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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Regents and empresses dowager</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regents_and_empresses_dowager-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multiple_appellations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_appellations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Multiple appellations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Multiple_appellations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Multiple appellations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Multiple_appellations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Era_name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Era_name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Era name</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Era_name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Personal name</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Posthumous_titles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Posthumous_titles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Posthumous titles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Posthumous_titles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temple_name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temple_name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Temple name</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temple_name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honorific_posthumous_name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honorific_posthumous_name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Honorific posthumous name</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honorific_posthumous_name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_emperors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_emperors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>List of emperors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_emperors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">List of emperors of the Qing dynasty</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chheng-kok_h%C3%B4ng-t%C3%A8" title="Chheng-kok hông-tè – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chheng-kok hông-tè" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seznam_%C4%8Dchingsk%C3%BDch_c%C3%ADsa%C5%99%C5%AF" title="Seznam čchingských císařů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Seznam čchingských císařů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser_der_Qing-Dynastie" title="Kaiser der Qing-Dynastie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kaiser der Qing-Dynastie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_empereurs_de_la_dynastie_Qing" title="Liste des empereurs de la dynastie Qing – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Liste des empereurs de la dynastie Qing" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%AD%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC%EC%9D%98_%EA%B5%B0%EC%A3%BC_%EB%AA%A9%EB%A1%9D" title="청나라의 군주 목록 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="청나라의 군주 목록" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiestri_di_Dinastio_Qing" title="Imperiestri di Dinastio Qing – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Imperiestri di Dinastio Qing" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daftar_Kaisar_Dinasti_Qing" title="Daftar Kaisar Dinasti Qing – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Daftar Kaisar Dinasti Qing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaptar_Kaisar_Wangsa_Qing" title="Dhaptar Kaisar Wangsa Qing – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Dhaptar Kaisar Wangsa Qing" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D1%98%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Список на цареви од династијата Чјинг – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Список на цареви од династијата Чјинг" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_%C3%AEmp%C4%83ra%C8%9Bilor_din_Dinastia_Qing" title="Lista împăraților din Dinastia Qing – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Lista împăraților din Dinastia Qing" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing-dynastian_keisarit" title="Qing-dynastian keisarit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Qing-dynastian keisarit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17506997 badge-featuredlist mw-list-item" title="featured list badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_%C3%B6ver_Qingdynastins_kejsare" title="Lista över Qingdynastins kejsare – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lista över Qingdynastins kejsare" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="รายพระนามจักรพรรดิราชวงศ์ชิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รายพระนามจักรพรรดิราชวงศ์ชิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%97_%D0%A6%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Імператори династії Цін – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Імператори династії Цін" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danh_s%C3%A1ch_ho%C3%A0ng_%C4%91%E1%BA%BF_nh%C3%A0_Thanh" title="Danh sách hoàng đế nhà Thanh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Danh sách hoàng đế nhà Thanh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E4%B8%80%E8%A6%BD" title="大清皇帝一覽 – 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr">Emperor of <span class="country-name">the Great Qing</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">大清皇帝</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;"><div style="font-family: serif; font-size: 90%; font-weight: bold; text-transform: uppercase; line-height: 125%; background-color: rgb(125,7,110); color: white;">Imperial</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/200px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/300px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg/400px-Imperial_standard_of_the_Qing_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="560" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_flags#Qing_dynasty_and_other_pre-1912_states" title="List of Chinese flags">Standard of the Qing Emperor</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xuantong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Xuantong.jpg/200px-Xuantong.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Xuantong.jpg/300px-Xuantong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Xuantong.jpg/400px-Xuantong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="869" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><b>Last to reign<br /><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a></b><br />2 December 1908 – 12 February 1912</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Style</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_honorifics#Royalty_2" title="Chinese honorifics">His Imperial Majesty (陛下)</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Chongde Emperor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Last monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a> (<a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution"><i>De jure</i></a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formation</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">1636</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abolition</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">12 February 1912</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Residence</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1912) was a <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">imperial Chinese dynasty</a> and the last imperial dynasty of China. It was officially proclaimed in 1636 in <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a>, but only captured <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> in <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> in 1644. The Qing dynasty collapsed when the imperial clan (surnamed <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a>) abdicated in February 1912, a few months after <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">a military uprising</a> had started the <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> that led to the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> (1559–1626), khan of the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>, founded the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin dynasty</a> in 1616 in reference to the Jurchen-led <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> (1115–1234) that had once ruled over northern China. His son and successor <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> (1592–1643) renamed his people "<a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>" in 1635 and changed the name of Nurhaci's state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" in 1636. Hong Taiji was the real founder of Qing imperial institutions. He was the first to adopt the title of "<a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a>" (<i>huangdi</i>) and founded an <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Ancestral_Temple" title="Imperial Ancestral Temple">Imperial Ancestral Temple</a> in the Qing capital <a href="/wiki/Mukden" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden">Mukden</a> in 1636. After the Qing captured Beijing in 1644 and appropriated the Ming Ancestral Temple, from 1648 on, Nurhaci was worshiped there as "Taizu" (太祖), a <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> usually accorded to dynastic founders. Qing emperors since Hong Taiji were also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Bogda_Khan" title="Bogda Khan">Bogda Khan</a> by the Mongol subjects, and as "<a href="/wiki/Khagan#Chinese_khagans" title="Khagan">Chinese khagan</a>" by their Turkic Muslim subjects when <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Qing rule extended to Xinjiang</a> in the 18th century. </p><p>Like their Ming (1368–1644) predecessors—but unlike the emperors of earlier dynasties like the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a>—Qing emperors used only one era name ("Shunzhi", "Qianlong", "Guangxu", etc.) for their entire reign, and are most commonly known by that name. Starting with Nurhaci, there were twelve Qing rulers. Following the capture of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> and re-enthronement as Emperor of China in 1644, the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> (r. 1643/4–1661) became the first of the ten Qing sovereigns to rule over China proper. At 61 years, the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> (r. 1661–1722) was the longest, though his grandson, the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> (r. 1735–1796), would have reigned even longer if he had not purposely ceded the throne to the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> (r. 1796–1820) in order not to reign longer than his grandfather. Qing emperors succeeded each other from father to son until the <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Emperor" title="Tongzhi Emperor">Tongzhi Emperor</a> (r. 1861–1875), the 11th Qing ruler, died childless in 1875. The last two emperors were chosen by <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> from other branches of the imperial clan. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Succession">Succession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Succession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spring%E2%80%99s_Peaceful_Message.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painted vertical scroll with two men wearing robes standing on a rocky landscape and against a deep-blue sky. A strange-looking stone stands in the left foreground. There are five green bamboos in the background, and a low table with several objects on it is placed on the ground on the right. The man on the left, who is taller and looks older, is giving a long object that might be a tree branch with flowers on it to the man on the right." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Spring%E2%80%99s_Peaceful_Message.jpg/220px-Spring%E2%80%99s_Peaceful_Message.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="398" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Spring%E2%80%99s_Peaceful_Message.jpg/330px-Spring%E2%80%99s_Peaceful_Message.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Spring%E2%80%99s_Peaceful_Message.jpg/440px-Spring%E2%80%99s_Peaceful_Message.