CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>First Opium War - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"88c94836-d105-40c9-a259-7a0c4351d19a","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"First_Opium_War","wgTitle":"First Opium War","wgCurRevisionId":1274844837,"wgRevisionId":1274844837,"wgArticleId":143829,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: location missing publisher","CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)","CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)","CS1: unfit URL","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","EngvarB from April 2020","Use dmy dates from March 2022","Articles containing Chinese-language text","Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2021", "All articles with incomplete citations","Articles with incomplete citations from November 2022","Wikipedia articles needing more precise page number citations from September 2021","All articles with failed verification","Articles with failed verification from September 2021","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2021","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from September 2021","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2021","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2021","Articles with failed verification from November 2022","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from September 2021","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2022","All pages needing factual verification","Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from March 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021", "Articles lacking reliable references from February 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022","Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from November 2022","Articles lacking reliable references from November 2021","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024","Articles with failed verification from November 2021","Articles with dead external links from January 2025","Commons category link from Wikidata","First Opium War","1839 in China","1840 in China","1841 in China","1842 in China","Wars involving the British East India Company","History of the Royal Marines","Punitive expeditions of the United Kingdom","Eight Banners","Military history of Taiwan","Organized crime conflicts"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"First_Opium_War","wgRelevantArticleId":143829,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true, "wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q191282","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false, "wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","ext.imagemap.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.imagemap","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin", "mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.imagemap.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="786"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/800px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="524"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/640px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="419"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="First Opium War - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Opium_War"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Opium_War"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-First_Opium_War rootpage-First_Opium_War skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=First+Opium+War" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=First+Opium+War" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=First+Opium+War" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=First+Opium+War" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Background </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Background subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_trade_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_trade_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Establishment of trade relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_trade_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_trade_deficits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_trade_deficits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 European trade deficits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_trade_deficits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opium_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opium_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Opium trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opium_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_trade_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_trade_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Changing trade policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_trade_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_merchants_in_Guangzhou" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_merchants_in_Guangzhou"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Foreign merchants in Guangzhou </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_merchants_in_Guangzhou-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Napier_Affair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Napier_Affair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5.1 Napier Affair </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Napier_Affair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Escalation_of_tensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escalation_of_tensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Escalation of tensions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Escalation_of_tensions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Escalation of tensions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Escalation_of_tensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crackdown_on_opium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crackdown_on_opium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Crackdown on opium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crackdown_on_opium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skirmish_at_Kowloon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skirmish_at_Kowloon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Skirmish at Kowloon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skirmish_at_Kowloon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Chuenpi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Chuenpi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Battle of Chuenpi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Chuenpi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction_in_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction_in_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Reaction in Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction_in_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parliamentary_debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parliamentary_debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Parliamentary debates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parliamentary_debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cabinet_Decision_and_Palmerston_letters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cabinet_Decision_and_Palmerston_letters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Cabinet Decision and Palmerston letters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cabinet_Decision_and_Palmerston_letters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 War </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle War subsection </button> <ul id="toc-War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opening_moves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opening_moves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Opening moves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opening_moves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_offensive_begins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_offensive_begins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 British offensive begins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_offensive_begins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pearl_River_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pearl_River_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Pearl River campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pearl_River_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Central China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yangtze_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yangtze_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Yangtze campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yangtze_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_Nanking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_Nanking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Treaty of Nanking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_Nanking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_and_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_and_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Technology and tactics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology_and_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 British </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.2 Qing dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revisionist_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revisionist_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Revisionist views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revisionist_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Question_of_inevitability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Question_of_inevitability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Question of inevitability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Question_of_inevitability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactive_map" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactive_map"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Interactive map </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactive_map-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Individuals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">First Opium War</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 73 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-73" aria-hidden="true" > 73 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerste_Opiumoorlog" title="Eerste Opiumoorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Eerste Opiumoorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89" title="حرب الأفيون الأولى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الأفيون الأولى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primer_Guerra_del_Opiu" title="Primer Guerra del Opiu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Primer Guerra del Opiu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birinci_tiry%C9%99k_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99si" title="Birinci tiryək müharibəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Birinci tiryək müharibəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%AF%D8%A4%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%88" title="بیرینجی تیریک دؤیوشو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیرینجی تیریک دؤیوشو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5_%D3%99%D1%84%D0%B8%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B" title="Беренсе әфиүн һуғышы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Беренсе әфиүн һуғышы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Першая опіумная вайна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Першая опіумная вайна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enot_na_Gerang_Opyo" title="Enot na Gerang Opyo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Enot na Gerang Opyo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Първа опиумна война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Първа опиумна война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvi_opijumski_rat" title="Prvi opijumski rat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Prvi opijumski rat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primera_Guerra_de_l%27Opi" title="Primera Guerra de l'Opi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Primera Guerra de l'Opi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%C4%95%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%C4%95%D1%88_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC_%D0%B2%C4%83%D1%80%C3%A7%D0%B8" title="Пĕрремĕш опиум вăрçи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пĕрремĕш опиум вăрçи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvn%C3%AD_opiov%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" title="První opiová válka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="První opiová válka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B8rste_opiumskrig" title="Første opiumskrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Første opiumskrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erster_Opiumkrieg" title="Erster Opiumkrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erster Opiumkrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esimene_oopiumis%C3%B5da" title="Esimene oopiumisõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Esimene oopiumisõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9F%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85" title="Πρώτος Πόλεμος του Οπίου – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρώτος Πόλεμος του Οπίου" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primera_Guerra_del_Opio" title="Primera Guerra del Opio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Primera Guerra del Opio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehen_Opioaren_Gerra" title="Lehen Opioaren Gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lehen Opioaren Gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%86%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="جنگ نخست تریاک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ نخست تریاک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premi%C3%A8re_guerre_de_l%27opium" title="Première guerre de l'opium – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Première guerre de l'opium" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primeira_Guerra_do_Opio" title="Primeira Guerra do Opio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Primeira Guerra do Opio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C1%EC%B0%A8_%EC%95%84%ED%8E%B8_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="제1차 아편 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제1차 아편 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%BB%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ափիոնային առաջին պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ափիոնային առաջին պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="प्रथम अफीम युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रथम अफीम युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvi_opijumski_rat" title="Prvi opijumski rat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Prvi opijumski rat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unesma_opiumo-milito" title="Unesma opiumo-milito – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Unesma opiumo-milito" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Candu_Pertama" title="Perang Candu Pertama – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Candu Pertama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyrra_%C3%B3p%C3%ADumstr%C3%AD%C3%B0i%C3%B0" title="Fyrra ópíumstríðið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fyrra ópíumstríðið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94" title="מלחמת האופיום הראשונה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת האופיום הראשונה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ოპიუმის პირველი ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოპიუმის პირველი ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%88%D1%83" title="Англия-Кытай согушу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Англия-Кытай согушу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirmais_Opija_kar%C5%A1" title="Pirmais Opija karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pirmais Opija karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirmasis_opijaus_karas" title="Pirmasis opijaus karas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pirmasis opijaus karas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%92%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="ഒന്നാം കറുപ്പ് യുദ്ധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഒന്നാം കറുപ്പ് യുദ്ധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Candu_Pertama" title="Perang Candu Pertama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Candu Pertama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%99_%E1%80%98%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2" title="ပထမ ဘိန်းစစ်ပွဲ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပထမ ဘိန်းစစ်ပွဲ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerste_Opiumoorlog" title="Eerste Opiumoorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Eerste Opiumoorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="पहिलो अफिम युद्ध – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पहिलो अफिम युद्ध" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%98%E3%83%B3%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="アヘン戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アヘン戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B8rste_opiumkrig" title="Første opiumkrig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Første opiumkrig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_fyrste_opiumskrigen" title="Den fyrste opiumskrigen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den fyrste opiumskrigen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premiera_gu%C3%A8rra_de_l%27%C3%B2pi" title="Premiera guèrra de l'òpi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Premiera guèrra de l'òpi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingliz-Xitoy_urushi" title="Ingliz-Xitoy urushi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ingliz-Xitoy urushi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7" title="ਪਹਿਲਾ ਅਫ਼ੀਮ ਯੁੱਧ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਹਿਲਾ ਅਫ਼ੀਮ ਯੁੱਧ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%81%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%84%DA%91%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="پہلی افیونی لڑائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پہلی افیونی لڑائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%DA%93%DB%8D_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د تریاکو لومړۍ جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د تریاکو لومړۍ جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_wojna_opiumowa" title="I wojna opiumowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="I wojna opiumowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primeira_Guerra_do_%C3%93pio" title="Primeira Guerra do Ópio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Primeira Guerra do Ópio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primul_R%C4%83zboi_al_Opiului" title="Primul Război al Opiului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Primul Război al Opiului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Первая опиумная война – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Первая опиумная война" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="First Opium War" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%85%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%BA" title="පළමුවන අබිං යුද්ධය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පළමුවන අබිං යුද්ධය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prv%C3%A1_%C3%B3piov%C3%A1_vojna" title="Prvá ópiová vojna – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Prvá ópiová vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prva_opijska_vojna" title="Prva opijska vojna – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prva opijska vojna" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Први опијумски рат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Први опијумски рат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvi_opijumski_rat" title="Prvi opijumski rat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Prvi opijumski rat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensimm%C3%A4inen_oopiumisota" title="Ensimmäinen oopiumisota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ensimmäinen oopiumisota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6rsta_opiumkriget" title="Första opiumkriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Första opiumkriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unang_Digmaang_Opyo" title="Unang Digmaang Opyo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Unang Digmaang Opyo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="முதலாம் அபினிப் போர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முதலாம் அபினிப் போர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9D%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B6%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87" title="สงครามฝิ่นครั้งที่หนึ่ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามฝิ่นครั้งที่หนึ่ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._Afyon_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="I. Afyon Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="I. Afyon Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birinji_tir%C3%BDek_ur%C5%9Fy" title="Birinji tirýek urşy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Birinji tirýek urşy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Перша опіумна війна – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Перша опіумна війна" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%81%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="پہلی افیونی جنگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پہلی افیونی جنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahben_Cancwngh" title="Yahben Cancwngh – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yahben Cancwngh" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_nha_phi%E1%BA%BFn_l%E1%BA%A7n_th%E1%BB%A9_nh%E1%BA%A5t" title="Chiến tranh nha phiến lần thứ nhất – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh nha phiến lần thứ nhất" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B4%89%E7%89%87%E4%B9%8B%E5%BD%B9" title="鴉片之役 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="鴉片之役" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syahan_nga_Gera_Opyo" title="Syahan nga Gera Opyo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Syahan nga Gera Opyo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E8%B6%9F%E9%B8%A6%E7%89%87%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="第一趟鸦片战争 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="第一趟鸦片战争" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E9%B4%89%E7%89%87%E6%88%B0%E7%88%AD" title="第一次鴉片戰爭 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="第一次鴉片戰爭" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E6%AC%A1%E9%B8%A6%E7%89%87%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="第一次鸦片战争 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="第一次鸦片战争" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q191282#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:First_Opium_War" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/First_Opium_War" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/First_Opium_War" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&oldid=1274844837" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=First_Opium_War&id=1274844837&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFirst_Opium_War">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFirst_Opium_War">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=First_Opium_War&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:First_Opium_War" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q191282" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1839–1842 war between Britain and China</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Opium War" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Opium_War_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Opium War (disambiguation)">Opium War (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the first and Second Opium Wars in China in the 19th century considered as a collective, see <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a>. For the film, see <a href="/wiki/The_Opium_War_(film)" title="The Opium War (film)">The Opium War (film)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">First Opium War</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Destroying_Chinese_war_junks,_by_E._Duncan_(1843).