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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anekāntavāda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Anekāntavāda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anekāntavāda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nayavāda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nayavāda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Nayavāda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nayavāda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syādvāda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syādvāda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Syādvāda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syādvāda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jīvas,_the_Living" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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Cycles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_Cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Non-Living_Reality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Non-Living_Reality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The Non-Living Reality</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Non-Living_Reality-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Non-Living Reality subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Non-Living_Reality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pudgala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pudgala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pudgala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pudgala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motion/Rest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motion/Rest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Motion/Rest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motion/Rest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karma_and_Rebirth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karma_and_Rebirth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Karma and Rebirth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karma_and_Rebirth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberation_and_the_Path" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberation_and_the_Path"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Liberation and the Path</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberation_and_the_Path-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contribution_to_Indian_Thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contribution_to_Indian_Thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Contribution to Indian Thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contribution_to_Indian_Thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_Jain_philosophers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_Jain_philosophers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Major Jain philosophers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_Jain_philosophers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة جاينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة جاينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="জৈন দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জৈন দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="जैन दर्शन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जैन दर्शन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86" title="فلسفه جین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه جین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%88%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="જૈન તત્વજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="જૈન તત્વજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="जैन दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जैन दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ജൈനദർശനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജൈനദർശനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%82%A4%E3%83%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="ジャイナ哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャイナ哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="د جاينيزم فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د جاينيزم فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="जैनदर्शनम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जैनदर्शनम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="జైన్ తత్వశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జైన్ తత్వశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayn_felsefesi" title="Cayn felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cayn felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Філософія джайну – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Філософія джайну" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3278424#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #F5DEB3">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Jainism" title="Category:Jainism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/110px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/165px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg/220px-Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="1934" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="padding-bottom:0.35em; border:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jains" title="List of Jains">Jains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jainism" title="Timeline of Jainism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jainism-related_articles" title="Index of Jainism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_cosmology" title="Jain cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Jainism)" title="Dharma (Jainism)">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha_(Jainism)" title="Moksha (Jainism)">Mokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevala_Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevala Jnana">Kevala Jnana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattva_(Jainism)" title="Tattva (Jainism)">Tattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacarya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunasthana" title="Gunasthana">Gunasthana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Jainism)" title="Saṃsāra (Jainism)">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Ethics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics of Jainism">Ethics of Jainism</a> <dl><dd><b>Mahavratas (major vows)</b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahiṃsā (non-violence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya#Jainism" title="Satya">Satya (truth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteya#Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteya">Asteya (non-stealing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya#In_Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacarya (chastity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-possession" title="Non-possession">Aparigraha (non-possession)</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><b>Anuvratas (further vows)</b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81m%C4%81yika" title="Sāmāyika">Sāmāyika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallekhana" title="Sallekhana">Sallekhana</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Jain prayers</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktamara_Stotra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaktamara Stotra">Bhaktamara Stotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micchami_Dukkadam" title="Micchami Dukkadam">Micchami Dukkadam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navkar_Mantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Navkar Mantra">Navkar Mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namokar_Mantra" title="Namokar Mantra">Ṇamōkāra mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jai_Jinendra" title="Jai Jinendra">Jai Jinendra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Major figures</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">The 24 Tirthankaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishabhanatha" title="Rishabhanatha">Rishabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parshvanatha" title="Parshvanatha">Pārśva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arihant_(Jainism)" title="Arihant (Jainism)">Arihant</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganadhara" title="Ganadhara">Ganadhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundakunda" title="Kundakunda">Kundakunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhasena" title="Siddhasena">Siddhasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Jain_monk)" title="Samantabhadra (Jain monk)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">Haribhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yashovijaya" title="Yashovijaya">Yashovijaya</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Major sects</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Jain_schools_and_branches" title="Jain schools and branches">Schools and Branches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Jain literature</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Samayas%C4%81ra" title="Samayasāra">Samayasāra (Digambara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pravachanasara" title="Pravachanasara">Pravachanasara (Digambara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jain_Agamas_(%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)">Agama (Śvetāmbara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tattvartha_Sutra" title="Tattvartha Sutra">Tattvartha Sutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dravyasamgraha" title="Dravyasamgraha">Dravyasamgraha (Digambara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kalpa Sūtra">Kalpa Sūtra (Śvetāmbara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uttaradhyayana" title="Uttaradhyayana">Uttaradhyayana (Śvetāmbara)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/C%C4%ABvaka_Cint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i" title="Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi">Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silappatikaram" class="mw-redirect" title="Silappatikaram">Silappatikaram</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Valayapathi" title="Valayapathi">Valayapathi</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Festivals</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavir_Janma_Kalyanak" title="Mahavir Janma Kalyanak">Mahavir Janma Kalyanak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paryushana" title="Paryushana">Paryushana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samvatsari" title="Samvatsari">Samvatsari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Pilgrimages</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Jainism)" title="Tirtha (Jainism)">Tirth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dilwara_Temples" title="Dilwara Temples">Abu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palitana_temples" title="Palitana temples">Palitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girnar_Jain_temples" title="Girnar Jain temples">Girnar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikharji" title="Shikharji">Shikharji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shravanabelagola" title="Shravanabelagola">Shravanabelagola</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Other</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0px ; border: 2px solid #F5DEB3"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekendriya" title="Ekendriya">Ekendriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_temple" title="Jain temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_flag" title="Jain flag">Jain flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_symbols" title="Jain symbols">Jain symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasparopagraho_Jivanam" title="Parasparopagraho Jivanam">Parasparopagraho Jivanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jainism-related_articles" title="Index of Jainism-related articles">Topics list</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #F5DEB3;border-bottom:1px solid #F5DEB3;padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jainism" title="Template:Jainism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jainism" title="Template talk:Jainism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jainism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jainism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jain philosophy</b> or <b>Jaina philosophy</b> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">philosophical system</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It comprises all the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical investigations</a> and systems of inquiry that developed among the <a href="/wiki/Jain_schools_and_branches" title="Jain schools and branches">early branches of Jainism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a> following the <i><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">parinirvāṇa</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahāvīra</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th century BCE</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the main features of Jain philosophy is its <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualistic metaphysics</a>, which holds that there are two distinct categories of <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>: the <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(Jainism)" title="Jīva (Jainism)">living, conscious, or sentient beings</a> (<i>jīva</i>) and the non-living or <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">material</a> entities (<i>ajīva</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.1992vi_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.1992vi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Jain texts</a> discuss numerous philosophical topics such as <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of time">philosophy of time</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jain thought is primarily concerned with understanding the nature of living beings, how these beings are bound by the processes of <i><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">karma</a></i> (which are seen as fine material particles) and how living beings may be <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">liberated</a> (<i>moksha</i>) from the <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Jainism)" title="Saṃsāra (Jainism)">cycle of death and rebirth</a> (<i>saṃsāra</i>). A peculiarity of Jainism is to essentially associate several <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics of Jainism">renunciatory liberating practices</a> with the imperative of <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">non-violence</a> (<i>ahiṃsā</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jainism and its philosophical system are also notable for the belief in a <a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">beginning-less</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_model" title="Cyclic model">cyclical universe</a>, which posits a <a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">non-theistic</a> understanding of the world and the <a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_non-creationism" title="Jainism and non-creationism">complete rejection of a hypothetical creator deity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the Jain point of view, Jain philosophy is eternal and has been taught numerous times in the remote past by the great enlightened <i><a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">tirthankaras</a></i> ("ford-makers").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJansmaJain200628_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansmaJain200628-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer195359_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer195359-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians trace the developments of Jain thought to a few key figures in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a>, mainly <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahāvīra</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th century BCE</span>, a contemporary of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>) and possibly <a href="/wiki/Parshvanatha" title="Parshvanatha">Parshvanatha</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8th or 7th century BCE</span>, though this is disputed).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200230–31_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200230–31-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dundas" title="Paul Dundas">Paul Dundas</a>, Jain philosophy has remained relatively stable throughout its long history and no major radical doctrinal shift has taken place. This is mainly because of the influence of Umaswati's <i><a href="/wiki/Tattvartha_Sutra" title="Tattvartha Sutra">Tattvārthasūtra</a></i>, which has remained the central authoritative philosophical text among all Jains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200286_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200286-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Knowledge">Knowledge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Ācārya <a href="/wiki/Pujyapada" title="Pujyapada">Pujyapada</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Sarv%C4%81rthasiddhi" title="Sarvārthasiddhi">Sarvārthasiddhi</a></i>, the ultimate good for a living being (<i><a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(Jainism)" title="Jīva (Jainism)">jīva</a></i>) is liberation from the cyclical world of reincarnation (<i><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Jainism)" title="Saṃsāra (Jainism)">saṃsāra</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19922_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19922-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attainment of liberation is also associated with <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">omniscience</a>, and it is believed that past Jain sages like Mahavira have achieved omniscience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200288_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200288-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <i>Tattvārthasūtra</i>, the means to achieve liberation is threefold (this is known as the three jewels): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Right vision, right knowledge, and right conduct (together) constitute the path to liberation.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Tattvārthasūtra (1–1)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.20112_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.20112-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote><p>According to the <i>Sarvārthasiddhi</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19923–7_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19923–7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><ul><li>Right Vision (<i>Samyak <a href="/wiki/Dar%C5%9Bana" class="mw-redirect" title="Darśana">Darśana</a></i>) is defined as "seeing based on true knowledge of the <i>tattvas</i> (substances, realities)." Right Vision is attained by right knowledge.</li> <li>Right Knowledge (<i>Samyak Jnāna</i>) is defined as "knowing the <i>tattvas</i> such as the <i>jīvas</i> (living beings) as they truly are (<i>artha</i>)."</li></ul> <p>Jains believe that sentient beings can achieve perfect and complete knowledge of all things (omniscience). Those who have such knowledge are the enlightened kevalins. These are souls who have detached from all things, and are therefore able to perceive all things directly since their soul's knowledge is no longer blocked by anything.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For most beings, the omniscience of their soul is blocked by the karmic particles stuck to their soul, like a thick cloud blocks out the light of the sun.