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class="md-content"> <div class="grid gx-0 container-lg px-0 py-lg-20 mx-auto"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine">history of medicine</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/science/history-of-medicine">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref35641"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine#ref35641">Medicine and surgery before 1800</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35642"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine#ref35642">Early medicine and folklore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine#ref35643">The ancient Middle East and Egypt</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Traditional-medicine-and-surgery-in-Asia">Traditional medicine and surgery in Asia</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Traditional-medicine-and-surgery-in-Asia#ref35645">India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35646"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/China">China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35647"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan">Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35648"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan#ref35648">The roots of Western medicine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35649"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan#ref35649">Early Greece</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35650"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Japan#ref35650">Hippocrates</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35651"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine">Hellenistic and Roman medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35652"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35652">Christian and Muslim reservoirs of learning</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35653"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35653">Translators and saints</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35654"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35654">Arabian medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35655"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35655">Medieval and Renaissance Europe</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35656"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Hellenistic-and-Roman-medicine#ref35656">Salerno and the medical schools</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35657"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning">The spread of new learning</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35658"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning#ref35658">The Enlightenment</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35659"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning#ref35659">Harvey and the experimental method</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35660"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-spread-of-new-learning#ref35660">The futile search for an easy system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35661"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century">Medicine in the 18th century</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref35662"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century#ref35662">The rise of scientific medicine in the 19th century</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35663"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century#ref35663">Physiology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35664"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory">Verification of the germ theory</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35665"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory#ref35665">Discoveries in clinical medicine and anesthesia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35666"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Verification-of-the-germ-theory#ref35666">Advances at the end of the century</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref35667"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century">Medicine in the 20th century</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35668"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35668">Infectious diseases and chemotherapy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35669"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35669">Ehrlich and arsphenamine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35670"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35670">Sulfonamide drugs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35671" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35671">Antibiotics</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35672"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35672">Penicillin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35673"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35673">Antituberculous drugs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35674"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-20th-century#ref35674">Other antibiotics</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35675"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology">Immunology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35676" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35676">Antibacterial vaccination</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35677"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35677">Typhoid</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35678"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35678">Tetanus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35679"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35679">Diphtheria</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35680"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunology#ref35680">BCG vaccine for tuberculosis</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35681"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunization-against-viral-diseases">Immunization against viral diseases</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35682"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunization-against-viral-diseases#ref35682">The immune response</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35683"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Immunization-against-viral-diseases#ref35683">Endocrinology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35684"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin">Insulin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35685"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin#ref35685">Cortisone</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35686"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin#ref35686">Sex hormones</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35687"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Insulin#ref35687">Vitamins</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35688"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease">Malignant