supply another slave.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Greek historian <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herodotus-Greek-historian" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Herodotus</a> stated that every Babylonian was an amateur physician, since it was the custom to lay the sick in the street so that anyone passing by might offer advice. <span id="ref412644"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/divination" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Divination</a>, from the inspection of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/liver" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">liver </a>of a sacrificed animal, was widely practiced to foretell the course of a disease. Little else is known regarding Babylonian medicine, and the name of not a single physician has survived.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="67873" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/11/10811-004-A4430E2C/Imhotep-sculpture-Egyptian-Museum-Berlin.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/372460/67873"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/11/10811-004-A4430E2C/Imhotep-sculpture-Egyptian-Museum-Berlin.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/11/10811-004-A4430E2C/Imhotep-sculpture-Egyptian-Museum-Berlin.jpg?w=300" alt="Imhotep" data-width="241" data-height="300" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/11/10811-004-A4430E2C/Imhotep-sculpture-Egyptian-Museum-Berlin.jpg" data-href="/media/1/372460/67873">Imhotep</a><span>Imhotep reading a papyrus roll, detail of a sculpture</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">When the medicine of <span id="ref412645"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">ancient Egypt</a> is examined, the picture becomes clearer. The first physician to emerge is <span id="ref412646"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Imhotep" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Imhotep</a>, chief minister to King Djoser in the 3rd millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>, who designed one of the earliest <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/pyramid-architecture" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">pyramids</a>, the Step Pyramid at Ṣaqqārah, and who was later regarded as the Egyptian god of medicine and identified with the Greek god <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Asclepius" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asclepius</a>. Surer knowledge comes from the study of Egyptian papyri, especially the <span id="ref412647"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ebers-papyrus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ebers papyrus</a> and <span id="ref412648"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Edwin Smith papyrus</a> discovered in the 19th century. The former is a list of remedies, with appropriate spells or incantations, while the latter is a surgical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="treatise" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treatise" data-type="MW">treatise</a> on the treatment of wounds and other injuries.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="127826" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/131165-004-CF90496B/Ebers-papyrus-prescription-asthma-treatment.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/372460/127826"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/131165-004-CF90496B/Ebers-papyrus-prescription-asthma-treatment.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/131165-004-CF90496B/Ebers-papyrus-prescription-asthma-treatment.jpg?w=300" alt="Ebers papyrus" data-width="308" data-height="400" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/65/131165-004-CF90496B/Ebers-papyrus-prescription-asthma-treatment.jpg" data-href="/media/1/372460/127826">Ebers papyrus</a><span>Ebers papyrus prescription for asthma treatment.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Contrary to what might be expected, the widespread practice of embalming the dead body did not stimulate study of human <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/anatomy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">anatomy</a>. The preservation of mummies has, however, revealed some of the diseases suffered at that time, including <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/arthritis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">arthritis</a>, tuberculosis of the bone, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gout" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gout</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/caries" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">tooth decay</a>, bladder stones, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gallstone" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">gallstones</a>; there is evidence too of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/parasitic-disease" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">parasitic disease</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/schistosomiasis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">schistosomiasis</a>, which remains a scourge still. There seems to have been no <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/syphilis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">syphilis</a> or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/rickets" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rickets</a>.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The search for information on ancient medicine leads naturally from the papyri of Egypt to <span id="ref412649"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hebrew" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hebrew</a> literature. Though the <span id="ref412650"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bible" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bible</a> contains little on the medical practices of ancient Israel, it is a mine of information on social and personal <span id="ref412651"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/hygiene" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">hygiene</a>. The Jews were indeed pioneers in matters of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/public-health" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">public health</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Douglas-James-Guthrie/1186">Douglas James Guthrie</a></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Philip-Rhodes/2449">Philip Rhodes</a></span> </section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":17,"pageId":372460,"pageLength":975,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"A","adLeg":"A","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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