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/300px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/450px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg/600px-Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="681" /></a> The <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> steamship <a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(1839)" title="Nemesis (1839)">Nemesis</a> (right background) destroying war <a href="/wiki/Junk_(ship)" title="Junk (ship)">junks</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Chuenpi" title="Second Battle of Chuenpi">Second Battle of Chuenpi</a>, 7 January 1841</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>4 September 1839 – 29 August 1842 (2 years, 11 months, 3 weeks and 4 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">China</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> British victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial changes</th><td> <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island" title="Hong Kong Island">Hong Kong Island</a> ceded to Britain</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> </div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_%281801%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_China_%281862%E2%80%931889%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281862%E2%80%931889%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_China_%281862%E2%80%931889%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281862%E2%80%931889%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Flag_of_China_%281862%E2%80%931889%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281862%E2%80%931889%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="560" /> <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing China</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lamb,_2nd_Viscount_Melbourne" title="William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne">William Lamb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Robert Peel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Henry Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Elliot" title="Charles Elliot">Charles Elliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Elliot_(Royal_Navy_officer,_born_1784)" title="George Elliot (Royal Navy officer, born 1784)">George Elliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Bremer" title="Gordon Bremer">Gordon Bremer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Gough,_1st_Viscount_Gough" title="Hugh Gough, 1st Viscount Gough">Hugh Gough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Pottinger" title="Henry Pottinger">Henry Pottinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Parker,_1st_Baronet,_of_Shenstone" title="Sir William Parker, 1st Baronet, of Shenstone">William Parker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Fleming_Senhouse" title="Humphrey Fleming Senhouse">Humphrey Senhouse</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qishan_(official)" title="Qishan (official)">Qishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishan_(official)" title="Yishan (official)">Yishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yijing_(prince)" title="Yijing (prince)">Yijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yilibu" title="Yilibu">Yilibu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Tianpei" title="Guan Tianpei">Guan Tianpei</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Huacheng" title="Chen Huacheng">Chen Huacheng</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Yunfei" title="Ge Yunfei">Ge Yunfei</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Fang_(general)" title="Yang Fang (general)">Yang Fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keying_(official)" title="Keying (official)">Keying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 19,000+ troops:<a href="#cite_note-martin-1">[1]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a>: 5,000</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_armies" title="Presidency armies">Indian Army</a>: 5,000</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a>: c200</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Royal_Naval_Personnel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Royal Naval Personnel (page does not exist)">Royal Naval Personnel</a>: c6,500</li></ul> 37 ships:<a href="#cite_note-martin-1">[1]</a> <ul><li>14 <a href="/wiki/Sloops-of-war" class="mw-redirect" title="Sloops-of-war">sloops-of-war</a></li> <li>8 <a href="/wiki/Frigates" class="mw-redirect" title="Frigates">frigates</a></li> <li>3 <a href="/wiki/Ships_of_the_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Ships of the line">ships of the line</a></li> <li>12 other ships<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 222,212 total troops<a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a>: 16,708</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a>: 205,504</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>69 killed in battle<a href="#cite_note-martin-1">[1]</a></li> <li>451 wounded<a href="#cite_note-martin-1">[1]</a></li> <li>284 <a href="/wiki/Nerbudda_incident" title="Nerbudda incident">executed or died in captivity in Formosa</a><a href="#cite_note-p._248-5">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <abbr title="estimation">est.</abbr> 3,100 killed<a href="#cite_note-9">[c]</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="First_Opium_War1845" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_First_Opium_War" title="Template:Campaignbox First Opium War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_First_Opium_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox First Opium War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_First_Opium_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox First Opium War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="First_Opium_War1845" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Opium War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kowloon" title="Battle of Kowloon">Kowloon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chuenpi" title="Battle of Chuenpi">1st Chuenpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan" title="Capture of Chusan">1st Chusan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Barrier" title="Battle of the Barrier">Barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Chuenpi" title="Second Battle of Chuenpi">2nd Chuenpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bogue" title="Battle of the Bogue">Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_First_Bar" title="Battle of First Bar">First Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Whampoa" title="Battle of Whampoa">Whampoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadway_expedition" title="Broadway expedition">Broadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Canton_(March_1841)" title="Battle of Canton (March 1841)">1st Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Canton_(May_1841)" title="Battle of Canton (May 1841)">2nd Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanyuanli_incident" title="Sanyuanli incident">Sanyuanli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amoy" title="Battle of Amoy">Amoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan_(1841)" title="Capture of Chusan (1841)">2nd Chusan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinhai" title="Battle of Chinhai">Chinhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ningpo" title="Battle of Ningpo">Ningpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tzeki" title="Battle of Tzeki">Tzeki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chapu" title="Battle of Chapu">Chapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Woosung" title="Battle of Woosung">Woosung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinkiang" title="Battle of Chinkiang">Chinkiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerbudda_incident" title="Nerbudda incident">Nerbudda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">First Opium War</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">第一次鴉片戰爭</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">第一次鸦片战争</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dìyīcì yāpiàn zhànzhēng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄉㄧˋ ㄧ ㄘˋ ㄧㄚ ㄅㄧㄢˋ ㄓㄢˋ ㄓㄥ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Ti4-i1-tzʻu4 ya1-pʻien4 chan4-cheng1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dì-yi-cìh ya-piàn jhàn-jheng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tî.í.tsʰɹ̩̂ já.pʰjɛ̂n ʈʂân.ʈʂə́ŋ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Daihyātchi Āpin Jinjāng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dai6 jat1 ci3 aa1 pin3 zin3 zang1</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[tɐj˨ jɐt̚˥ tsʰi˧ a˥ pʰin˧ tsin˧ tsɐŋ˥]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> The First Opium War (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 第一次鴉片戰爭; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Dìyīcì yāpiàn zhànzhēng), also known as the Anglo-Chinese War, was a series of military engagements fought between the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing Dynasty of China</a> between 1839 and 1842. The immediate issue was the Chinese enforcement of their ban on the <a href="/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China" title="History of opium in China">opium trade</a> by seizing private opium stocks from mainly British merchants at <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (then named Canton) and threatening to impose the death penalty for future offenders. Despite the opium ban, the British government supported the merchants' demand for compensation for seized goods, and insisted on the principles of <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> and equal diplomatic recognition with China. Opium was Britain's single most profitable commodity trade of the 19th century. After months of tensions between the two states, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> launched an expedition in June 1840, which ultimately defeated the Chinese using technologically superior ships and weapons by August 1842. The British then imposed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a>, which forced China to increase foreign trade, give compensation, and cede <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island" title="Hong Kong Island">Hong Kong Island</a> to the British. Consequently, the opium trade continued in China. Twentieth-century nationalists considered 1839 the start of a <a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">century of humiliation</a>, and many historians consider it the beginning of modern Chinese history. In the 18th century, the European demand for Chinese luxury goods (particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) created a trade imbalance between China and Britain. <a href="/wiki/Global_silver_trade_from_the_16th_to_18th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries">European silver flowed into China</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a>, which confined incoming foreign trade to the southern port city of Guangzhou. To counter this imbalance, the British <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> began to grow <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> and allowed private British merchants to sell opium to Chinese smugglers for illegal sale in China. The influx of narcotics reversed the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Trade_surplus" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade surplus">trade surplus</a> and increased the numbers of opium addicts inside the country, outcomes that seriously worried Chinese officials. Senior government officials within the country had been shown to be colluding against the imperial ban due to stocks of opium in European warehouses in clear view being ignored. In 1839, the <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a>, rejecting proposals to legalise and tax opium, appointed Viceroy of Huguang <a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a> to go to Guangzhou to halt the opium trade completely.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000l-10">[7]</a> Lin wrote an open letter to <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> appealing to her moral responsibility to stop the opium trade, although she never received it.<a href="#cite_note-Fay_p143-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[10]</a> Lin then resorted to using force in the western merchants' enclave. He arrived in Guangzhou at the end of January 1839 and organized a coastal defence. In March 1839, British opium dealers were forced to hand over 2.37 million pounds of opium. On 3 June 1839, Lin ordered the opium to be destroyed in public on <a href="/wiki/Humen" title="Humen">Humen Beach</a> to show the Government's determination to ban smoking.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-14">[11]</a> All other supplies were confiscated and a blockade of foreign ships on the Pearl River was ordered.<a href="#cite_note-Farooqui-2005-15">[12]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Tensions escalated in July 1839 after drunk British sailors killed a Chinese villager named Lin Weixi; the British official in charge, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Charles_Elliot" title="Charles Elliot">Charles Elliot</a>, refused to hand over those accused to Chinese authorities in an attempt to avoid their being killed on the spot, as had happened with British citizens in the <a href="/wiki/Lady_Hughes_Affair" title="Lady Hughes Affair">Lady Hughes Affair</a> of 1784. Later, fighting broke out, with the British navy destroying the Chinese naval blockade, and launching an offensive.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-14">[11]</a> In the ensuing conflict, the Royal Navy used its superior naval and gunnery power to inflict a series of decisive defeats on the Chinese Empire.<a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a> In 1842, the Qing dynasty was forced to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a>—the first of what the Chinese later called the <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">unequal treaties</a>—which granted an <a href="/wiki/Indemnity" title="Indemnity">indemnity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extraterritoriality" title="Extraterritoriality">extraterritoriality</a> to British subjects in China, opened five <a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">treaty ports</a> to British merchants, and ceded <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island" title="Hong Kong Island">Hong Kong Island</a> to the British Empire. The failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> (1856–1860). The resulting social unrest was the background for the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>, which further weakened the Qing regime.<a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_trade_relations">Establishment of trade relations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Establishment of trade relations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMH-6145-NA_View_of_Canton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/AMH-6145-NA_View_of_Canton.jpg/220px-AMH-6145-NA_View_of_Canton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/AMH-6145-NA_View_of_Canton.jpg/330px-AMH-6145-NA_View_of_Canton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/AMH-6145-NA_View_of_Canton.jpg/440px-AMH-6145-NA_View_of_Canton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1636" /></a><figcaption>View of Guangzhou with merchant ship of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>, c. 1665</figcaption></figure> Direct maritime trade between Europe and China began in 1557 when the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> leased an outpost from the Ming dynasty in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>. Other European nations soon followed the Portuguese lead, inserting themselves into the existing Asian maritime trade network to compete with Arab, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese merchants in intraregional commerce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray200222–23-19">[16]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Philippines">Spanish conquest of the Philippines</a>, the exchange of goods between China and Europe accelerated dramatically. From 1565, the <a href="/wiki/Manila_Galleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila Galleon">Manila Galleons</a> brought silver into the Asian trade network from mines in <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">South America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] China was a primary destination for the precious metal, as the imperial government mandated that Chinese goods could only be exported in exchange for silver <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">bullion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstone-2016-21">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Mann-2011-22">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] British ships began to appear sporadically around the coasts of China from 1635 on.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> Without establishing formal relations through the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">tributary system</a>, by which most Asian nations were able to negotiate with China, British merchants were only allowed to trade at the ports of <a href="/wiki/Zhoushan" title="Zhoushan">Zhoushan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xiamen" title="Xiamen">Xiamen</a> (or Amoy), and Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999120-24">[21]</a> Official British trade was conducted through the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>, which held a <a href="/wiki/Royal_charter" title="Royal charter">royal charter</a> for trade with the Far East. The East India Company gradually came to dominate Sino-European trade from its position in India and due to the strength of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein_286-25">[22]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Canton_factories_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/View_of_Canton_factories_2.jpg/260px-View_of_Canton_factories_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/View_of_Canton_factories_2.jpg/390px-View_of_Canton_factories_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/View_of_Canton_factories_2.jpg/520px-View_of_Canton_factories_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1289" /></a><figcaption>View of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Factories" title="Thirteen Factories">European factories</a> in Guangzhou</figcaption></figure> Trade benefited after the newly risen <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> relaxed maritime trade restrictions in the 1680s. <a href="/wiki/Formosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosa">Formosa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>) came under Qing control in 1683 and rhetoric regarding the tributary status of Europeans was muted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999120-24">[21]</a> Guangzhou became the port of preference for incoming foreign trade. Ships did try to call at other ports, but these locations could not match the benefits of Guangzhou's geographic position at the mouth of the Pearl River, nor did they have the city's long experience in balancing the demands of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> with those of Chinese and foreign merchants.<a href="#cite_note-Van_Dyke_6-26">[23]</a> From 1700 onward Guangzhou was the centre of maritime trade with China, and this market process was gradually formulated by Qing authorities into the "<a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Van_Dyke_6-26">[23]</a> From the system's inception in 1757, trading in China was extremely lucrative for European and Chinese merchants alike as goods such as tea, porcelain, and silk were valued highly enough in Europe to justify the expenses of travelling to Asia. The system was highly regulated by the Qing government. Foreign traders were only permitted to do business through a body of Chinese merchants known as the <a href="/wiki/Cohong" title="Cohong">Cohong</a> and were forbidden to learn Chinese. Foreigners could only live in one of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Factories" title="Thirteen Factories">Thirteen Factories</a> and were not allowed to enter or trade in any other part of China. Only low-level government officials could be dealt with, and the imperial court could not be lobbied for any reason excepting official diplomatic missions.<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> The Imperial laws that upheld the system were collectively known as the Prevention Barbarian Ordinances (防範外夷規條).<a href="#cite_note-Peyrefitte-1792-28">[25]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] The Cohong were particularly powerful in the <a href="/wiki/Old_China_Trade" title="Old China Trade">Old China Trade</a>, as they were tasked with appraising the value of foreign products, purchasing or rebuffing said imports and charged with selling Chinese exports at an appropriate price.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] The Cohong was made up of between (depending on the politics of Guangzhou) 6 to 20 merchant families. Most of the merchant houses these families ruled had been established by low-ranking <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)" title="Mandarin (bureaucrat)">mandarins</a>, but several were Cantonese or Han in origin.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> Another key function of the Cohong was the traditional bond signed between a Cohong member and a foreign merchant. This bond stated that the receiving Cohong member was responsible for the foreign merchant's behavior and cargo while in China.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000h-31">[28]</a> In addition to dealing with the Cohong, European merchants were required to pay customs fees, measurement duties, provide gifts, and hire navigators.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000h-31">[28]</a> Despite restrictions, silk and porcelain continued to drive trade through their popularity in Europe, and an insatiable demand for Chinese tea existed in Britain. From the mid-17th century onward around 28 million kilograms/61.6 million pounds of silver were received by China, principally from European powers, in exchange for Chinese products.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_trade_deficits">European trade deficits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: European trade deficits">edit</a>]</div> A brisk trade between China and European powers continued for over a century. While this trading heavily favoured the Chinese and resulted in European nations sustaining large <a href="/wiki/Trade_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade deficit">trade deficits</a>, the demand for Chinese goods continued to drive commerce. In addition, the colonisation and conquest of the Americas resulted in European nations (namely Spain, Great Britain, and France) gaining access to a cheap supply of silver, resulting in European economies remaining relatively stable despite the trade deficit with China. This silver was also shipped across the Pacific Ocean to China directly, notably through the Spanish-controlled Philippines. In stark contrast to the European situation, Qing China sustained a trade surplus. Foreign silver flooded into China in exchange for Chinese goods, expanding the Chinese economy but also causing inflation and forming a Chinese reliance on European silver.