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999203_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999203-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the only source of omniscient knowledge for lesser beings is the teachings of the kevalins. Since there are no longer any living kevalins, the Jain scriptures are the only source of such knowledge and are thus seen as the highest authority in Jain philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, Jain philosophy considers the doctrines found in the scriptures as absolute truths and philosophy's role is mainly to summarize, explain and supplement these doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168–169_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168–169-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ontology">Ontology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit 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title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a 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philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tattva_(Jainism)" title="Tattva (Jainism)">Tattva (Jainism)</a></div> <p>According to Harry Oldmeadow, Jain ontology is both <a href="/wiki/Realism_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Realism (philosophy)">realist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(Indian_philosophy)" title="Dualism (Indian philosophy)">dualist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOldmeadow2007149_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOldmeadow2007149-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jeffery_D._Long" title="Jeffery D. Long">Jeffery D. Long</a> also affirms the realistic nature of Jain metaphysics, which is a kind of pluralism that asserts the existence of various realities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009124_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009124-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major metaphysical distinction, writes von Glasenapp, is between the animate or sentient substances (jīva) and the inanimate substances (ajīva).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999178_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999178-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jain philosophy postulates at least seven <i>"tattvas"</i> (truths, realities or fundamental principles):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19926–7_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19926–7-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925177–187_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925177–187-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1998151_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1998151-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200296–98_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200296–98-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i><a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(Jainism)" title="Jīva (Jainism)">Jīva</a></i> – The living being, sentient or soul which is said to have a separate existence from the body that houses it. The immaterial Jīvas are characterized by unlimited consciousness, knowledge, bliss and energy. Though they experience both birth and death, they are neither destroyed nor created.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thus both eternal in one way and yet impermanent in another. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being merely modifications of the jīva.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ajiva" title="Ajiva">Ajīva</a></i> – refers to any insentient substance. There are five ontological categories of insentients: non-sentient substance or matter (<i><a href="/wiki/Pudgala" title="Pudgala">pudgala</a></i>), principle of motion (<i><a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Jainism)" title="Dharma (Jainism)">dharma</a></i>), the principle of rest (<i>adharma</i>), space (<i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Ba_(Jainism)" title="Ākāśa (Jainism)">ākāśa</a></i>) and time (<i><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81la_(time)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kāla (time)">kāla</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996118–119_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996118–119-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200290_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200290-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with jīvas, these form a set of six ontological substances (<a href="/wiki/Dravya_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dravya (Jainism)">dravya</a>). Substances are simple and indestructible elements which come together into impermanent bodies or objects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Champat_Rai191715_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Champat_Rai191715-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Asrava" title="Asrava">Āsrava</a></i> (influx) – the process by which good and bad karmic substances flow into the living being</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bandha_(Jainism)" title="Bandha (Jainism)">Bandha</a></i> (bondage) – mutual intermingling of the living being and the karmas, thereby causing its change, which cumulatively determines future rebirths<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925188–190_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925188–190-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980219–228_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980219–228-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samvara" title="Samvara">Samvara</a></i> – the stoppage of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nirjara" title="Nirjara">Nirjara</a></i> (gradual dissociation) – separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from the soul.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Mokṣha</a></i> (liberation) – complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul).</li></ol> <p>Śvētāmbara Jains also often add two more realities to the above list: good karma (<i>punya</i>, merits) and bad karma (<i>papa</i>, negatives).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925177–187_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925177–187-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1998151_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1998151-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200296–98_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200296–98-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each entity can be analyzed in numerous different ways according to Jain thinkers. Umasvati outlines numerous "gateways" of investigation called nikshepas. These are: nāma (name), sthāpanā (symbol), dravya (potentiality), bhāvatā (actuality), nirdeśa (definition), svāmitva (possession), sādhana (cause), adhikarana (location), sthiti (duration), vidhānatā (variety), sat (existence), samkhyā (numerical determination), ksetra (field occupied), sparśana (field touched), kāla (continuity ), antara (time-lapse), bhāva (states), andalpabahutva (relative size).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009125_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009125-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Glasenapp" title="Helmuth von Glasenapp">Helmuth von Glasenapp</a> pointed out that a central principle of Jain thought is its attempt to provide an ontology that includes both permanence and change. As such, every being contains something that is lasting and something which is inconstant. For example, in a pot, its material atoms are imperishable, but the form, color and other qualities are subject to change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999170_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999170-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jain_epistemology" title="Jain epistemology">Jain epistemology</a></div> <p>Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (<i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramana</a></i>). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (<i><a href="/wiki/Pratyaksha" title="Pratyaksha">pratyaksa</a></i>), inference (<i><a href="/wiki/Anumana" class="mw-redirect" title="Anumana">anumana</a></i>) and testimony (<i>sabda</i> or the word of scriptures).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996238_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996238-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoni2000_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoni2000-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as <i>Tattvarthasūtra</i>, <i>Parvacanasara</i>, <i>Nandi</i> and <i>Anuyogadvarini</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200275–76,_131,_229–230_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200275–76,_131,_229–230-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoni2000_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoni2000-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Jain texts add analogy (<i><a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" title="Upamāṇa">upamana</a></i>) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">epistemological theories</a> found in other Indian religions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002229–230_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002229–230-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Jainism, <i><a href="/wiki/Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jnana">jñāna</a></i> (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – <i><a href="/wiki/Kevala_Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevala Jnana">Kevala jñāna</a></i> (Omniscience), <i>Śrutu jñāna</i> (Scriptural Knowledge), <i>mati jñāna</i> (Sensory Knowledge), <i>avadhi jñāna</i> (Clairvoyance), and <i>manah prayāya jñāna</i> (Telepathy).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad200660–61_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad200660–61-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first two are described as being indirect means of knowledge <i>(<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">parokṣa</i></span>)</i>, with the others furnishing direct knowledge <i>(<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">pratyakṣa</i></span>)</i>, by which it is meant that the object is known directly by the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.20116_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.20116-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relativity_and_Pluralism">Relativity and Pluralism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relativity and Pluralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jain epistemology includes three related doctrines which deal with the complex and manifold nature of knowledge: <i>anekāntavāda</i> (the theory of many-sidedness), s<i>yādvāda</i> (the theory of conditioned predication) and <i>nayavāda</i> (the theory of partial standpoints). Long calls these three the "Jain doctrines of relativity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009150_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009150-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anekāntavāda"><span id="Anek.C4.81ntav.C4.81da"></span>Anekāntavāda</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Anekāntavāda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg/220px-Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg/330px-Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg/440px-Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2463" data-file-height="1808" /></a><figcaption>A Jain illustration of the blind men and an elephant parable. At the top, the Kevalins are shown having the ability to view all perspectives.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism is <a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">anēkāntavāda</a> (literally the 'non-one-sided' view).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009117_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009117-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It refers to a kind of ontological <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</a> and to the idea that reality is complex and multi-faceted and therefore can only be understood from a multiplicity of perspectives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009141_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009141-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESethia2004123–136,_400–407_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESethia2004123–136,_400–407-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Long notes, this is ultimately an ontological doctrine that holds that "all existent entities have infinite attributes."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009141_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009141-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jain thought generally affirms the reality of all of our perceptions, even those which contradict each other such as continuity and change, arising and perishing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009141_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009141-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This doctrine is often illustrated through the parable of the "<a href="/wiki/Blind_men_and_an_elephant" title="Blind men and an elephant">blind men and an elephant</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009118_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009118-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant and then claimed to understand the true appearance of the elephant, but could only partly succeed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This principle is based on the idea that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence. Because of this, they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. According to the Jains, only the <i><a href="/wiki/Kevala_Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevala Jnana">Kevalis</a></i>—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199891_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199891-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indeed, the Jain texts depict Mahavira as answering <a href="/wiki/The_unanswered_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="The unanswered questions">certain metaphysical questions that were considered 'unanswerable' by the Buddha</a>. Mahavira is depicted as answering these with both a qualified "yes" and a "no", depending on the perspective of the questioner. Thus, the soul is both eternal in its intrinsic nature and yet also changing (due to the karmas affecting it and the various states that arise and pass away within it) and the universe is both eternal (beginningless) and yet also non-eternal (since it goes through cycles).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009118–119_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009118–119-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the Jains saw their metaphysics as a middle path, embracing both permanence and impermanence as metaphysically fundamental, against that of the Buddhists (who defended impermanence) and the Brahmins (who generally held a doctrine of permanence).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009119_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009119-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Anekāntavāda</i> encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties. Proponents of <i>anekāntavāda</i> apply this principle to religion and philosophy, reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy—even Jainism—which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets, is committing an error based on its limited point of view.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principle of <i>anekāntavāda</i> also influenced <a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi">Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi</a> to adopt principles of religious tolerance, <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><i>ahiṃsā</i></i></span> and <i><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">satyagraha</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHay197014–23_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHay197014–23-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nayavāda"><span id="Nayav.C4.81da"></span>Nayavāda</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nayavāda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A closely related theory is <i>Nayavāda</i>, which means "the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996202–203_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996202–203-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nayas are partially valid, philosophical perspectives from which anything can be seen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009125_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009125-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An object has infinite aspects to it, but when we describe an object in practice, we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996202–203_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996202–203-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jain philosophers use the theory of partial viewpoints in order to explain the complexity of reality, part by part.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199880_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199880-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is how Jains can describe objects with seemingly contradictory statements (the soul is both permanent and impermanent etc.). Since it is only from certain perspectives that each statement is made, there is no contradiction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009143_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009143-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Nayavāda</i> holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints, and the standpoints we adopt are, although we may not realise it, "the outcome of purposes that we may pursue".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcEvilley2002335–337_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcEvilley2002335–337-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to Long, Umāsvāti lists seven partial viewpoints:</p><blockquote><p>naigamanaya (common view), samgrahanaya (generic view), vyavahāranaya (pragmatic view), rjusūtranaya (linear view), śabdanaya (verbal view), samabhirūdha naya (etymological view), andevambhūtanaya (actuality view). The common view is how an entity is generally perceived– what one might call a 'common sense' or unrefined perspective. A generic view seeks to classify the entity. A pragmatic view assesses the entity in terms of its possible uses. A linear view looks at the entity as it is in the present moment. A verbal view seeks to name the entity. An etymological view uses this name and its relations with other words to discern its nature. And an actuality view is concerned with the concrete particulars of the entity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009125_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009125-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>Jain thinkers also use the doctrine of standpoints in order to provide a <a href="/wiki/Doxography" title="Doxography">doxography</a> of non-Jain philosophical systems. According to Jain philosophers, other philosophical systems rely on only one of the seven standpoints, while excluding the others. This is explains why they have reached false conclusions. For example, <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>-<a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisesika</a> is often associated with the first naya (the common view), <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> with the second naya (generic view), <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Materialism</a> with the third naya (pragmatic view) and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> with the fourth (the linear view). Meanwhile, Jainism is seen as the only philosophy able to combine all seven nayas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999171–172_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999171–172-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One influential theory of <i>Nayavāda</i> is the dual-perspective model of <a href="/wiki/Kundakunda" title="Kundakunda">Kundakunda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009125_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009125-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kundakunda held that the perspective of the soul is the only 'certain' (niscaya), 'supreme' (paramārtha) or 'pure' (suddha) perspective. Because of the adherence of karmic particles, the soul loses knowledge of itself as being pure, however, it is never truly modified. All other things in the universe are worldly and are to be viewed as having merely transactional and provisional value.