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class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Dendritic cell-based pump-priming or vaccination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dendritic_cell-based_pump-priming_or_vaccination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-T-cell_adoptive_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#T-cell_adoptive_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>T-cell adoptive transfer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-T-cell_adoptive_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Checkpoint_inhibitors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Checkpoint_inhibitors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Checkpoint inhibitors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Checkpoint_inhibitors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immune_enhancement_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immune_enhancement_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Immune enhancement therapy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immune_enhancement_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suppression_immunotherapies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suppression_immunotherapies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Suppression immunotherapies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Suppression_immunotherapies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Suppression immunotherapies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Suppression_immunotherapies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immunosuppressive_drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunosuppressive_drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Immunosuppressive drugs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunosuppressive_drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immune_tolerance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immune_tolerance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Immune tolerance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immune_tolerance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allergen_immunotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allergen_immunotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Allergen immunotherapy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allergen_immunotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Helminthic_therapies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helminthic_therapies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Helminthic therapies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helminthic_therapies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Immunotherapy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="علاج مناعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علاج مناعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoterapia" title="Immunoterapia – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Immunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Имунотерапия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Имунотерапия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunoterapija" title="Imunoterapija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Imunoterapija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoter%C3%A0pia" title="Immunoteràpia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Immunoteràpia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunoterapie" title="Imunoterapie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Imunoterapie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuntherapie" title="Immuntherapie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Immuntherapie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoteraapia" title="Immunoteraapia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Immunoteraapia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ανοσοθεραπεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανοσοθεραπεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inmunoterapia" title="Inmunoterapia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Inmunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoterapia" title="Immunoterapia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Immunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ایمنی‌درمانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایمنی‌درمانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoth%C3%A9rapie" title="Immunothérapie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Immunothérapie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inmunoterapia" title="Inmunoterapia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Inmunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%B4%EC%97%AD%EC%9A%94%EB%B2%95" title="면역요법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="면역요법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunoterapi" title="Imunoterapi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imunoterapi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoterapia" title="Immunoterapia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Immunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="אימונותרפיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אימונותרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Иммунотерапия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иммунотерапия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Иммунотерапия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Иммунотерапия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunoterapia" title="Imunoterapia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Imunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunter%C3%A1pia" title="Immunterápia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Immunterápia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunotherapie" title="Immunotherapie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Immunotherapie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E7%99%82%E6%B3%95" title="免疫療法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="免疫療法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunterapi" title="Immunterapi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Immunterapi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoterapiya" title="Immunoterapiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Immunoterapiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoterapia" title="Immunoterapia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Immunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunoterapia" title="Imunoterapia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Imunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunoterapie" title="Imunoterapie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imunoterapie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Иммунотерапия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иммунотерапия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Immunotherapy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoterapia" title="Immunoterapia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Immunoterapia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunterapi" title="Immunterapi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Immunterapi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88" title="நோயெதிர்ப்பியச் சிகிச்சை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நோயெதிர்ப்பியச் சிகிச்சை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mm%C3%BCnoterapi" title="İmmünoterapi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İmmünoterapi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Імунотерапія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Імунотерапія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%DB%82_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C%DB%81" title="معالجۂ مناعیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="معالجۂ مناعیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E6%B2%BB%E7%96%97" title="免疫治疗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="免疫治疗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunomodulator&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunomodulator">Immunomodulator</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Activation or suppression of the immune system to treat disease</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy_(journal)" title="Immunotherapy (journal)">Immunotherapy 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1.6em!important;padding:0!important;width:auto;display:block}body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Immunotherapy" title="Special:EditPage/Immunotherapy">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Immunotherapy" title="Talk:Immunotherapy">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Medical_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs more <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">reliable medical references</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a> or relies too heavily on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Primary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Primary sources">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please review the contents of the article and <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit">add the appropriate references</a> if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. <small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Immunotherapy%22">"Immunotherapy"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Immunotherapy%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Immunotherapy%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Immunotherapy%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Immunotherapy%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Immunotherapy%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2018</span>)</i></span></div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please improve this article by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. <br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Immunotherapy%22">"Immunotherapy"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Immunotherapy%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Immunotherapy%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Immunotherapy%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Immunotherapy%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Immunotherapy%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical intervention</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lightblue">Immunotherapy</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:CAR_T-cell_Therapy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/CAR_T-cell_Therapy.svg/280px-CAR_T-cell_Therapy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/CAR_T-cell_Therapy.svg/420px-CAR_T-cell_Therapy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/CAR_T-cell_Therapy.svg/560px-CAR_T-cell_Therapy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="160" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The diagram above represents the process of chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy (CAR), this is a method of immunotherapy, which is a growing practice in the treatment of cancer. The final result should be a production of equipped T-cells that can recognize and fight the infected cancer cells in the body. <div><ol><li>T-cells (represented by objects labeled as 't') are removed from the patient's blood.</li><li>Then in a lab setting the gene that encodes for the specific antigen receptors are incorporated into the T-cells.</li><li>Thus producing the CAR receptors (labeled as c) on the surface of the cells.</li><li>The newly modified T-cells are then further harvested and grown in the lab.</li><li>After a certain time period, the engineered T-cells are infused back into the patient.</li></ol></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007167">D007167</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/OPS-301" title="OPS-301">OPS-301 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd-code.de/ops/code/8-03.html">8-03</a></td></tr><tr class="noprint"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="text-align: right;">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1427096" class="extiw" title="d:Q1427096">edit on Wikidata</a>]</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Immunotherapy</b> or <b>biological therapy</b> is the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> by activating or suppressing the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>. Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as <i>activation immunotherapies,</i> while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as <i><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">suppression immunotherapies</a></i>. Immunotherapy is under preliminary research for its potential to treat various forms of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Syn_2017_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Syn_2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cell-based immunotherapies are effective for some cancers.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immune effector cells such as <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cell" title="Natural killer cell">natural killer cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell" title="Cytotoxic T cell">cytotoxic T lymphocytes</a> work together to defend the body against cancer by targeting abnormal antigens expressed on the surface of tumor cells. Vaccine-induced immunity to COVID-19 relies mostly on an immunomodulatory T-cell response.<sup id="cite_ref-Geers_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geers-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Therapies such as <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte_colony-stimulating_factor" title="Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor">granulocyte colony-stimulating factor</a> (G-CSF), <a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">interferons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imiquimod" title="Imiquimod">imiquimod</a> and cellular membrane fractions from <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> are licensed for medical use. Others including <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-2">IL-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-7">IL-7</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_12" title="Interleukin 12">IL-12</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a>, synthetic cytosine phosphate-guanosine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides and <a href="/wiki/Glucan" title="Glucan">glucans</a> are involved in clinical and preclinical studies. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Immunomodulators">Immunomodulators</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Immunomodulators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Immunomodulators are the active agents of immunotherapy. They are a diverse array of recombinant, synthetic, and natural preparations.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Class</th> <th>Example agents </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Interleukins" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukins">Interleukins</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Interleukin_2" title="Interleukin 2">IL-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_7" title="Interleukin 7">IL-7</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_12" title="Interleukin 12">IL-12</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">Cytokines</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">Interferons</a>, <a href="/wiki/G-CSF" class="mw-redirect" title="G-CSF">G-CSF</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemokines">Chemokines</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/CCL3" title="CCL3">CCL3</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCL26" title="CCL26">CCL26</a>, <a href="/wiki/CXCL7" title="CXCL7">CXCL7</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Immunomodulatory_imide_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunomodulatory imide drug">Immunomodulatory imide drugs</a> (IMiDs)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thalidomide" title="Thalidomide">thalidomide</a> and its analogues (<a href="/wiki/Lenalidomide" title="Lenalidomide">lenalidomide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pomalidomide" title="Pomalidomide">pomalidomide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Apremilast" title="Apremilast">apremilast</a>), BCG vaccine,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> & Covid vaccines<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geers_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geers-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other</td> <td>cytosine phosphate-guanosine, oligodeoxynucleotides, <a href="/wiki/Glucans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucans">glucans</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activation_immunotherapies">Activation immunotherapies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Activation immunotherapies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_immunotherapy" title="Cancer immunotherapy">Cancer immunotherapy</a></div> <p>Cancer treatment used to be focused on killing or removing cancer cells and tumours, with chemotherapy or surgery or radiation. In 2018 the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">James P. Allison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Tasuku Honjo</a> "for their discovery of cancer therapy by inhibition of negative immune regulation." Cancer immunotherapy attempts to stimulate the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> to destroy tumours. A variety of strategies are in use or are undergoing research and testing. Randomized controlled studies in different cancers resulting in significant increase in survival and disease free period have been reported<sup id="cite_ref-Syn_2017_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Syn_2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its efficacy is enhanced by 20–30% when cell-based immunotherapy is combined with conventional treatment methods.