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000h-31">[28]</a> The continued economic expansion of European economies in 17th and 18th centuries gradually increased the European demand for precious metals, which were used to mint new coins; this increasing need for hard currency to remain in circulation in Europe reduced the supply of bullion available for trade in China, driving up costs and leading to competition between merchants in Europe and European merchants who traded with the Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a> This market force resulted in a chronic trade deficit for European governments, who were forced to risk silver shortages in their domestic economies to supply the needs of their merchants in Asia (who as private enterprises still turned a profit by selling valuable Chinese goods to consumers in Europe).<a href="#cite_note-Peyrefitte-1792-28">[25]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Peyrefitte_1993,_p487-503-34">[31]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] This gradual effect was greatly exacerbated by a series of large-scale colonial wars between Great Britain and Spain in the mid 18th century; these conflicts disrupted the international silver market and eventually resulted in the independence of powerful new nations, namely the United States and Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] Without cheap silver from the colonies to sustain their trade, European merchants who traded with China began to take silver directly out of circulation in the already-weakened economies of Europe to pay for goods in China.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a> This angered governments, who saw their economies shrink as a result, and fostered a great deal of animosity towards the Chinese for their restriction of European trade.<a href="#cite_note-Peyrefitte_1993,_p487-503-34">[31]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Hanes_2002-36">[33]</a> The Chinese economy was unaffected by fluctuations in silver prices, as China was able to <a href="/wiki/Iwami_Ginzan_Silver_Mine" title="Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine">import Japanese silver</a> to stabilise its money supply.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstone-2016-21">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] European goods remained in low demand in China, ensuring the longstanding trade surplus with the European nations continued.<a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a> Despite these tensions, trade between China and Europe grew by an estimated 4% annually in the years leading up to the start of the opium trade.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_poor_Chinese_opium_smokers._Gouache_painting_on_rice-pap_Wellcome_V0019165.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Two_poor_Chinese_opium_smokers._Gouache_painting_on_rice-pap_Wellcome_V0019165.jpg/220px-Two_poor_Chinese_opium_smokers._Gouache_painting_on_rice-pap_Wellcome_V0019165.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Two_poor_Chinese_opium_smokers._Gouache_painting_on_rice-pap_Wellcome_V0019165.jpg/330px-Two_poor_Chinese_opium_smokers._Gouache_painting_on_rice-pap_Wellcome_V0019165.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Two_poor_Chinese_opium_smokers._Gouache_painting_on_rice-pap_Wellcome_V0019165.jpg/440px-Two_poor_Chinese_opium_smokers._Gouache_painting_on_rice-pap_Wellcome_V0019165.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3208" data-file-height="2108" /></a><figcaption>Chinese opium smokers</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opium_trade">Opium trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Opium trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China" title="History of opium in China">History of opium in China</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">Opium</a> as a medicinal ingredient was documented in Chinese texts as early as the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (617–907), but the recreational usage of the drug was limited. As with India, opium (then limited by distance to a dried powder, often drunk with tea or water) was introduced to China and Southeast Asia by Arab merchants.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000g-38">[35]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> banned tobacco as a decadent good in 1640, and opium was seen as a similarly minor issue. The first restrictions on opium were passed by the Qing in 1729 when <a href="/wiki/Madak" title="Madak">Madak</a> (a substance made from powdered opium blended with tobacco) was banned.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000l-10">[7]</a> At the time, Madak production used up most of the opium being imported into China, as pure opium was difficult to preserve. Consumption of Javanese opium rose in the 18th century, and after the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> resulted in the British occupying <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, British merchants became the primary traders in opium.<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> The British realised they could reduce their trade deficit with Chinese manufactories by counter-trading in narcotic opium, and therefore efforts were made to produce more opium in <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company-controlled India</a>. Limited British sales of Indian opium began in 1781, with exports to China increasing as the East India Company solidified its control over India.<a href="#cite_note-Mann-2011-22">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Hanes_2002-36">[33]</a> The British opium was produced in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River_Plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River Plain">Ganges River Plain</a>, where the British inherited an existing opium industry from the declining <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> and saw the product as a potentially valuable export.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000m-40">[37]</a> The East India Company commissioned and managed hundreds of thousands of poppy plantations. It took care of the painstaking lancing of individual pods to obtain the raw gum, drying and forming it into cakes, before coating and packaging them for auction in Calcutta.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> The company tightly controlled the opium industry, and all opium was considered company property until it was sold.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a> From <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>, the company's Board of Customs, Salt, and Opium concerned itself with quality control by managing the way opium was packaged and shipped. No poppies could be cultivated without the company's permission, and the company banned private businesses from refining opium. All opium in India was sold to the company at a fixed rate, and the company hosted a series of public opium auctions every year. The difference of the company-set price of raw opium and the sale price of refined opium at auction (minus expenses) was profit made by the East India Company.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000m-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] In addition to securing poppies cultivated on lands under its direct control, the company's board issued licences to the independent <a href="/wiki/Princely_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Princely states">princely states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a>, where significant quantities of poppies were grown.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000m-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_John_Huggins_-_The_opium_ships_at_Lintin,_China,_1824.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/William_John_Huggins_-_The_opium_ships_at_Lintin%2C_China%2C_1824.jpg/220px-William_John_Huggins_-_The_opium_ships_at_Lintin%2C_China%2C_1824.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/William_John_Huggins_-_The_opium_ships_at_Lintin%2C_China%2C_1824.jpg/330px-William_John_Huggins_-_The_opium_ships_at_Lintin%2C_China%2C_1824.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/William_John_Huggins_-_The_opium_ships_at_Lintin%2C_China%2C_1824.jpg/440px-William_John_Huggins_-_The_opium_ships_at_Lintin%2C_China%2C_1824.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2768" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of opium ships at <a href="/wiki/Nei_Lingding_Island" title="Nei Lingding Island">Lintin</a>, China by the British artist <a href="/wiki/William_John_Huggins" title="William John Huggins">William John Huggins</a> in 1824</figcaption></figure> By the late 18th century, company and Malwan farmlands (which were traditionally dependent on cotton growing) had been hard hit by the introduction of factory-produced cotton cloth, which used cotton grown in Egypt or the American South. Opium was considered a lucrative replacement, and was soon being auctioned in ever larger amounts in Calcutta.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">[26]</a> Private merchants who possessed a company charter (to comply with the British royal charter for Asiatic trade) bid on and acquired goods at the Calcutta auction before sailing to Southern China. British ships brought their cargoes to islands off the coast, especially <a href="/wiki/Lintin_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Lintin Island">Lintin Island</a>, where Chinese traders with fast and well-armed small boats took the goods inland for distribution, paying for the opium with silver.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">[26]</a> The Qing administration initially tolerated opium importation because it created an indirect tax on Chinese subjects, as increasing the silver supply available to foreign merchants through the sale of opium encouraged Europeans to spend more money on Chinese goods. This policy provided the funds British merchants needed to then greatly increase tea exports from China to England, delivering further profits to the Qing monopoly on tea exports held by the imperial treasury and its agents in Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_busy_stacking_room_in_the_opium_factory_at_Patna,_India._L_Wellcome_V0019154.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/A_busy_stacking_room_in_the_opium_factory_at_Patna%2C_India._L_Wellcome_V0019154.jpg/220px-A_busy_stacking_room_in_the_opium_factory_at_Patna%2C_India._L_Wellcome_V0019154.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/A_busy_stacking_room_in_the_opium_factory_at_Patna%2C_India._L_Wellcome_V0019154.jpg/330px-A_busy_stacking_room_in_the_opium_factory_at_Patna%2C_India._L_Wellcome_V0019154.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/A_busy_stacking_room_in_the_opium_factory_at_Patna%2C_India._L_Wellcome_V0019154.jpg/440px-A_busy_stacking_room_in_the_opium_factory_at_Patna%2C_India._L_Wellcome_V0019154.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5950" data-file-height="4815" /></a><figcaption>A British <a href="/wiki/Lithograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithograph">lithograph</a> depicting a storehouse filled with opium at the factory of the British East India Company in <a href="/wiki/Patna" title="Patna">Patna</a>, India <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1850</figcaption></figure> However, opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting social stability. From Guangzhou, the habit spread outwards to the North and West, affecting members from every class of Chinese society.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000f-43">[40]</a> By the early 19th century, more and more Chinese were smoking British opium as a recreational drug. For many, what started as recreation soon became a punishing addiction: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. Once addicted, people would often do almost anything to continue to get access to the drug.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> These serious social issues eventually led to the Qing government issuing an edict against the drug in 1780, followed by an outright ban in 1796, and an order from the governor of Guangzhou to stop the trade in 1799.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000f-43">[40]</a> To circumnavigate the increasingly stringent regulations in Guangzhou, foreign merchants bought older ships and converted them into floating warehouses. These ships were anchored off of the Chinese coast at the mouth of the Pearl River in case the Chinese authorities moved against the opium trade, as the ships of the Chinese navy had difficulty operating in open water.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000j-45">[42]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] Inbound opium ships would unload a portion of their cargo onto these floating warehouses, where the narcotic was eventually purchased by Chinese opium dealers. By implementing this system of smuggling, foreign merchants could avoid inspection by Chinese officials and prevent retaliation against the trade in legal goods, in which many smugglers also participated.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000f-43">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] In the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Old_China_Trade" title="Old China Trade">American merchants joined the trade</a> and began to introduce <a href="/wiki/Turkey_merchant" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkey merchant">opium from Turkey</a> into the Chinese market—this supply was of lesser quality but cheaper, and the resulting competition among British and American merchants drove down the price of opium, leading to an increase in the availability of the drug for Chinese consumers.<a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a> The demand for opium rose rapidly and was so profitable in China that Chinese opium dealers (who, unlike European merchants, could legally travel to and sell goods in the Chinese interior) began to seek out more suppliers of the drug. The resulting shortage in supply drew more European merchants into the increasingly lucrative opium trade to meet the Chinese demand. In the words of one trading house agent, "[Opium] it is like gold. I can sell it anytime."<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> From 1804 to 1820, a period when the Qing treasury needed to finance the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a> and other conflicts, the flow of money gradually reversed, and Chinese merchants were soon exporting silver to pay for opium rather than Europeans paying for Chinese goods with the precious metal.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> European and American ships were able to arrive in Guangzhou with their holds filled with opium, sell their cargo, use the proceeds to buy Chinese goods, and turn a profit in the form of silver bullion.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstone-2016-21">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] This silver would then be used to acquire more Chinese goods.<a href="#cite_note-Peyrefitte-1792-28">[25]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] While opium remained the most profitable good to trade with China, foreign merchants began to export other cargoes, such as machine-spun cotton cloth, <a href="/wiki/Rattan" title="Rattan">rattan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginseng" title="Ginseng">ginseng</a>, fur, clocks, and steel tools. However, these goods never reached the same level of importance as narcotics, nor were they as lucrative.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-JEAL-49">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opium_imports_into_China_1650-1880_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Opium_imports_into_China_1650-1880_EN.svg/350px-Opium_imports_into_China_1650-1880_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Opium_imports_into_China_1650-1880_EN.svg/525px-Opium_imports_into_China_1650-1880_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Opium_imports_into_China_1650-1880_EN.svg/700px-Opium_imports_into_China_1650-1880_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption>Graph showing the increase in Chinese opium imports by year</figcaption></figure> The Qing imperial court debated whether or how to end the opium trade, but their efforts to curtail opium abuse were complicated by local officials and the Cohong, who profited greatly from the bribes and taxes involved in the narcotics trade.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000j-45">[42]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] Efforts by Qing officials to curb opium imports through regulations on consumption resulted in an increase in drug smuggling by European and Chinese traders, and corruption was rampant.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Janin-1999-51">[48]</a> In 1810, the Daoguang Emperor issued an edict concerning the opium crisis, declaring, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Opium has a harm. Opium is a poison, undermining our good customs and morality. Its use is prohibited by law. Now the commoner, Yang, dares to bring it into the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>. Indeed, he flouts the law! However, recently the purchasers, eaters, and consumers of opium have become numerous. Deceitful merchants buy and sell it to gain profit. The customs house at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%27ung-wen_Gate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ch'ung-wen Gate (page does not exist)">Ch'ung-wen Gate</a> was originally set up to supervise the collection of imports (it had no responsibility with regard to opium smuggling). If we confine our search for opium to the seaports, we fear the search will not be sufficiently thorough. We should also order the general commandant of the police and police—censors at the five gates to prohibit opium and to search for it at all gates. If they capture any violators, they should immediately punish them and should destroy the opium at once. As to Kwangtung [Guangdong] and Fukien [Fujian], the provinces from which opium comes, we order their viceroys, governors, and superintendents of the maritime customs to conduct a thorough search for opium, and cut off its supply. They should in no ways consider this order a dead letter and allow opium to be smuggled out!<a href="#cite_note-fu-52">[49]</a></blockquote> Nonetheless, by 1831, the annual opium traffic neared 20,000 chests, each with a net weight of around 140 pounds, compared with just about 4,000 chests per year between 1800 and 1818. After the East India Company's monopoly on tea ended in 1833 and private merchants began to join in, this quantity would go on to double before the close of the decade.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> Bengal and India, under the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>, experienced mixed effects from the Britain-China opium trade. On one hand, millions died in Bengal during the famine of 1770 after agricultural land was forcibly converted to poppy cultivation. Small farmers in India's <a href="/wiki/Bihar_Province" title="Bihar Province">Bihar Province</a> were compelled to grow poppies without profit. On the other hand, opium became the main driver of capital accumulation for merchants and bankers in western India.<a href="#cite_note-Conversation-54">[51]</a> The Indian government's revenue from opium trade rose from less than five percent of its total in the early 1800s to nearly 17 percent in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> The income helped British rule and the East India Company expand further in the region.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> The opium profits of the Royal Dutch Trading Company in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> financed several enterprises, such as <a href="/wiki/Shell_plc" title="Shell plc">Royal Dutch Shell</a>. A few American merchants also made a fortune from the opium trade and invested their proceeds in railroads, hotel chains, and manufacturing in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Conversation-54">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_trade_policy">Changing trade policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Changing trade policy">edit</a>]</div> In addition to the start of the opium trade, economic and social innovations led to a change in the parameters of the wider Sino-European trade.<a href="#cite_note-Wood-1849-57">[54]</a> The formulation of <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a> by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> and other economic theorists caused academic belief in <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> to decline in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Seabrooke-2006-58">[55]</a> Under the prior system, the Qianlong Emperor restricted trade with foreigners on Chinese soil only for licensed Chinese merchants, while the British government on their part issued a monopoly charter for trade only to the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>. This arrangement was not challenged until the 19th century when the idea of free trade was popularised in the West.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Fueled by the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, Britain began to use its growing naval power to spread a broadly liberal economic model, encompassing open markets and relatively barrier free international trade, a policy in line with the credo of <a href="/wiki/Smithian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithian economics">Smithian economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Seabrooke-2006-58">[55]</a> This stance on trade was intended to open foreign markets to the resources of Britain's colonies, as well as provide the British public with greater access to consumer goods such as tea.<a href="#cite_note-Seabrooke-2006-58">[55]</a> In Great Britain, the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard" title="Gold standard">gold standard</a> in 1821 resulted in the empire <a href="/wiki/Great_Recoinage_of_1816" title="Great Recoinage of 1816">minting</a> standardised silver shillings, further reducing the availability of silver for trade in Asia and spurring the British government to press for more trading rights in China.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Wood-1849-57">[54]</a> In contrast to this new economic model, the Qing dynasty continued to employ a <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a>-Modernist, highly organised economic philosophy that called for strict government intervention in industry for the sake of preserving societal stability.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">[26]</a> While the Qing government was not explicitly anti-trade, a lack of need for imports and increasingly heavy taxes on luxury goods limited pressure on the government to open further ports to international trade.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia-2017-61">[58]</a> China's rigid merchant hierarchy also blocked efforts to open ports to foreign ships and businesses.<a href="#cite_note-Gao-2003-62">[59]</a> Chinese merchants operating in inland China wanted to avoid market fluctuations caused by importing foreign goods that would compete with domestic production, while the Cohong families of Guangzhou profited greatly by keeping their city the only entry point for foreign products.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia-2017-61">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gao-2003-62">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rowe-2009-64">[61]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] At the turn of the 19th century, countries such as Great Britain, the Netherlands, Denmark, Russia, and the United States began to seek additional trading rights in China.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> Foremost among the concerns of the western nations was the end of the Canton System and the opening of China's vast consumer markets to trade. Britain in particular was keenly increasing its exports to China, as the empire's implementation of the gold standard forced it to purchase silver and gold from continental Europe and Mexico to further fuel its rapidly industrialising economy.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> Attempts by a British embassy (led by <a href="/wiki/Macartney_Embassy" title="Macartney Embassy">Macartney</a> in 1793), a Dutch mission (under <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Pieter_van_Braam" title="Jacob Pieter van Braam">Jacob Pieter van Braam</a> in 1794), Russia (headed by <a href="/wiki/Yury_Golovkin" title="Yury Golovkin">Yury Golovkin</a> in 1805), and the British again (<a href="/wiki/William_Amherst,_1st_Earl_Amherst" title="William Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst">Earl William Amherst</a> in 1816) to negotiate increased access to the Chinese market were all vetoed by successive Qing emperors.