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1267" /></a><figcaption>"Spring's Peaceful Message", by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Castiglione_(Jesuit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit)">Giuseppe Castiglione</a>, represents the passing of the throne from the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> (left) to his son Hongli (right), the future <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>. Hongli was the first Qing monarch to be chosen through the secret system that his father instated to prevent struggles over <a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">succession</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199854_(analysis_of_the_painting)_and_102_("secret_succession")_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199854_(analysis_of_the_painting)_and_102_("secret_succession")-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike the Ming emperors, who named their eldest <a href="/wiki/Dishu_system" title="Dishu system">legitimate</a> son <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a> whenever possible and forbade other sons from participating in politics, the Qing monarchs did not choose their successors according to <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199898-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When in 1622 <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> (1559–1626) was asked which one of his sons he had chosen to succeed him as <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">khan</a> of the Jurchens, he refused to answer, telling his sons that they should determine after his death who among them was the most qualified leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199898-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His answer reflected the fact that in Jurchen society, succession as tribal chieftain was usually determined by merit, not descent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199898-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Nurhaci died in 1626, a committee of <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> princes selected <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> (1592–1643) as his successor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200251–2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200251–2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hong Taiji's death in 1643 caused another succession crisis, because many of Nurhaci's other sons appeared to be qualified leaders. As a compromise, the Manchu princes chose Hong Taiji's four-year-old son Fulin (the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a>, r. 1643–1661) as his successor, marking the adoption of father-son succession in the Qing imperial line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898–99_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199898–99-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Shunzhi Emperor, who died of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1661, chose his third son Xuanye as successor because he had survived smallpox.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002125_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002125-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That child reigned as the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> (r. 1661–1722), who for the first time in Qing history followed the Chinese habit of primogeniture and appointed his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Yinreng" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinreng">Yinreng</a> (1674–1725) as heir apparent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWu197931_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu197931-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heir apparent was removed twice because of his extravagance and abhorrent behavior, which included an attempt to assassinate the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWu1979118–20_and_154–5_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu1979118–20_and_154–5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Yinreng was demoted for good in 1712, the emperor refused to name an heir.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998101–2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998101–2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Qing policy forced imperial princes to reside in the capital Beijing, many princes became involved in politics, and the Kangxi succession became particularly contested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998102_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998102-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Kangxi Emperor's death in 1722, his fourth son Yinzhen (1678–1735) emerged as victor and reigned as the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a>, but his legitimacy was questioned for years after his accession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZelin2002185–86_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZelin2002185–86-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To avoid such struggles in the future, the Yongzheng Emperor designed a system by which the living emperor would choose his successor in advance and on merit, but would keep his choice secret until his deathbed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998102_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998102-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name of the future emperor was sealed in a casket that was hidden behind a panel in the rafters of the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity" title="Palace of Heavenly Purity">Qianqing Palace</a> inside the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998102_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998102-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As successor, the Yongzheng Emperor chose his fourth son Hongli (1711–1799), the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>, who himself selected his 15th son Yongyan, the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> (r. 1796–1820). The latter chose his successor Minning (1782–1850), the <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a>, in 1799, but only read his testament shortly before dying.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998103_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998103-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Emperor" title="Tongzhi Emperor">Tongzhi Emperor</a> died heirless in 1875, his mother <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> was the one who selected the next emperor. But instead of making the deceased emperor adopt an heir from the generation below himself (in this case this would have been a nephew of the Tongzhi Emperor) as the rules of imperial succession dictated, she picked one from the same generation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new emperor was Zaitian (the <a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a>; 1871–1908), the son of <a href="/wiki/Yixuan,_Prince_Chun" title="Yixuan, Prince Chun">Prince Chun</a>, a half-brother of Empress Dowager Cixi's late husband, the <a href="/wiki/Xianfeng_Emperor" title="Xianfeng Emperor">Xianfeng Emperor</a> (r. 1850–1861).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998103_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998103-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She assured her opponents that as soon as the new emperor had a son, he would be adopted into the Tongzhi Emperor's line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as the Guangxu Emperor died heirless too, Empress Dowager Cixi also chose his successor, <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a>, in 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998103_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998103-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regents_and_empresses_dowager">Regents and empresses dowager</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Regents and empresses dowager"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qing succession and inheritance policies made it difficult for empresses and their relatives to build power at court, as they had in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> for example.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny20071217–18_(role_of_empresses_and_their_clans_in_the_Han_dynasty)Naquin2000346_(rest_of_the_information)_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny20071217–18_(role_of_empresses_and_their_clans_in_the_Han_dynasty)Naquin2000346_(rest_of_the_information)-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Threats to imperial power usually came from within the imperial clan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199896–103_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199896–103-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the young Fulin was chosen to succeed his father Hong Taiji in September 1643, two "prince regents" were selected for him: Hong Taiji's half-brother <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a> (1612–1650) and Nurhaci's nephew <a href="/wiki/Jirgalang" title="Jirgalang">Jirgalang</a> (1599–1655). Soon after the Manchus had seized Beijing under Dorgon's leadership in May 1644, Dorgon came to control all important government matters.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200271_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200271-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Official documents referred to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (<i>Huang shufu shezheng wang</i> 皇叔父攝政王), a title that left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985861_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985861-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few days after his death, he received a <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> (Chengzong 成宗) and an <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">honorific posthumous title</a> (Yi Huangdi 義皇帝, "Righteous Emperor"), and his <a href="/wiki/Spirit_tablet" title="Spirit tablet">spirit tablet</a> was placed in the Imperial Ancestral Temple next to those of Nurhaci and Hong Taiji.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943a217_(Chengzong_and_Yi_huangdi)Oxnam197547–48_(imperial_funeral,_"Righteous_Emperor")_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943a217_(Chengzong_and_Yi_huangdi)Oxnam197547–48_(imperial_funeral,_"Righteous_Emperor")-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early March 1651 after Dorgon's supporters had been purged from the court, these titles were abrogated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxnam197575_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxnam197575-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:430px;max-width:430px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dorgon,_the_Prince_Rui_(17th_century).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three-quarter painted portrait of a thickly bearded man wearing a red hat adorned with a peacock feather and dressed with a long dark robe with dragon patterns. Clockwise from bottom left to bottom right, he is surrounded by a sheathed sword mounted on a wooden display, Manchu writing on the wall, a three-clawed dragon and a five-clawed dragon (also printed on the wall), and a wooden desk with an incense burner and a book on it." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg/148px-Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg/222px-Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg/296px-Dorgon%2C_the_Prince_Rui_%2817th_century%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="958" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oboi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Full-face painted portrait of a severe-looking sitting man wearing a black-and-red round cap adorned with a peacock feather and dressed in dark blue robes decorated with four-clawed golden dragons." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Oboi.jpg/122px-Oboi.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Oboi.jpg/183px-Oboi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Oboi.jpg/244px-Oboi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="950" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Ci-Xi_Imperial_Dowager_Empress_(5).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Full-face black-and-white photo of a woman with long fingernails sitting on a throne, wearing a richly adorned robe, a complicated hairdo, and a multi-layered pearl necklace. There are different kinds of flowers around her, as well as what appear to be peacock feathers." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/The_Ci-Xi_Imperial_Dowager_Empress_%285%29.JPG/148px-The_Ci-Xi_Imperial_Dowager_Empress_%285%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="148" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/The_Ci-Xi_Imperial_Dowager_Empress_%285%29.JPG/222px-The_Ci-Xi_Imperial_Dowager_Empress_%285%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/The_Ci-Xi_Imperial_Dowager_Empress_%285%29.JPG/296px-The_Ci-Xi_Imperial_Dowager_Empress_%285%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="791" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">The three most powerful regents of the Qing dynasty: (from left to right) <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a> (r. 1643–1650), <a href="/wiki/Oboi" title="Oboi">Oboi</a> (r. 1661–1669), and <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> (r. 1861–1889 and 1898–1908)</div></div></div></div> <p>The reign of the Shunzhi Emperor ended when he died of smallpox in 1661 at the age of 22.