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002108_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002108-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As such, the worldly perspective is ultimately false, while the supreme perspective is the ultimate truth and according to Long, corresponds to the kevalajñāna of a Jina.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009128–130_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009128–130-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kundakunda's philosophy is especially influential in Digambara thought, though it has also influenced some Śvetāmbara scholars. However, other Śvetāmbara thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Yashovijaya" title="Yashovijaya">Yashovijaya</a> famously criticized Kundakunda for his reliance on one single standpoint, i.e. for <i>ekāntavāda</i> (absolutism).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009129_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009129-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002110_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002110-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another influential theory of nayas was that of <a href="/wiki/Siddhasena" title="Siddhasena">Siddhasena Divākara</a>, who in his <i>Sanmatitarka</i> ('The Logic of the True Doctrine), divided the traditional nayas into two main categories: those which affirm the substantiality of existence (<i>dravyāstikanayas</i>) and those which affirm impermanence (<i>paryāyāstikanayas</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009132_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009132-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Siddhasena also identified the various nayas with the different Indian philosophies, all of which are seen as one-sided and extreme views, while the Jain view is seen as being in the middle and as embracing all the various points of views, which, while seemingly contradictory, are just partial perspectives of the whole truth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009132–133_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009132–133-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syādvāda"><span id="Sy.C4.81dv.C4.81da"></span>Syādvāda</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Syādvāda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></i> is the theory of <a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">conditioned</a> <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predication</a>, which provides an expression to <i>anekānta</i> by recommending that the indeclinable "<i>syād"</i> or "<i>syāt</i>" ("in a certain sense") be prefixed to every phrase or expression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChatterjea200177–87_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChatterjea200177–87-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999172_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999172-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of Jain thought, <i>syād</i> (often paired with <i>eva</i>, "surely" or "certainly") means "in some specific sense, or from some specific perspective, it is certainly the case that...".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009147_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009147-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term <i>"syād"</i> should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement as well as indicating that the sentence is true only from a specific point of view.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoller2000_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoller2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, <i>syādvāda</i> is known as <i>saptibhaṅgīnāya</i> or the theory of seven conditioned predications. These seven propositions, also known as <i><a href="/wiki/Saptabhangi" class="mw-redirect" title="Saptabhangi">saptibhaṅgī</a></i>, are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996312_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996312-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009148_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009148-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>syād-asti</i>—from a certain perspective, it is,</li> <li><i>syād-nāsti</i>—from a certain perspective, it is not,</li> <li><i>syād-asti-nāsti</i>—from a certain perspective, it is, and it is not,</li> <li><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">syād-asti-avaktavyaḥ</i></span></i>—from a certain perspective, it is, and it is indescribable,</li> <li><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">syād-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ</i></span></i>—from a certain perspective, it is not, and it is indescribable,</li> <li><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ</i></span></i>—from a certain perspective, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable,</li> <li><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">syād-avaktavyaḥ</i></span></i>—from a certain perspective, it is indescribable.</li></ol> <p>Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time, space, substance and mode.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996312_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996312-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of <a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">dogmatism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoller2000_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoller2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Long, this sevenfold analysis is seen by Jain philosophers as being universally applicable and "to be exhaustive of the possible truth-values that a given proposition can convey."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009149_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009149-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, as Long notes, there is a limitation to the theories of relativity applied by Jain philosophers. This limitation is the idea that the conclusions of the doctrines of relativity must be consistent with the Jain worldview. This is summarized by Siddhasena as follows: "A well presented view of the form of naya only lends support to the Āgamic doctrines while the same, if ill presented, destroys both (i.e. itself as well as its rival)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009149_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009149-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the relativity doctrines are seen by Jains as being limited by the normative claims of the Jain tradition, since these are seen as being founded on the omniscient perspective of the enlightened ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009149–150_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009149–150-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jīvas,_the_Living"><span id="J.C4.ABvas.2C_the_Living"></span>Jīvas, the Living</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jīvas, the Living"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiva.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Jiva.jpg/220px-Jiva.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Jiva.jpg/330px-Jiva.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Jiva.jpg/440px-Jiva.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="1142" /></a><figcaption>Classification of <i>Saṃsāri Jīvas</i> (transmigrating souls) in Jainism</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Types_of_bodies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Types_of_bodies.jpg/220px-Types_of_bodies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Types_of_bodies.jpg/330px-Types_of_bodies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Types_of_bodies.jpg/440px-Types_of_bodies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1510" data-file-height="889" /></a><figcaption>An explanation of the five types of material bodies associated with a Jiva.</figcaption></figure> <p>As outlined above, the universe is composed of two main kinds of substances, the <i>jīva</i> (living) and the <i>ajīva</i> (non-living). These are un-created existents which are always interacting with each other. These substances behave according to natural laws and the intrinsic nature (<i>sahāvō</i>) of a substance. Understanding this intrinsic nature is the true nature of the Jain dharma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowlingScarlett2006225_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowlingScarlett2006225-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jīvas are categorised into two types—liberated and non-liberated. A jīva has various essential qualities: knowledge, consciousness (<i>caitanya</i>), bliss (<i>sukha</i>) and vibrational energy (<i>virya</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1998104–106_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1998104–106-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199847_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199847-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These qualities are fully enjoyed unhindered by liberated souls, but obscured by <i><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">karma</a></i> in the case of non-liberated souls resulting in karmic bondage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200295_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200295-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This bondage further results in a continuous co-habitation of the soul with the body. Thus, an embodied non-liberated soul is found in four realms of existence—heavens, hells, humans and animal world – in a continuous cycle of births and deaths also known as <i><a href="/wiki/Sams%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsāra">samsāra</a></i>. According to Jain thinkers, all living beings (even gods) experience extensive suffering and unquenchable desire (while worldly happiness is fleeting and small in comparison, like a mustard seed next to a mountain). With the exception of the enlightened ones, all living beings are all subject to death and rebirth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999213–215_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999213–215-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A soul is clothed in various material bodies, of which there are five, each one finer than the other (see image on the right). Every being has at least two bodies, the fiery body and the karmic body. These two bodies do not feel pain or pleasure and can pass through solid matter. A being can have two more other bodies apart from these basic ones, and only the earthly body can be perceived by the eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999195_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999195-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jains believe that a soul with higher powers can partially leave the body, act outside of it and then return later. This is called samudghāta.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999201_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999201-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> </table> <p>According to the Jain philosophy, there are an infinite number of independent jīvas (sentients, living beings, souls) which fill the entire universe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200294_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200294-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The jīvas are divided into various categories, these include the stationary beings like trees and the beings that move. Jains developed a hierarchy of living beings, depending on the various senses (indriyas) and vital aspects (pranas) that they have. Animals are classed as five sensed being, while plants and various <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a> have one sense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200295_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200295-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vitalities or life-principles are ten, namely the five senses, energy, respiration, life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. Humans, gods and so on are five sensed beings that also have an inner sense or thinking mind (manas).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.199262–63,_196_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.199262–63,_196-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999198_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999198-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding sex, the Jains believed that there were three main sexes: male, female and the <a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">third sex</a> (napumsaka-veda, all beings without sex organs are part of this third sex).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999199_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999199-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jains also affirmed the existence of tiny one-sensed beings called nigodas which exists everywhere and fill the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999251_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999251-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A unique Jain view is that plants have a form of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> like other animals. This is supposed to be seen in their desire for nourishment, reproduction, and self-preservation. They are even seen as capable of expressing moral feelings and thus eventually climbing the ladder of beings towards liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002106_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002106-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cosmology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jain_cosmology" title="Jain cosmology">Jain cosmology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_non-creationism" title="Jainism and non-creationism">Jainism and non-creationism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jain_universe.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jain_universe.JPG/300px-Jain_universe.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Jain_universe.JPG/450px-Jain_universe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Jain_universe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>Structure of Universe according to the Jain scriptures.</figcaption></figure> <p>Our world according to Jain cosmology is a massive structure, wide at the bottom, narrow in the middle and broad in its upper regions. It contains various realms or sub-worlds, including the siddhaloka (world of the enlightened ones), the heavens, various hells, and the human realm (at the center of the universe), which is a system of island continents (including <a href="/wiki/Jambudv%C4%ABpa" title="Jambudvīpa">Jambudvipa</a> at the center) divided by mountains and surrounded by oceans with a giant mountain at the very center (<a href="/wiki/Mount_Meru" title="Mount Meru">Mt. Meru</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200290–91_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200290–91-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199825_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199825-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jain_cosmology" title="Jain cosmology">Jain cosmology</a> denies the existence of a supreme being responsible for creation and operation of the universe. In <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, this universe is an uncreated entity, existing since infinity, immutable in nature, beginningless and endless.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200290_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200290-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong201383–85_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong201383–85-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999241–242_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999241–242-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jain philosophers constantly attacked the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>. In his <a href="/wiki/Mahapurana_(Jainism)" title="Mahapurana (Jainism)"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Mahāpurāṇa</i></span></a>, Ācārya <a href="/wiki/Jinasena" class="mw-redirect" title="Jinasena">Jinasena</a> critiqued the concept of a creator god:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllday2001268_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllday2001268-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Some foolish men declare that the creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If god created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could god have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression.</p></blockquote> <p>Jainism does uphold the existence of heavenly and hell beings who die and are reborn according to their karma.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925247–249,_262–263_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925247–249,_262–263-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200220–21,_34–35,_74,_91,_95–96,_103_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200220–21,_34–35,_74,_91,_95–96,_103-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gods are believed to possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925262–263_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925262–263-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, gods die and are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925262–263_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925262–263-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200291,_95–96_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200291,_95–96-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Souls are also believed to be able to achieve total perfection, a state commonly called <i>paramātman</i>, the "supreme self" (also commonly referred to as "God" in English as well).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002110_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002110-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Jainism, perfect souls <i>with</i> a body are called <i><a href="/wiki/Arihant_(Jainism)" title="Arihant (Jainism)">arihant</a></i> (victors) and perfect souls <i>without</i> a body are also called <i><a href="/wiki/Siddha" title="Siddha">siddhas</a></i> (liberated souls).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980222–223_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980222–223-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinMardia201340_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankinMardia201340-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer1953182_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1953182-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_Cycles">Time Cycles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Time Cycles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg/300px-Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg/450px-Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg/600px-Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>Division of time as envisaged by Jains.</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Jainism, time is without beginning and eternal. The kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199835–38_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199835–38-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wheel of time is divided into two half-cycles, <i>utsarpiṇī</i> (ascending, a time of progressive prosperity and happiness) and <i><a href="/wiki/Avasarpi%E1%B9%87%C4%AB" title="Avasarpiṇī">avasarpiṇī</a></i> (descending, a time of increasing sorrow and immorality).