<a href="#cite_note-Peyrefitte_1993,_p487-503-34">[31]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] Upon his meeting the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> in 1816, Amherst refused to perform the traditional <a href="/wiki/Kowtow" title="Kowtow">kowtow</a>, an act that the Qing saw as a severe breach of etiquette. Amherst and his party were expelled from China, a diplomatic rebuke that angered the British government.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> One major reason was that British consumers had developed a strong liking for Chinese tea, as well as other goods like porcelain and silk. But Chinese consumers had no similar preference for any goods produced in Britain. Because of this trade imbalance, Britain increasingly had to use silver to pay for its expanding purchases of Chinese goods. Britain suffered from a huge trade deficit during the Sino-British trade. Meanwhile, the high tariff made the British government very dissatisfied with the Qing government. The Chinese only allowed silver in exchange for the products they were offering so a significant amount of this commodity was leaving the British Empire.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> As its merchants gained increasing influence in China, Great Britain bolstered its military strength in Southern China. Britain began sending warships to combat piracy on the Pearl River, and in 1808 established a permanent garrison of British troops in Macau to defend against French attacks.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_merchants_in_Guangzhou">Foreign merchants in Guangzhou</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Foreign merchants in Guangzhou">edit</a>]</div> As the opium-fuelled China Trade increased in scope and value, the foreign presence in Guangzhou and Macau grew in size and influence. The Thirteen Factories district of Guangzhou continued to expand, and was labelled the "foreign quarter".<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] A small population of merchants began to stay in Guangzhou year round (most merchants lived in Macau for the summer months, then moved to Guangzhou in the winter),<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> and a local chamber of commerce was formed. In the first two decades of the 19th century, the increasingly sophisticated (and profitable) trade between Europe and China allowed for a clique of European merchants to rise to positions of great importance in China.<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] The most notable of these figures were <a href="/wiki/William_Jardine_(merchant)" title="William Jardine (merchant)">William Jardine</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Matheson" title="James Matheson">James Matheson</a> (who went on to found <a href="/wiki/Jardine_Matheson" class="mw-redirect" title="Jardine Matheson">Jardine Matheson</a>), British merchants who operated a consignment and shipping business in Guangzhou and Macau, with associates such as <a href="/wiki/Jamsetjee_Jejeebhoy" title="Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy">Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy</a>, who became their principal supplier in India.<a href="#cite_note-Pichon2006-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-Derks2012-73">[70]</a> While all three dealt in legal goods, they also profited greatly from selling opium. Jardine in particular was effective in navigating the political environment of Guangzhou to allow for more narcotics to be smuggled into China.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a> He was also contemptuous of the Chinese legal system, and often used his economic influence to subvert Chinese authorities.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">[30]</a> This included his (with Matheson's support) petitioning for the British government to attempt to gain trading rights and political recognition from Imperial China, by force if necessary. In addition to trade, some western missionaries arrived and began to proselytise Christianity to the Chinese. While some officials tolerated this (Macau-based Jesuits had been active in China since the early 17th century), some officials clashed with Chinese Christians, raising tensions between western merchants and Qing officials.<a href="#cite_note-Rowe-2009-64">[61]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000i-74">[71]</a> While the foreign community in Guangzhou grew in influence, the local government began to suffer from civil discord inside China. The White Lotus Rebellion (1796–1804) drained the Qing dynasty's treasury of silver, forcing the government to levy increasingly heavy taxes on merchants. These taxes did not abate after the rebellion was crushed, as the Chinese government began a massive project to repair state-owned properties on the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, referred to as the "Yellow River Conservancy".<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> The merchants of Guangzhou were further expected to make contributions to fight banditry. These taxes weighed heavily on the profits made by the Cohong merchants; by the 1830s, the once-prosperous Cohong had seen their wealth greatly reduced. In addition, the declining value of China's domestic currency resulted in many people in Guangzhou using foreign silver coins (Spanish coins were the most valued, followed by American coins)<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> as they contained higher amounts of silver. Using western coins allowed Cantonese coiners to make many Chinese coins from melted-down western coins, greatly increasing the city's wealth, and tax revenue while tying much of the economy of the city to the foreign merchants.<a href="#cite_note-Rowe-2009-64">[61]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> A significant development came in 1834 when reformers (some of whom were financially backed by Jardine)<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000i-74">[71]</a> in Britain, advocating for free trade, succeeded in ending the monopoly of the British East India Company under the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena_Act_1833" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Helena Act 1833">Charter Act</a> of the previous year. This shift in trade policy ended the need for merchants to comply with the royal charter for trade in the far east; with this centuries-old restriction lifted, the British China trade was opened to private entrepreneurs, many of whom joined the highly profitable opium trade.<a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] On the eve of the Qing government's crackdown on opium, a Chinese official described the changes in society caused by the drug; <blockquote> At the beginning, opium smoking was confined to the fops of wealthy families who took up the habit as a form of conspicuous consumption, even they knew that they should not indulge in it to the greatest extreme. Later, people of all social strata—from government officials and members of the gentry to craftsmen, merchants, entertainers, and servants, and even women, Buddhist monks and nuns, and Taoist priests—took up the habit and openly bought and equipped themselves with smoking instruments. Even in the center of our dynasty—the nation's capital and its surrounding areas—some of the inhabitants have also been contaminated by this dreadful poison.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Napier_Affair">Napier Affair</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Napier Affair">edit</a>]</div> In late 1834, to accommodate the revocation of the East India Company's monopoly, the British sent <a href="/wiki/William_John_Napier" class="mw-redirect" title="William John Napier">William John Napier</a> to Macau along with <a href="/wiki/John_Francis_Davis" title="John Francis Davis">John Francis Davis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Robinson,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir George Robinson, 2nd Baronet">Sir George Robinson, 2nd Baronet</a>, as British superintendents of trade in China. Napier was instructed to obey Chinese regulations, communicate directly with Chinese authorities, superintend trade pertaining to the contraband trade of opium, and to survey China's coastline. Upon his arrival in China, Napier tried to circumvent the restrictive system that forbade direct contact with Chinese officials by sending a letter directly to the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Viceroy of Liangguang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lu_Kun" title="Lu Kun">Lu Kun</a>, requesting a meeting. The Viceroy refused to accept it, and on 2 September of that year an edict was issued that temporarily closed British trade. In response, Napier ordered two Royal Navy vessels to bombard Chinese forts on the Pearl River straight, the <a href="/wiki/Humen" title="Humen">Bocca Tigris</a>, in a show of force. This command was followed through, but war was avoided due to Napier falling ill with typhus and ordering a retreat. The brief gunnery duel drew condemnation by the Chinese government, as well as criticism from the British government and foreign merchants.<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> Other nationalities, such as the Americans, prospered through their continued peaceful trade with China, but the British were told to leave Guangzhou for either <a href="/wiki/Whampoa_anchorage" class="mw-redirect" title="Whampoa anchorage">Whampoa</a> or Macau.<a href="#cite_note-Michie-2012-81">[78]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Lord Napier was forced to return to Macau in September, where he died of <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> a month later, on 11 October.<a href="#cite_note-MCR-1834-82">[79]</a> After Lord Napier's death, Captain Charles Elliot received the King's Commission as Superintendent of Trade in 1836 to continue Napier's work of conciliating the Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-MCR-1834-82">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Escalation_of_tensions">Escalation of tensions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Escalation of tensions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crackdown_on_opium">Crackdown on opium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Crackdown on opium">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_opium_at_Humen" title="Destruction of opium at Humen">Destruction of opium at Humen</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Commissioner_Lin_Zexu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Commissioner_Lin_Zexu.jpg/170px-Commissioner_Lin_Zexu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Commissioner_Lin_Zexu.jpg/255px-Commissioner_Lin_Zexu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Commissioner_Lin_Zexu.jpg/340px-Commissioner_Lin_Zexu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="1737" /></a><figcaption>Commissioner Lin Zexu, dubbed "Lin of Clear Skies" for his moral integrity.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Letter_by_Lin_Zexu_to_Queen_Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Letter_by_Lin_Zexu_to_Queen_Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.jpg/170px-Letter_by_Lin_Zexu_to_Queen_Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Letter_by_Lin_Zexu_to_Queen_Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.jpg/255px-Letter_by_Lin_Zexu_to_Queen_Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Letter_by_Lin_Zexu_to_Queen_Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Official_Communications_of_the_Chinese_Empire#Memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="Official Communications of the Chinese Empire">"memorial"</a> (摺奏) written directly to <a href="/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a></figcaption></figure> By 1838, the British were selling roughly 1,400 long tons (1,400,000 kg) of opium per year to China. Legalization of the opium trade was the subject of ongoing debate within the Chinese administration, but a proposal to legalise the narcotic was repeatedly rejected, and in 1838 the government began to actively sentence Chinese drug traffickers to death.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] There were also long-term factors that pushed the Chinese government into action. Historian <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_D._Spence" title="Jonathan D. Spence">Jonathan D. Spence</a> lists these factors that led to war: <dl><dd>the social dislocations that began to appear in the Qing world, the spread of addiction, the growth of a hard-line mentality toward foreigners, foreign refusal to accept Chinese legal norms, changes in international trade structures, and the ending of Western intellectuals' admiration for China.... When the tough prohibitions of 1838 began to take effect, the market diminished and dealers found themselves dangerously oversupplied. A second contributing factor was that the new British post of superintendent of foreign trade in China was held by a deputy of the British crown....If the Chinese crossed the superintendent, they would be insulting the British nation rather than the business corporation....[The superintendent could] call directly on the aid of British armed Forces and the Royal Navy in times of serious trouble.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a></dd></dl> In 1839, the Daoguang Emperor appointed scholar-official <a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a> to the post of Special <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a> with the task of eradicating the opium trade.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> Lin's famous open "<a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu#Campaign_to_suppress_opium" title="Lin Zexu">Letter To Queen Victoria</a>" appealed to <a href="/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>'s moral reasoning. Citing what he mistakenly understood to be a strict prohibition on opium within Great Britain, Lin questioned how Britain could declare itself moral while its merchants profited from the legal sale in China of a drug that was banned in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Fay_p143-11">[8]</a> He wrote: "Your Majesty has not before been thus officially notified, and you may plead ignorance of the severity of our laws, but I now give my assurance that we mean to cut this harmful drug forever."<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> The letter never reached the Queen, with one source suggesting that it was lost in transit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanesSanello200441-87">[84]</a> Lin pledged that nothing would divert him from his mission, "If the traffic in opium were not stopped a few decades from now we shall not only be without soldiers to resist the enemy, but also in want of silver to provide an army."<a href="#cite_note-Sharpe-88">[85]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Lin banned the sale of opium and demanded that all supplies of the drug be surrendered to the Chinese authorities. He also closed the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl River (China)">Pearl River Channel</a>, trapping British traders in Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a> As well as seizing opium stockpiles in warehouses and the thirteen factories, Chinese troops boarded British ships in the Pearl River and <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a> before destroying the opium on board.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The British Superintendent of Trade in China, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Elliot" title="Charles Elliot">Charles Elliot</a>, protested the decision to forcibly seize the opium stockpiles. He ordered all ships carrying opium to flee and prepare for battle. Lin responded by besieging the foreign dealers in the foreign quarter of Guangzhou, and kept them from communicating with their ships in port.<a href="#cite_note-Sharpe-88">[85]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] To defuse the situation, Elliot convinced the British traders to cooperate with Chinese authorities and hand over their opium stockpiles with the promise of eventual compensation for their losses by the British government.<a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a> While this amounted to a tacit acknowledgment that the British government did not disapprove of the trade, it also placed a huge liability on the exchequer. This promise, and the inability of the British government to pay it without causing a political storm, was used as an important <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a> for the subsequent British attack.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] During April and May 1839, British and American dealers surrendered 20,283 chests and 200 sacks of opium. The stockpile was publicly destroyed on the beach outside Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-Sharpe-88">[85]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Destruction_of_opium_in_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Destruction_of_opium_in_1839.jpg/220px-Destruction_of_opium_in_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Destruction_of_opium_in_1839.jpg/330px-Destruction_of_opium_in_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Destruction_of_opium_in_1839.jpg/440px-Destruction_of_opium_in_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1306" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Contemporary Chinese depiction of the destruction of opium under Commissioner Lin.</figcaption></figure> After the opium was surrendered, trade was restarted on the strict condition that no more opium be shipped into China. Looking for a way to effectively police foreign trade and purge corruption, Lin and his advisers decided to reform the existing bond system. Under this system, a foreign captain and the Cohong merchant who had purchased the goods off of his ship swore that the vessel carried no illegal goods. Upon examining the records of the port, Lin was infuriated to find that in the 20 years since opium had been declared illegal, not a single infraction had been reported.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> As a consequence, Lin demanded that all foreign merchants and Qing officials sign a new bond promising not to deal in opium under penalty of death.<a href="#cite_note-coleman-93">[90]</a> The British government opposed their signing of the bond, feeling that it violated the principle of free trade, but some merchants who did not trade in opium (such as <a href="/wiki/Olyphant_%26_Co." title="Olyphant & Co.">Olyphant & Co.</a>) were willing to sign against Elliot's orders. Trade in regular goods continued unabated, and the scarcity of opium caused by the seizure of the foreign warehouses caused the <a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a> to flourish.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> Some newly arrived merchant ships were able to learn of the ban on opium before they entered the Pearl River estuary, and so they unloaded their cargoes at Lintin Island. The opportunity caused by the sharp rise in the price of opium was seized upon by some of the Cohong trading houses and smugglers, who were able to evade commissioner Lin's efforts and smuggled more opium into China. Superintendent Elliot was aware of the smugglers' activities on Lintin and was under orders to stop them, but feared that any action by the Royal Navy could spark a war and withheld his ships.<a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skirmish_at_Kowloon">Skirmish at Kowloon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Skirmish at Kowloon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kowloon" title="Battle of Kowloon">Battle of Kowloon</a></div> In early July 1839 a group of British merchant sailors in <a href="/wiki/Kowloon" title="Kowloon">Kowloon</a> became intoxicated after consuming rice liqueur. Two of the sailors became agitated with and beat to death Lin Weixi, a villager from nearby <a href="/wiki/Tsim_Sha_Tsui" title="Tsim Sha Tsui">Tsim Sha Tsui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> Superintendent Elliot ordered the arrest of the two men, and paid compensation to Lin's family and village. However, he refused a request to turn the sailors over to Chinese authorities, fearing they would be killed in accordance with the Chinese legal code.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> Commissioner Lin saw this as an obstruction of justice and Chinese sovereignty, therefore he ordered the sailors to be handed over.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Elliot instead held a trial for the accused men aboard a warship at sea, with himself serving as the judge and merchant captains serving as jurors. He invited the Qing authorities to observe and comment on the proceedings, but the offer was declined.<a href="#cite_note-Hoe-1999-99">[96]</a> The naval court convicted 5 sailors of assault and rioting, and sentenced them to fines along with hard labour in Britain (a verdict later overturned in British courts).<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hoe-1999-99">[96]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barren_Kowloon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Barren_Kowloon.jpg/220px-Barren_Kowloon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Barren_Kowloon.jpg/330px-Barren_Kowloon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Barren_Kowloon.jpg/440px-Barren_Kowloon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>1841 painting of the Chinese fort at Kowloon.</figcaption></figure> Angered by the violation of China's sovereignty, Lin recalled Chinese labourers from Macau and issued an edict preventing the sale of food to the British.<a href="#cite_note-Hoe-1999-99">[96]</a> War Junks were deployed to the mouth of the Pearl River, while signs were placed and rumours spread by the Qing that they had poisoned the freshwater springs traditionally used to restock foreign merchant ships.<a href="#cite_note-Fay_2000_pp._203-101">[98]</a> On 23 August a ship belonging to a prominent opium merchant was attacked by <a href="/wiki/Lascar" title="Lascar">lascar</a> pirates while travelling downriver from Guangzhou to Macau. Rumors spread among the British that it had been Chinese soldiers who had attacked the ship, and Elliot ordered all British ships to leave the coast of China by 24 August.<a href="#cite_note-Fay_2000_pp._203-101">[98]</a> That same day Macau barred British ships from its harbour at the request of Lin. The commissioner travelled in person to the city, where he was welcomed by some of the inhabitants as a hero who had restored law and order.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000a-102">[99]</a> The flight from Macau ensured that by the end of August over 60 British ships and over 2000 people were idling off of the Chinese coast, fast running out of provisions. On 30 August <a href="/wiki/HMS_Volage_(1825)" title="HMS Volage (1825)">HMS Volage</a> arrived to defend the fleet from a potential Chinese attack, and Elliot warned Qing authorities in Kowloon that the embargo on food and water must be ended soon.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lovell-2015-104">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Early on 4 September Elliot dispatched an armed <a href="/wiki/Schooner" title="Schooner">schooner</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Cutter_(boat)" title="Cutter (boat)">cutter</a> to Kowloon to buy provisions from Chinese peasants. The two ships approached three Chinese war junks in the harbour and requested permission to land men in order to procure supplies. The British were allowed through and basic necessities were provided to the British by Chinese sailors, but the Chinese commander inside Kowloon fort refused to allow the locals to trade with the British and confined the townspeople inside the settlement. The situation grew more intense as the day went on, and in the afternoon Elliot issued an ultimatum that, if the Chinese refused to allow the British to purchase supplies, they would be fired upon. A 3:00 pm deadline set by Elliot passed and the British ships opened fire on the Chinese vessels. The junks returned fire, and Chinese gunners on land began to fire at the British ships. Nightfall ended the battle, and the Chinese junks withdrew, ending what would be known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kowloon" title="Battle of Kowloon">Battle of Kowloon</a>. Many British officers wanted to launch a land attack on Kowloon fort the next day, but Elliot decided against it, stating that such an action would cause "great injury and irritation" to the town's inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> After the skirmish, Elliot circulated a paper in Kowloon, reading; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The men of the English nation desire nothing but peace; but they cannot submit to be poisoned and starved. The Imperial cruisers they have no wish to molest or impede; but they must not prevent the people from selling. To deprive men of food is the act only of the unfriendly and hostile.