disease</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35689"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35689">Tropical medicine</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref35690"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35690">Surgery in the 20th century</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35691">The opening phase</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35692"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Malignant-disease#ref35692">The situation encountered</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35693" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I">Changes before World War I</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35694"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35694">Abdominal surgery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35695"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35695">Neurosurgery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref35696"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35696">Radiology</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35697"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35697">World War I</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35698"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Changes-before-World-War-I#ref35698">Between the World Wars</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35699"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-problem-of-shock">The problem of shock</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35700"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/The-problem-of-shock#ref35700">Anesthesia and thoracic surgery</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref35701"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/World-War-II-and-after">World War II and after</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35702"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/World-War-II-and-after#ref35702">Support from other technologies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35703"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/World-War-II-and-after#ref35703">Heart surgery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref35704"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/science/history-of-medicine/Organ-transplantation">Organ transplantation</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900 selected" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/history-of-medicine">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" 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href="/browse/Health-Medicine">Health & Medicine</a> </span> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Medicine">Medicine</a> </span> </nav> <h1 class="mb-5">history of medicine: References & Edit History</h1> <div class="border-bottom mt-20"></div> <div id="More-Articles"> <h2 class="my-20">More Articles On This Topic</h2> <div class="mb-30"> <section><h3>Assorted References</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>17th-century Europe</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Health-and-sickness#ref310644" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of Europe: Health and sickness</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>basis of bioengineering</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/bioengineering#ref66443" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">bioengineering</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>classification of speech disorders</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/speech-disorder#ref583872" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">speech disorder: Classification of speech disorders</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>modern approach to death</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/death/The-meaning-of-death#ref664782" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">death: The meaning of death</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/death/Public-attitudes#ref664783" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">death: Public attitudes</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Nobel Prize</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nobel-Prize#ref38682" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Nobel Prize</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>contribution by</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>ancient Greeks</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Hellenistic-Age/The-arts#ref149871" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hellenistic age: Science and medicine</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science/Greek-science#ref400748" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">history of science: Medicine</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Avicenna</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Avicenna#ref244040" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Avicenna</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Avicenna#ref1096908" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Avicenna: Influence in medicine</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Bernard</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Claude-Bernard#ref35119" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Claude Bernard</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Celsus</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aulus-Cornelius-Celsus#ref25451" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Aulus Cornelius Celsus</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Ehrlich</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Ehrlich#ref129596" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Paul Ehrlich</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Fallopius</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gabriel-Fallopius#ref153944" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gabriel Fallopius</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Galen</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galen#ref251843" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Galen</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Harvey</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Harvey#ref321591" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">William Harvey</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Hippocrates</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hippocrates#ref246036" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hippocrates</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Islamic scholars</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/education/Aims-and-purposes-of-Muslim-education#ref302648" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">education: Organization of education</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Koch</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Koch#ref267349" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert Koch: Early