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennerline2002118_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline2002118-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His last will—which was tampered and perhaps even forged by its beneficiaries—appointed <a href="/wiki/Four_Regents_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Four Regents of the Kangxi Emperor">four co-regents</a> for his son and successor the six-year-old Xuanye, who was to reign as the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All four were Manchu dignitaries who had supported the Shunzhi Emperor after the death of Dorgon, but their Manchu <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativist measures</a> reversed many of the Shunzhi Emperor's own policies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxnam197548_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxnam197548-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "<a href="/wiki/Oboi" title="Oboi">Oboi</a> regency", named after the most powerful of the four regents, lasted until 1669, when the Kangxi Emperor started his personal rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002133_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002133-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For almost 200 years, the Qing Empire was governed by adult emperors. In the last fifty years of the dynasty—from the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861 to the final abdication of the child emperor Puyi in 1912—the imperial position again became vulnerable to the power of regents, <a href="/wiki/Empress_dowager" title="Empress dowager">empress dowagers</a>, imperial uncles, and eunuchs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaquin2000346_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000346-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) came to power through <a href="/wiki/Xinyou_Coup" title="Xinyou Coup">a coup that ousted eight regents</a> who had been named by her husband, the Xianfeng Emperor. She controlled the government during the reigns of the Tongzhi (r. 1861–1875) and Guangxu (r. 1875–1908) emperors. From 1861 onwards, she was officially co-regent with <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Ci%27an" title="Empress Dowager Ci'an">Empress Dowager Ci'an</a>, but her political role increased so much that within a few years she was taking charge of most government matters. She became sole regent in 1881 after the death of Empress Dowager Ci'an.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the assistance of eunuchs and Manchu princes, she remained regent until March 1889, when she finally let the Guangxu Emperor rule personally (he was then 17 years old).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After she intervened to end the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a> in September 1898, she had the emperor put under house arrest and held the reins of the Qing government until her death in 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298–99_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298–99-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multiple_appellations">Multiple appellations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Multiple appellations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Era_name">Era name</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Era name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color painting of young man wearing a deep-blue robe and a black sleeveless jacket sitting at a table holding a brush. A book, a brush with a cup, an inkstone, and a bowl filled with water are also placed on the table, which is itself black with golden or yellowish flower and leaf patterns. The table is disposed in a courtyard. There is a large tree in the left foreground that runs from bottom to top. On the right we see part of a bookshelf with books on it. Part of a wide chair appears on the left. In the background is the entrance to a small building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg/220px-%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg/330px-%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg/440px-%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%B8%E8%89%BA%E6%80%A1%E6%83%85%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3353" /></a><figcaption>The young Zaichun ruled as the <a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Emperor" title="Tongzhi Emperor">Tongzhi Emperor</a> from 1862 until his death in 1875. The era name Tongzhi, an allusion to the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a></i>, was chosen to reflect the new political situation after his mother <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> (1835–1908) ousted Zaichun's eight regents in a coup in November 1861.</figcaption></figure> <p>An emperor's <a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">era name</a> or reign name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political concerns of the court at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012515_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012515-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new era name became effective on the first day of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">Chinese New Year</a> after that emperor's accession, which fell between 21 January and 20 February (inclusively) of the Gregorian calendar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012512_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012512-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even if an emperor died in the middle of the year, his era name was used for the rest of that year before the next era officially began.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012513–14_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012513–14-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like the emperors of the Ming dynasty, Qing monarchs used only one reign name and are usually known by that name, as when we speak of the "<a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>" (r. 1735–1795) or the "<a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a>" (r. 1875–1908).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012182_and_512_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012182_and_512-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strictly speaking, referring to the Qianlong Emperor simply as "Qianlong" is wrong, because "Qianlong" was not that emperor's own name but that of his reign era. For convenience sake, however, many historians still choose to call him Qianlong (though not "Emperor Qianlong").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001xii_["Strictly_speaking_it_is_proper_to_refer_to_him_as_'the_Qianlong_emperor,'_since_'Qianlong'_was_the_name_assigned_to_his_reign,_not_his_given_name._However,_for_simplicity's_sake,_I_will_use_the_shorter_'Qianlong'_in_this_book."]Peterson2002xxi_["The_names_of_the_reigns_(K'ang-hsi_[Kangxi],_Ch'ien-lung_[Qianlong])_of_emperors_are_routinely_treated_as_if_they_were_the_names_of_the_emperors_themselves._There_are_several_good_reasons_for_this_practice,_even_though_it_is_historiographically_erroneous._We_adopt_it_here_as_a_convention_that_needs_no_apology."]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001xii_["Strictly_speaking_it_is_proper_to_refer_to_him_as_'the_Qianlong_emperor,'_since_'Qianlong'_was_the_name_assigned_to_his_reign,_not_his_given_name._However,_for_simplicity's_sake,_I_will_use_the_shorter_'Qianlong'_in_this_book."]Peterson2002xxi_["The_names_of_the_reigns_(K'ang-hsi_[Kangxi],_Ch'ien-lung_[Qianlong])_of_emperors_are_routinely_treated_as_if_they_were_the_names_of_the_emperors_themselves._There_are_several_good_reasons_for_this_practice,_even_though_it_is_historiographically_erroneous._We_adopt_it_here_as_a_convention_that_needs_no_apology."]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only Qing emperors who are not commonly known by their reign name are the first two: <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> (r. 1616–1626), who is known by his personal name, and his son and successor <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> (r. 1626–1643), whose name was <a href="/wiki/Khong_Tayiji" title="Khong Tayiji">a title</a> meaning "prince Hong". Hong Taiji was the only Qing emperor to use two era names (see table).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reign names are usually left untranslated, but some scholars occasionally gloss them when they think these names have a special significance. Historian <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Crossley" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela Crossley">Pamela Crossley</a> explains that Hong Taiji's first era name Tiancong 天聰 (<i>abkai sure</i> in Manchu) referred to a "capacity to transform" supported by Heaven, and that his second one Chongde 崇德 (<i>wesihun erdemungge</i>) meant the achievement of this transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of translating reign names is not new: Jesuits who resided at the Qing court in Beijing in the 18th century translated "<a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng</a>"—or its Manchu version "Hūwaliyasun tob"—as <i>Concordia Recta</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarinescu2008152_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarinescu2008152-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An era name was used to record dates, usually in the format "Reign-name Xth year, Yth month, Zth day" (sometimes abridged as X/Y/Z by modern scholars). A Qing emperor's era name was also used on the coins that were cast during his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012514_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012514-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike in the Ming dynasty, the characters used in Qing reign names were <a href="/wiki/Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">taboo</a>, that is, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">characters</a> contained in it could no longer be used in writing throughout the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012276_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012276-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_name">Personal name</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Personal name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in previous dynasties, the emperor's personal name became taboo after his accession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2000110_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2000110-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of <i>xuan</i> 玄 ("mysterious", "profound") in the Kangxi Emperor's personal name Xuanye (玄燁), for example, forced <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">printers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Buddhist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoist</a> books to replace this very common character with <i>yuan</i> 元 in all their books.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012274_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012274-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even the <i><a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a></i>, a Daoist classic, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Thousand_Character_Classic" title="Thousand Character Classic">Thousand Character Classic</a></i>, a widely used <a href="/wiki/Primer_(textbook)" title="Primer (textbook)">primer</a>, had to be reprinted with <i>yuan</i> instead of <i>xuan</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012274_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012274-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Yongzheng Emperor, whose generation was the first in which all imperial sons shared a generational character as in Chinese clans, acceded the throne, he made all his brothers change the first character of their name from "Yin" (胤) to "Yun" (允) to respect the taboo.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998110-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Citing fraternal solidarity, his successor, the Qianlong Emperor, simply removed one stroke from his own name and let his brothers keep their own.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110–11_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998110–11-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later emperors found other ways to diminish the inconvenience of naming taboos. The <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> (r. 1796–1820), whose personal name was Yongyan (永琰), replaced the very common first character of his personal name (<i>yong</i> 永, which means "forever") with an obscure one (顒) with the same pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998110-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a> (r. 1820–1850) removed the character for "continuous" (綿) from his name and decreed that his descendants should henceforth all omit one stroke from their name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998111_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998111-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In accordance with Manchu practice, Qing emperors rarely used their clan name <a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012146_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012146-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Posthumous_titles">Posthumous titles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Posthumous titles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temple_name">Temple name</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Temple name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taimiao.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color photo taken frontally on a sunny day of a stately Chinese-style building with a double roof. The plaque on the building says "Taimiao" ("imperial ancestral temple") in Chinese and in Manchu. The temple is placed on an elevated platform and surrounded by three layers of white fences placed at different heights. Three different flights of stairs lead to the building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taimiao.jpg/220px-Taimiao.