<a href="#cite_note-p._449-106">[103]</a></blockquote> Having driven off the Chinese ships, the British fleet began to purchase provisions from the local villagers, often with the aid of bribed Chinese officials in Kowloon.<a href="#cite_note-Waley-1958-107">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lai_Enjue" title="Lai Enjue">Lai Enjue</a>, the local commander at Kowloon, declared that a victory had been won against the British.<a href="#cite_note-Waley-1958-107">[104]</a> He claimed that a two masted British warship had been sunk, and that 40–50 British had been killed.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000a-102">[99]</a> He also reported that the British had been unable to acquire supplies, and his reports severely understated the strength of the Royal Navy.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Chuenpi">Battle of Chuenpi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Battle of Chuenpi">edit</a>]</div> In late October 1839, the merchant ship Thomas Coutts arrived in China and sailed to Guangzhou. Thomas Coutts's <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a> owners refused on religious grounds to deal in opium, a fact that the Chinese authorities were aware of. The ship's captain, Warner, believed Elliot had exceeded his legal authority by banning the signing of the "no opium trade" bond,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanesSanello200468-110">[107]</a> and negotiated with the governor of Guangzhou. Warner hoped that all British ships not carrying opium could negotiate to legally unload their goods at Chuenpi, an island near <a href="/wiki/Humen_Town" title="Humen Town">Humen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] To prevent other British ships from following Thomas Coutts's precedent, Elliot ordered a blockade of British shipping in the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl River (China)">Pearl River</a>. Fighting began on 3 November 1839, when a second British ship, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Saxon_(1829_ship)" title="Royal Saxon (1829 ship)">Royal Saxon</a>, attempted to sail to Guangzhou. The Royal Navy ships <a href="/wiki/HMS_Volage_(1825)" title="HMS Volage (1825)">HMS Volage</a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Hyacinth_(1829)" title="HMS Hyacinth (1829)">HMS Hyacinth</a> fired warning shots at Royal Saxon. In response to this commotion, a fleet of Chinese <a href="/wiki/Junks" class="mw-redirect" title="Junks">war junks</a> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Guan_Tianpei" title="Guan Tianpei">Guan Tianpei</a> sailed out to protect Royal Saxon.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> The ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chuenpi" title="Battle of Chuenpi">Battle of Chuenpi</a> resulted in the destruction of 4 Chinese war junks and the withdrawal of both fleets.<a href="#cite_note-Elleman-2001-113">[110]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The Qing navy's official report on the Battle of Chuenpi claimed that the navy had protected the British merchant vessel and reported a great victory for the day. In reality, the Chinese had been out-classed by the British vessels and several Chinese ships were disabled.<a href="#cite_note-Elleman-2001-113">[110]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Elliot reported that his squadron was protecting the 29 British ships in Chuenpi, and began to prepare for the Qing reprisal. Fearing that the Chinese would reject any contacts with the British and eventually attack with fire rafts, he ordered all ships to leave Chuenpi and head for <a href="/wiki/Causeway_Bay" title="Causeway Bay">Causeway Bay</a>, 20 miles (30 km) from Macau, hoping that offshore anchorages would be out of range of Lin. Elliot asked <a href="/wiki/Adri%C3%A3o_Ac%C3%A1cio_da_Silveira_Pinto" title="Adrião Acácio da Silveira Pinto">Adrião Acácio da Silveira Pinto</a>, the Portuguese governor of Macau, to let British ships load and unload their goods there in exchange for paying rents and any duties. The governor refused for fear that the Chinese would discontinue supplying food and other necessities to Macau, and on 14 January 1840 the Daoguang Emperor asked all foreign merchants in China to halt material assistance to the British.<a href="#cite_note-Elleman-2001-113">[110]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction_in_Britain">Reaction in Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reaction in Britain">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parliamentary_debates">Parliamentary debates</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Parliamentary debates">edit</a>]</div> Following the Chinese crackdown on the opium trade, discussion arose as to how Britain would respond, as the public in the United States and Britain had previously expressed outrage that Britain was supporting the opium trade.<a href="#cite_note-Melancon-2003b-114">[111]</a> The East India and China Association of London argued that the opium trade was directly or indirectly sanctioned by the government, and as such they should compensate them for their losses. Elliot signed certificates guaranteeing payment for the surrendered opium with the assumption that China would pay for it. This provided legal basis for the merchants to demand an indemnity from the British government, which they could either force China to pay or pay for it from the British treasury. As the government had no funds to pay such indemnities, they favoured forcing China to pay since Elliot had provided them with plausible justification for a China Expedition. Many British citizens sympathised with the Chinese and wanted to halt the sale of opium, while others wanted to contain or regulate the international narcotics trade. However, a great deal of anger was expressed over the treatment of British diplomats and towards the protectionist trading policies of Qing China. The <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> controlled government in particular advocated war with China, and the pro-Whig press printed stories about Chinese "despotism and cruelty". This line of reasoning was primary defence for war with China.<a href="#cite_note-Chen-2016-115">[112]</a> Since August 1839, reports had been published in London newspapers about troubles at Guangzhou and the impending war with China. The Queen's Annual Address to the House of Lords on 16 January 1840 expressed the concern that "Events have happened in China which have occasioned an interruption of the commercial intercourse of my subjects with that country. I have given, and shall continue to give, the most serious attention to a matter so deeply affecting the interests of my subjects and the dignity of my Crown."<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> The Whig Melbourne Government was then in a weak political situation. It barely survived a motion of non-confidence on 31 January 1840 by a majority of 21. The Tories saw the China Question as an opportunity to beat the Government, and James Graham moved a motion on 7 April 1840 in the House of Commons, censuring the Government's "want of foresight and precaution" and "their neglect to furnish the superintendent at Guangzhou with powers and instructions" to deal with the opium trade.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> This was a deliberate move of the Tories to avoid the sensitive issues of war and opium trade and to obtain maximum support for the motion within the party.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> Calls for military action were met with mixed responses when the matter went before Parliament. Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Palmerston</a>, a politician known for his aggressive foreign policy and advocacy for free trade, led the pro war camp. Palmerston strongly believed that the destroyed opium should be considered property, not contraband, and as such reparations had to be made for its destruction. He justified military action by saying that no one could "say that he honestly believed the motive of the Chinese Government to have been the promotion of moral habits" and that the war was being fought to stem China's balance of payments deficit.<a href="#cite_note-Melancon-2003b-114">[111]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] After consulting with William Jardine, the foreign secretary drafted a letter to Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Lamb,_2nd_Viscount_Melbourne" title="William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne">William Melbourne</a> calling for a military response. Other merchants called for an opening of free trade with China, and it was commonly cited that the Chinese consumers were the driving factor of the opium trade. The periodic expulsion of British merchants from Guangzhou and the refusal of the Qing government to treat Britain as a diplomatic equal were seen as a slight to national pride.<a href="#cite_note-Su-2020-119">[116]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Few Tory or liberal politicians supported the war. <a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Graham,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet">Sir James Graham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Stanhope,_5th_Earl_Stanhope" title="Philip Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope">Lord Phillip Stanhope</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a> headed the anti-war faction in Britain, and denounced the ethics of the opium trade.<a href="#cite_note-Su-2020-119">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2016-115">[112]</a> After three days of debate, the vote was taken on Graham's motion on 9 April 1840, which was defeated by a majority of only 9 votes (262 votes for vs 271 votes against ). The Tories in the House of Commons thus failed to deter the Government from proceeding with the war and stop the British warships already on their way to China. The House of Commons agreed on 27 July 1840 to a resolution of granting £173,442 for the expenses of the expedition to China, long after the war with China had broken out.<a href="#cite_note-Su-2020-119">[116]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Chen-2016-115">[112]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cabinet_Decision_and_Palmerston_letters">Cabinet Decision and Palmerston letters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cabinet Decision and Palmerston letters">edit</a>]</div> Under strong pressure and lobbying from various trade and manufacturer associations, the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> cabinet under Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Lamb,_2nd_Viscount_Melbourne" title="William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne">Melbourne</a> decided on 1 October 1839 to send an expedition to China.<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> War preparations then began. In early November 1839, Palmerston instructed Auckland, Governor General of India, to prepare military forces for deployment in China. On 20 February 1840 Palmerston (who remained unaware of the First Battle of Chuenpi in November 1839) drafted two letters detailing the British response to the situation in China. One letter was addressed to the Elliots, the other to the Daoguang Emperor and the Qing government. The letter to the emperor informed China that Great Britain had sent a military expeditionary force to the Chinese coast.<a href="#cite_note-PalmerstonA-121">[118]</a> In the letter, Palmerston stated that, <blockquote>These measures of hostility on the part of Great Britain against China are not only justified, but even rendered absolutely necessary, by the outrages which have been committed by the Chinese Authorities against British officers and Subjects, and these hostilities will not cease, until a satisfactory arrangement shall have been made by the Chinese Government.<a href="#cite_note-PalmerstonA-121">[118]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</blockquote> In his letter to the Elliots, Palmerston instructed the commanders to set up a blockade of the Pearl River and forward to a Chinese official the letter from Palmerston addressing the Chinese emperor. They were to then capture the Zhoushan Islands, blockade the mouth of the Yangtze River, start negotiations with Qing officials, and finally sail the fleet into the <a href="/wiki/Bohai_Sea" title="Bohai Sea">Bohai Sea</a>, where they would send another copy of the aforementioned letter to Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-PalmerstonB-122">[119]</a> Palmerston also issued a list of objectives that the British government wanted accomplished, with said objectives being:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>Demand to be treated with the respect due to a royal envoy by the Qing authorities.</li> <li>Secure the right of the British superintendent to administer justice to British subjects in China.</li> <li>Seek recompense for destroyed British property.</li> <li>Gain most favoured trading status with the Chinese government.</li> <li>Request the right for foreigners to safely inhabit and own private property in China.</li> <li>Ensure that, if contraband is seized in accordance with Chinese law, no harm comes to the person(s) of British subjects carrying illicit goods in China.</li> <li>End the system by which British merchants are restricted to trading solely in Guangzhou.</li> <li>Ask that the cities of Guangzhou, Amoy, Shanghai, Ningbo, and the province of northern Formosa be freely opened to trade from all foreign powers.</li> <li>Secure islands along the Chinese coast that can be easily defended and provisioned, or exchange captured islands for favourable trading terms.</li></ul> Lord Palmerston left it to Superintendent Elliot's discretion as to how these objectives would be fulfilled, but noted that while negotiation would be a preferable outcome, he did not trust that diplomacy would succeed, writing; <blockquote>To sum up in a few words the result of this Instruction, you will see, from what I have stated, that the British Government demands from that of China satisfaction for the past and security for the future; and does not choose to trust to negotiation for obtaining either of these things; but has sent out a Naval and Military Force with orders to begin at once to take the Measures necessary for attaining the object in view.<a href="#cite_note-PalmerstonB-122">[119]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War">War</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: War">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opening_moves">Opening moves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Opening moves">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volage_%26_Hyacinth_in_Chuenpee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Volage_%26_Hyacinth_in_Chuenpee.jpg/220px-Volage_%26_Hyacinth_in_Chuenpee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Volage_%26_Hyacinth_in_Chuenpee.jpg/330px-Volage_%26_Hyacinth_in_Chuenpee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Volage_%26_Hyacinth_in_Chuenpee.jpg/440px-Volage_%26_Hyacinth_in_Chuenpee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Engagement between British and Chinese ships in the First Battle of Chuenpi, 1839.</figcaption></figure>The Chinese naval forces in Guangzhou were under the command of Admiral <a href="/wiki/Guan_Tianpei" title="Guan Tianpei">Guan Tianpei</a>, who had fought the British at Chuenpi. The Qing southern army and garrisons were under the command of <a href="/wiki/Yang_Fang_(general)" title="Yang Fang (general)">General Yang Fang</a>. Overall command was invested in the <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a> and his court.<a href="#cite_note-Janin-1999-51">[48]</a> The Chinese government initially believed that, as in the 1834 Napier Affair, the British had been successfully expelled.<a href="#cite_note-Melancon-2003-123">[120]</a> Few preparations were made for a British reprisal, and the events leading to the eventual outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Sikh War">Sino-Sikh War</a> in 1841 were seen as a greater cause for concern.<a href="#cite_note-Elliott-1990-124">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rubin-1960-125">[122]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] Left without a major base of operations in China, the British withdrew their merchant shipping from the region while maintaining the Royal Navy's China squadron in the islands around the mouth of the Pearl River. From London, Palmerston continued to dictate operations in China, ordering the East India Company to divert troops from India in preparation for a limited war against the Chinese. It was decided that the war would not be fought as a full-scale conflict, but rather as a <a href="/wiki/Punitive_expedition" title="Punitive expedition">punitive expedition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Westminster-1903-126">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Glenn_Melancon_1840,_pp_854-874-127">[124]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] Superintendent Elliot remained in charge of Britain's interests in China, while <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Bremer" title="Gordon Bremer">Commodore Gordon Bremer</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a> and the China Squadron. <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Gough,_1st_Viscount_Gough" title="Hugh Gough, 1st Viscount Gough">Major General Hugh Gough</a> was selected to command the British land forces, and was promoted to overall commander of British forces in China.<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> The cost of the war would be paid by the British Government.<a href="#cite_note-Elleman-2001-113">[110]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Melancon-2003-123">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>]<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> Per Lord Palmerston's letter, plans were drawn up by the British to launch a series of attacks on Chinese ports and rivers.<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> British plans to form an expeditionary force were started immediately after the January 1840 vote. Several infantry regiments were raised in the British isles, and the completion of ships already under construction was expedited. To conduct the upcoming war, Britain also began to draw on forces from its overseas empire.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000k-132">[129]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] British India had been preparing for a war since word had arrived that the opium had been destroyed, and several regiments of Bengali volunteers had been recruited to supplement the regular British Indian Army and East India Company forces. In terms of naval forces, the ships earmarked for the expedition were either posted in remote colonies or under repair, and <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Crisis_of_1840" title="Oriental Crisis of 1840">Oriental Crisis of 1840</a> (and the resulting risk of war between Britain, France, and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> over Syria) drew the attention of the Royal Navy's European fleets away from China.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000c-133">[130]</a> Orders were dispatched to British South Africa and Australia to send ships to Singapore, the assigned rendezvous point for the expedition. A number of steamers were purchased by the Royal Navy and attached to the expedition as transports. The unseasonable summer weather of India and the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca" title="Strait of Malacca">Strait of Malacca</a> slowed the British deployment, and a number of accidents decreased the combat readiness of the expedition. Most notably, both of the 74-gun ships of the line that the Royal Navy intended to use against Chinese fortifications were temporarily put out of action by hull damage.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000c-133">[130]</a> Despite these delays, by mid-June 1840 British forces had begun to assemble in Singapore. While they waited for more ships to arrive, the Royal Marines practised amphibious invasions on the beach, first by landing ashore in boats, then forming lines and advancing on mock fortifications.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000c-133">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000k-132">[129]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_offensive_begins">British offensive begins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: British offensive begins">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capture_of_Ting-hai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Capture_of_Ting-hai.jpg/220px-Capture_of_Ting-hai.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Capture_of_Ting-hai.jpg/330px-Capture_of_Ting-hai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Capture_of_Ting-hai.jpg/440px-Capture_of_Ting-hai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2271" data-file-height="1487" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan" title="Capture of Chusan">Capture of Chusan</a>, July 1840</figcaption></figure> In late June 1840 the first part of the expeditionary force arrived in China aboard 15 barracks ships, four steam-powered gunboats and 25 smaller boats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999153–155-134">[131]</a> The flotilla was under the command of Commodore Bremer. The British issued an ultimatum demanding the Qing Government pay compensation for losses suffered from interrupted trade and the destruction of opium, but were rebuffed by the Qing authorities in Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-135">[132]</a> In his letters, Palmerston had instructed the joint plenipotentiaries Elliot and his cousin Admiral <a href="/wiki/George_Elliot_(Royal_Navy_officer,_born_1784)" title="George Elliot (Royal Navy officer, born 1784)">George Elliot</a> to acquire the cession of at least one island for trade on the Chinese coast.<a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> With the British expeditionary force now in place, a combined naval and ground assault was launched on the Zhoushan (Chusan) Archipelago. <a href="/wiki/Zhoushan_Island" title="Zhoushan Island">Zhoushan Island</a>, the largest and best defended of the islands was the primary target for the attack, as was its vital port of <a href="/wiki/Dinghai_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinghai District">Dinghai</a>. When the British fleet arrived off Zhoushan, Elliot demanded the city surrender. The commander of the Chinese garrison refused the command, stating that he could not surrender and questioning what reason the British had for harassing Dinghai, as they had been driven out of Guangzhou. Fighting began, a fleet of 12 small junks was destroyed by the Royal Navy, and British marines captured the hills to the south of Dinghai.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_taking_of_Chusan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/First_taking_of_Chusan.jpg/220px-First_taking_of_Chusan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/First_taking_of_Chusan.jpg/330px-First_taking_of_Chusan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/First_taking_of_Chusan.jpg/440px-First_taking_of_Chusan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="885" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Chusan</figcaption></figure> The British <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan" title="Capture of Chusan">captured the city</a> itself after an intense naval bombardment on 5 July forced the surviving Chinese defenders to withdraw.