<sup id="cite_ref-Syn_2017_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Syn_2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the oldest forms of cancer immunotherapy is the use of <a href="/wiki/BCG_vaccine" title="BCG vaccine">BCG vaccine</a>, which was originally to vaccinate against <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> and later was found to be useful in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> BCG immunotherapy induces both local and systemic immune responses. The mechanisms by which BCG immunotherapy mediates tumor immunity have been widely studied, but they are still not completely understood.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody" title="Monoclonal antibody">monoclonal antibodies</a> in cancer therapy was first introduced in 1997 with <a href="/wiki/Rituximab" title="Rituximab">rituximab</a>, an anti-CD20 antibody for treatment of B cell lymphoma.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then several monoclonal antibodies have been approved for treatment of various haematological malignancies as well as for solid tumours.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extraction of <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte_colony-stimulating_factor" title="Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor">G-CSF</a> <a href="/wiki/Lymphocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphocytes">lymphocytes</a> from the blood and expanding in vitro against a tumour antigen before reinjecting the cells with appropriate stimulatory <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a>. The cells then destroy the tumour cells that express the <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Topical immunotherapy utilizes an immune enhancement cream (<a href="/wiki/Imiquimod" title="Imiquimod">imiquimod</a>) which produces <a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">interferon</a>, causing the recipient's killer <a href="/wiki/T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="T cells">T cells</a> to destroy <a href="/wiki/Wart" title="Wart">warts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18385498_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18385498-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Actinic_keratoses" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinic keratoses">actinic keratoses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basal_cell_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal cell cancer">basal cell cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaginal_intraepithelial_neoplasia" title="Vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia">vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17051086_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17051086-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> squamous cell cancer,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19395154_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19395154-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19442565_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19442565-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cutaneous lymphoma,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19273388_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19273388-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and superficial malignant melanoma.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19464602_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19464602-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Injection immunotherapy ("intralesional" or "intratumoural") uses mumps, candida, the HPV vaccine<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19473507_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19473507-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19353471_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19353471-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trichophytin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trichophytin (page does not exist)">trichophytin</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a> injections to treat warts (HPV induced tumours). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_cell_transfer" title="Adoptive cell transfer">Adoptive cell transfer</a> has been tested on <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19471115_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19471115-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other cancers, with greatest success achieved in <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dendritic_cell-based_pump-priming_or_vaccination">Dendritic cell-based pump-priming or vaccination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dendritic cell-based pump-priming or vaccination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendritic cells">Dendritic cells (DC)</a> can be stimulated to activate a <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytotoxic">cytotoxic</a> response towards an <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a>. Dendritic cells, a type of <a href="/wiki/Antigen-presenting_cell" title="Antigen-presenting cell">antigen-presenting cell</a>, are harvested from the person needing the immunotherapy. These cells are then either pulsed with an antigen or tumour lysate or <a href="/wiki/Transfection" title="Transfection">transfected</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Viral_vector" title="Viral vector">viral vector</a>, causing them to display the antigen. Upon transfusion into the person, these activated cells present the antigen to the effector lymphocytes (<a href="/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell" title="Cytotoxic T cell">CD4+ helper T cells</a>, cytotoxic <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell" title="Cytotoxic T cell">CD8+ T cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a>). This initiates a cytotoxic response against tumour cells expressing the antigen (against which the adaptive response has now been primed). The first FDA-approved cell-based immunotherapy,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Cancer_vaccine" title="Cancer vaccine">cancer vaccine</a> <a href="/wiki/Sipuleucel-T" title="Sipuleucel-T">Sipuleucel-T</a> is one example of this approach.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21606971_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21606971-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Immune Response Corporation<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (IRC) developed this immunotherapy and licensed the technology to Dendreon, which obtained FDA clearance. </p><p>The current approaches for <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cells-_based_cancer_vaccines" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendritic cells- based cancer vaccines">DC-based vaccination</a> are mainly based on antigen loading on <i>in vitro</i>-generated DCs from <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocytes</a> or <a href="/wiki/CD34" title="CD34">CD34</a>+ cells, activating them with different <a href="/wiki/Toll-like_receptor" title="Toll-like receptor">TLR</a> ligands, <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokine</a> combinations, and injecting them back to the patients. The <i>in vivo</i> targeting approaches comprise administering specific cytokines (e.g., <a href="/wiki/FMS-like_tyrosine_kinase_3_ligand" title="FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand">Flt3L</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte-macrophage_colony-stimulating_factor" title="Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor">GM-CSF</a>) and targeting the DCs with antibodies to C-type lectin receptors or agonistic antibodies (e.g., anti-<a href="/wiki/CD40_(protein)" title="CD40 (protein)">CD40</a>) that are conjugated with antigen of interest. Multiple, next-generation anti-CD40 platforms are being actively developed.