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2016313_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2016313-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925271–272_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925271–272-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each half cycle is further sub-divided into six <i>aras</i> or epochs. As the universe moves through these epochs, worlds go through changes in happiness, life span, and general moral conduct. No divine or supernatural beings are responsible for these changes, rather they happen due to the force of <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">karma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200240_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200240-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jains believe that the time cycle is currently in the descending phase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999271–272_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999271–272-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 <a href="/wiki/Salakapurusa" class="mw-redirect" title="Salakapurusa">Śalākāpuruṣa</a> or 63 illustrious persons, consisting of the 24 <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tīrthaṅkaras</a> and their contemporaries regularly appear.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999550_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999550-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Non-Living_Reality">The Non-Living Reality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Non-Living Reality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ajiva" title="Ajiva">Ajiva</a></div> <p>The five unconscious (<i>ajīva</i>) substances (<i>dravya</i>) are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanghvi200826_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanghvi200826-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pudgala">Pudgala</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pudgala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pudgala" title="Pudgala">Pudgala</a> is a term for any non-living particulate matter. The Jains developed an elaborate theory of <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paramanu" title="Paramanu">Paramāņus</a> or atoms were the basic and building blocks of matter. They cannot be perceived by the senses and cannot be further divided.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999181_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999181-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An atom also always possesses four qualities, a color (<i>varna</i>), a taste (<i>rasa</i>), a smell (<i>gandha</i>), and a certain kind of palpability (<i>sparsha</i>, touch) such as lightness, heaviness, softness, roughness, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199890_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199890-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An atom occupies one space point. It is uncreated and indestructible. Atoms combine (bandha) change their modes, and disintegrate (bheda) but their basic qualities remain.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> An atom can also be bound together with other atoms to create an aggregate (skandha). Material aggregates are categorized according to how fine (suksma) or coarse (sthula) they are. The finest kind of material aggregate is on the atomic scale (extra fine matter), then comes "fine" matter (includes karmic particles), then anything that can be sensed in some way (like smell) but not seen, then comes matter which can be seen but not touched (like light), then there is the category of coarse things (which includes any fluids) and finally there is extra coarse matter (solids).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999182_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999182-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Material things can give off light or darkness. Darkness is seen as a kind of matter in Jainism and so is sound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999182_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999182-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motion/Rest"><span id="Motion.2FRest"></span>Motion/Rest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Motion/Rest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dharma (Medium of <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</a>) and Adharma (Medium of Rest) are substances which account for the principles of motion and rest. As such, they are a kind of <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also known as Dharmāstikāya and Adharmāstikāya, they are said to pervade the entire universe. <i>Dharma</i> and <i>Adharma</i> are not motion or rest themselves, but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without the medium of motion, motion itself is not possible and vice versa. It is a precondition for movement/rest, like the water which allows for fish to swim. This doctrine is unique to Jainism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space">Space</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Akasha" title="Akasha">Ākāśa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a>) is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is an all-pervading receptable made up of infinite space-points (<i>pradesha</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Jains, Space is a substance, in the nature of a vacuum but not a pure vacuum. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jain_scale_of_time.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jain_scale_of_time.JPG/220px-Jain_scale_of_time.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="390" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Jain_scale_of_time.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="535" /></a><figcaption>Scale of time in <a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a> texts shown <a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">logarithmically</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>It is an extended continuous vacuum. As pure vacuum it will be non-existent, and non-extended; which will devoid it of even one positive quality. Therefore, Jains propound that Space, which is endowed with infinite extension is a substance in itself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time">Time</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Jainism, <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaal" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaal">Kāla</a>) is that which mediates change, it causes what is new to become old, and so on. For Jains, time is that which supports the changes to which substances are subject.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999180_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999180-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From one point of view, it is an infinite and endless continuity, from another standpoint, it is made up an infinite number of atomic moments (<i>samaya</i>). Some Jain philosophers hold that time is a substance, while others do not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999180_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999180-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Champat_Rai_Jain" title="Champat Rai Jain">Champat Rai Jain</a>, "Nothing in nature can exist destitute or devoid of function. Function is discharged by the displacement of energy in the case of simple units and things. If there were no Time-substance to help in the performance of the movement of the displacement of energy, things would be doomed to remain in the same condition always."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames196945_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames196945-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Karma_and_Rebirth">Karma and Rebirth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Karma and Rebirth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">Karma in Jainism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karma_AS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Karma_AS.jpg/220px-Karma_AS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Karma_AS.jpg/330px-Karma_AS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Karma_AS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Karma as <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">action</a> and reaction: if we sow <a href="/wiki/Goodness_and_value_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodness and value theory">goodness</a>, we will reap goodness.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gati_or_existences.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Gati_or_existences.jpg/220px-Gati_or_existences.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Gati_or_existences.jpg/330px-Gati_or_existences.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Gati_or_existences.jpg/440px-Gati_or_existences.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="1664" /></a><figcaption>The various realms of existence in Jainism</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Types_of_Karma.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Types_of_Karma.JPG/220px-Types_of_Karma.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Types_of_Karma.JPG/330px-Types_of_Karma.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Types_of_Karma.JPG/440px-Types_of_Karma.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="1624" /></a><figcaption>Classification of <i>karmas</i> as mentioned in Jain texts</figcaption></figure> <p>In Jainism, as in other Indian religions, it is karma which is responsible for the different forms of life that souls will take.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200297_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200297-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karma is envisioned as a material substance (or subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the <i>jiva</i> in the <i>lokas</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong201392–95_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong201392–95-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jain texts compare karma to dust which gets stuck to a damp cloth (i.e. the soul and its passions).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200297_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200297-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, karma is a kind of pollution that taints the soul with various colours (<i>leśyā</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002100_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002100-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jainism does not believe in an intermediate state like some schools of Buddhism, instead the souls is seen as "leaping like a monkey" in a sheath of subtle karmas from the dead body to a new body.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002103_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002103-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–103_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–103-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vibrational energy of a soul is said to be what draws karmic particles to it and creates bondage. While the earliest texts focus on the role of the passions (<i>kasāya,</i> especially hatred) in attracting karmas, Umasvāti states that it is physical, verbal and mental activity which are responsible for the flowing in of karmic particles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200298_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200298-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to von Glasenapp, the main causes for the binding of karma are wrong view, defective self discipline, the passions and activity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999217–218_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999217–218-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harming any life form will definitely have negative karmic effects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980224–225_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980224–225-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESethia200430–31_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESethia200430–31-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Paul Dundas, the main difference between the Buddhist view of karma and the Jain view is that even involuntary actions would still lead to negative karmic effects for the person who did them. Furthermore, mental actions that are not carried out, causing someone else to carry out a bad action or merely approving of the action was not seen as being significantly different (with regard to karmic retribution).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200298_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200298-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirtivijay195721_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirtivijay195721-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Jain works on karma, karmas are generally divided into 8 types, four harming (ghātiyā) karmas and four non-harming karmas. The harming karmas are the "delusion karma" (mohanīya) which leads to wrong views, the "karma which blocks knowledge" (jñānāvaraṇīya), the "karma that obscures perception" (darshanāvaranīya) and the "obstacle karma" (antarāya), which obstructs the innate energy of the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–100_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–100-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The non-harming karmas are "feeling" (vedanīya) karma which relates to pleasant or unpleasant experiences, "name" (nāman) karma which determines one's rebirth, "life" (āyus) karma that determines the lifespan and "clan" (gotra) karma which determines one's status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002100_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002100-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities (tapas) and purity of conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ultimate Jain goal is spiritual liberation, which is often defined as release from all karmas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002104_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002104-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Jainism, some souls called <i>abhavya</i> (incapable) can never attain <i><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a></i> (liberation).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980226_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980226-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002104–105_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002104–105-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>abhavya</i> state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980225_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980225-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_Jainism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics of Jainism">Ethics of Jainism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahinsa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ahinsa.jpg/220px-Ahinsa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ahinsa.jpg/330px-Ahinsa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ahinsa.jpg/440px-Ahinsa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3103" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption>Sculpture depicting the Jain concept of <i>ahimsa</i> (non-injury)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahavratas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Mahavratas.jpg/220px-Mahavratas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Mahavratas.jpg/330px-Mahavratas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Mahavratas.jpg/440px-Mahavratas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="1041" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of a Jain monk and a tree depicting the five great vows. The <a href="/wiki/Muhapatti" title="Muhapatti">Muhapatti</a> (mouth covering) is a symbol of ahimsa and it is supposed to prevent small animals from flying into the mouth of the ascetic.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:12_Vratas_of_Shravaka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/12_Vratas_of_Shravaka.jpg/220px-12_Vratas_of_Shravaka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/12_Vratas_of_Shravaka.jpg/330px-12_Vratas_of_Shravaka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/12_Vratas_of_Shravaka.jpg/440px-12_Vratas_of_Shravaka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1678" /></a><figcaption>The twelve vows of a Jain lay disciple</figcaption></figure> <p>Jain ethics is rooted in its metaphysics, particularly its karma theory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999225_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999225-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jain philosophers hold that harmful actions (<i>hiṃsā</i>) cause the soul to be tainted and defiled with karmas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201233_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201233-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, karma (good and bad) is constantly flowing (<i>asrava</i>) into soul as a result of actions by body, speech and mind, like water flowing into a lake.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999225–226_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999225–226-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As such, those who seek to stop (<i>samvara</i>) the influx of bad karmas (in order to reach liberation) should practice right conduct by observing certain ethical rules.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999231_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999231-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Right conduct (<i>samyak chāritra</i>), is defined in the <i>Sarvārthasiddhi</i> as "the cessation of activity leading to the taking in of karmas by a wise person engaged in the removal of the causes of transmigration."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19923–7_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19923–7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To prevent karmic particles from sticking to and tainting the soul, Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These come in two main forms, the <i>anuvratas</i> (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and <i>mahavratas</i> (great vows) for Jain mendicants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Five vows, which are taken even by Jain laypersons (who have knowledge of the doctrine) are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999228–229_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999228–229-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahi%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahiṃsā">Ahiṃsā</a></i> ("non-violence", "non-harming", "non-injury"):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals, but also plants).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-pkshah5v_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pkshah5v-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201233_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201233-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Tattvarthasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvarthasutra">Tattvarthasutra</a></i>, harming is defined as "the severance of vitalities out of passion".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201199_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201199-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a Jain ethical text called the <a href="/wiki/Purushartha_Siddhyupaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Purushartha Siddhyupaya"><i>Puruşārthasiddhyupāya</i></a>, "non-manifestation of passions like attachment is non-injury <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">(ahiṃsā)</i></span>, and manifestation of such passions is injury (<i>hiṃsā</i>)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201235_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201235-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jain_vegetarianism" title="Jain vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a> and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahiṃsā.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowlingScarlett2006226_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowlingScarlett2006226-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></i>, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.<sup id="cite_ref-pkshah5v_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pkshah5v-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Asteya" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteya">Asteya</a></i>, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228_123-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201268_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201268-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925231_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925231-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">Brahmacharya</a></i>, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.<sup id="cite_ref-pkshah5v_124-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pkshah5v-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231_121-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></i>, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231_121-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925228–231-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai2004112_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai2004112-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009109_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009109-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Jain ascetics are even more scrupulous regarding the vows, for example, regarding the first vow of ahimsa, they will often carry a broom or another tool to sweep the floor of small animals in front of them.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jain texts further prescribe seven supplementary vows, including three <i>guņa vratas</i> (merit vows) and four <i>śikşā vratas</i> (training vows).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201287–88_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201287–88-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETukol19765_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETukol19765-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three guṇa vows are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201288_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201288-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>digvrata</i> – Restriction on movement with regard to the four directions.</li> <li><i>bhogopabhogaparimana</i> – Vow of limiting consumable and non-consumable things</li> <li><i>anartha-dandaviramana</i> – Refraining from harmful occupations and activities (purposeless sins).</li></ol> <p>The four <i>śikşā</i> vows are:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999229_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999229-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201288_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201288-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81m%C4%81yika" title="Sāmāyika">samayika</a></i> – Meditate by sitting still and concentrate periodically (for one <a href="/wiki/Muhurta" title="Muhurta">muhūrta</a> of 48 minutes, or for two or three muhurtas).</li> <li><i>desavrata</i> – Limiting movement to certain places (house, village, etc.) for a fixed period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201290_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201290-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Jainism" title="Fasting in Jainism">upvas / paushad</a></i> – <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a> for 24 hours on certain days (usually four times in a moon-month) or living a day which mimics the life of a Jain Monk.</li> <li><i>atihti samvibhag</i> – Offering food to ascetics and needy people.</li></ol> <p>Finally, there is a vow called <i><a href="/wiki/Sallekhana" title="Sallekhana">Sallekhana</a></i> (or <i>Santhara</i>), a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002179–180_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002179–180-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This vow is a voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid resulting in the dispassionate ending of life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini200016_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini200016-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETukol19767_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETukol19767-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1991166–167_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1991166–167-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liberation_and_the_Path">Liberation and the Path</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Liberation and the Path"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ratnatraya" title="Ratnatraya">Ratnatraya</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wooden_sculpture,_Crafts_Museum,_New_Delhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Wooden_sculpture%2C_Crafts_Museum%2C_New_Delhi.jpg/220px-Wooden_sculpture%2C_Crafts_Museum%2C_New_Delhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Wooden_sculpture%2C_Crafts_Museum%2C_New_Delhi.jpg/330px-Wooden_sculpture%2C_Crafts_Museum%2C_New_Delhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Wooden_sculpture%2C_Crafts_Museum%2C_New_Delhi.jpg/440px-Wooden_sculpture%2C_Crafts_Museum%2C_New_Delhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2416" data-file-height="2455" /></a><figcaption>A Jain sculpture, the central figure is a depiction of a fully liberated soul, a siddha. The cut out outline of a human form symbolizes the non-material nature of siddhas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fourteen_stages.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fourteen_stages.JPG/220px-Fourteen_stages.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fourteen_stages.JPG/330px-Fourteen_stages.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Fourteen_stages.JPG/440px-Fourteen_stages.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1432" data-file-height="2026" /></a><figcaption>Fourteen stages on the path to liberation</figcaption></figure><p> Ācārya <a href="/wiki/Pujyapada" title="Pujyapada">Pujyapada</a>'s defines liberation (<i><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kevala_Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevala Jnana">kevala jñana</a></i>) in his <i><a href="/wiki/Sarv%C4%81rthasiddhi" title="Sarvārthasiddhi">Sarvārthasiddhi</a></i> as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19922_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19922-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>"Liberation is the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul, on the removal of all the impurities of karmic matter and the body, characterized by the inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and suffering."</p></blockquote><p>At the moment of final liberation, a Kevalin (liberated soul) will become free of their body and in an instant rise up to the siddhaloka, the realm of liberated souls at the top of the universe. As explained by Dundas, the enlightened soul "will exist perpetually without any further rebirth in a disembodied and genderless state of perfect joy, energy, consciousness and knowledge."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jains believe that the number of liberated souls is infinite. While these souls interpenetrate each other and all have the same qualities, Jainism strongly resists the idea that they are part of some monistic world soul (as in found in some schools of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105_142-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">Haribhadra</a>, this Hindu monism makes no sense. </p><p> Dundas outlines his critique as follows: </p><blockquote><p>"if the world-soul were inherently pure, it would be difficult to explain why the phenomenal world is manifestly impure, while if it were impure, there would then be no point in the liberated jīvas merging with it."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105_142-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002105-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Jain philosophers developed a schema of 14 stages of spiritual development called <a href="/wiki/Gunasthana" title="Gunasthana">Gunasthana</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: "levels of virtue").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201414_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.201414-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1998272–273_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1998272–273-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These stages correspond to the abandoning of the various causes of karmic binding.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999218_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999218-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those who pass the last stage are enlightened <i>siddhas</i> and become fully established in Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Champat_Rai1917121_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Champat_Rai1917121-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80.jpg/220px-%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80.jpg/330px-%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80.jpg/440px-%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2182" data-file-height="2441" /></a><figcaption>Umaswati, a well-known Jain sage to write a systematic exposition of Jain thought</figcaption></figure> <p>The philosophy of early Jainism can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Agamas</a>. Though these early texts contain much philosophical content, it is not systematic and can be inconsistent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010352_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010352-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Umaswati" title="Umaswati">Umaswati</a> was probably the first systematic Jain philosopher. His <a href="/wiki/Tattvartha_Sutra" title="Tattvartha Sutra"><i>Tattvārthasūtra</i></a> drew together all the ancient Jain doctrines and presented them in a systematic <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutra</a> style. His work was extremely influential and is accepted by all Jain schools of thought today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010353_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010353-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main Digambara commentaries on the <i>Tattvārthasūtra</i> are those of <a href="/wiki/Pujyapada" title="Pujyapada">Pūjyapāda</a> (6th century), <a href="/wiki/Akalanka" title="Akalanka">Akalaṇka</a> (8th century) and Vidyānandi (9th century) while the main Śvetāmbara commentaries are Siddhaseṇa Gaṇin's 8th century commentary and the <i>Sva-bhāṣya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200287_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200287-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010353_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010353-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Harry_Oldmeadow" title="Harry Oldmeadow">Harry Oldmeadow</a> notes that Jain philosophy remained fairly standard throughout history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of the components.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOldmeadow2007148_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOldmeadow2007148-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dundas argues that this philosophical stability is largely due to the influence of Umaswati's work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200286_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200286-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the Jain tradition has since ancient times been divided into the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Digambar" class="mw-redirect" title="Digambar">Digambara</a> traditions. The schism arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and whether women could achieve liberation in female bodies. Apart from these differences, there are no other major philosophical differences between Jain sects, though there are different interpretations of the basic doctrines such as <a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">anēkāntavāda</a>. This doctrinal conservatism in Jainism has led scholars like Padmanabh Jaini to remark that in the course Jain history there were never any radically new movements (like <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantra</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">bhakti</a>) which effectively challenged mainstream Jainism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini200031–35_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini200031–35-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the period of the early philosophers, like Umaswati, there follows a period of increasing philosophical sophistication, with a focus on epistemology (<i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramana</a></i>) and logic (<i>nyaya</i>). This era saw the work of great epistemologists like <a href="/wiki/Siddhasena" title="Siddhasena">Siddhasena Divakara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Jain_monk)" title="Samantabhadra (Jain monk)">Samantabhadra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akalanka" title="Akalanka">Akalanka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010353_148-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010353-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of <a href="/wiki/Kundakunda" title="Kundakunda">Kundakunda</a>, particularly his theory of the two truths, was also extremely influential, especially on Digambara philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002107–108_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002107–108-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jain philosophers' preoccupation with epistemology continued into the early modern period, which saw several great Jain scholars who wrote on the <a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya"><i>navya-nyaya</i></a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">new reason</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) philosophy, such as <a href="/wiki/Yasovijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yasovijaya">Yaśovijaya</a> (1624–1688). </p><p>The Jain encounter with <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> also led to theological debates on the existence of God and on the use of violence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas199937–38_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas199937–38-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Paul Dundas, Jain thinkers faced with the Muslim destruction of their temples also began to revisit their theory of "ahimsa" (non-violence). Dundas notes how the 12th century Jain thinker <a href="/wiki/Jinadattasuri" title="Jinadattasuri">Jinadatta Suri</a> argued in favor of violence in self-defense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002162–163_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002162–163-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern era saw the rise of a new sect, the Śvētāmbara Terapanth, founded by <a href="/wiki/Bhikshu_(Jain_monk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhikshu (Jain monk)">Ācārya Bhikṣu</a> in the 18th century. Terapanth scholars like <a href="/wiki/Tulsi_(Jain_monk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulsi (Jain monk)">Tulasī</a> (1913–1997) and Ācārya <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C3%B1a" title="Mahāprajña">Mahāprajña</a> (1920– 2010) have been influential intellectual figures in modern Jainism, writing numerous works on Jain philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002260–262_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002260–262-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern era also saw the rise of new sects led by the laity as well as various influential intellectual figures. The non-sectarian cult of <a href="/wiki/Shrimad_Rajchandra" title="Shrimad Rajchandra">Shrimad Rajchandra</a> (1867–1901) is well known due to it being a major influence on <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another influential figure was <a href="/wiki/Kanjisvami" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanjisvami">Kanjisvami</a>, who was known for his stress on the mystical philosophy of Kundakunda.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESangave198053_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESangave198053-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contribution_to_Indian_Thought">Contribution to Indian Thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Contribution to Indian Thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As one of the earliest and most influential of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">sramana</a> systems, Jainism influenced other Indian systems of thought. Scholarly research has shown that philosophical concepts that are typically Indian – <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">Karma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahimsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moksa_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moksa (Jainism)">Moksa</a>, reincarnation and like – either have their origins in the <a href="/wiki/Shramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Shramana">sramana</a> traditions (one of the most ancient of which is Jainism). The sramanic ideal of mendicancy and renunciation, that the worldly life was full of suffering and that emancipation required giving up of desires and withdrawal into a lonely and contemplative life, was in stark contrast with the Brahmanical ideal of an active and ritually punctuated life based on sacrifices, household duties and chants to deities. Sramanas developed and laid emphasis on Ahimsa, Karma, moksa and renunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPande1994134–136_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPande1994134–136-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthington198227–30_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthington198227–30-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jain ideas seem to have had some influence on the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> and on Early <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and both worldviews share many common ideas (karma rebirth, an uncreated universe, ahimsa, denial of the Vedas).<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999500–504_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999500–504-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Buddha is depicted as practicing forms of asceticism which are found in Jainism (though he later rejected many of these practices as too extreme).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins2000204_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2000204-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helmuth von Glasenapp also argues that the Jain idea of non-violence, and particularly its promotion of vegetarianism, had an influence on Hinduism, especially on <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999498_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999498-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, von Glasenapp argues that some Hindu philosophical systems, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">dualistic Vedanta</a> of <a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacarya</a>, was influenced by Jain philosophy. He also states that it is possible that <a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaivasiddhanta</a> was influenced by Jain thought as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999498_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999498-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jain system of philosophy and ethics is also known for having had a major impact on modern figures like <a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayanand Sarasvati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi">Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999499_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999499-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_Jain_philosophers">Major Jain philosophers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Major Jain philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerous Jain philosophers have contributed to the development of Jain thought. Below is a partial list of some of the main Jain philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010352–353_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanikarSutcliffe2010352–353-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umaswati" title="Umaswati">Umāsvāti</a> or Umasvami (possibly between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) – The author of the first Jain work in Sanskrit, the <a href="/wiki/Tattvartha_Sutra" title="Tattvartha Sutra"><i>Tattvārthasūtra</i></a>, which systematised Jain philosophy in a form acceptable to all sects of Jainism.