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-135">[132]</a> The British occupied Dinghai harbour and prepared to use it as a staging point for operations in China. In the fall of 1840 disease broke out in the Dinghai garrison, forcing the British to evacuate soldiers to Manila and Kolkata. By the beginning of 1841 only 1900 of the 3300 men who had originally occupied Dinghai were left, with many of those remaining incapable of fighting. An estimated 500 British soldiers died from disease, with the Cameron and Bengali volunteers suffering the most deaths, while the Royal Marines were relatively unscathed.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000b-138">[135]</a> Having captured Dinghai, the British expedition divided its forces, sending one fleet south to the Pearl River while sending a second fleet north to the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow Sea</a>. The northern fleet sailed to the <a href="/wiki/Hai_River" title="Hai River">Hai River</a>, where Elliot personally presented Palmerston's letter to the emperor to Qing authorities from the capital. <a href="/wiki/Qishan_(official)" title="Qishan (official)">Qishan</a>, a high-ranking Manchu official, was selected by the Imperial Court to replace Lin as the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Viceroy of Liangguang</a> after the latter was discharged for his failure to resolve the opium situation.<a href="#cite_note-Hummel-1943-139">[136]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Negotiations began between the two sides, with Qishan serving as the primary negotiator for the Qing and Elliot serving as the representative for the British Crown. After a week of negotiations, Qishan and Elliot agreed to relocate to the Pearl River for further negotiations. In return for the courtesy of the British to withdraw from the Yellow Sea, Qishan promised to requisition imperial funds as restitution for British merchants who had suffered damages. The war, however, was not concluded and both sides continued to engage each other. In the late spring of 1841 reinforcements arrived from India in preparation for an offensive against Guangzhou. A flotilla of transports brought 600 men of the professionally trained 37th Madras Native Infantry to Dinghai, where their arrival boosted British morale.<a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000b-138">[135]</a> Accompanying the fleet as far as Macau was the newly constructed iron steamer <a href="/wiki/HMS_Nemesis_(1839)" class="mw-redirect" title="HMS Nemesis (1839)">HMS Nemesis</a>, a weapon to which the Chinese navy had no effective counter.<a href="#cite_note-victorianweb-1839-140">[137]</a> On 19 August three British warships and 380 marines <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Barrier" title="Battle of the Barrier">drove the Chinese</a> from the land bridge (known as "The Barrier") separating Macau from the Chinese mainland.<a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] The defeat of the Qing soldiers coupled with the arrival of the Nemesis in Macau's harbour resulted in a wave of pro-British support in the city, and several Qing officials were driven out or killed. Portugal remained neutral in the conflict, but after the battle was willing to allow British ships to dock in Macau, a decision that granted the British a functioning port in Southern China.<a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> With the strategic harbours of Dinghai and Macau secured, the British began to focus on the war on the Pearl River. Five months after the British victory at Chusan, the northern elements of the expedition sailed south to <a href="/wiki/Humen" title="Humen">Humen</a>, known to the British as The Bogue. Bremer judged that gaining control of the Pearl River and Guangzhou would put the British in a strong negotiating position with the Qing authorities, as well as allow for the renewal of trade when the war ended.<a href="#cite_note-Westminster-1903-126">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pearl_River_campaign">Pearl River campaign</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pearl River campaign">edit</a>]</div> While the British campaigned in the north, Qing Admiral Guan Tianpei greatly reinforced the Qing positions in Humen (Bocca Tigris), suspecting<a href="#cite_note-Haijian-2016-143">[140]</a> that the British would attempt to force their way up the Pearl River to Guangzhou; sources state that Guan had been preparing for an eventual attack on the position since Napier's attack in 1835. The Humen forts blocked transit of the river, and were garrisoned with 3000 men and 306 cannons. By the time the British fleet was ready for action, 10,000 Qing soldiers were in position to defend Guangzhou and the surrounding area.<a href="#cite_note-Haijian-2016-143">[140]</a> The British fleet arrived in early January, and began to bombard the Qing defences at Chuenpi after a group of Chinese fire-rafts were sent drifting towards the Royal navy ships.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attack_and_capture_of_Chuenpee_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Attack_and_capture_of_Chuenpee_2.jpg/220px-Attack_and_capture_of_Chuenpee_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Attack_and_capture_of_Chuenpee_2.jpg/330px-Attack_and_capture_of_Chuenpee_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Attack_and_capture_of_Chuenpee_2.jpg/440px-Attack_and_capture_of_Chuenpee_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Chuenpi" title="Second Battle of Chuenpi">Second Battle of Chuenpi</a></figcaption></figure> On 7 January 1841, the British won a decisive victory in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Chuenpi" title="Second Battle of Chuenpi">Second Battle of Chuenpi</a>, destroying 11 Junks of the Chinese southern fleet and capturing the Humen forts. The victory allowed the British to set up a blockade of The Bogue, a blow that forced the Qing navy to retreat upriver.<a href="#cite_note-MacPherson-1843-144">[141]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Knowing the strategic value of <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta" title="Pearl River Delta">Pearl River Delta</a> to China and aware that British naval superiority made a reconquest of the region unlikely, Qishan attempted to prevent the war from widening further by negotiating a peace treaty with Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Dillon-2010-145">[142]</a> On 21 January Qishan and Elliot drafted the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Chuenpi" title="Convention of Chuenpi">Convention of Chuenpi</a>, a document which both parties hoped would end the war.<a href="#cite_note-Dillon-2010-145">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-BSI-1841-146">[143]</a> The convention would establish equal diplomatic rights between Britain and China, exchange <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island" title="Hong Kong Island">Hong Kong Island</a> for <a href="/wiki/Zhoushan" title="Zhoushan">Zhoushan</a>, facilitate the release of shipwrecked and kidnapped British citizens held by the Chinese, and reopen trade in Guangzhou by 1 February 1841.<a href="#cite_note-BSI-1841-146">[143]</a> China would also pay six million silver dollars as recompense for the opium destroyed at Humen in 1838. However, the legal status of the opium trade was not resolved and instead left open to be discussed at a future date. Despite the success of the negotiations between Qishan and Elliot, both of their respective governments refused to sign the convention. The Daoguang Emperor was infuriated that Qing territory would be given up in a treaty that had been signed without his permission, and ordered Qishan arrested (he was later sentenced to death; the sentence was then commuted to military service.) Lord Palmerston recalled Elliot from his post and refused to sign the convention, wanting more concessions to be forced from the Chinese per his original instructions.<a href="#cite_note-Glenn_Melancon_1840,_pp_854-874-127">[124]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Hummel-1943-139">[136]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_ships_in_Canton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/British_ships_in_Canton.jpg/260px-British_ships_in_Canton.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/British_ships_in_Canton.jpg/390px-British_ships_in_Canton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/British_ships_in_Canton.jpg/520px-British_ships_in_Canton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1383" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>British ships approaching Guangzhou in May 1841</figcaption></figure>The brief interlude in the fighting ended in the beginning of February after the Chinese refused to reopen Guangzhou to British trade. On 19 February a longboat from HMS Nemesis came under fire from a fort on <a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Wangtong_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="North Wangtong Island (page does not exist)">North Wangtong Island</a>, prompting a British response.<a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> The British commanders ordered another blockade of the Pearl River and resumed combat operations against the Chinese. The British captured the remaining Bogue forts on 26 February during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bogue" title="Battle of the Bogue">Battle of the Bogue</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_First_Bar" title="Battle of First Bar">Battle of First Bar</a> on the following day, allowing the fleet to move further upriver towards Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Dillon-2010-145">[142]</a> Admiral Tianpei was killed in action during the fighting on 26 February. On 2 March the British destroyed a Qing fort near <a href="/wiki/Pazhou" title="Pazhou">Pazhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Whampoa" title="Battle of Whampoa">captured Whampoa</a>, an action that directly threatened Guangzhou's east flank.<a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bingham_1842_73_74-150">[147]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Major General Gough, who had recently arrived from <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> aboard <a href="/wiki/HMS_Cruizer_(1828)" title="HMS Cruizer (1828)">HMS Cruizer</a>, personally directed the attack on Whampoa. Superintendent Elliot (who was unaware that he had been dismissed), and the Governor-General of Guangzhou declared a 3-day truce on 3 March. Between the 3rd and the 6th the British forces that had evacuated Zhoushan per the Convention of Chuenpi arrived in the Pearl River. The Chinese military was likewise reinforced, and by 16 March General Yang Fang commanded 30,000 men in the area surrounding Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-McPherson-2013-151">[148]</a> While the main British fleet prepared to sail up the Pearl River to Guangzhou, a group of three warships departed for the <a href="/wiki/Xi_River" title="Xi River">Xi River</a> estuary, intending to navigate the waterway between Macau and Guangzhou. The fleet, led by <a href="/wiki/James_Scott_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="James Scott (Royal Navy officer)">Captain James Scott</a> and Superintendent Elliot, was composed of the frigate <a href="/wiki/HMS_Samarang_(1822)" title="HMS Samarang (1822)">HMS Samarang</a> and the steamships HMS Nemesis and <a href="/w/index.php?title=HMS_Atalanta_(1836)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HMS Atalanta (1836) (page does not exist)">HMS Atalanta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a> Although the waterway was in places only 6 feet deep, the shallow <a href="/wiki/Draft_(hull)" title="Draft (hull)">drafts</a> of the steamships allowed the British to approach Guangzhou from a direction the Qing believed to be impossible.<a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a> In a series of engagements along the river from 13 to 15 March, the British captured or destroyed Chinese ships, guns, and military equipment. 9 junks, 6 fortresses, and 105 guns were destroyed or captured in what was known as the <a href="/wiki/Broadway_expedition" title="Broadway expedition">Broadway expedition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bernard-1847-154">[151]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canton_River_and_adjacent_islands.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Canton_River_and_adjacent_islands.jpg/220px-Canton_River_and_adjacent_islands.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Canton_River_and_adjacent_islands.jpg/330px-Canton_River_and_adjacent_islands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Canton_River_and_adjacent_islands.jpg/440px-Canton_River_and_adjacent_islands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4952" data-file-height="4695" /></a><figcaption>British map of the Pearl River</figcaption></figure> With the Pearl River cleared of Chinese defences, the British debated advancing on Guangzhou. Although the truce had ended on 6 March, Superintendent Elliot believed that the British should negotiate with the Qing authorities from their current position of strength rather than risk a battle in Guangzhou. The Qing army made no aggressive moves against the British and instead began to fortify the city. Chinese military engineers began to establish a number of mud earthworks on the riverbank, sank junks to create <a href="/wiki/Blockship" title="Blockship">blockships</a> on the river, and started constructing <a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">fire rafts</a> and gunboats. Chinese merchants were ordered to remove all of the silk and tea from Guangzhou to impede trade, and the local populace was barred from selling food to the British ships on the river.<a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a> On 16 March a British ship approaching a Chinese fort under a flag of truce was fired upon, leading to the British setting the fort on fire with rockets. These actions convinced Elliot that the Chinese were preparing to fight, and following the return of the ships of the Broadway expedition to the fleet, the British <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Canton_(March_1841)" title="Battle of Canton (March 1841)">attacked Guangzhou</a> on 18 March, taking the Thirteen Factories with very few casualties and raising the <a href="/wiki/Union_Jack" title="Union Jack">Union Jack</a> above the British factory.<a href="#cite_note-Dillon-2010-145">[142]</a> The city was partially occupied by the British and trade was reopened after negotiation with the Cohong merchants. After several days of further military successes, British forces commanded the high ground around Guangzhou. Another truce was declared on 20 March. Against the advice of some of his captains, Elliot withdrew most of the Royal Navy warships downriver to the Bocca Tigris.<a href="#cite_note-McPherson-2013-151">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fay-2000i-74">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canton_from_the_Heights.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Canton_from_the_Heights.jpg/220px-Canton_from_the_Heights.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Canton_from_the_Heights.jpg/330px-Canton_from_the_Heights.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Canton_from_the_Heights.jpg/440px-Canton_from_the_Heights.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>Sketch of British soldiers occupying the high ground above Guangzhou in 1841</figcaption></figure> In mid-April, <a href="/wiki/Yishan_(official)" title="Yishan (official)">Yishan</a> (Qishan's replacement as <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Viceroy of Liangguang</a> and the Daoguang Emperor's cousin) arrived in Guangzhou. He declared that trade should continue to remain open, sent emissaries to Elliot, and began to gather military assets outside Guangzhou. The Qing army camped outside of the city soon numbered 50,000, and the money earned from the reopened trade was spent repairing and expanding Guangzhou's defences. Concealed artillery batteries were built along the Pearl River, Chinese soldiers were deployed in Whampoa and the Bocca Tigris, and hundreds of small river craft were armed for war. A bulletin sent from the Daoguang Emperor commanded the Qing forces to "Exterminate the rebels at all points", and orders were given to drive the British from the Pearl River before reclaiming Hong Kong and driving the invaders out of China altogether.<a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a> This order was leaked and became widely circulated in Guangzhou among foreign merchants, who were already suspicious of Chinese intentions after learning of the Qing military build-up. In May many Cohong merchants and their families left the city, raising further concerns about a renewal of hostilities. Rumours spread that Chinese divers were being trained to drill holes in the hulls of British ships, and that fleets of fire rafts were being prepared for deployment against the Royal Navy.<a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a> During the build-up, the Qing army was weakened by infighting between units and lack of confidence in Yishan, who openly distrusted Cantonese civilians and soldiers, instead choosing to rely on forces drawn from other Chinese provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Lovell-2015-104">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] On 20 May, Yishan issued a statement, asking the "people of Canton, and all foreign merchants who are respectfully obedient, not to tremble with alarm and be frightened out of their wits at the military hosts that are gathering around, there being no probability of hostilities." The next day Elliot requested that all British merchants evacuate the city by sundown, and several warships were recalled to their positions in front of Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-158">[155]</a> On the night of 21 May the Qing launched a coordinated night attack on the British army and navy.<a href="#cite_note-MacPherson-1843-144">[141]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Artillery batteries hidden in Guangzhou and on the Pearl River (many of which the British believed they had disabled earlier) opened fire, and Qing soldiers retook the British Factory. A large formation of 200 fire rafts connected by a chain was sent drifting towards the British ships at Guangzhou, and fishing boats armed with <a href="/wiki/Matchlock" title="Matchlock">matchlocks</a> began to engage the Royal Navy. The British warships were able to evade the attack, and stray rafts set Guangzhou's waterfront on fire, illuminating the river and foiling the night attack. Downriver at Whampoa the Chinese attacked the British vessels at anchor there and attempted to prevent ships from reaching Guangzhou. Having suspected an attack, and as a consequence delaying his own offensive, Major General Gough consolidated the British forces at Hong Kong and ordered a rapid advance upriver to Guangzhou. These reinforcements arrived on 25 May, and the British counter-attacked, taking the last four Qing forts above Guangzhou and bombarding the city.<a href="#cite_note-MacPherson-1843-144">[141]</a> The Qing army fled in panic when the city heights were taken, and the British pursued them into the countryside. On 29 May a crowd of around 20,000 villagers and townspeople attacked and defeated a foraging company of 60 Indian <a href="/wiki/Sepoy" title="Sepoy">sepoys</a> in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Sanyuanli_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanyuanli Incident">Sanyuanli Incident</a>, and Gough ordered a retreat back to the river. The fighting subsided on 30 May 1841, and Guangzhou came fully under British occupation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman196611–14-159">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dillon-2010-145">[142]</a> Following the capture of Guangzhou, the British command and the governor-general of Guangzhou agreed to a cease-fire in the region. Under the terms of the limited peace (later widely referred to as "The Ransom of Canton"), the British were paid to withdraw beyond the Bogue forts, an action they completed by 31 May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman196611–14-159">[156]</a> Elliott signed the peace treaty without consulting the British army or Navy, an act which displeased General Gough.<a href="#cite_note-161">[158]</a> The defence of Guangzhou was declared a diplomatic success by Yishan. In a letter to the emperor, he wrote that the barbarians had begged "the chief general that he would implore the great emperor in their behalf, that he would have mercy upon them, and cause their debts to be repaid them, and graciously permit them to carry on their commerce, when they would immediately withdraw their ships from the Bocca Tigris, and never dare again to raise any disturbance."<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a> However, General Yang Fang was reprimanded by the emperor for his agreeing to a truce rather than forcefully resisting the British.<a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a> The emperor was not informed the British expedition had not been defeated and was very much intact. The imperial court continued to debate China's next course of action for the war, as the Daoguang Emperor wanted Hong Kong retaken.<a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_China">Central China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Central China">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Wellesley_and_Squadron_in_Hong_Kong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/HMS_Wellesley_and_Squadron_in_Hong_Kong.jpg/220px-HMS_Wellesley_and_Squadron_in_Hong_Kong.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/HMS_Wellesley_and_Squadron_in_Hong_Kong.jpg/330px-HMS_Wellesley_and_Squadron_in_Hong_Kong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/HMS_Wellesley_and_Squadron_in_Hong_Kong.jpg/440px-HMS_Wellesley_and_Squadron_in_Hong_Kong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1343" /></a><figcaption>HMS Wellesley and the British squadron sailing from Hong Kong for the attack on Xiamen in 1841</figcaption></figure>Following their withdrawal from Guangzhou, the British relocated the expeditionary force to Hong Kong. Just as with the Chinese commanders, the British leaders debated how the war should be continued. Elliot wanted to cease military operations and reopen trade, while Major General Gough wanted to capture the city of Amoy and blockade the Yangtze River.<a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a> In July, a typhoon struck Hong Kong, damaging British ships in the harbour and destroying some of the facilities the expedition was building on the island.<a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a> The situation changed when, on 29 July, Elliot was informed that he had been replaced as Superintendent by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Pottinger" title="Henry Pottinger">Henry Pottinger</a>, who arrived in Hong Kong on 10 August to begin his administration. Pottinger wanted to negotiate terms with the Qing for the entire country of China, rather than just the Pearl River, and so he turned away Chinese envoys from Guangzhou and gave permission for the expeditionary force to proceed with its war plans. Admiral <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Parker,_1st_Baronet,_of_Shenstone" title="Sir William Parker, 1st Baronet, of Shenstone">William Parker, 1st Baronet of Shenstone</a> also arrived in Hong Kong to replace <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Fleming_Senhouse" title="Humphrey Fleming Senhouse">Humphrey Fleming Senhouse</a> (who had died of a fever on 29 June) as the commander of the British naval forces in China. It was agreed by the British commanders that combat operations should be moved north to put pressure on Peking, and on 21 August the fleet sailed for Amoy.