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taimiao.jpg/330px-Taimiao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taimiao.jpg/440px-Taimiao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Qing emperors worshiped their ancestors' <a href="/wiki/Spirit_tablet" title="Spirit tablet">spirit tablets</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Ancestral_Temple" title="Imperial Ancestral Temple">Imperial Ancestral Temple</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>After their deaths, the emperors were given a <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">honorific name</a> under which they would be worshiped at the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Ancestral_Temple" title="Imperial Ancestral Temple">Imperial Ancestral Temple</a>. On the <a href="/wiki/Spirit_tablet" title="Spirit tablet">spirit tablets</a> that were displayed there, the temple name was followed by the honorific name, as in "Shizu Zhang huangdi" for the Shunzhi Emperor and "Taizong Wen huangdi" for Hong Taiji. As dynastic founder, Nurhaci ("Taizu") became the focal ancestor in the main hall of the temple.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998208_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998208-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earlier paternal ancestors of the Qing imperial line were worshiped in a back hall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998208_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998208-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historical records like the <i><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records" title="Veritable Records">Veritable Records</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">實錄</span>; <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">实录</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Shílù</span></i>), which were compiled at the end of each reign, retrospectively referred to emperors by their temple names. </p><p>Hong Taiji created the Qing ancestral cult in 1636 when he assumed the title of emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199874_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199874-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taking the Chinese imperial cult as a model, he named his main paternal ancestors "kings" and built an Imperial Ancestral Temple in his capital Mukden to offer sacrifices to them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199874_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199874-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Qing took control of Beijing in 1644, Prince Regent <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a> had the Aisin Gioro ancestral tablets installed in what had been the Ming ancestral temple.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998208_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998208-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1648 the Qing government bestowed the title of "emperor" to these ancestors and gave them the honorific posthumous names and temple names by which they were known for the rest of the dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199874_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199874-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurhaci was identified retrospectively as Taizu ("grand progenitor"), the usual name given to a dynasty's first emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_("Taizu"_as_name_of_dynastic_founder)_and_806_(Nurhaci's_temple_name)_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_("Taizu"_as_name_of_dynastic_founder)_and_806_(Nurhaci's_temple_name)-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is why Nurhaci is considered as the first Qing ruler even if he was never emperor in his lifetime. Taizong was the usual name for the second emperor of a dynasty, and so Hong Taiji was canonized as Qing Taizong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_(Taizong_as_name_of_the_second_emperor)_and_806_(Hong_Taiji's_temple_name)_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_(Taizong_as_name_of_the_second_emperor)_and_806_(Hong_Taiji's_temple_name)-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last emperor of a dynasty usually did not receive a temple name because his descendants were no longer in power when he died, and thus could not perpetuate the ancestral cult.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a>, the last Qing monarch, reigned as the Xuantong Emperor from 1908 to 1912, but did not receive a temple name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012807_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012807-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Honorific_posthumous_name">Honorific posthumous name</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Honorific posthumous name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After death emperors were given an <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">honorific posthumous title</a> that reflected their ruling style. Nurhaci's posthumous name was originally the "Martial Emperor" (武皇帝 <i>wǔ huángdì</i>)—to reflect his military exploits—but in 1662 it was changed to "Highest Emperor" (高皇帝 <i>gāo huángdì</i>), that is, "the emperor from whom all others descend."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999138_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999138-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hong Taiji's posthumous name, the "Emperor of Letters" (M.: <i>šu hūwangdi</i>; Ch.: 文皇帝 <i>wén huángdì</i>), was chosen to reflect the way in which he metamorphosed Qing institutions during his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_emperors">List of emperors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: List of emperors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Qing emperors family tree</a></div> <p>The emperors were usually enthroned on an auspicious day soon after the death of the previous monarch. With two exceptions (Jiaqing and Guangxu), they reigned under their predecessor's era name until the following <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">New Year</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The date that appears under "Dates of reign" indicates the first day of the <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar year</a> following the death of the previous emperor, which is when the new emperor's era name came into use. The number of years indicated in the same column is the number of years in which that era name was used. Because of discrepancies between the western and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese calendar</a>, this number does not perfectly correspond to the number of years in which an emperor was on the throne. </p><p>Since posthumous titles and temple names were often shared by emperors of different dynasties, to avoid confusion they are usually preceded by the dynastic name. The Qianlong emperor, for instance, should be referred to as Qing Gaozong rather than just Gaozong. Because each emperor's posthumous name was extremely long—that of the Shunzhi Emperor, for instance, was "Titian longyun dingtong jianji yingrui qinwen xianwu dade honggong zhiren chunxiao Zhang huangdi" 體天隆運定統建極英睿欽文顯武大德弘功至仁純孝章皇帝—the table only shows the short form.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="line-height:1.4em; text-align:center; font-size:95%"> <caption>Khans of the Jin<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998303_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998303-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806–7_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806–7-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuHuang202397_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuHuang202397-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" scope="col"># </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col">Portrait </th> <th colspan="1" rowspan="2" scope="col">Emperor<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Lifespan)</span> </th> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2" scope="colgroup">Reign </th> <th colspan="4" scope="colgroup">Names </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col">Succession </th> <th rowspan="2">Notes </th></tr> <tr> <th>Personal </th> <th>Era </th> <th><abbr title="Posthumous">Post.</abbr> </th> <th>Temple </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="rowgroup" rowspan="2">1 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nurhaci_(closeup2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Nurhaci_%28closeup2%29.jpg/80px-Nurhaci_%28closeup2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Nurhaci_%28closeup2%29.jpg/121px-Nurhaci_%28closeup2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Nurhaci_%28closeup2%29.jpg/161px-Nurhaci_%28closeup2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="570" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">努爾哈赤</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1559–1626)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">17 February</span><br />1616 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">30 September</span><br />1626 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Nurhaci</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·努爾哈齊</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Nurgaci</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Tianming</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">天命</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Abkai fulingga</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal"><b>Gaodi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">高帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Dergi</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Taizu</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">太祖</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Taidzu</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">(Founder of <p>Later Jin) </p> </td> <td rowspan="2">Tianming was not used as an era name during Nurhaci's lifetime. His posthumous name was originally Wudi (<span lang="zh">武帝</span>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <span title="Manchu-language text"><i lang="mnc">Horonggo</i></span>), but this was changed to Gaodi in 1662.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999138_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999138-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">10 years and 226 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" scope="rowgroup">2 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hong_taiji_(closeup2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg/80px-Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg/121px-Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg/160px-Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="654" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">皇太極</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1592–1643)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">20 October</span><br />1626 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">15 May</span><br />1636 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Huang Taiji</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·皇太極</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Hong taiji</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Tiancong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">天聰</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Abkai sure</span></i> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">- </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Nurhaci </td> <td rowspan="2">"Hong Taiji" means "Prince Hong" and was probably a title, not a name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1990208_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1990208-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some Western historical studies, 'Hong Taiji' is erroneously called Abahai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStary1984?_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStary1984?-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">9 years and 111 days </th></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="line-height:1.4em; text-align:center; font-size:95%"> <caption>Emperors of the Qing<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998303_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998303-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806–7_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806–7-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" scope="col"># </th> <th colspan="1" rowspan="2" scope="col">Portrait </th> <th colspan="1" rowspan="2" scope="col">Emperor<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Lifespan)</span> </th> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2" scope="col">Reign </th> <th colspan="4" scope="col">Names </th> <th rowspan="2" scope="col">Succession </th> <th rowspan="2">Notes </th></tr> <tr> <th>Personal </th> <th>Era </th> <th><abbr title="Posthumous">Post.