training</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Lister</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Lister-Baron-Lister-of-Lyme-Regis#ref55609" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Joseph Lister</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Malpighi</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marcello-Malpighi#ref81341" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marcello Malpighi</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Mayo family</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mayo-family#ref264049" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mayo family</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Morgan</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Morgan-American-physician-and-educator#ref757771" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John Morgan</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Paracelsus</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paracelsus#ref120685" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Paracelsus</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Rush</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benjamin-Rush#ref252709" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Benjamin Rush</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Semmelweis</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ignaz-Semmelweis#ref268464" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ignaz Semmelweis</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Vesalius</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Vesalius#ref258141" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Andreas Vesalius</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Virchow</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudolf-Virchow#ref142953" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rudolf Virchow</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>development of</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>drugs</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/drug-chemical-agent#ref126832" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">drug</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>encyclopaedias of medicine</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/encyclopaedia/The-kinds-of-encyclopaedias#ref307600" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">encyclopaedia: Other topics</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>practice by</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>South American nomad cultures</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/South-American-nomad#ref518684" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South American nomad: Religion</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Song dynasty China</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/Song-culture#ref590162" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">China: Song culture</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section><section><h3>relation to</h3><ul class="list-unstyled"></ul><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><strong>alchemy</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/alchemy/The-chemistry-of-alchemy#ref414555" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">alchemy: Chinese alchemy</a></span></li><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/alchemy/Modern-alchemy#ref414624" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">alchemy: Accomplishments</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>biology</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/biology/The-history-of-biology#ref498691" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">biology: Biological practices among Assyrians and Babylonians</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>Daoism</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taoism/Influence#ref299936" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Taoism: Taoist contributions to Chinese science</a></span></li></ul></li><li><strong>physiology</strong><ul class="list-unstyled"><li> <span class="index-xref">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/physiology#ref498073" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">physiology: Historical background</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></section></div> </div> <div id="Additional-Reading"> <div class="border-top"><h2 class="my-20">Additional Reading</h2> </div><div class="mb-30"> <span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref337660"> <h1 class="h1">Historical works</h1> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The literature on the history of medicine covers all topics and periods and includes biographies as well as descriptions of the development of hospitals, research institutes, health care, and medical education in different countries. Historical studies include <span class="text-smallcaps">George T. Bettany</span>, <em>Eminent Doctors: Their Lives and Their Work</em>, 2 vol. (1885, reprinted 1972); <span class="text-smallcaps">Arturo Castiglioni</span>, <em>A History of Medicine</em>, 2nd rev. ed. (1947; originally published in Italian, 1927), a classic work; <span class="text-smallcaps">Fielding H. Garrison</span>, <em>An Introduction to the History of Medicine</em>, 4th rev. ed. (1929, reprinted 1967), a scholarly history; <span class="text-smallcaps">Douglas Guthrie</span>, <em>A History of Medicine</em>, rev. ed. (1958); <span class="text-smallcaps">Howard W. Haggard</span>, <em>Devils, Drugs, and Doctors: The Story of the Science of Healing from Medicine-Man to Doctor</em> (1929, reprinted 1980); <span class="text-smallcaps">Richard H. Meade</span>, <em>An Introduction to the History of General Surgery</em> (1968), a well-documented work on developments in surgery on separate organs; <span class="text-smallcaps">Charles Singer</span> and <span class="text-smallcaps">E. Ashworth Underwood</span>, <em>A Short History of Medicine</em>, 2nd ed. (1962); and <span class="text-smallcaps">Philip Rhodes</span>, <em>An Outline History of Medicine</em> (1985). <em>The Oxford Companion to Medicine</em>, 2 vol., ed. by <span class="text-smallcaps">John Walton</span>, <span class="text-smallcaps">Paul B. Beeson</span>, and <span class="text-smallcaps">Ronald Bodley Scott</span> (1986), is a comprehensive text of 20th-century developments and persons.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Ancient traditions of non-Western medicine are presented in <span class="text-smallcaps">P. Kutumbiah</span>, <em>Ancient Indian Medicine</em> (1962); <span class="text-smallcaps">Heinrich R. Zimmer</span>, <em>Hindu Medicine</em> (1948, reprinted 1979); <span class="text-smallcaps">Edward H. Hume</span>, <em>The Chinese Way in Medicine</em> (1940, reprinted 1975); <span class="text-smallcaps">Paul U. Unschuld</span>, <em>Medicine in China: A History of Ideas</em> (1985; originally published in German, 1980); and <span class="text-smallcaps">Edward G. Browne</span>, <em>Arabian Medicine</em> (1921, reprinted 1983).