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Future approach may target DC subsets based on their specifically expressed <a href="/wiki/C-type_lectin_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="C-type lectin receptor">C-type lectin receptors</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemokine_receptor" title="Chemokine receptor">chemokine receptors</a>. Another potential approach is the generation of genetically engineered DCs from <a href="/wiki/Induced_pluripotent_stem_cell" title="Induced pluripotent stem cell">induced pluripotent stem cells</a> and use of <a href="/wiki/Neoantigen" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoantigen">neoantigen</a>-loaded DCs for inducing better clinical outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="T-cell_adoptive_transfer">T-cell adoptive transfer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: T-cell adoptive transfer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_cell_transfer" title="Adoptive cell transfer">Adoptive cell transfer</a> <i><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i> cultivates autologous, extracted T cells for later transfusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenberg_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Genetically_engineered_T_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically engineered T cell">Genetically engineered T cells</a> are created by harvesting T cells and then infecting the T cells with a <a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">retrovirus</a> that contains a copy of a <a href="/wiki/T_cell_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="T cell receptor">T cell receptor</a> (TCR) gene that is specialised to recognise tumour antigens. The virus integrates the receptor into the T cells' <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. The cells are expanded non-specifically and/or stimulated. The cells are then reinfused and produce an immune response against the tumour cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technique has been tested on refractory stage IV metastatic melanomas<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenberg_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and advanced <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hunder_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunder-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-urlCancer_Research_Institute_-_2008_Symposium_Program_&_Speakers_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlCancer_Research_Institute_-_2008_Symposium_Program_&_Speakers-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first FDA-approved CAR-T drug, Kymriah, used this approach. To obtain the clinical and commercial supply of this CAR-T, Novartis purchased the manufacturing plant, the distribution system and hired the production team that produced Sipuleucel-T developed by Dendreon and the Immune Response Corporation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether T cells are genetically engineered or not, before re-infusion, lympho-depletion of the recipient is required to eliminate regulatory T cells as well as unmodified, endogenous lymphocytes that compete with the transferred cells for homeostatic cytokines.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenberg_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenberg-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Antony_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Antony-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gattinoni_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gattinoni-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dummer_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dummer-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lymphodepletion may be achieved by <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation#Myeloablative" title="Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation">myeloablative</a> chemotherapy, to which total body irradiation may be added for greater effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Dudley08_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dudley08-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transferred cells multiplied <i>in vivo</i> and persisted in peripheral blood in many people, sometimes representing levels of 75% of all CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells at 6–12 months after infusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Dudley02_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dudley02-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2012<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, clinical trials for metastatic melanoma were ongoing at multiple sites.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22996367_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22996367-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical responses to adoptive transfer of T cells were observed in patients with metastatic melanoma resistant to multiple immunotherapies.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid29688262_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid29688262-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Checkpoint_inhibitors">Checkpoint inhibitors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Checkpoint inhibitors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_inhibitor" title="Checkpoint inhibitor">Checkpoint inhibitor</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/PD-1_and_PD-L1_inhibitors" title="PD-1 and PD-L1 inhibitors">Anti-PD-1/PD-L1</a> and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies are the two types of checkpoint inhibitors currently available to patients. The approval of anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (<a href="/wiki/CTLA-4" class="mw-redirect" title="CTLA-4">CTLA-4</a>) and anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (<a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death_protein_1" title="Programmed cell death protein 1">PD-1</a>) antibodies for human use has already resulted in significant improvements in disease outcomes for various cancers.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although these molecules were originally discovered as molecules playing a role in <a href="/wiki/T_cell_activation" class="mw-redirect" title="T cell activation">T cell activation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>, subsequent preclinical research showed their important role in the maintenance of peripheral immune tolerance.<sup id="cite_ref-Haanen_2015_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haanen_2015-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Immune checkpoint inhibitors are approved to treat some patients with a variety of cancer types, including <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colon cancer</a>, lung cancer <a href="/wiki/Head_and_neck_cancer" title="Head and neck cancer">head and neck cancer</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin_lymphoma" title="Hodgkin lymphoma">Hodgkin lymphoma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These therapies have revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Cancer_immunotherapy" title="Cancer immunotherapy">cancer immunotherapy</a> as they showed for the first time in many years of research in metastatic <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>, which is considered one of the most <a href="/wiki/Immunogenicity" title="Immunogenicity">immunogenic</a> human cancers, an improvement in overall survival, with an increasing group of patients benefiting long-term from these treatments, although caution remains needed for specific subgroups.<sup id="cite_ref-Haanen_2015_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haanen_2015-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Queirolo_2019_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Queirolo_2019-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moyers_2021_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moyers_2021-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next generation of checkpoint inhibitors targets other receptors such as lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (<a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte-activation_gene_3" title="Lymphocyte-activation gene 3">LAG-3</a>), T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 (<a href="/wiki/HAVCR2" title="HAVCR2">TIM3</a>), and T cell immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM domains (<a href="/wiki/TIGIT" title="TIGIT">TIGIT</a>). Antibodies against these receptors have been evaluated in clinical studies, but have not yet been approved for widespread use.