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Jain_monk)" title="Samantabhadra (Jain monk)">Samantabhadra</a> (c. 2nd – 5th century CE) – The first Jain writer to write on <i>nyāya</i>, (in his <a href="/wiki/Aptamimamsa" title="Aptamimamsa"><i>Apta-Mimāmsā</i></a>). He also composed the <i><a href="/wiki/Ratnakaranda_%C5%9Br%C4%81vak%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra">Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra</a></i> and the <i>Svayambhu Stotra</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundakunda" title="Kundakunda">Kundakunda</a> (c. sometime between the 2nd century and the 8th century CE<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong200965–66_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong200965–66-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). – An exponent of Jain metaphysics and an influential two truths theory. He was the author of <i><a href="/wiki/Pancastikayasara" title="Pancastikayasara">Pañcāstikāyasāra</a></i> "Essence of the Five Existents", the <i>Pravacanasāra</i> "Essence of the Scripture", the <i><a href="/wiki/Samayasara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samayasara">Samayasāra</a></i> "Essence of the Doctrine", <i><a href="/wiki/Niyamasara" title="Niyamasara">Niyamasāra</a></i> "Essence of Discipline", <i>Atthapāhuda</i> "Eight Gifts", <i>Dasabhatti</i> "Ten Worships" and <i>Bārasa Anuvekkhā</i> "Twelve Contemplations".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhasen_Divakar" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhasen Divakar">Siddhasena Divākara</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th century</span>) – Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, <i>Nyāyāvatāra</i> (on Logic) and <i>Sanmatisūtra</i> (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199885_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199885-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pujyapada" title="Pujyapada">Pujyapada</a> (6th century) – Jain philosopher, grammarian, and Sanskritist. Composed <i>Samadhitantra, Ishtopadesha</i> and the <i>Sarvarthasiddhi,</i> a definitive commentary on the <i>Tattvārthasūtra</i> and <i>Jainendra Vyakarana</i>, the first work on Sanskrit grammar by a Jain monk.</li> <li>Manikyanandi (6th century) – Jain logician, composed the <i>Parikshamaukham</i>, a masterpiece in the <i>karika</i> style of the Classical Nyaya school.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinabhadra" title="Jinabhadra">Jinabhadra Gaṇi</a> (6th–7th century) – author of <i>Avasyaksutra</i> (Jain tenets) <i>Visesanavati</i> and <i>Visesavasyakabhasya</i> (Commentary on Jain essentials). He is said to have followed Siddhasena and compiled discussion and refutation on various views on Jaina doctrine.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akalanka" title="Akalanka">Akalanka</a> (8th century) – key Jain logician, whose works such as <i>Laghiyastraya, Pramānasangraha, Nyāyaviniscaya-vivarana, Siddhiviniscaya-vivarana, Astasati, Tattvārtharājavārtika,</i> et al. are seen as landmarks in Indian logic. The impact of Akalanka may be surmised by the fact that Jain <i>Nyāya</i> is also known as <i>Akalanka Nyāya</i>.</li> <li>Mallavadin (8th century) – author of <i>Nayacakra</i> and <i>Dvadasaranayacakra</i> (Encyclopedia of Philosophy) which discusses the schools of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199885_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199885-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Yogīndudeva (8th century), author of <i>Paramātmaprakāśaḥ.</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">Haribhadra</a> (8th century) – Jain thinker, author, philosopher, satirist and great proponent of <a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">anekāntavāda</a> and yoga studies. His works include <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya</i></span>, Yogabindu</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Yogad%E1%B9%9B%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADisamuccaya" title="Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya">Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya</a></i> and <i>Dhurtakhyana</i>. he pioneered the <i>Dvatrimshatika</i> genre of writing in Jainism, where various religious subjects were covered in 32 succinct Sanskrit verses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199885_168-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199885-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81candra" title="Prabhācandra">Prabhacandra</a> (10th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a 106-Sutra Tattvarthasutra and exhaustive commentaries on two key works on Jain Nyaya, <i>Prameyakamalamartanda</i>, based on Manikyanandi's <i>Parikshamukham</i> and <i>Nyayakumudacandra</i> on Akalanka's <i>Laghiyastraya</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemichandra" title="Nemichandra">Nemichandra</a> (10th century), author of the <i><a href="/wiki/Gommats%C4%81ra" title="Gommatsāra">Gommatsāra</a></i>, a great compendium of Digambara doctrine.</li> <li>Abhayadeva (1057 to 1135) – author of <i>Vadamahrnava</i> (Ocean of Discussions) which is a 2,500 verse <i>tika</i> (Commentary) of <i>Sanmartika</i> and a great treatise on logic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199885_168-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199885-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acharya_Hemachandra" class="mw-redirect" title="Acharya Hemachandra">Acharya Hemachandra</a> (1089–1173) – Jain thinker, author, historian, grammarian and logician. His works include <i><a href="/wiki/Yoga%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Yogaśāstra">Yogaśāstra</a></i> and <i>Trishashthishalakapurushacaritra</i> and the <i>Siddhahemavyakarana</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199885_168-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199885-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also authored an incomplete work on Jain Nyāya, titled <i>Pramāna-Mimāmsā</i>.</li> <li>Vadideva (11th century) – He was a senior contemporary of Hemacandra and is said to have authored <i>Paramananayatattavalokalankara</i> and its voluminous commentary the <i>syadvadaratnakara</i>, a work which focuses on the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a>.</li> <li>Vidyanandi (11th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a commentary on Acarya Umasvami's <i>Tattvarthasutra</i>, known as <i>Tattvarthashlokavartika</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasovijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yasovijaya">Yaśovijaya</a> (1624–1688) – Jain logician and one of the last intellectual giants to contribute to Jain philosophy. He specialised in <i>Navya-Nyāya</i> and commentaries on most of the earlier <i>Jain Nyāya</i> works by Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Manikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra and others in the then-prevalent <i>Navya-Nyāya</i> style. Yaśovijaya has to his credit a prolific literary output – more than 100 books in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a>. He is also famous for <i>Jnanasara</i> (essence of knowledge) and <i>Adhayatmasara</i> (essence of spirituality).</li> <li>Vinayavijaya (17th century), author of the encyclopedic <i>Lokaprakāsha.</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimad_Rajchandra" title="Shrimad Rajchandra">Shrimad Rajchandra</a> (19th century), composed <a href="/wiki/Atma_Siddhi" title="Atma Siddhi">Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra</a>, a 142 spiritual treatise that expounds the 6 fundamental truths of the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champat_Rai_Jain" title="Champat Rai Jain">Champat Rai Jain</a> (20th century), ″As could be expected from a Barrister-at-Law of that era, he was a brilliant grammarian and logician; but more than that, he was a great philosopher."<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his lectures and publications he attempted to present Jainism as a scientific religion.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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.reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Stanford_2023-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2023_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGorisse2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gorisse, Marie-Hélène (Spring 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/">"Jaina Philosophy"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. The Metaphysics Research Lab, <a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_Study_of_Language_and_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for the Study of Language and Information">Center for the Study of Language and Information</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054">1095-5054</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643092515">643092515</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230217095842/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/jaina-philosophy/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jaina+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=The+Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Center+for+the+Study+of+Language+and+Information%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F643092515&rft.issn=1095-5054&rft.aulast=Gorisse&rft.aufirst=Marie-H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fjaina-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.1992vi-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.1992vi_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJain,_S.A.1992">Jain, S.A. (1992)</a>, p. vi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansmaJain200628-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJansmaJain200628_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJansmaJain2006">Jansma & Jain (2006)</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer195359-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer195359_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmer1953">Zimmer (1953)</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200230–31-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200230–31_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200286-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200286_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200286_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19922-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19922_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19922_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJain,_S.A.1992">Jain, S.A. (1992)</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200288-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200288_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.20112-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Vijay_K.20112_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJain,_Vijay_K.2011">Jain, Vijay K. (2011)</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19923–7-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19923–7_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19923–7_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJain,_S.A.1992">Jain, S.A. (1992)</a>, pp. 3–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999203-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999203_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168–169-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999168–169_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, pp. 168–169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOldmeadow2007149-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOldmeadow2007149_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOldmeadow2007">Oldmeadow (2007)</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009124-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009124_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong2009">Long (2009)</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999178-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999178_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19926–7-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.19926–7_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJain,_S.A.1992">Jain, S.A. (1992)</a>, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925177–187-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925177–187_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925177–187_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1925">von Glasenapp (1925)</a>, pp. 177–187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1998151-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1998151_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1998151_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaini1998">Jaini (1998)</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200296–98-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200296–98_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200296–98_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 96–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999179_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996118–119-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996118–119_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrimes1996">Grimes (1996)</a>, pp. 118–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200290-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200290_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200290_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_Champat_Rai191715-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_Champat_Rai191715_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJain,_Champat_Rai1917">Jain, Champat Rai (1917)</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925188–190-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925188–190_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1925">von Glasenapp (1925)</a>, pp. 188–190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980219–228-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996238_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrimes1996">Grimes (1996)</a>, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESoni2000-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoni2000_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESoni2000_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSoni2000">Soni (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200275–76,_131,_229–230-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200275–76,_131,_229–230_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 75–76, 131, 229–230.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002229–230-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002229–230_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes1996312_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrimes1996">Grimes (1996)</a>, p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009148-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009148_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong2009">Long (2009)</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009149-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009149_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009149_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong2009">Long (2009)</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong2009149–150-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong2009149–150_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong2009">Long (2009)</a>, pp. 149–150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowlingScarlett2006225-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowlingScarlett2006225_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDowlingScarlett2006">Dowling & Scarlett (2006)</a>, p. 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1998104–106-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1998104–106_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaini1998">Jaini (1998)</a>, pp. 104–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199847-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199847_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShah,_Natubhai1998">Shah, Natubhai (1998)</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200295-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200295_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200295_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999213–215-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999213–215_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, pp. 213–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999195-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999195_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999201-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999201_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200294-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200294_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.199262–63,_196-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJain,_S.A.199262–63,_196_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJain,_S.A.1992">Jain, S.A. (1992)</a>, p. 62–63, 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999198-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999198_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999199-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999199_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999251-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999251_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002106-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002106_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200290–91-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200290–91_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 90–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199825-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199825_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShah,_Natubhai1998">Shah, Natubhai (1998)</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong201383–85-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong201383–85_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong2013">Long (2013)</a>, pp. 83–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999241–242-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999241–242_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, pp. 241–242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllday2001268-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllday2001268_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllday2001">Allday (2001)</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925247–249,_262–263-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925247–249,_262–263_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1925">von Glasenapp (1925)</a>, pp. 247–249, 262–263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200220–21,_34–35,_74,_91,_95–96,_103-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200220–21,_34–35,_74,_91,_95–96,_103_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 20–21, 34–35, 74, 91, 95–96, 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925262–263-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925262–263_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925262–263_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1925">von Glasenapp (1925)</a>, pp. 262–263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200291,_95–96-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200291,_95–96_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 91, 95–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980222–223-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980222–223_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaini1980">Jaini (1980)</a>, pp. 222–223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERankinMardia201340-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERankinMardia201340_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRankinMardia2013">Rankin & Mardia (2013)</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmer1953182-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmer1953182_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmer1953">Zimmer (1953)</a>, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199835–38-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShah,_Natubhai199835–38_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShah,_Natubhai1998">Shah, Natubhai (1998)</a>, pp. 35–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999551_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoniger1999">Doniger (1999)</a>, p. 551.