</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The development of Western medicine from its origins to the end of the 18th century can be traced in <span class="text-smallcaps">William G. Black</span>, <em>Folk-Medicine: A Chapter in the History of Culture</em> (1883, reprinted 1970); <span class="text-smallcaps">W.H.R. Rivers</span>, <em>Medicine, Magic, and Religion</em> (1924, reprinted 1979), a comprehensive treatment of primitive medicine; <span class="text-smallcaps">John Scarborough</span>, <em>Roman Medicine</em> (1969, reprinted 1976); <span class="text-smallcaps">Robert S. Gottfried</span>, <em>Doctors and Medicine in Medieval England, 1340–1530</em> (1986); <span class="text-smallcaps">A. Wear</span>, <span class="text-smallcaps">R.K. French</span>, and <span class="text-smallcaps">I.M. Lonie</span> (eds.), <em>The Medical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century</em> (1985); <span class="text-smallcaps">Katharine Park</span>, <em>Doctors and Medicine in Early Renaissance Florence</em> (1985); and <span class="text-smallcaps">Guy Williams</span>, <em>The Age of Agony: The Art of Healing, c. 1700–1800</em> (1975, reprinted 1986).</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Medicine and surgery during the 19th and 20th centuries are the subject of <span class="text-smallcaps">Carl J. Pfeiffer</span>, <em>The Art and Practice of Western Medicine in the Early Nineteenth Century</em> (1985); <span class="text-smallcaps">Thomas E. Keys</span>, <em>The History of Surgical Anesthesia</em>, rev. ed. (1963, reprinted 1978); <span class="text-smallcaps">M.H. Armstrong Davison</span>, <em>The Evolution of Anesthesia</em> (1965); <span class="text-smallcaps">Robert G. Richardson</span>, <em>The Scalpel and the Heart</em> (1970; U.K. title, <em>The Surgeon’s Heart: A History of Cardiac Surgery</em>, 1969); <span class="text-smallcaps">John S. Haller, Jr.</span>, <em>American Medicine in Transition, 1840–1910</em> (1981); <span class="text-smallcaps">Ruth J. Abram</span> (ed.), <em>Send Us a Lady Physician: Women Doctors in America, 1835–1920</em> (1985); <span class="text-smallcaps">George Rosen</span>, <em>The Structure of American Medical Practice, 1875–1941</em> (1983); <span class="text-smallcaps">A. McGehee Harvey</span>, <em>Science at the Bedside: Clinical Research in American Medicine, 1905–1945</em> (1981), a discussion of the institutionalization of clinical research; and <span class="text-smallcaps">Lawrence Galton</span>, <em>Med Tech: The Layperson’s Guide to Today’s Medical Miracles</em> (1985), a historical dictionary.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="1" id="ref337661"> <h2 class="h1">Contemporary surveys</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Modern surveys of historical events in medicine generally and surgery specifically include <span class="text-smallcaps">Roy Porter</span>, <em>The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity</em> (1999); <span class="text-smallcaps">Richard Hollingham</span>, <em>Blood and Guts: A History of Surgery</em> (2008); and <span class="text-smallcaps">Nicholas L. Tilney</span>, <em>Invasion of the Body: Revolutions in Surgery</em> (2011). The history of cancer is discussed in <span class="text-smallcaps">Carsten Timmermann</span>, <em>A History of Lung Cancer: The Recalcitrant Disease</em> (2014); and <span class="text-smallcaps">Siddhartha Mukherjee</span>, <em>The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer</em> (2010). Developments in organ transplantation are explored in <span class="text-smallcaps">David Hamilton</span>, <em>A History of Organ Transplantation: Ancient Legends to Modern Practice</em> (2012); and <span class="text-smallcaps">Nadey S. Hakim</span> and <span class="text-smallcaps">Vassilios E. Papalois</span>, <em>History of Organ and Cell Transplantation</em> (2003).</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></span> </section> </div> </div> <div id="contributors" class="pt-20 mt-30 border-top"> <div id="contributors-history-of-medicine"> <h2 class="mb-20">Article Contributors</h2> <h3 class="topic-contributors-subtitle h4">Primary Contributors</h3> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-10 mb-20 contributor-PRIMARY"> <li> <a href="/contributor/William-Archibald-Robson-Thomson/2964">William Archibald Robson Thomson</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/E-Ashworth-Underwood/3022">E. Ashworth Underwood</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Robert-G-Richardson/2456">Robert G. Richardson</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Douglas-James-Guthrie/1186">Douglas James Guthrie</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/contributor/Philip-Rhodes/2449">Philip Rhodes</a> <div class="font-serif my-10"></div> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a> </li> </ul> <h3 class="topic-contributors-subtitle h4">Other Encyclopedia Britannica Contributors</h3> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-10 mb-20 contributor-NON_PRIMARY_EB"> <li> <a href="/editor/Yamini-Chauhan/7697573">Yamini Chauhan</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Aakanksha-Gaur/9336039">Aakanksha Gaur</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Thinley-Kalsang-Bhutia/9548907">Thinley Kalsang Bhutia</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Robert-Lewis/3520625">Robert Lewis</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Richard-Pallardy/6744">Richard Pallardy</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Dutta-Promeet/7666602">Dutta Promeet</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Emily-Rodriguez/9852325">Emily Rodriguez</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Matt-Stefon/6763">Matt Stefon</a> </li> <li> <a href="/editor/Amy-Tikkanen/6393">Amy Tikkanen</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="history" class="pt-20 border-top"> <div id="history-history-of-medicine"> <h2 class="mb-20">Article History</h2> <div class="mw-100 overflow-scroll"> <table class="article-history table"> <thead> <tr> <th class="topic-history-type">Type</th> <th class="topic-history-description">Description</th> <th class="topic-history-contributor">Contributor</th> <th class="topic-history-date">Date</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Modified link of Web site: National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - History of Medicine Timeline.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Yamini-Chauhan/7697573">Yamini Chauhan</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Oct 30, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Link added.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> May 06, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: Internet Archive - "A History Of Medicine".</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Emily-Rodriguez/9852325">Emily Rodriguez</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Feb 16, 2024</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: Institute of Historical Research - Making History - A brief history of medical history.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Dec 05, 2023</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-035">Link added.</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jul 18, 2023</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: Historic UK - A Short History of Medicine.