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Immune_enhancement_therapy">Immune enhancement therapy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Immune enhancement therapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Autologous_immune_enhancement_therapy" title="Autologous immune enhancement therapy">Autologous immune enhancement therapy</a> use a person's own peripheral blood-derived <a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cell" title="Natural killer cell">natural killer cells</a>, cytotoxic T lymphocytes, epithelial cells and other relevant immune cells are expanded <i>in vitro</i> and then re-infused.<sup id="cite_ref-Manjunath_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manjunath-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The therapy has been tested against <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Doskali_M_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doskali_M-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Li_Y_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_Y-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Terunuma_H_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Terunuma_H-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chronic_fatigue_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic fatigue syndrome">chronic fatigue syndrome</a><sup id="cite_ref-See_DM_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_DM-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ojo-Amaize_EA_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ojo-Amaize_EA-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/HHV6" class="mw-redirect" title="HHV6">HHV6</a> infection.<sup id="cite_ref-Kida_K_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kida_K-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suppression_immunotherapies">Suppression immunotherapies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Suppression immunotherapies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Immune_suppression" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune suppression">Immune suppression</a> dampens an abnormal <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune response</a> in <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune diseases">autoimmune diseases</a> or reduces a normal <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune response</a> to prevent <a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">rejection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">transplanted</a> organs or cells. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunosuppressive_drugs">Immunosuppressive drugs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Immunosuppressive drugs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Immunosuppressive drugs can be used to control the immune system with organ transplantation and with autoimmune disease. Immune responses depend on lymphocyte proliferation. Lymphocyte proliferation is the multiplication of lymphocyte cells used to fight and remember foreign invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cytostatic drugs are a type of immunosuppressive drug that aids in slowing down the growth of rapidly dividing cells. Another example of an immunosuppressive drug is Glucocorticoids which are more specific inhibitors of lymphocyte activation. Glucocorticoids work by emulating actions of natural actions of the body's adrenal glands to help suppress the immune system, which is helpful with autoimmune diseases|,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, inhibitors of immunophilins more specifically target T lymphocyte activation, the process by which T-lymphocytes stimulate and begin to respond to a specific antigen,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also Immunosuppressive antibodies which target steps in the immune response to prevent the body from attacking its tissues, which is a problem with autoimmune diseases,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are various other drugs that modulate immune responses and can be used to induce immune regulation. It was observed in a preclinical trial that regulation of the immune system by small immunosuppressive molecules such as vitamin D, dexamethasone, and curcumin could be helpful in preventing or treating chronic inflation. Given that the molecules are administered under a low-dose regimen and subcutaneously. A study provides a promising preclinical demonstration of the effectiveness and ease of preparation of Valrubicin-loaded immunoliposomes (Val-ILs) as a novel nanoparticle technology to target immunosuppressive cells. Val-ILs have the potential to be used as a precise and effective therapy based on targeted vesicle-mediated cell death of immunosuppressive cells. <sup id="cite_ref-pmid38734740_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid38734740-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immune_tolerance">Immune tolerance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Immune tolerance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The body naturally does not launch an immune system attack on its own tissues. Models generally identify <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">CD4+ T-cells</a> at the centre of the <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune response">autoimmune response</a>. Loss of T-cell tolerance then unleashes B-cells and other immune effector cells on to the target tissue. The ideal <a href="/wiki/Tolerogenic_therapy" title="Tolerogenic therapy">tolerogenic therapy</a> would target the specific T-cell clones co-ordinating the autoimmune attack.<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance" title="Immune tolerance">Immune tolerance</a> therapies seek to reset the immune system so that the body stops mistakenly attacking its own organs or cells in <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune disease</a> or accepts foreign tissue in <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">organ transplantation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12110811_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12110811-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (June 2021)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> therapeutic approach is the infusion of <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_T_cell" title="Regulatory T cell">regulatory immune cells</a> into transplant recipients. The transfer of regulatory immune cells has the potential to inhibit the activity of effector.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Creating <a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance" title="Immune tolerance">immune tolerance</a> reduces or eliminates the need for lifelong immunosuppression and attendant side effects. It has been tested on transplantations, <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_1_diabetes" title="Type 1 diabetes">type 1 diabetes</a> and other autoimmune disorders. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Approaches to therapeutic tolerance induction<sup id="cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><b>Modality</b> </th> <th><b>Details</b> </th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Non-antigen specific</b> </td> <td>Monoclonal Antibodies </td> <td> <p>Depleting: </p> <ul><li>Anti-<a href="/wiki/CD52" title="CD52">CD52</a></li> <li>Anti-<a href="/wiki/CD4" title="CD4">CD4</a></li> <li>Anti-<a href="/wiki/LFA-2" class="mw-redirect" title="LFA-2">LFA-2</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <p>Non-depleting: </p> <ul><li>Anti-CD4</li> <li>Anti-<a href="/wiki/CD3_(immunology)" title="CD3 (immunology)">CD3</a></li> <li>Anti-<a href="/wiki/LFA-1" class="mw-redirect" title="LFA-1">LFA-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CTLA4" class="mw-redirect" title="CTLA4">CTLA4</a>-Ig</li> <li>Anti-<a href="/wiki/CD25" class="mw-redirect" title="CD25">CD25</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation </td> <td>Non-myeloablative </td> <td>Myeloablative </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Mesenchymal stem cell transplantation </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Regulatory T cell therapy </td> <td>Non-antigen specific </td> <td>Antigen-specific </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Low dose <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_2" title="Interleukin 2">IL-2</a> to expand regulatory T cells </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Microbiome manipulation </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Antigen specific</b> </td> <td>Peptide therapy </td> <td colspan="2">Subcutaneous, intradermal, transmucosal (oral, inhaled) <p>Tolerogenic dendritic cells, liposomes and nanoparticles </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Altered peptide ligands </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allergen_immunotherapy">Allergen immunotherapy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Allergen immunotherapy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allergen_immunotherapy" title="Allergen immunotherapy">Allergen immunotherapy</a></div> <p>Immunotherapy can also be used to treat <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergies</a>. While allergy treatments (such as <a href="/wiki/Antihistamine" title="Antihistamine">antihistamines</a> or <a href="/wiki/Corticosteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Corticosteroids">corticosteroids</a>) treat allergic symptoms, immunotherapy can reduce sensitivity to <a href="/wiki/Allergen" title="Allergen">allergens</a>, lessening its severity. Allergen immunotherapy can also be referred to as allergen desensitization or hypo-sensitization.