<a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg/220px-18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg/330px-18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg/440px-18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4850" data-file-height="3499" /></a><figcaption>British troops at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amoy" title="Battle of Amoy">Battle of Amoy</a>, 1841</figcaption></figure> On 25 August, the British fleet entered the <a href="/wiki/Jiulong_River" title="Jiulong River">Jiulong River</a> estuary and arrived at Amoy. The city was prepared for a naval assault, as Qing military engineers had built several artillery batteries into the granite cliffs overlooking the river. A purely naval assault was considered too risky by Parker, prompting Gough to order a combined naval and ground attack on the defences. On 26 August British marines and regular infantry under the covering fire of the Royal Navy flanked and destroyed the Chinese defences guarding the river. Several large British ships failed to destroy the largest of the Chinese batteries, which withstood over 12,000 cannonballs being fired at it,<a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a> so the position was scaled and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amoy" title="Battle of Amoy">captured by the British infantry</a>. The city of Amoy was abandoned on 27 August, and British soldiers entered the inner town where they blew up the <a href="/wiki/Citadel" title="Citadel">citadel</a>'s powder magazine. 26 Chinese junks and 128 cannons were captured, with the captured guns being thrown into the river by the British. As Lord Palmerston wanted Amoy to become an international trade port at the end of the war, Gough ordered that no looting be tolerated and had officers enforce the death penalty for anyone found to be plundering. However, many Chinese merchants refused to ask for British protection out of fear of being branded as traitors to the Qing dynasty. The British withdrew to an island on the river, where they established a small garrison and blockaded the Jiulong River. With the city empty of any army, peasants, criminals, and deserters looted the town. The Qing army retook the city and restored order several days later, after which the city governor declared that a victory had been won and 5 British ships sunk.<a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernard-1847-154">[151]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>]<a href="#cite_note-170">[167]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] In Britain, changes in Parliament resulted in Lord Palmerston being removed from his post as Foreign Minister on 30 August. <a href="/wiki/William_Lamb,_2nd_Viscount_Melbourne" title="William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne">William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne</a> replaced him, and sought a more measured approach to the situation in China. Lamb remained a supporter of the war.<a href="#cite_note-171">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In September 1841, the British transport ship <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nerbudda_(ship)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nerbudda (ship) (page does not exist)">Nerbudda</a> was shipwrecked on a reef off the northern coast of Formosa after a brief gunnery duel with a Chinese fort. This sinking was followed by the loss of the brig Ann on another reef in March 1842. The survivors of both ships were captured and marched to southern Taiwan, where they were imprisoned. 197 were executed by Qing authorities on 10 August 1842, while an additional 87 died from ill-treatment in captivity. This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Nerbudda_incident" title="Nerbudda incident">Nerbudda incident</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_taking_of_Chusan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Second_taking_of_Chusan.jpg/500px-Second_taking_of_Chusan.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Second_taking_of_Chusan.jpg/750px-Second_taking_of_Chusan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Second_taking_of_Chusan.jpg/1000px-Second_taking_of_Chusan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1231" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>The British forces invasion and <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan_(1841)" title="Capture of Chusan (1841)">Second Capture of Chusan</a></figcaption></figure> October saw the British solidify their control over the central Chinese coast. Zhoushan had been exchanged for Hong Kong on the authority of Qishan in January 1841, after which the island had been re-garrisoned by the Qing. Fearing that the Chinese would improve the island's defences, the British began a military invasion. The British attacked the Qing on 1 October. The battle of the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan_(1841)" title="Capture of Chusan (1841)">Second Capture of Chusan</a> ensued. The British forces killed 1500 Qing soldiers and captured Zhoushan. The victory reestablished British control over Dinghai's important harbour.<a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] On 10 October, a British naval force <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinhai" title="Battle of Chinhai">bombarded and captured</a> a fort on the outskirts of <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> in central China. A battle broke out between the British army and a Chinese force of 1500 men on the road between the town of Chinhai and Ningbo, during which the Chinese were routed. Following the defeat, Chinese authorities evacuated Ningbo and the empty city was taken by the British on 13 October. An imperial cannon manufactory in the city was captured by the British, reducing the ability of the Qing to replace their lost equipment, and the fall of the city threatened the nearby <a href="/wiki/Qiantang_River" title="Qiantang River">Qiantang River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a> The capture of Ningbo forced the British command to examine their policy towards occupied Chinese territory and prizes of war. Admiral Parker and Superintendent Pottinger wanted a percentage of all captured Chinese property to be turned over to the British as legal prizes of war, while General Gough argued that this would only turn the Chinese population against the British, and that if property had to be seized, it should be public property rather than private. British policy eventually settled that 10% of all property captured by the British expeditionary forces would be seized as war loot in retaliation for injustices done to British merchants. Gough later stated that this edict would compel his men to "punish one set of robbers for the benefit of another."<a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a> Fighting ceased for the winter of 1841 while the British resupplied.<a href="#cite_note-Luscombe-178">[175]</a> False reports sent by Yishan to the emperor in Beijing resulted in the continued British threat being downplayed. In late 1841 the Daoguang Emperor discovered that his officials in Guangzhou and Amoy had been sending him embellished reports. He ordered the governor of <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liang_Chang-ch%C3%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liang Chang-chü (page does not exist)">Liang Chang-chü</a>, to send him clear accounts of the events in Guangzhou, noting that since Guangxi was a neighbouring province, Liang must be receiving independent accounts. He warned Liang that he would be able to verify his information by obtaining secret inquiries from other places.<a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a> Yishan was recalled to the capital and faced trial by the imperial court, which removed him from command. Now aware of the severity of the British threat, Chinese towns and cities began to fortify against naval incursions.<a href="#cite_note-Lovell-2015-104">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Peyrefitte-1792-28">[25]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] In the spring of 1842 the Daoguang Emperor ordered his cousin <a href="/wiki/Yijing_(prince)" title="Yijing (prince)">Yijing</a> to retake the city of Ningbo. In the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ningpo" title="Battle of Ningpo">Battle of Ningpo</a> on 10 March, the British garrison repelled the assault with rifle fire and naval artillery. At Ningbo the British lured the Qing army into the city streets before opening fire, resulting in heavy Chinese casualties.<a href="#cite_note-BSI-1842b-180">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-Waley_2013_p._171-181">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a> The British pursued the retreating Chinese army, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tzeki" title="Battle of Tzeki">capturing</a> the nearby city of <a href="/wiki/Cixi_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Cixi City">Cixi</a> on 15 March.<a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a> The important harbour of <a href="/wiki/Zhapu" title="Zhapu">Zhapu</a> was captured on 18 May in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chapu" title="Battle of Chapu">Battle of Chapu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-7">[5]</a> A British fleet bombarded the town, forcing its surrender. A holdout of 300 soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a> stalled the advance of British army for several hours, an act of heroism that was commended by Gough.<a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-BSI-1842-185">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yangtze_campaign">Yangtze campaign</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Yangtze campaign">edit</a>]</div> With many Chinese ports now blockaded or under British occupation, Major General Gough sought to cripple the finances of the Qing Empire by striking up the Yangtze River. 25 warships and 10,000 men were assembled at Ningbo and Zhapu in May for a planned advance into the Chinese interior.<a href="#cite_note-Hall-1846-186">[183]</a> The expedition's advance ships sailed up the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>, and captured the emperor's tax barges, a devastating blow that slashed the revenue of the imperial court in Beijing to a fraction of what it had been.<a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_troops_capture_Chin-Keang-Foo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/British_troops_capture_Chin-Keang-Foo.jpg/220px-British_troops_capture_Chin-Keang-Foo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/British_troops_capture_Chin-Keang-Foo.jpg/330px-British_troops_capture_Chin-Keang-Foo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/British_troops_capture_Chin-Keang-Foo.jpg/440px-British_troops_capture_Chin-Keang-Foo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1813" data-file-height="1361" /></a><figcaption>British troops <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinkiang" title="Battle of Chinkiang">capture Zhenjiang</a> in the last major battle of the war, 21 July 1842</figcaption></figure> On 14 June, the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Huangpu_River" title="Huangpu River">Huangpu River</a> was captured by the British fleet. On 16 June, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Woosung" title="Battle of Woosung">Battle of Woosung</a> occurred, after which the British captured the towns of <a href="/wiki/Wusong_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Wusong District">Wusong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baoshan_District,_Shanghai" class="mw-redirect" title="Baoshan District, Shanghai">Baoshan</a>. The undefended outskirts of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> were occupied by the British on 19 June. Following the battle, Shanghai was looted by retreating Qing bannermen, British soldiers, and local civilians. Qing admiral <a href="/wiki/Chen_Huacheng" title="Chen Huacheng">Chen Huacheng</a> was killed while defending a fort in Woosong.<a href="#cite_note-188">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rait-1903a-189">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hall-1846-186">[183]</a> The fall of Shanghai left the vital city of <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> vulnerable. The Qing amassed an army of 56,000 Manchu bannermen and Han Green Standards to defend Liangjiang Province, and strengthened their river defences on the Yangtze. However, British naval activity in Northern China led to resources and manpower being withdrawn to defend against a feared attack on Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-190">[187]</a> The Qing commander in Liangjiang Province released 16 British prisoners with the hope that a ceasefire could be reached, but poor communications led both the Qing and the British to reject any overtures at peace.<a href="#cite_note-191">[188]</a> In secret, the Daoguang Emperor considered signing a peace treaty with the British, but only in regards to the Yangtze River and not the war as a whole. Had it been signed, the British forces would have been paid to not enter the Yangtze River.<a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a> On 14 July, the British fleet on the Yangtze began to sail up the river. Reconnaissance alerted Gough to the logistical importance of the city of <a href="/wiki/Zhenjiang" title="Zhenjiang">Zhenjiang</a>, and plans were made to capture it.<a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a> Most of the city's guns had been relocated to Wusong and had been captured by the British when said city had been taken. The Qing commanders inside the city were disorganised, with Chinese sources stating that over 100 traitors were executed in Zhenjiang prior to the battle.<a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The British fleet arrived off of the city on the morning of 21 July, and the Chinese forts defending the city were blasted apart. The Chinese defenders initially retreated into the surrounding hills, causing a premature British landing. Fighting erupted when thousands of Chinese soldiers emerged from the city, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinkiang" title="Battle of Chinkiang">Battle of Chinkiang</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg/220px-98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg/330px-98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg/440px-98th_Foot_at_Chinkiang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1789" data-file-height="1158" /></a><figcaption>Fighting at Zhenjiang</figcaption></figure> British engineers blew open the western gate and stormed into the city, where fierce street to street fighting ensued. Zhenjiang was devastated by the battle, with many Chinese soldiers and their families committing suicide rather than be taken prisoner.<a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elliott-1990-124">[121]</a> The British suffered their highest combat losses of the war (36 killed) taking the city.<a href="#cite_note-Rait-1903a-189">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Michie-2012-81">[78]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-BSI-1842-185">[182]</a> After capturing Zhenjiang, the British fleet cut the vital <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a>, paralysing the <a href="/wiki/Caoyun_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Caoyun system">Caoyun system</a> and severely disrupting the Chinese ability to distribute grain throughout the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-195">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rait-1903a-189">[186]</a> The British departed Zhenjiang on 3 August, intending to sail to Nanking. They arrived outside the <a href="/wiki/Jiangning,_Nanjing" title="Jiangning, Nanjing">Jiangning District</a> on 9 August, and were in position to assault the city by 11 August. Although explicit permission to negotiate had not yet been granted by the emperor, Qing officials inside the city agreed to a British request to negotiate.<a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_of_Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Treaty of Nanking">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></div> On 14 August a Chinese delegation led by the Manchu high court official <a href="/wiki/Keying_(official)" title="Keying (official)">Keying</a> and Llipu departed Nanking for the British fleet. Negotiations lasted for several weeks as the British delegation insisted the treaty be accepted by the Daoguang Emperor. The court advised the emperor to accept the treaty, and on 21 August the Daoguang Emperor authorised his diplomats to sign the peace treaty with the British.<a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The First Opium war officially ended on 29 August 1842 with the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-199">[196]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The document was signed by officials of the British and Qing empires aboard <a href="/wiki/HMS_Cornwallis_(1813)" title="HMS Cornwallis (1813)">HMS Cornwallis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hbs-2017-200">[197]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Nanking.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/The_Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Nanking.jpg/700px-The_Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Nanking.jpg" decoding="async" width="700" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/The_Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Nanking.jpg/1050px-The_Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Nanking.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/The_Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Nanking.jpg/1400px-The_Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Nanking.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9686" data-file-height="3633" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Oil painting depicting the signing of the Treaty of Nanking.</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology_and_tactics">Technology and tactics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Technology and tactics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British">British</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: British">edit</a>]</div> The British military superiority during the conflict drew heavily on the strength of the Royal Navy.<a href="#cite_note-victorianweb-1839-140">[137]</a> British warships carried more guns than their Chinese opponents and were manoeuvrable enough to evade Chinese boarding actions. Steam ships such as the <a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(1839)" title="Nemesis (1839)">Nemesis</a> were able to move against winds and tides in Chinese rivers, and were armed with heavy guns and <a href="/wiki/Congreve_rocket" title="Congreve rocket">Congreve rockets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-victorianweb-1839-140">[137]</a> Several of the larger British warships in China (notably the third-rates HMS Cornwallis, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Wellesley_(1815)" title="HMS Wellesley (1815)">HMS Wellesley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Melville_(1817)" title="HMS Melville (1817)">HMS Melville</a>) carried more guns than entire fleets of Chinese junks.<a href="#cite_note-Hall-1846-186">[183]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] British naval superiority allowed the Royal Navy to attack Chinese forts with very little risk to themselves, as British naval cannons out-ranged the vast majority of the Qing artillery.<a href="#cite_note-Hall-1846-186">[183]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] British soldiers in China were equipped with <a href="/wiki/Brunswick_rifle" title="Brunswick rifle">Brunswick rifles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brown_Bess_musket" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown Bess musket">rifle-modified Brown Bess muskets</a>, both of which possessed an effective firing range of 200–300 metres.<a href="#cite_note-Opiumwar_blog-2014-201">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] British marines were equipped with <a href="/wiki/Percussion_cap" title="Percussion cap">percussion caps</a> that greatly reduced weapon misfires and allowed firearms to be used in damp environments. In terms of gunpowder, the British formula was better manufactured and contained more sulphur than the Chinese mixture.<a href="#cite_note-Opiumwar_blog-2014-201">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] This granted British weapons an advantage in terms of range, accuracy and projectile velocity. British artillery was lighter (owing to improved <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forging</a> methods) and more manoeuvrable than the cannons used by the Chinese. As with the naval artillery, British guns out-ranged the Chinese cannon.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In terms of tactics, the British forces in China followed doctrines established during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> that had been adapted during the various colonial wars of the 1820s and 1830s. Many of the British soldiers deployed to China were veterans of <a href="/wiki/British_conquest_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British conquest of India">colonial wars in India</a> and had experience fighting larger but technologically inferior armies.<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a> In battle, the British <a href="/wiki/Line_infantry" title="Line infantry">line infantry</a> would advance towards the enemy in columns, forming ranks once they had closed to firing range. Companies would commence firing volleys into the enemy ranks until they retreated. If a position needed to be taken, an advance or charge with <a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">bayonets</a> would be ordered. <a href="/wiki/Light_infantry" title="Light infantry">Light infantry</a> companies screened the line infantry formations, protecting their flanks and utilising skirmishing tactics to disrupt the enemy.<a href="#cite_note-Luscombe-178">[175]</a> British artillery was used to destroy the Qing artillery and break up enemy formations. During the conflict, the British superiority in range, rate of fire, and accuracy allowed the infantry to deal significant damage to their enemy before the Chinese could return fire.<a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] The use of naval artillery to support infantry operations allowed the British to take cities and forts with minimal casualties.<a href="#cite_note-204">[201]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Hederic-205">[202]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] The overall strategy of the British during the war was to inhibit the finances of the Qing Empire, with the ultimate goal of acquiring a colonial possession on the Chinese coast. This was accomplished through the capture of Chinese cities and by blockading major river systems.<a href="#cite_note-Cone-206">[203]</a> Once a fort or city had been captured, the British would destroy the local arsenal and disable all of the captured guns.<a href="#cite_note-Hederic-205">[202]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] They would then move on to the next target, leaving a small garrison behind. This strategy was planned and implemented by Major General Gough, who was able to operate with minimal input from the British government after Superintendent Elliot was recalled in 1841.<a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a> The large number of private British merchants and East India Company ships deployed in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and the India colonies ensured that the British forces in China were adequately supplied.<a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-Farooqui-2005-15">[12]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 390px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 385px; height: 385px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Attack_on_war_junks.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Royal Navy steamship destroying a Chinese junk with a Congreve rocket. Lightly armoured Chinese warships were decimated by heavy guns and explosive weaponry."><img alt="A Royal Navy steamship destroying a Chinese junk with a Congreve rocket. Lightly armoured Chinese warships were decimated by heavy guns and explosive weaponry." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Attack_on_war_junks.jpg/355px-Attack_on_war_junks.jpg" decoding="async" width="355" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Attack_on_war_junks.jpg/533px-Attack_on_war_junks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Attack_on_war_junks.jpg/710px-Attack_on_war_junks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1577" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A Royal Navy steamship destroying a Chinese junk with a Congreve rocket. Lightly armoured Chinese warships were decimated by heavy guns and explosive weaponry.