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2016313-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2016313_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh,_Upinder2016">Singh, Upinder (2016)</a>, p. 313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925271–272-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1925271–272_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1925">von Glasenapp (1925)</a>, pp. 271–272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200240-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200240_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999271–272-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999271–272_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, pp. 271–272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999550-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoniger1999550_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDoniger1999">Doniger (1999)</a>, p. 550.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESanghvi200826-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanghvi200826_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSanghvi2008">Sanghvi (2008)</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999181-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999181_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini199890-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini199890_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaini1998">Jaini (1998)</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999182-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999182_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999182_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999180-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999180_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999180_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJames196945-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJames196945_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames1969">James (1969)</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200297-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200297_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200297_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELong201392–95-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELong201392–95_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLong2013">Long (2013)</a>, pp. 92–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002100-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002100_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002100_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002103-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002103_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–103-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–103_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 99–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200298-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200298_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200298_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999217–218-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvon_Glasenapp1999217–218_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999">von Glasenapp (1999)</a>, pp. 217–218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980224–225-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980224–225_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaini1980">Jaini (1980)</a>, pp. 224–225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESethia200430–31-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESethia200430–31_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSethia2004">Sethia (2004)</a>, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirtivijay195721-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirtivijay195721_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKirtivijay1957">Kirtivijay (1957)</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–100-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas200299–100_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002104-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDundas2002104_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDundas2002">Dundas (2002)</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaini1980226-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaini1980226_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaini1980">Jaini (1980)</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDundas2002104–105-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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href="#CITEREFJain,_Vijay_K.2012">Jain, Vijay K. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indian+Philosophies%2C+Volume+X%2C+Jain+Philosophy+%28part+I%29&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Malvania&rft.aufirst=Dalsukh&rft.au=Soni%2C+Jayendra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. 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Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6821-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6821-2"><bdi>978-0-8108-6821-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/422763446">422763446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+Jainism&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F422763446&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6821-2&rft.aulast=Wiley&rft.aufirst=Kristi+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F422763446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJain2006" class="citation book cs1">Jain, Vijay K. (30 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OHUdNxsUeGMC"><i>From IIM-Ahmedabad To Happiness: For those who have achieved success in life</i></a>. Vikalp Printers. p. xi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-903639-0-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-903639-0-7"><bdi>978-81-903639-0-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+IIM-Ahmedabad+To+Happiness%3A+For+those+who+have+achieved+success+in+life&rft.pages=xi&rft.pub=Vikalp+Printers&rft.date=2006-06-30&rft.isbn=978-81-903639-0-7&rft.aulast=Jain&rft.aufirst=Vijay+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOHUdNxsUeGMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllday2001" class="citation book cs1">Allday, J. (2001). <i>Quarks, Leptons and The Big Bang</i>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3678-0623-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3678-0623-1"><bdi>978-0-3678-0623-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quarks%2C+Leptons+and+The+Big+Bang&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-3678-0623-1&rft.aulast=Allday&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatterjea2001" class="citation book cs1">Chatterjea, Tara (2001). <i>Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy</i>. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0692-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0692-9"><bdi>0-7391-0692-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge+and+Freedom+in+Indian+Philosophy&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7391-0692-9&rft.aulast=Chatterjea&rft.aufirst=Tara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2000" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Randall (2000). <i>The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674001879" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674001879"><bdi>978-0674001879</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sociology+of+philosophies%3A+a+global+theory+of+intellectual+change&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0674001879&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Randall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoniger1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Doniger, Wendy</a>, ed. (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC"><i>Encyclopedia of World Religions</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87779-044-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87779-044-2"><bdi>0-87779-044-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Religions&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-87779-044-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZP_f9icf2roC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowlingScarlett2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elizabeth_M._Dowling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elizabeth M. Dowling (page does not exist)">Dowling, Elizabeth M.</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=W._George_Scarlett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W. George Scarlett (page does not exist)">Scarlett, W. George</a>, eds. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7mA5DQAAQBAJ"><i>Encyclopedia of Religious and Spiritual Development</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7619-2883-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7619-2883-9"><bdi>0-7619-2883-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religious+and+Spiritual+Development&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7619-2883-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7mA5DQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundas1999" class="citation journal cs1">Dundas, Paul (1999). "Jain Perceptions of Islam in the Early Modern Period". <i>Indo-Iranian Journal</i>. <b>42</b> (1). Brill Academic: 35–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F000000099124993040">10.1163/000000099124993040</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24663454">24663454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161901119">161901119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indo-Iranian+Journal&rft.atitle=Jain+Perceptions+of+Islam+in+the+Early+Modern+Period&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-46&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161901119%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24663454%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F000000099124993040&rft.aulast=Dundas&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDundas2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dundas" title="Paul Dundas">Dundas, Paul</a> (2002) [1992], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ"><i>The Jains</i></a> (Second ed.), <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-26605-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-26605-X"><bdi>0-415-26605-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jains&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-26605-X&rft.aulast=Dundas&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX8iAAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimes1996" class="citation book cs1">Grimes, John (1996). <i>A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English</i>. New York: Suny Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-3068-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-3068-5"><bdi>0-7914-3068-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Dictionary+of+Indian+Philosophy%3A+Sanskrit+Terms+Defined+in+English&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Suny+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7914-3068-5&rft.aulast=Grimes&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHay1970" class="citation book cs1">Hay, Stephen N. (1970). "Jain Influences on Gandhi's Early Thought". In Sibnarayan Ray (ed.). <i>Gandhi India and the World</i>. Bombay: Nachiketa Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jain+Influences+on+Gandhi%27s+Early+Thought&rft.btitle=Gandhi+India+and+the+World&rft.place=Bombay&rft.pub=Nachiketa+Publishers&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Hay&rft.aufirst=Stephen+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJain,_Champat_Rai1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Champat_Rai_Jain" title="Champat Rai Jain">Jain, Champat Rai</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EscwAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Practical Path</i></a>. The Central Jaina Publishing House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Practical+Path&rft.pub=The+Central+Jaina+Publishing+House&rft.date=1917&rft.au=Jain%2C+Champat+Rai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEscwAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJain,_S.A.1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=S.A._Jain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="S.A. 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Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1104-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1104-6"><bdi>81-208-1104-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Thought+of+Sankaracarya&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=81-208-1104-6&rft.aulast=Pande&rft.aufirst=Govindchandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanikarSutcliffe2010" class="citation book cs1">Panikar, Agustin; Sutcliffe, David (2010). <i>Jainism: History, Society, Philosophy and Practice</i>. Motilal Banarsidass.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism%3A+History%2C+Society%2C+Philosophy+and+Practice&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Panikar&rft.aufirst=Agustin&rft.au=Sutcliffe%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrasad2006" class="citation book cs1">Prasad, Jyoti (2006). <i>Religion & culture of the Jains</i>. Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+%26+culture+of+the+Jains&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Jnanpith&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Prasad&rft.aufirst=Jyoti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRankinMardia2013" class="citation book cs1">Rankin, Aidan D.; <a href="/wiki/Kantilal_Mardia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantilal Mardia">Mardia, Kantilal</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bQxZAQAAQBAJ"><i>Living Jainism: An Ethical Science</i></a>. John Hunt Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78099-911-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78099-911-1"><bdi>978-1-78099-911-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Jainism%3A+An+Ethical+Science&rft.pub=John+Hunt+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-78099-911-1&rft.aulast=Rankin&rft.aufirst=Aidan+D.&rft.au=Mardia%2C+Kantilal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbQxZAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangave1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vilas_Adinath_Sangave" title="Vilas Adinath Sangave">Sangave, Vilas Adinath</a> (1980) [1959]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FWdWrRGV_t8C"><i>Jaina Community: A Social Survey</i></a>. Popular Prakashan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-317-12346-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-317-12346-7"><bdi>0-317-12346-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jaina+Community%3A+A+Social+Survey&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-317-12346-7&rft.aulast=Sangave&rft.aufirst=Vilas+Adinath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFWdWrRGV_t8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanghvi2008" class="citation cs2">Sanghvi, Jayatilal S. (2008), <i>A Treatise on Jainism</i>, Forgotten Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60506-728-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60506-728-5"><bdi>978-1-60506-728-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treatise+on+Jainism&rft.pub=Forgotten+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-60506-728-5&rft.aulast=Sanghvi&rft.aufirst=Jayatilal+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSethia2004" class="citation book cs1">Sethia, Tara (2004). <i>Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism</i>. Motilal Banarsidass.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ahi%E1%B9%83s%C4%81%2C+Anek%C4%81nta+and+Jainism&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Sethia&rft.aufirst=Tara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah,_Natubhai1998" class="citation book cs1">Shah, Natubhai (1998). <i>Jainism: The World of Conquerors</i>. Volume I and II. Sussex: Sussex Academy Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-898723-30-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-898723-30-3"><bdi>1-898723-30-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism%3A+The+World+of+Conquerors&rft.place=Sussex&rft.series=Volume+I+and+II&rft.pub=Sussex+Academy+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-898723-30-3&rft.au=Shah%2C+Natubhai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah,_Natubhai2004" class="citation book cs1">Shah, Natubhai (2004) [First published in 1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qLNQKGcDIhsC"><i>Jainism: The World of Conquerors</i></a>. Vol. I. <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1938-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1938-2"><bdi>978-81-208-1938-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism%3A+The+World+of+Conquerors&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1938-2&rft.au=Shah%2C+Natubhai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqLNQKGcDIhsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh,_Upinder2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Singh, Upinder</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ"><i>A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-325-6996-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-325-6996-6"><bdi>978-93-325-6996-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-93-325-6996-6&rft.au=Singh%2C+Upinder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPq2iCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoni2000" class="citation journal cs1">Soni, Jayandra (2000). "Basic Jaina Epistemology". <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>50</b> (3): 367–377. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400179">1400179</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Basic+Jaina+Epistemology&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=367-377&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1400179%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Soni&rft.aufirst=Jayandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatia1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Tatia, Nathmal (1994). <i>Tattvārtha Sūtra: That Which Is of Vācaka Umāsvāti</i> (in Sanskrit and English). Lanham, MD: Rowman Altamira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7619-8993-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7619-8993-5"><bdi>0-7619-8993-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tattv%C4%81rtha+S%C5%ABtra%3A+That+Which+Is+of+V%C4%81caka+Um%C4%81sv%C4%81ti&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-7619-8993-5&rft.aulast=Tatia&rft.aufirst=Nathmal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTukol1976" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/T._K._Tukol" title="T. K. Tukol">Tukol, Justice T.K.