<sup id="cite_ref-Persaud_2024_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Persaud_2024-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immunotherapy may produce long-term benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10441602_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10441602-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immunotherapy is partly effective in some people and ineffective in others, but it offers people with allergies a chance to reduce or stop their symptoms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Subcutaneous allergen immunotherapy was first introduced in 1911 through the hypothesis that people with hay fever were sensitive to pollen from grass. A process was developed to create an extract by drawing out timothy pollen in distilled water and then boiling it. This was injected into patients in increasing doses to help alleviate symptoms. <sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Allergen Immunotherapy is indicated for people who are extremely allergic or who cannot avoid specific <a href="/wiki/Allergen" title="Allergen">allergens</a> and when there is evidence of an IgE-mediated reaction that correlates with allergen symptoms. These IgE-mediated reactions can be identified via a blood IgE test or skin testing. If a specific IgE antibody is negative, there is no evidence that allergen immunotherapy will be effective for that patient. </p><p>However, there are risks associated with allergen immunotherapy as it is the administration of an agent the patient is known to be highly allergic to. Patients are at increased risk of fatal <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>, local reaction at the site of injection, or life-threatening systemic allergic reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-Persaud_2024_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Persaud_2024-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A promising approach to treat food allergies is the use of <a href="/wiki/Oral_immunotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral immunotherapy">oral immunotherapy</a> (OIT). OIT consists in a gradual exposure to increasing amounts of allergen can lead to the majority of subjects tolerating doses of food sufficient to prevent reaction on accidental exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dosages increase over time, as the person becomes desensitized. This technique has been tested on infants to prevent peanut allergies.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Helminthic_therapies">Helminthic therapies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Helminthic therapies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Whipworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Whipworm">Whipworm</a> <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a> (<i>Trichuris suis</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Hookworm" title="Hookworm">hookworm</a> (<i>Necator americanus</i>) have been tested for immunological diseases and allergies, and have proved beneficial on multiple fronts, yet it is not entirely understood. Scientists have found that the immune response triggered by the burrowing of hookworm larvae to pass through the lungs and blood so the production of mast cells and specific antibodies are now present. They also reduce inflammation or responses ties to autoimmune diseases, but despite this, the hookworm's effects are considered to be negative typically.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11585781_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11585781-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Helminthic_therapy" title="Helminthic therapy">Helminthic therapy</a> has been investigated as a treatment for relapsing remitting <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17230481_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17230481-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s_disease" title="Crohn's disease">Crohn's</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16344586_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16344586-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19050918_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19050918-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid18619749_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18619749-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allergies and asthma.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16965287_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16965287-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there is much to be learned about this, many researchers think that the change in the immune response is thanks to the parasites shifting to a more anti-inflammatory or regulatory system, which would in turn decrease inflammation and self inflicted immune damage as seen in Crohn's and multiple sclerosis. Specifically, MS patients saw lower relapse rates and calmer symptoms in some cases when experimenting with helminthic therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid32123528_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid32123528-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hypothesized mechanisms include re-polarisation of the <a href="/wiki/T_helper_cell#Th1/Th2_model" title="T helper cell">T<sub>h</sub>1 / T<sub>h</sub>2</a> response<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15603764_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15603764-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and modulation of dendritic cell function.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19308259_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19308259-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19120496_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19120496-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The helminths downregulate the pro-inflammatory T<sub>h</sub>1 cytokines, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-12" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-12">interleukin-12</a> (IL-12), <a href="/wiki/Interferon-gamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferon-gamma">interferon-gamma</a> (IFN-γ) and <a href="/wiki/Tumour_Necrosis_Factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumour Necrosis Factor">tumor necrosis factor-alpha</a> (TNF-α), while promoting the production of regulatory T<sub>h</sub>2 cytokines such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_10" title="Interleukin 10">IL-10</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-4" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-4">IL-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_5" title="Interleukin 5">IL-5</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_13" title="Interleukin 13">IL-13</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15603764_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15603764-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19468064_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19468064-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Co-evolution with helminths has shaped some of the genes associated with <a href="/wiki/Interleukin" title="Interleukin">interleukin</a> expression and immunological disorders, such <a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Crohn's">Crohn's</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">ulcerative colitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coeliac_disease" title="Coeliac disease">celiac disease</a>. Helminths' relationship to humans as hosts should be classified as mutualistic or <a href="/wiki/Symbionts" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbionts">symbiotic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some ways, the relationship is symbiotic because the worms themselves need the host (humans) for survival, because this body supplies them with nutrients and a home. From another perspective, it could be reasoned that it is mutualistic, being that the above information about benefits in autoimmune disorders continues to remain true and supported. Also, some say that the worms can regulate gut bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25869420_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25869420-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another possibility is one of this being a parasitic relationship, arguing that the possible risks of anemia and other disorders outweighs the benefits, yet this is significantly less supported, with the research alluding to the mutualistic and symbiotic approach being much more likely. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_response_modifier" title="Biological response modifier">Biological response modifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsivac" title="Sepsivac">Sepsivac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkpoint_inhibitor" title="Checkpoint inhibitor">Checkpoint inhibitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interleukin-2_immunotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-2 immunotherapy">Interleukin-2 immunotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunostimulant" title="Immunostimulant">Immunostimulant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microtransplantation" title="Microtransplantation">Microtransplantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoimmunotherapy" title="Photoimmunotherapy">Photoimmunotherapy</a> in vitro or in vivo<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immunotherapy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nano+Letters&rft.atitle=Protein+Nanocage+Mediated+Fibroblast-Activation+Protein+Targeted+Photoimmunotherapy+To+Enhance+Cytotoxic+T+Cell+Infiltration+and+Tumor+Control&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E862-%3C%2Fspan%3E869&rft.date=2017-02&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28027646&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.nanolett.6b04150&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NanoL..17..862Z&rft.aulast=Zhen&rft.aufirst=Z&rft.au=Tang%2C+W&rft.au=Wang%2C+M&rft.au=Zhou%2C+S&rft.au=Wang%2C+H&rft.au=Wu%2C+Z&rft.au=Hao%2C+Z&rft.au=Li%2C+Z&rft.au=Liu%2C+L&rft.au=Xie%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmunotherapy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template talk:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)310" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts in <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious disease</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_infectious_disease_concepts" title="Outline of infectious disease concepts">Outline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Determinants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">Agent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm#Infectious_diseases" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_infective_dose" title="Minimal infective dose">Infectious dose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">Pathogenicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">factors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">Multidrug-resistant bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_tropism" title="Host tropism">Host tropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">Comorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_foot_infection" title="Diabetic foot infection">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93pathogen_interaction" title="Host–pathogen interaction">Host–pathogen interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">Immune response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">Immunosuppression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbiome health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_infection" title="Risk of infection">Risk of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susceptible_individual" title="Susceptible individual">Susceptible individual</a> <ul><li>Age</li> <li>Gender</li> <li>Nutrition status</li> <li>Vaccination status</li> <li>Genetic predisposition</li> <li>Behavioral/lifestyle factors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco#infection" title="Health effects of tobacco">Smoking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pregnancy</li> <li>Stress levels</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">Access to water, sanitation and hygiene</a></li> <li>Air quality</li> <li>Biodiversity loss</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change</a></li> <li>Climate zones <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o#Health_and_social_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease#Relation_of_climate_to_tropical_diseases" title="Tropical disease">Tropical diseases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation#Health_effects" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity#Human_health" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Injection drug use</a></li> <li>Natural disaster <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood#Health_effects" title="Flood">Flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis#Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry" title="Zoonosis">Poultry and livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization#Infections" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_epidemiology" title="Conflict epidemiology">War and conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Basic_concepts110" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Basic <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection#Pathophysiology" title="Infection">Chain of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubation_period" title="Incubation period">Incubation period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_case" title="Index case">Index case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_period" title="Infectious period">Infectious period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_period_(epidemiology)" title="Latent period (epidemiology)">Latent period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">Natural reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclinical_infection" title="Subclinical infection">Silent/Subclinical infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-spreader" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-spreader">Super-spreader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">Viral load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_period" title="Window period">Window period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Endogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Endogenous overgrowth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome#Disease_and_death" title="Human microbiome">Normal flora overgrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_latency" title="Virus latency">Endogenous reactivation</a></li> <li>Microbial translocation</li> <li>Endogenous seeding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a> formation</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Exogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">Cross-species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">Vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human-to-human_transmission" title="Human-to-human transmission">Human-to-human</a><br />/Cross-infection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">Contagious disease</a></li> <li>Source <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Nosocomial/Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenic/Medical care</a></li></ul></li> <li>Generational difference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertical/Congenital</a> <ul><li>Prenatal</li> <li>Perinatal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_infection" title="Neonatal infection">Neonatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Horizontal_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Horizontal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_infection" title="Breakthrough infection">Breakthrough infection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Environment-<br />to-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapronosis" title="Sapronosis">Sapronosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Routes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Respiratory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure" title="Aerosol-generating procedure">Aerosol-generating procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_aerosol" title="Dental aerosol">Dental aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_droplet#Role_in_disease_transmission" title="Respiratory droplet">Respiratory droplet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Linked to<br />Vascular system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood-borne_disease" title="Blood-borne disease">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li>Percutaneous inoculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)#Infection" title="Injection (medicine)">Injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy#Infection_and_inflammation" title="Intravenous therapy">Intravenous line</a></li> <li>Insect bite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite#Infection" title="Animal bite">Animal bite</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surgical intervention <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postoperative_wounds#Infection" title="Postoperative wounds">Postoperative wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_site_infection" title="Surgical site infection">Surgical site infection</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vector-borne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Gastrointestinal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">Contamination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_contraindications" title="Breastfeeding contraindications">Breastmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_disease" title="Waterborne disease">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Feces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cutaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">Soil</a></li> <li>Open <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wound</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Genitourinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Trans-placental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Prenatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cervico-vaginal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Perinatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Modelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Bacteria_aggregation_leading_to_biofilm_formation" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_disease_model" title="Animal disease model">Animal disease model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">Basic reproduction number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmental_models_in_epidemiology" title="Compartmental models in epidemiology">Compartmental models in epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_community_size" title="Critical community size">Critical community size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_of_infection" title="Force of infection">Force of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">Herd immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_rate" title="Infection rate">Infection rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_of_infection" title="Multiplicity of infection">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_interval" title="Serial interval">Serial interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAIFW_matrix" title="WAIFW matrix">WAIFW matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Occurrence<br />in population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_cluster" title="Disease cluster">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_curve" title="Epidemic curve">Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farr%27s_laws" title="Farr's laws">Farr's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoendemic" title="Holoendemic">Holoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperendemic" title="Hyperendemic">Hyperendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inequality_in_disease" title="Inequality in disease">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoendemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoendemic">Mesoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">Outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic#Seasonality" title="Epidemic">Seasonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_epidemiology" title="Spatial epidemiology">Geographic distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporadic_disease" title="Sporadic disease">Sporadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twindemic" title="Twindemic">Twindemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical <br />location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Respiratory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Upper respiratory tract infection">Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Lower respiratory tract infection">Chest/Lower respiratory tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal infection">Gastrointestinal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Genitourinary</li> <li>Nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">Skin</a></li> <li>Soft tissue</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone infection">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint infection">Joint</a></li> <li>Cardiovascular</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_disease" title="Systemic disease">Systemic/Generalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontogenic_infection" title="Odontogenic infection">Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_infection" title="Mouth infection">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-amniotic_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-amniotic infection">Fetus</a></li> <li>Eye</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection_prevention_and_control" title="Infection prevention and control">Prevention<br />and Control<br />measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Pharmaceutical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">prophylactic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascaricide" title="Ascaricide">Ascaricide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">Antiseptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Asepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Drug safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Immunotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy" title="Monoclonal antibody therapy">Monoclonal antibody therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">Inoculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Post-exposure prophylaxis">Post-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_repositioning" title="Drug repositioning">Repurposed drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy" title="Vaccine efficacy">efficacy/effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_dose" title="Booster dose">booster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_resistance" title="Vaccine resistance">resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">Vaccine-preventable disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_vaccination" title="Ring vaccination">Ring vaccination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Non-pharmaceutical_intervention_(epidemiology)" title="Non-pharmaceutical intervention (epidemiology)">Non-<br />pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_tracing" title="Contact tracing">Contact tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">Disinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flattening_the_curve" title="Flattening the curve">Flattening the curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a 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(microbiology)">Sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission-based_precautions" title="Transmission-based precautions">Transmission-based precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_ban" title="Travel ban">Travel restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_precautions" title="Universal precautions">Universal precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li> <li>Zoning</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">Emerging <br />infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_drift" title="Antigenic drift">Antigenic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_shift" title="Antigenic shift">Antigenic shift</a></li> <li>Antimicrobial resistance surveillance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EARS-Net" title="EARS-Net">EARS-Net</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_X" title="Disease X">Disease X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_virus" title="Emergent virus">Emergent virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epidemiology" title="Evolutionary epidemiology">Evolutionary epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Initiatives" title="Global Health Initiatives">Global Health Initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Health_Model" title="One Health Model">One Health Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">Genomic reassortment</a></li> <li>Re-emerging disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure#Antibiotic_resistance" title="Evolutionary pressure">Selection pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phylodynamics" title="Viral phylodynamics">Viral phylodynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious 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