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Aakanksha-Gaur/9336039">Aakanksha Gaur</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> May 17, 2023</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Video added.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Apr 06, 2023</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - History of Medicine Timeline.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Gloria-Lotha/7666594">Gloria Lotha</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Sep 05, 2022</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-032">Removed mention of Arabs having originated the process of distillation.</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Aug 27, 2020</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: History World - History of Medicine.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Aakanksha-Gaur/9336039">Aakanksha Gaur</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jan 23, 2020</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Add new Web site: History World - History of Medicine.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Thinley-Kalsang-Bhutia/9548907">Thinley Kalsang Bhutia</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Oct 25, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-027">Updated information on vaccines and developments in cancer research.</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jun 14, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-026">Added information on the history of lung transplantation.</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jun 14, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> Added an image of a patient undergoing surgery in 1898.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jun 14, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> Media added.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jun 14, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-025">Bibliography revised and updated.</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jun 14, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-024">Cross-references added.</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jun 09, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> Media added.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jun 09, 2017</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> Media added.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Robert-Lewis/3520625">Robert Lewis</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> May 17, 2016</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> Added video.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Amy-Tikkanen/6393">Amy Tikkanen</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Mar 13, 2015</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> Replaced photograph.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Amy-Tikkanen/6393">Amy Tikkanen</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Aug 19, 2014</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-015">Identified <i>Huangdi neijing</i> as the <i>Yellow Emperor's Inner Classic</i> and <i>Yuzhuan yizong jinjian</i> as "Imperially Commissioned Golden Mirror of the Orthodox Lineage of Medicine."</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Matt-Stefon/6763">Matt Stefon</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Dec 01, 2011</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-015">Article revised and romanization changed.</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Matt-Stefon/6763">Matt Stefon</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Dec 01, 2011</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> <span class="topic-history-diff-link link-blue" data-diff="/13/110313-013">Added information on Romanian physiologist Nicolas C. Paulescu and his discovery of pancrein (thought to have been insulin).</span></td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jul 26, 2011</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> Added image of Marie Curie driving a car converted into a mobile radiological unit.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Richard-Pallardy/6744">Richard Pallardy</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Apr 01, 2010</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="photo"></em> </td> <td> New illustration added.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Kara-Rogers/6713">Kara Rogers</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jan 15, 2009</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="link"></em> </td> <td> Added new Web site: Catholic Encyclopedia - History of Medicine.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/Dutta-Promeet/7666602">Dutta Promeet</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Feb 14, 2007</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Article revised.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> May 29, 2002</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Article revised.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> May 17, 2002</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Article revised.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Nov 10, 2000</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Article revised.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Sep 15, 2000</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="history-type"> <em class="material-icons " data-icon="edit"></em> </td> <td> Article added to new online database.</td> <td class="history-contributor"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li data-type="contributor"> <a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></li> </ul> </td> <td data-type="date" class="text-nowrap"> Jul 20, 1998</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <div id="md-topic-diff" class="d-none"> <div class="md-modal-header"> </div> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header-container"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header"> <div class="grid"> <div class="col"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header-browse"> <span>View Changes: </span> <div title="previous change" id="md-topic-diff-previous" class="md-topic-diff-pn disabled"></div> <div title="next change" id="md-topic-diff-next" class="md-topic-diff-pn"></div> </div> </div> <div class="col justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center"> <div class="h3">Article History</div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="md-topic-diff-header-info"> <div>Revised: <span id="md-topic-diff-date"></span></div> <div>By: <span id="md-topic-diff-contributor"></span></div> </div> <em class="md-close material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="md-topic-diff-container" class="md-overlay-container mt-50 mt-sm-0"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <footer class="md-footer footer-wrapper hide-on-edit"> <div class="footer-bck"> <DIV class="marketing-FOOTER_NEWSLETTER marketing-content" data-marketing-id="FOOTER_NEWSLETTER"><div class="md-footer-newsletter-form pt-10 mb-30 mx-15 mx-sm-120"> <div class="font-18"> <strong>History at your fingertips –</strong> Sign up here to see what happened On This Day, every day in your inbox! 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