</abbr> </th> <th>Temple </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hong_taiji_(closeup2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg/80px-Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg/121px-Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg/160px-Hong_taiji_%28closeup2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="654" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">皇太极</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1592–1643)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">15 May</span><br />1636 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">21 September</span><br />1643 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Huang Taiji</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·皇太极</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Hong taiji</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Chongde</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">崇德</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Wesihun<br />erdemungge</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Wendi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">文帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Genggiyen su</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Taizong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">太宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Taidzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">(Founder of Qing) </td> <td rowspan="2">Hong Taiji declared a change of era name from <i>Tiancong</i> to <i>Chongde</i> in May 1636 when he declared himself Emperor of the newly renamed Qing dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">7 years and 227 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shunzhi_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Shunzhi_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Shunzhi_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Shunzhi_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Shunzhi_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Shunzhi_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Shunzhi_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">順治帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1638–1661)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">30 October </span><br />1644 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">5 February</span><br />1661 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Fulin</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·福臨</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Fulin</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Shunzhi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">順治</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Ijishūn dasan</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Zhangdi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">章帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Eldembuhe</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Shizu</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">世祖</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Šidzu</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Hong Taiji </td> <td rowspan="2">From 1643 to 1650, <i>de facto</i> political power was under <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a>, the Prince Regent. The Shunzhi Emperor started his personal rule in 1651. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">17 years and 121 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kangxi_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Kangxi_%28closeup%29.jpg/80px-Kangxi_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Kangxi_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Kangxi_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Kangxi_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Kangxi_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="547" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">康熙帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1654–1722)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">5 February</span><br />1661 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">20 December</span><br /> 1722 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Xuanye</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·玄燁</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Hiowan yei</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Kangxi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">康熙</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Elhe taifin</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Rendi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">仁帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Gosin</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Shengzu</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">聖祖</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Šengdzu</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Shunzi </td> <td rowspan="2">From 1662 to 1669, political power lay in the hands of <a href="/wiki/Four_Regents_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Four Regents of the Kangxi Emperor">four regents</a>, the most powerful of which was <a href="/wiki/Oboi" title="Oboi">Oboi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002133_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002133-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">61 years and 319 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">4 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yongzheng_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Yongzheng_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Yongzheng_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Yongzheng_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Yongzheng_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Yongzheng_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Yongzheng_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="329" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">雍正帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1678–1735)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">27 December</span><br />1722 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">8 October</span><br />1735 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Yinzhen</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·胤禛</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">In jen</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Yongzheng</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">雍正</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Hūwaliyasun tob</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Xiandi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">憲帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Temgetulehe</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Shizong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">世宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Šidzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Kangxi </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">12 years and 286 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">5 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qianlong_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Qianlong_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Qianlong_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Qianlong_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Qianlong_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Qianlong_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Qianlong_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="634" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">乾隆帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1711–1799)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">18 October</span><br />1735 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">9 February</span><br />1796 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Hongli</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·弘曆</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Hung li</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Qianlong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">乾隆</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Abkai wehiyehe</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Chundi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">純帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Yongkiyaha<br />hūwangdi</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Gaozong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">高宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">G'aodzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Yongzheng </td> <td rowspan="2">In an act of filial piety to ensure that he would not reign longer than his <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">grandfather</a>, the Qianlong Emperor retired on 8 February 1796, the last day of that year in the Chinese calendar and took the title <a href="/wiki/Taishang_Huang" title="Taishang Huang">Emperor Emeritus</a> (<span lang="zh">太上皇</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Tàishàng Huáng</span></i>'). However, <i>de facto</i> power remained under his control until his death in 1799.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">60 years and 115 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">6 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiaqing_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Jiaqing_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Jiaqing_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Jiaqing_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Jiaqing_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Jiaqing_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Jiaqing_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="709" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">嘉慶帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1760–1820)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">9 February</span><br />1796 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">2 September</span><br />1820 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Yongyan</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·顒琰</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Yong yan</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Jiaqing</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">嘉慶</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Saicungga fengšen</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Ruidi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">睿帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Sunggiyen</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Renzong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">仁宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Žindzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Qianlong </td> <td rowspan="2">The first day of the Jiaqing era was also the first day of this emperor's reign, because his father retired on the last day of the previous year. Jiaqing did not hold <i>de facto</i> power until Qianlong's death in 1799. His personal name before his enthronement was <i>Yongyan</i> (<span lang="zh">永琰</span>), but the first character was altered to the nearly <a href="/wiki/Homophone" title="Homophone">homophonous</a> <span lang="zh">顒</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yóng</span></i>, as a <a href="/wiki/Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">naming taboo</a> on the common character <span lang="zh">永</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">yǒng</span></i>; 'forever' was considered inconvenient.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998110-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">24 years and 207 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">7 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Daoguang.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Daoguang.JPG/79px-Daoguang.JPG" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Daoguang.JPG/119px-Daoguang.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Daoguang.JPG/159px-Daoguang.JPG 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="677" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">道光帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1782–1850)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">3 October</span><br />1820 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">26 February</span><br />1850 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Mianning</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·旻寧</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Min ning</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Daoguang</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">道光</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Doro eldengge</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Chengdi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">成帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Šanggan</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Xuanzong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">宣宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Siowandzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Jiaqing </td> <td rowspan="2">His name had been <i>Mianning</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">綿寧</span>), but he changed it to <i>Minning</i> when he acceded the throne because a naming taboo on the common character <i>Mian</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">綿</span>; <abbr title="Literal translation"><small>lit.</small></abbr> 'cotton') would have been too inconvenient.