</a> (1976), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SallekhanaIsNotSuicide"><i>Sallekhanā is Not Suicide</i></a> (1st ed.), <a href="/wiki/Ahmedabad" title="Ahmedabad">Ahmedabad</a>: L.D. Institute of Indology, <q><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sallekhan%C4%81+is+Not+Suicide&rft.place=Ahmedabad&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=L.D.+Institute+of+Indology&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Tukol&rft.aufirst=Justice+T.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FSallekhanaIsNotSuicide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1925" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helmuth_von_Glasenapp" title="Helmuth von Glasenapp">von Glasenapp, Helmuth</a> (1925). <i>Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation</i> [<i>Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion</i>]. Translated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shridhar_B._Shrotri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shridhar B. Shrotri (page does not exist)">Shridhar B. Shrotri</a>. Delhi: <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism%3A+An+Indian+Religion+of+Salvation&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=von+Glasenapp&rft.aufirst=Helmuth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999" class="citation book cs1">von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC"><i>Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation</i></a>. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1376-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1376-6"><bdi>81-208-1376-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism%3A+An+Indian+Religion+of+Salvation&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=81-208-1376-6&rft.aulast=von+Glasenapp&rft.aufirst=Helmuth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWzEzXDk0v6sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1991" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Robert (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLKcrIJ6oscC"><i>Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0775-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0775-4"><bdi>978-81-208-0775-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jaina+Yoga%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Mediaeval+%C5%9Ar%C4%81vak%C4%81c%C4%81ras&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0775-4&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLKcrIJ6oscC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington1982" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Vivian (1982). <i>A History of Yoga</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9258-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9258-X"><bdi>0-7100-9258-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Yoga&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-7100-9258-X&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Vivian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer1953" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Zimmer" title="Heinrich Zimmer">Zimmer, Heinrich</a> (1953) [April 1952]. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Campbell, Joseph</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer"><i>Philosophies of India</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a> & Kegan Paul Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0739-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0739-6"><bdi>978-81-208-0739-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophies+of+India&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul+Ltd&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0739-6&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPhilosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJain+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Vows" title="Five Vows">Five Vows</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahimsa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_epistemology" title="Jain epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kevala_Jnana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevala Jnana">Kevala Jñāna</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jaina logic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekāntavāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_cosmology" title="Jain cosmology">Jain cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siddhashila" title="Siddhashila">Siddhashila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Jainism)" title="Naraka (Jainism)">Naraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Jainism)" title="Deva (Jainism)">Heavenly beings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">Karma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_Karma_(Jainism)" title="Types of Karma (Jainism)">Types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_karma_in_Jainism" title="Causes of karma in Jainism">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunasthana" title="Gunasthana">Gunasthana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(Jainism)" title="Jīva (Jainism)">Jīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajiva" title="Ajiva">Ajiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pudgala" title="Pudgala">Pudgala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Jainism)" title="Dharma (Jainism)">Dharma</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattva_(Jainism)" title="Tattva (Jainism)">Tattva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asrava" title="Asrava">Asrava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandha_(Jainism)" title="Bandha (Jainism)">Bandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samvara" title="Samvara">Samvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirjara" title="Nirjara">Nirjara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha_(Jainism)" title="Moksha (Jainism)"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Mokṣa</i></span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_Jainism" title="Death in Jainism">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Jainism)" title="Saṃsāra (Jainism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratnatraya" title="Ratnatraya">Ratnatraya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashaya_(Jainism)" title="Kashaya (Jainism)">Kashaya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jain_schools_and_branches" title="Jain schools and branches">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mula_Sangha" class="mw-redirect" title="Mula Sangha">Mula Sangha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balatkara_Gana" title="Balatkara Gana">Balatkara Gana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashtha_Sangha" title="Kashtha Sangha">Kashtha Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taran_Panth" title="Taran Panth">Taran Panth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bispanthi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bispanthi">Bispanthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digambara_Terapanth" title="Digambara Terapanth">Terapanth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yapaniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yapaniya">Yapaniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji_Panth" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanji Panth">Kanji Panth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murtipujaka" title="Murtipujaka">Murtipujaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaccha" title="Gaccha">Gaccha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kharatara_Gaccha" title="Kharatara Gaccha">Kharatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_Gaccha" title="Tapa Gaccha">Tapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tristutik_Gaccha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tristutik Gaccha">Tristutik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sth%C4%81nakav%C4%81s%C4%AB" title="Sthānakavāsī">Sthānakavāsī</a></li> <li>Terapanth</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sallekhana" title="Sallekhana">Sallekhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_meditation" title="Jain meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81m%C4%81yika" title="Sāmāyika">Sāmāyika</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_monasticism" title="Jain monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_vegetarianism" title="Jain vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Jainism" title="Fasting in Jainism">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_rituals" title="Jain rituals">Rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_festivals" title="Jain festivals">Festivals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paryushana" title="Paryushana">Paryushana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshamavani" title="Kshamavani">Kshamavani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahamastakabhisheka" title="Mahamastakabhisheka">Mahamastakabhisheka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upadhan" title="Upadhan">Upadhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratikramana" title="Pratikramana">Pratikramana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jain_literature" title="Jain literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jain_Scriptures" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Scriptures">Agama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pravachanasara" title="Pravachanasara">Pravachanasara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatkhandagama" class="mw-redirect" title="Shatkhandagama">Shatkhandagama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasayapahuda" title="Kasayapahuda">Kasayapahuda</a></li> <li>Mantra <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namokar_Mantra" title="Namokar Mantra">Namokar Mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaktamara_Stotra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaktamara Stotra">Bhaktamara Stotra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattvartha_Sutra" title="Tattvartha Sutra">Tattvartha Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samayas%C4%81ra" title="Samayasāra">Samayasāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptamimamsa" title="Aptamimamsa">Aptamimamsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kalpa Sūtra">Kalpa Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttaradhyayana" title="Uttaradhyayana">Uttaradhyayana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jain_symbols" title="Jain symbols">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jain_flag" title="Jain flag">Jain flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhachakra" title="Siddhachakra">Siddhachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashtamangala" title="Ashtamangala">Ashtamangala</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shrivatsa" title="Shrivatsa">Shrivatsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandavarta" title="Nandavarta">Nandavarta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auspicious_dreams_in_Jainism" title="Auspicious dreams in Jainism">Auspicious dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Ascetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara_monk" title="Digambara monk">Digambara monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryika" title="Aryika">Aryika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshullak" title="Kshullak">Kshullak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattavali" title="Pattavali">Pattavali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acharya_(Jainism)" title="Acharya (Jainism)">Acharya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nalini_Balbir" title="Nalini Balbir">Nalini Balbir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colette_Caillat" title="Colette Caillat">Colette Caillat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandabai" title="Chandabai">Chandabai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_E._Cort" title="John E. Cort">John E. Cort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dundas" title="Paul Dundas">Paul Dundas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virchand_Gandhi" title="Virchand Gandhi">Virchand Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Jacobi" title="Hermann Jacobi">Hermann Jacobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champat_Rai_Jain" title="Champat Rai Jain">Champat Rai Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmanabh_Jaini" title="Padmanabh Jaini">Padmanabh Jaini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffery_D._Long" title="Jeffery D. Long">Jeffery D. Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampan%C4%81" title="Hampanā">Hampa Nagarajaiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bal_Patil" title="Bal Patil">Bal Patil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinendra_Varni" title="Jinendra Varni">Jinendra Varni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jain_communities" title="Jain communities">Community</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka_(Jainism)" title="Śrāvaka (Jainism)">Śrāvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarak" title="Sarak">Sarak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Jain" title="Tamil Jain">Tamil</a></li> <li>Organisations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambar_Jain_Mahasabha" title="Digambar Jain Mahasabha">Digambar Jain Mahasabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishwa_Jain_Sangathan" title="Vishwa Jain Sangathan">Vishwa Jain Sangathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAINA" title="JAINA">JAINA</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Jainism in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_India" title="Jainism in India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Bundelkhand" title="Jainism in Bundelkhand">Bundelkhand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Delhi" title="Jainism in Delhi">Delhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Goa" title="Jainism in Goa">Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Gujarat" title="Jainism in Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Haryana" title="Jainism in Haryana">Haryana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Karnataka" title="Jainism in Karnataka">Karnataka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_North_Karnataka" title="Jainism in North Karnataka">North</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Kerala" title="Jainism in Kerala">Kerala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Maharashtra" title="Jainism in Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Mumbai" title="Jainism in Mumbai">Mumbai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Rajasthan" title="Jainism in Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Tamil_Nadu" title="Jainism in Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Jainism in Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Overseas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Africa" title="Jainism in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Australia" title="Jainism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Belgium" title="Jainism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Canada" title="Jainism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Europe" title="Jainism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Jainism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Japan" title="Jainism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Pakistan" title="Jainism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Singapore" title="Jainism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Jainism in Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_the_United_States" title="Jainism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Jainism and</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Sikhism" title="Jainism and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_non-creationism" title="Jainism and non-creationism">Non-creationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Dynasties and empires</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty" title="Western Ganga dynasty">Ganga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_dynasty" title="Solar dynasty">Ikshvaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_dynasty" title="Kadamba dynasty">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_(historical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinga (historical region)">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santara_dynasty" title="Santara dynasty">Santara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jainism" title="Timeline of Jainism">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekendriya" title="Ekendriya">Ekendriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa%C3%B1ca-Parame%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADhi" title="Pañca-Parameṣṭhi">Pañca-Parameṣṭhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratima_(Jainism)" title="Pratima (Jainism)">Pratima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salakapurusa" class="mw-redirect" title="Salakapurusa">Śalākāpuruṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirtha_(Jainism)" title="Tirtha (Jainism)">Tirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavasarana" title="Samavasarana">Samavasarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vira_Nirvana_Samvat" title="Vira Nirvana Samvat">Jain calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samvatsari" title="Samvatsari">Samvatsari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panch_Kalyanaka" title="Panch Kalyanaka">Panch Kalyanaka</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Ahimsa" title="Statue of Ahimsa">Statue of Ahimsa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_temple" title="Jain temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_stupa" title="Jain stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_sculpture" title="Jain sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_art" title="Jain art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigoda" title="Nigoda">Nigoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_terms_and_concepts" title="Jain terms and concepts">Jain terms and concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differences_in_Jainism" title="Sexual differences in Jainism">Sexual differences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jains" title="List of Jains">List of Jains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jain_temples" title="List of Jain temples">List of Jain temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jain_monks" title="List of Jain monks">List of Jain ascetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Digambar_Jain_ascetics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Digambar Jain ascetics">List of Digambar Jain ascetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jainism-related_articles" title="Index of Jainism-related articles">Topics List (index)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F5DEB3;;width:1%">Navboxes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Jain_Gods" title="Template:Jain Gods">Gods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Jain_Agamas" title="Template:Jain Agamas">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Jain_Gurus" title="Template:Jain Gurus">Monks & nuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Modern_Jain_writers" title="Template:Modern Jain writers">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Jain_temples" title="Template:Jain temples">Temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Jain_temples_in_North_America" title="Template:Jain temples in North America">America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Jain_centres_in_West_Bengal" title="Template:Jain centres in West Bengal">Bengal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #F5DEB3;"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/31px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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