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998110-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">29 years and 147 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">8 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xianfeng_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Xianfeng_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Xianfeng_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Xianfeng_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Xianfeng_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Xianfeng_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Xianfeng_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="521" data-file-height="694" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Xianfeng_Emperor" title="Xianfeng Emperor">Xianfeng Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸豐帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1831–1861)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">9 March</span><br />1850 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">22 August</span><br />1861 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Yizhu</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·奕詝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">I ju</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Xianfeng</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">咸豐</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Gubci elgiyengge</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Xiandi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">顯帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Iletu</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Wenzong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">文宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Wendzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Daoguang </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">11 years and 167 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">9 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tongzhi_Emperor_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Tongzhi_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Tongzhi_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Tongzhi_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Tongzhi_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Tongzhi_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Tongzhi_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="663" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Emperor" title="Tongzhi Emperor">Tongzhi Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">同治帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1856–1875)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">11 November</span><br />1861 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">12 January</span><br />1875 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Zaichun</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·載淳</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Dzai šun</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Tongzhi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">同治</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Yooningga dasan</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Yidi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">毅帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Filingga</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Muzong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">穆宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Mudzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of Xianfeng </td> <td rowspan="2">Court officials initially chose to use the reign name <i>Qixiang</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">祺祥</span>), but they changed their minds and settled on <i>Tongzhi</i> before the beginning of the following New Year, so <i>Qixiang</i> was never used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright195717–18_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright195717–18-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">13 years and 63 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">10 </td> <td rowspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Guangxu_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emperor_Guangxu_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Emperor_Guangxu_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emperor_Guangxu_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Emperor_Guangxu_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Emperor_Guangxu_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Emperor_Guangxu_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="443" data-file-height="590" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">光緒帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1871–1908)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">25 February</span><br />1875 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">14 November</span><br />1908 </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Aisin-Gioro Zaitian</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·載湉</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Dzai tiyan</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Guangxu</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">光緒</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Badarangga doro</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Jingdi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">景帝</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Ambalinggū</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><b>Dezong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">德宗</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Dedzung</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Cousin of Tongzhi </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">33 years and 264 days </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">11 </td> <td rowspan="3"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xuantong_Emperor_(closeup).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Xuantong_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg/79px-Xuantong_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Xuantong_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg/119px-Xuantong_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Xuantong_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg/159px-Xuantong_Emperor_%28closeup%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="170" data-file-height="227" /></a></span> </td> <td rowspan="3"><b><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong Emperor</a></b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">宣統帝</span></span><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(1906–1967)</span> </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">2 December</span><br />1908 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">12 February</span><br />1912 </td> <td rowspan="3"><b>Aisin-Gioro Puyi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愛新覺羅·溥儀</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Pu I</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="3"><b>Xuantong</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">宣統</span></span><br /><i><span style="font-size:85%;">Gehungge yoso</span></i> </td> <td rowspan="3"><b>Mindi</b><br /><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">愍帝</span></span> </td> <td rowspan="3"><b>Gongzong</b> <p>恭宗 </p> </td> <td rowspan="3">Nephew of Guangxu </td> <td rowspan="3">The <i><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication</a></i> signed by Puyi's aunt <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Longyu" title="Empress Dowager Longyu">Empress Dowager Longyu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>, and the provisional government of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanking</a> allowed Puyi to retain his title of <i>emperor</i>, until the "Amendment of Preferential Treatment Conditions" rescinded the title in 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiang201252_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiang201252-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">temporarily restored</a> as ruling emperor for part of July 1917. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">1 July</span> 1917 </td> <td><span style="font-size:85%;">12 July</span> 1917 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal">3 years and 73 days </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_lbj5gwzwp97bk18qkso0ltakyb85ps8"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Puyi" coords="1436,194,1516,215" title="Puyi" alt="Puyi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Puyi" coords="1412,180,1493,201" title="Puyi" alt="Puyi" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" coords="1394,166,1469,187" title="Guangxu Emperor" alt="Guangxu Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Emperor" coords="1240,152,1315,173" title="Tongzhi Emperor" alt="Tongzhi Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Xianfeng_Emperor" coords="1175,138,1256,159" title="Xianfeng Emperor" alt="Xianfeng Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" coords="1124,124,1205,145" title="Daoguang Emperor" alt="Daoguang Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" coords="985,110,1060,131" title="Jiaqing Emperor" alt="Jiaqing Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" coords="874,96,954,117" title="Qianlong Emperor" alt="Qianlong Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" coords="590,82,676,103" title="Yongzheng Emperor" alt="Yongzheng Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" coords="530,68,599,89" title="Kangxi Emperor" alt="Kangxi Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" coords="246,54,321,75" title="Shunzhi Emperor" alt="Shunzhi Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" coords="163,40,238,61" title="Hong Taiji" alt="Hong Taiji" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" coords="130,26,205,47" title="Hong Taiji" alt="Hong Taiji" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Nurhaci" coords="84,12,148,33" title="Nurhaci" alt="Nurhaci" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_lbj5gwzwp97bk18qkso0ltakyb85ps8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/lbj5gwzwp97bk18qkso0ltakyb85ps8.png" /></div> <p><b>Legend:</b> </p> <ul><li><span style="background:#FF9933;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA"><span style="color:white;">Orange</span></span> denotes <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Jin</a> monarchs</li> <li><span style="background:#FF3399;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA"><span style="color:white;">Pink</span></span> denotes <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> monarchs</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)#Later_Jin_and_Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">Qing dynasty family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199854_(analysis_of_the_painting)_and_102_("secret_succession")-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199854_(analysis_of_the_painting)_and_102_("secret_succession")_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, pp. 54 (analysis of the painting) and 102 ("secret succession").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199898-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200251–2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200251–2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth_Li2002">Roth Li 2002</a>, pp. 51–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199898–99-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199898–99_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, pp. 98–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002125-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002125_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSpence2002">Spence 2002</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu197931-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWu197931_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWu1979">Wu 1979</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu1979118–20_and_154–5-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWu1979118–20_and_154–5_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWu1979">Wu 1979</a>, pp. 118–20 and 154–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998101–2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998101–2_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 101–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998102-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998102_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998102_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998102_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZelin2002185–86-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZelin2002185–86_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZelin2002">Zelin 2002</a>, pp. 185–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998103-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998103_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998103_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998103_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b297_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFang1943b">Fang 1943b</a>, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny20071217–18_(role_of_empresses_and_their_clans_in_the_Han_dynasty)Naquin2000346_(rest_of_the_information)-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny20071217–18_(role_of_empresses_and_their_clans_in_the_Han_dynasty)Naquin2000346_(rest_of_the_information)_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny2007">de Crespigny 2007</a>, pp. 1217–18 (role of empresses and their clans in the Han dynasty); <a href="#CITEREFNaquin2000">Naquin 2000</a>, p. 346 (rest of the information).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199896–103-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199896–103_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, pp. 96–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200271-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth_Li200271_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth_Li2002">Roth Li 2002</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985861-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman1985861_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, p. 861.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943a217_(Chengzong_and_Yi_huangdi)Oxnam197547–48_(imperial_funeral,_"Righteous_Emperor")-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943a217_(Chengzong_and_Yi_huangdi)Oxnam197547–48_(imperial_funeral,_"Righteous_Emperor")_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFang1943a">Fang 1943a</a>, p. 217 (Chengzong and Yi huangdi); <a href="#CITEREFOxnam1975">Oxnam 1975</a>, pp. 47–48 (imperial funeral, "Righteous Emperor").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxnam197575-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxnam197575_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOxnam1975">Oxnam 1975</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennerline2002118-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDennerline2002118_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDennerline2002">Dennerline 2002</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Historians widely agree that the Shunzhi Emperor's will was either deeply modified or forged altogether. See for instance <a href="#CITEREFOxnam1975">Oxnam 1975</a>, pp. 62–63 and 205–7; <a href="#CITEREFKessler1976">Kessler 1976</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFWakeman1985">Wakeman 1985</a>, p. 1015; <a href="#CITEREFDennerline2002">Dennerline 2002</a>, p. 119; and <a href="#CITEREFSpence2002">Spence 2002</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOxnam197548-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOxnam197548_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOxnam1975">Oxnam 1975</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence2002133-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002133_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence2002133_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSpence2002">Spence 2002</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaquin2000346-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaquin2000346_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaquin2000">Naquin 2000</a>, p. 346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFang1943b">Fang 1943b</a>, p. 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298–99-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFang1943b298–99_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFang1943b">Fang 1943b</a>, pp. 298–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012515-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012515_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 515.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012512-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012512_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 512.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012513–14-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012513–14_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, pp. 513–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012182_and_512-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012182_and_512_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, pp. 182 and 512.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001xii_["Strictly_speaking_it_is_proper_to_refer_to_him_as_'the_Qianlong_emperor,'_since_'Qianlong'_was_the_name_assigned_to_his_reign,_not_his_given_name._However,_for_simplicity's_sake,_I_will_use_the_shorter_'Qianlong'_in_this_book."]Peterson2002xxi_["The_names_of_the_reigns_(K'ang-hsi_[Kangxi],_Ch'ien-lung_[Qianlong])_of_emperors_are_routinely_treated_as_if_they_were_the_names_of_the_emperors_themselves._There_are_several_good_reasons_for_this_practice,_even_though_it_is_historiographically_erroneous._We_adopt_it_here_as_a_convention_that_needs_no_apology."]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001xii_["Strictly_speaking_it_is_proper_to_refer_to_him_as_'the_Qianlong_emperor,'_since_'Qianlong'_was_the_name_assigned_to_his_reign,_not_his_given_name._However,_for_simplicity's_sake,_I_will_use_the_shorter_'Qianlong'_in_this_book."]Peterson2002xxi_["The_names_of_the_reigns_(K'ang-hsi_[Kangxi],_Ch'ien-lung_[Qianlong])_of_emperors_are_routinely_treated_as_if_they_were_the_names_of_the_emperors_themselves._There_are_several_good_reasons_for_this_practice,_even_though_it_is_historiographically_erroneous._We_adopt_it_here_as_a_convention_that_needs_no_apology."]_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. xii ["Strictly speaking it is proper to refer to him as 'the Qianlong emperor,' since 'Qianlong' was the name assigned to his reign, not his given name. However, for simplicity's sake, I will use the shorter 'Qianlong' in this book."]; <a href="#CITEREFPeterson2002">Peterson 2002</a>, p. xxi ["The names of the reigns (K'ang-hsi [Kangxi], Ch'ien-lung [Qianlong]) of emperors are routinely treated as if they were the names of the emperors themselves. There are several good reasons for this practice, even though it is historiographically erroneous. We adopt it here as a convention that needs no apology."].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999137_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1999">Crossley 1999</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarinescu2008152-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarinescu2008152_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarinescu2008">Marinescu 2008</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012514-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012514_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 514.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012276-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012276_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 276.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2000110-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2000110_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2000">Wilkinson 2000</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012274-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012274_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012274_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998110-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998110–11-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998110–11_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, pp. 110–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998111-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998111_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012146-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012146_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998208-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998208_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998208_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998208_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199874-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199874_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199874_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199874_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_("Taizu"_as_name_of_dynastic_founder)_and_806_(Nurhaci's_temple_name)-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_("Taizu"_as_name_of_dynastic_founder)_and_806_(Nurhaci's_temple_name)_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, pp. 270 ("Taizu" as name of dynastic founder) and 806 (Nurhaci's temple name).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_(Taizong_as_name_of_the_second_emperor)_and_806_(Hong_Taiji's_temple_name)-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_(Taizong_as_name_of_the_second_emperor)_and_806_(Hong_Taiji's_temple_name)_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, pp. 270 (Taizong as name of the second emperor) and 806 (Hong Taiji's temple name).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012270_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012807-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012807_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 807.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1999138-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999138_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1999138_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1999">Crossley 1999</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, p. 806.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This posthumous title appears in <i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i> (<i>Qingshi Gao</i>), chapter 5, p. 163 of the Zhonghua shuju edition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski1998303-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998303_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski1998303_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawski1998">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806–7-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806–7_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2012806–7_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2012">Wilkinson 2012</a>, pp. 806–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELuHuang202397-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuHuang202397_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLuHuang2023">Lu & Huang 2023</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley1990208-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley1990208_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrossley1990">Crossley 1990</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStary1984?-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStary1984?_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStary1984">Stary 1984</a>, p. ?.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright195717–18-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright195717–18_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWright1957">Wright 1957</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiang201252-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiang201252_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChiang2012">Chiang 2012</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChiang2012" class="citation cs2">Chiang, Howard (2012), "How China Became a 'Castrated Civilization' and Eunuchs a 'Third Sex'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>", in Chiang, Howard (ed.), <i>Transgender China</i>, Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 23–66, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230340626" title="Special:BookSources/978-0230340626"><bdi>978-0230340626</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+China+Became+a+%27Castrated+Civilization%27+and+Eunuchs+a+%27Third+Sex%27&rft.btitle=Transgender+China&rft.place=Basingstoke%2C+England&rft.pages=23-66&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0230340626&rft.aulast=Chiang&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1990" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Pamela_Kyle_Crossley" title="Pamela Kyle Crossley">Crossley, Pamela Kyle</a> (1990), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/orphanwarriorsth00cros_0"><i>Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World</i></a></span>, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-05583-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-05583-1"><bdi>0-691-05583-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orphan+Warriors%3A+Three+Manchu+Generations+and+the+End+of+the+Qing+World&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-691-05583-1&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Forphanwarriorsth00cros_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1999" class="citation cs2">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1999), <i>A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology</i>, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21566-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21566-4"><bdi>0-520-21566-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Translucent+Mirror%3A+History+and+Identity+in+Qing+Imperial+Ideology&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-520-21566-4&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Crespigny2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Rafe_de_Crespigny" title="Rafe de Crespigny">de Crespigny, Rafe</a> (2007), <i>A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)</i>, Leiden: Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15605-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15605-0"><bdi>978-90-04-15605-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Later+Han+to+the+Three+Kingdoms+%2823%E2%80%93220+AD%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15605-0&rft.aulast=de+Crespigny&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennerline2002" class="citation cs2">Dennerline, Jerry (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA73">"The Shun-chih Reign"</a>, in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800</i>, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–119, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3"><bdi>0-521-24334-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Shun-chih+Reign&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Vol.+9%2C+Part+1%3A+The+Ch%27ing+Dynasty+to+1800&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=73-119&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-24334-3&rft.aulast=Dennerline&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhi2THl2FUZ4C%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Elliott_(historian)" title="Mark Elliott (historian)">Elliott, Mark C.</a> (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC"><i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</i></a>, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-4684-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-4684-2"><bdi>0-8047-4684-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8047-4684-2&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFang1943a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fang, Chao-ying (1943). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Dorgon"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period/Dorgon">"Dorgon" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Hummel_Sr." title="Arthur W. Hummel Sr.">Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period" title="Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period">Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>. pp. 215–219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dorgon&rft.btitle=Eminent+Chinese+of+the+Ch%27ing+Period&rft.pages=215-219&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Fang&rft.aufirst=Chao-ying&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFang1943b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fang, Chao-ying (1943). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Hsiao-ch'in Hsien Huang-hou"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period/Hsiao-ch%27in_Hsien_Huang-hou">"Hsiao-ch'in Hsien Huang-hou" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Hummel_Sr." title="Arthur W. Hummel Sr.">Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period" title="Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period">Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>. pp. 295–300.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hsiao-ch%27in+Hsien+Huang-hou&rft.btitle=Eminent+Chinese+of+the+Ch%27ing+Period&rft.pages=295-300&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Fang&rft.aufirst=Chao-ying&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: date and year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_date_and_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: date and year">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler1976" class="citation cs2">Kessler, Lawrence D. (1976), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kanghsiconsolida0000kess"><i>K'ang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661–1684</i></a></span>, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-43203-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-43203-3"><bdi>0-226-43203-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=K%27ang-hsi+and+the+Consolidation+of+Ch%27ing+Rule%2C+1661%E2%80%931684&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-226-43203-3&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkanghsiconsolida0000kess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuHuang2023" class="citation journal cs1">Lu, Zhengheng; Huang, Yinong (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F23521341-12340146">"A New Study of the Title of the Reigning Dynasty during the Pre-Qing Period"</a>. <i>Journal of Chinese Humanities</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 77–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F23521341-12340146">10.1163/23521341-12340146</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2352-1333">2352-1333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Humanities&rft.atitle=A+New+Study+of+the+Title+of+the+Reigning+Dynasty+during+the+Pre-Qing+Period&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77-99&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F23521341-12340146&rft.issn=2352-1333&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Zhengheng&rft.au=Huang%2C+Yinong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%252F23521341-12340146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarinescu2008" class="citation thesis cs1">Marinescu, Jocelyn M. N. (2008). <i>Defending Christianity in China: The Jesuit Defense of Christianity in the </i>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses<i> & </i>Ruijianlu<i> in Relation to the Yongzheng Proscription of 1724</i> (Ph.D. thesis). Department of History, Kansas State University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Defending+Christianity+in+China%3A+The+Jesuit+Defense+of+Christianity+in+the+Lettres+%C3%A9difiantes+et+curieuses+%26+Ruijianlu+in+Relation+to+the+Yongzheng+Proscription+of+1724&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=Department+of+History%2C+Kansas+State+University&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Marinescu&rft.aufirst=Jocelyn+M.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaquin2000" class="citation cs2">Naquin, Susan (2000), <i>Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900</i>, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21991-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21991-0"><bdi>0-520-21991-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peking%3A+Temples+and+City+Life%2C+1400%E2%80%931900&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-520-21991-0&rft.aulast=Naquin&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOxnam1975" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Oxnam" title="Robert Oxnam">Oxnam, Robert B.</a> (1975), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O-ERAAAACAAJ"><i>Ruling from Horseback: Manchu Politics in the Oboi Regency, 1661–1669</i></a>, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-64244-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-64244-5"><bdi>0-226-64244-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruling+from+Horseback%3A+Manchu+Politics+in+the+Oboi+Regency%2C+1661%E2%80%931669&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-226-64244-5&rft.aulast=Oxnam&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO-ERAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2002" class="citation cs2">Peterson, Willard J. 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(1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C"><i>The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</i></a>, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22837-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22837-5"><bdi>0-520-22837-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Emperors%3A+A+Social+History+of+Qing+Imperial+Institutions&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles%2C+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-520-22837-5&rft.aulast=Rawski&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5iN5J9G76h0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth_Li2002" class="citation cs2">Roth Li, Gertraude (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA9">"State Building Before 1644"</a>, in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800</i>, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9–72, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3"><bdi>0-521-24334-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=State+Building+Before+1644&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Vol.+9%2C+Part+1%3A+The+Ch%27ing+Dynasty+to+1800&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=9-72&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-24334-3&rft.aulast=Roth+Li&rft.aufirst=Gertraude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhi2THl2FUZ4C%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence2002" class="citation cs2">Spence, Jonathan D. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA120">"The K'ang-hsi Reign"</a>, in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800</i>, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–82, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3"><bdi>0-521-24334-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+K%27ang-hsi+Reign&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Vol.+9%2C+Part+1%3A+The+Ch%27ing+Dynasty+to+1800&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=120-82&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-24334-3&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhi2THl2FUZ4C%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStary1984" class="citation cs2">Stary, Giovanni (1984), "The Manchu Emperor 'Abahai': Analysis of an Historiographical Mistake", <i>Central Asiatic Journal</i>, <b>28</b> (3–4): 296–99</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Central+Asiatic+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Manchu+Emperor+%27Abahai%27%3A+Analysis+of+an+Historiographical+Mistake&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=296-99&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Stary&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Wakeman" title="Frederic Wakeman">Wakeman, Frederic</a> (1985), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC"><i>The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China</i></a>, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-04804-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-04804-0"><bdi>0-520-04804-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Enterprise%3A+The+Manchu+Reconstruction+of+Imperial+Order+in+Seventeenth-Century+China&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles%2C+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-520-04804-0&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8nXLwSG2O8AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>. In two volumes.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2000" class="citation cs2">Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), <i>Chinese History: A Manual</i> (Revised and Enlarged)<i><span></span></i>, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00249-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00249-0"><bdi>0-674-00249-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+Manual+%28Revised+and+Enlarged%29&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-674-00249-0&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2012" class="citation cs2">Wilkinson, Endymion (2012), <i>Chinese History: A New Manual</i>, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06715-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06715-8"><bdi>978-0-674-06715-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+New+Manual&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06715-8&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1957" class="citation cs2">Wright, Mary C. (1957), <i>The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874</i>, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Stand+of+Chinese+Conservatism%3A+The+T%27ung-Chih+Restoration%2C+1862%E2%80%931874&rft.place=Stanford%2C+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Mary+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu1979" class="citation cs2">Wu, Silas (1979), <i>Passage to Power: Kang-hsi and His Heir Apparent, 1661–1722</i>, Cambridge, MA; London, England: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-65625-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-65625-3"><bdi>0-674-65625-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passage+to+Power%3A+Kang-hsi+and+His+Heir+Apparent%2C+1661%E2%80%931722&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA%3B+London%2C+England&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-674-65625-3&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Silas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZelin2002" class="citation cs2">Zelin, Madeleine (2002), "The Yung-cheng Reign", in Peterson, Willard J. (ed.), <i>Cambridge History of China, Vol. 9, Part 1:The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800</i>, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 183–229, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-24334-3"><bdi>0-521-24334-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Yung-cheng+Reign&rft.btitle=Cambridge+History+of+China%2C+Vol.+9%2C+Part+1%3AThe+Ch%27ing+Dynasty+to+1800&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=183-229&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-24334-3&rft.aulast=Zelin&rft.aufirst=Madeleine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+emperors+of+the+Qing+dynasty" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1616–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1683–1799)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1801–1900)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1901–1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a><br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qing_(People%27s_Republic)" title="History of Qing (People's Republic)">History of Qing (People's Republic)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" 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