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 390px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 385px; height: 385px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Joss_House,_Chapoo_1842.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="British line infantry advancing on a Chinese position."><img alt="British line infantry advancing on a Chinese position." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Joss_House%2C_Chapoo_1842.jpg/355px-Joss_House%2C_Chapoo_1842.jpg" decoding="async" width="355" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Joss_House%2C_Chapoo_1842.jpg/533px-Joss_House%2C_Chapoo_1842.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Joss_House%2C_Chapoo_1842.jpg/710px-Joss_House%2C_Chapoo_1842.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4455" data-file-height="2934" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">British line infantry advancing on a Chinese position.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qing_dynasty">Qing dynasty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Qing dynasty">edit</a>]</div> China did not have a unified navy, instead allowing individual provinces to manage naval defenses.<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a> Although the Qing had invested in naval defences for their adjacent seas in earlier periods, after the death of the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> in 1799, the navy decayed as more attention was directed to suppressing the <a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Miao Rebellion">Miao Rebellion</a> and White Lotus Rebellion. These conflicts left the Qing treasury bankrupt. The remaining naval forces were badly overstretched, undermanned, underfunded and uncoordinated.<a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a> From the onset of the war, the Chinese navy was severely disadvantaged. Chinese war junks were intended for use against pirates or equivalent types of vessels, and were more effective in close range river engagements. Due to their ships' slow speeds, Qing captains consistently found themselves sailing towards much more manoeuvrable British ships, and as a consequence the Chinese could only use their bow guns.<a href="#cite_note-211">[208]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] The size of the British ships made traditional boarding tactics useless, and the junks carried smaller numbers of inferior weaponry.<a href="#cite_note-BSI-1842b-180">[177]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] In addition, the Chinese ships were poorly armoured; in several battles, British shells and rockets penetrated Chinese magazines and detonated gunpowder stores. Highly manoeuvrable steamships such as HMS Nemesis could decimate small fleets of junks, as the junks had little chance of catching up to and engaging the faster British steamers.<a href="#cite_note-Hall-1846-186">[183]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] The only western-style warship in the Qing Navy, the converted <a href="/wiki/East_Indiaman" title="East Indiaman">East Indiaman</a> <a href="/wiki/Porcher_(1799_ship)" title="Porcher (1799 ship)">Cambridge</a>, was destroyed in the Battle of First Bar.<a href="#cite_note-212">[209]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] Apparently, the Chinese emperor was aware of this. In an 1842 edict he said: <blockquote>... the invasion by the rebellious barbarians, they depended upon their strong ships and effective guns to commit outrageous acts on the seas and harm our people, largely because the native war junks are too small to match them. For this reason I, the emperor, repeatedly ordered our generals to resist on land and not to fight on seas ... When the enemy ships come, no resistance can be offered; when they go away no means of pursuit are available ... In my opinion what the rebellious barbarians rely upon is the fact that Chinese war junks are incapable of going out to sea to fight them.<a href="#cite_note-213">[210]</a></blockquote> The defensive nature of the conflict resulted in the Chinese relying heavily on an extensive network of fortifications. The <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> (1654–1722) began the construction of river defences to combat pirates, and encouraged the use of western style cannons. By the time of the First Opium War, multiple forts defended most major Chinese cities and waterways. Although the forts were well armed and strategically positioned, the Qing defeat exposed major flaws in their design. The cannons used in the Qing defensive fortifications were a collection of Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish, and British pieces.<a href="#cite_note-214">[211]</a> The domestically produced Chinese cannon were crafted using sub-par forging methods, limiting their effectiveness in combat and causing excessive gun barrel wear. The Chinese blend of gunpowder also contained more charcoal than the British mixture did;[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] while this made it more stable and thus easier to store, it also limited its potential as a propellant, decreasing projectile range and accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Opiumwar_blog-2014-201">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Overall, Chinese cannon technology was considered to be 200 years behind that of the British.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a> Chinese forts were unable to withstand attacks by European weaponry, as they were designed without angled <a href="/wiki/Glacis" title="Glacis">glacis</a> and many did not have protected magazines.<a href="#cite_note-Cone-206">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rait-1903b-217">[214]</a> The limited range of the Qing cannon allowed the British to bombard the Qing defences from a safe distance, then land soldiers to storm them with minimal risk. Many of the larger Chinese guns were built as fixed emplacements and were unable to be maneuvered to fire at British ships.<a href="#cite_note-PBS-2017-218">[215]</a> The failure of the Qing fortifications coupled with the Chinese underestimation of the Royal Navy allowed the British to force their way up major rivers and impede Qing logistics.<a href="#cite_note-Cone-206">[203]</a> Most notably, the powerful series of forts at Humen were well positioned to stop an invader from proceeding upriver to Guangzhou, but it had not been considered that an enemy would attack and destroy the forts themselves, as the British did during the war.<a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a> At the start of the war the Qing army consisted of over 200,000 soldiers, with around 800,000 men being able to be called for war. These forces consisted of Manchu <a href="/wiki/Bannermen_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bannermen (ethnic group)">bannermen</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a>, provincial militias, and imperial garrisons. The Qing armies were armed with matchlocks and shotguns, which had an effective range of 100 metres.<a href="#cite_note-Opiumwar_blog-2014-201">[198]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Chinese historians Liu and Zhang note that the Chinese soldiers "were equipped with sixty or seventy percent traditional weapons, of which the most important were the long lance, the side sword, the bow and arrow, and the rattan shield, and only thirty or forty percent [of their armament consisted of] gunpowder weapons, of which the most important were the matchlock musket, the heavy musket, the cannon, the fire arrow, and the earthshaking bomb and such things."<a href="#cite_note-Andrade-2016-220">[217]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Chinese soldiers were also equipped with halberds, spears, swords, and crossbows. The Qing dynasty also employed large batteries of artillery in battle.<a href="#cite_note-Westminster-1903-126">[123]</a> The tactics of the Qing remained consistent with what they had been in previous centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Andrade-2016-220">[217]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a> Soldiers with firearms would form ranks and fire volleys into the enemy while men armed with spears and pikes would drive the enemy off of the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-222">[219]</a> Cavalry was used to break infantry formations and pursue routed enemies, while Qing artillery was used to scatter enemy formations and destroy fortifications.<a href="#cite_note-223">[220]</a> During the First Opium War, these tactics were unable to successfully deal with British firepower. Chinese melee formations were decimated by artillery, and Chinese soldiery armed with matchlocks could not effectively exchange fire with British ranks, who greatly outranged them.<a href="#cite_note-224">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Luscombe-178">[175]</a> Most battles of the war were fought in cities or on cliffs and riverbanks, limiting the Qing usage of cavalry. Many Qing cannon were destroyed by British <a href="/wiki/Counter-battery_fire" title="Counter-battery fire">counter-battery fire</a>, and British light infantry companies were consistently able to outflank and capture Chinese artillery batteries.<a href="#cite_note-Rait-1903b-217">[214]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] A British officer said of the opposing Qing forces, "The Chinese are robust muscular fellows, and no cowards; the Tartars [i.e. Manchus] desperate; but neither are well commanded nor acquainted with European warfare. Having had, however, experience of three of them, I am inclined to suppose that a Tartar bullet is not a whit softer than a French one."<a href="#cite_note-Westminster-1903-126">[123]</a> The strategy of the Qing dynasty during the war was to prevent the British from seizing Chinese territory.<a href="#cite_note-Westminster-1903-126">[123]</a> This defensive strategy was hampered by the Qing severely underestimating the capacity of the British military. Qing defences on the Pearl and Yangtze rivers were ineffective in stopping the British push inland, and superior naval artillery prevented the Chinese from retaking cities.<a href="#cite_note-Waley_2013_p._171-181">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">[32]</a> The Qing imperial bureaucracy was unable to react quickly to the prodding British attacks, while officials and commanders often reported false, faulty, or incomplete information to their superiors.<a href="#cite_note-225">[222]</a> The Qing military system made it difficult to deploy troops to counter the mobile British forces.<a href="#cite_note-226">[223]</a> In addition, the ongoing conflict with Sikhs on the Qing border with India drew away some of the most experienced Qing units from the war with Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin-1960-125">[122]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 390px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 385px; height: 385px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_soldiers_with_gingals.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese soldiers armed with a gingal during the First Opium War."><img alt="Chinese soldiers armed with a gingal during the First Opium War." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chinese_soldiers_with_gingals.jpg/355px-Chinese_soldiers_with_gingals.jpg" decoding="async" width="355" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chinese_soldiers_with_gingals.jpg/533px-Chinese_soldiers_with_gingals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chinese_soldiers_with_gingals.jpg/710px-Chinese_soldiers_with_gingals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3049" data-file-height="1642" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chinese soldiers armed with a <a href="/wiki/Gingal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gingal">gingal</a> during the First Opium War.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> The war ended in the signing of China's first <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal treaty">unequal treaty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Greenwood-199">[196]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Hbs-2017-200">[197]</a> In the supplementary <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a>, the Qing empire also recognised Britain as an equal to China and gave British subjects <a href="/wiki/Extraterritoriality" title="Extraterritoriality">extraterritorial</a> privileges in treaty ports. In 1844, the United States and France concluded similar treaties with China, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-227">[224]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In addition to opening China to European opium traders, the European trade in captive Chinese <a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">coolie</a> labor boomed.<a href="#cite_note-:6-228">[225]</a>: 5  Anglophone capitalists referred to this trade collectively as "poison and pigs."<a href="#cite_note-:6-228">[225]</a>: 5  China was required to permit foreign missionaries and the unequal treaties gave European powers jurisdiction over missions and some authority over Chinese Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:1-229">[226]</a>: 182  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opium_War_Museum_entrance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Opium_War_Museum_entrance.jpg/220px-Opium_War_Museum_entrance.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Opium_War_Museum_entrance.jpg/330px-Opium_War_Museum_entrance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Opium_War_Museum_entrance.jpg/440px-Opium_War_Museum_entrance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1965" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>Entrance of the Opium War Museum in <a href="/wiki/Humen_Town" title="Humen Town">Humen Town</a>, Guangdong</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_gold_medal_made_out_of_Chinese_silver_(First_Opium_War).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/British_gold_medal_made_out_of_Chinese_silver_%28First_Opium_War%29.jpg/220px-British_gold_medal_made_out_of_Chinese_silver_%28First_Opium_War%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/British_gold_medal_made_out_of_Chinese_silver_%28First_Opium_War%29.jpg/330px-British_gold_medal_made_out_of_Chinese_silver_%28First_Opium_War%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/British_gold_medal_made_out_of_Chinese_silver_%28First_Opium_War%29.jpg/440px-British_gold_medal_made_out_of_Chinese_silver_%28First_Opium_War%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>British gold medal, dually dated 1829 and March 1842, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Mint" title="Royal Mint">London mint</a>. Extracted out of the Chinese silver indemnity payments of the Treaty of Nanking</figcaption></figure> The opium trade faced intense enmity from later British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lodwick2015-230">[227]</a> As a member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "most infamous and atrocious" referring to the opium trade between China and British India in particular.<a href="#cite_note-Chouvy2009-231">[228]</a> Gladstone was fiercely against both of the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a> Britain waged in China: the First Opium War initiated in 1840 and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> initiated in 1857. He denounced British violence against the Chinese and was ardently opposed to the British trade in opium to China.<a href="#cite_note-QuinaultWindscheffel2013-232">[229]</a> Gladstone lambasted it as "Palmerston's Opium War" and said in May 1840 that he felt "in dread of the judgments of God upon England for our national iniquity towards China".<a href="#cite_note-Foxcroft2013-233">[230]</a> Gladstone made a famous speech in Parliament against the First Opium War, stating, "A war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated to cover this country with disgrace, I do not know, and I have not read of."<a href="#cite_note-HanesSanello2004-234">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[232]</a> His hostility to opium stemmed from the effects opium brought upon his sister Helen.<a href="#cite_note-236">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-Isba2006-237">[234]</a> Due to the First Opium war brought on by Palmerston, there was initial reluctance to join the government of Peel on part of Gladstone before 1841.<a href="#cite_note-Bebbington1993-238">[235]</a> The war marked the start of what 20th century Chinese nationalists called the "<a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">century of humiliation</a>". The ease with which the British forces defeated the numerically superior Chinese armies damaged the dynasty's prestige. The Treaty of Nanking was a step to opening the lucrative Chinese market to global commerce and the opium trade. The interpretation of the war, which was long the standard in the People's Republic of China, was summarised in 1976: The Opium War, "in which the Chinese people fought against British aggression, marked the beginning of modern Chinese history and the start of the Chinese people's bourgeois-democratic revolution against imperialism and feudalism."<a href="#cite_note-Janin-1999-51">[48]</a> The Treaty of Nanking, the Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, and two French and American agreements were all "unequal treaties" signed between 1842 and 1844. The terms of these treaties undermined China's traditional mechanisms of foreign relations and methods of controlled trade. Five ports were opened for trade, gunboats, and foreign residence: Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai. Hong Kong was seized by the British to become a free and open port. Tariffs were abolished thus preventing the Chinese from raising future duties to protect domestic industries and extraterritorial practices exempted Westerners from Chinese law. This made them subject to their own civil and criminal laws of their home country. Most importantly, the opium problem was never addressed and after the treaty was signed opium addiction doubled. China was forced to pay 21 million silver <a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">taels</a> as an indemnity, which was used to pay compensation for the traders' opium destroyed by Commissioner Lin. A couple of years after the treaties were signed internal rebellion began to threaten foreign trade. Due to the Qing government's inability to control collection of taxes on imported goods, the British government convinced the Manchu court to allow Westerners to partake in government official affairs. By the 1850s the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Maritime_Customs_Service" title="Chinese Maritime Customs Service">Chinese Maritime Customs Service</a>, one of the most important bureaucracies in the Manchu Government, was partially staffed and managed by Western Foreigners.<a href="#cite_note-Sharpe-88">[85]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In 1858, opium was legalised, and would remain a problem.<a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Commissioner Lin, often referred to as "Lin the Clear Sky" for his moral probity,<a href="#cite_note-240">[237]</a> was made a scapegoat. He was blamed for ultimately failing to stem the tide of opium imports and usage as well as for provoking an unwinnable war through his rigidity and lack of understanding of the changing world.<a href="#cite_note-241">[238]</a> Nevertheless, as the Chinese nation formed in the 20th century, Lin became viewed as a hero, and has been immortalised at various locations around China.<a href="#cite_note-242">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[241]</a> The First Opium War both reflected and contributed to a further weakening of the Chinese state's power and legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-245">[242]</a> Anti-Qing sentiment grew in the form of rebellions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a>, a war lasting from 1850 to 1864 in which at least 20 million Chinese died. The decline of the Qing dynasty was beginning to be felt by much of the Chinese population.<a href="#cite_note-Goldstone-2016-21">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revisionist_views">Revisionist views</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Revisionist views">edit</a>]</div> The impact of the opium habit on the Chinese people, and the manner in which the British imposed their power to guarantee the profitable trade, have been staples of Chinese historiography ever since.<a href="#cite_note-246">[243]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The British historian <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Ridley" title="Jasper Ridley">Jasper Ridley</a> concluded: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Conflict between China and Britain was inevitable. On the one side was a corrupt, decadent and caste-ridden despotism, with no desire or ability to wage war, which relied on custom much more than force for the enforcement of extreme privilege and discrimination, and which was blinded by a deep-rooted superiority complex into believing that they could assert their supremacy over Europeans without possessing military power. On the other side was the most economically advanced nation in the world, a nation of pushing, bustling traders, of self-help, free trade, and the pugnacious qualities of John Bull.<a href="#cite_note-247">[244]</a></blockquote> However, Ridley adds, opposition in Britain was intense: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">An entirely opposite British viewpoint was promoted by humanitarians and reformers such as the Chartists and religious nonconformists led by a young Gladstone. They argued that Palmerston (the foreign secretary) was only interested in the huge profits it would bring Britain, and was totally oblivious to the horrible moral evils of opium which the Chinese government was valiantly trying to stamp out.<a href="#cite_note-248">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[246]</a></blockquote> The American historian <a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">John K. Fairbank</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In demanding diplomatic equality and commercial opportunity, Britain represented all the Western states, which would sooner or later have demanded the same things if Britain had not. It was an accident of history that the dynamic British commercial interests in the China trade was centered not only on tea but also on opium. If the main Chinese demand had continued to be for Indian raw cotton, or at any rate if there had been no market for opium in late-Ch'ing China, as there had been none earlier, then there would have been no "opium war". Yet probably some kind of Sino-foreign war would have come, given the irresistible vigor of Western expansion and immovable inertia of Chinese institutions.<a href="#cite_note-250">[247]</a></blockquote> Some historians claim that Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary, initiated the Opium War to maintain the principle of free trade.<a href="#cite_note-251">[248]</a> Professor Glenn Melancon, for example, argues that the issue in going to war was not opium but Britain's need to uphold its reputation, its honour and its commitment to global free trade. China was pressing Britain just when the British faced serious pressures in the Near East, on the Indian frontier and in Latin America. In the end, says Melancon, the government's need to maintain its honour in Britain and prestige abroad forced the decision to go to war.<a href="#cite_note-Glenn_Melancon_1840,_pp_854-874-127">[124]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] Former American president <a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> commented that opium was "a mere incident to the dispute ... the cause of the war is the <a href="/wiki/Kowtow" title="Kowtow">kowtow</a>—the arrogant and insupportable pretensions of China that she will hold commercial intercourse with the rest of mankind not upon terms of equal reciprocity, but upon the insulting and degrading forms of the relations between lord and vassal."<a href="#cite_note-252">[249]</a> Ray Huang, in China: A Macro History, provides a broader context for understanding the Opium War. He argues that the causes of the conflict cannot be solely reduced to economic factors or immediate diplomatic tensions. Huang emphasizes the deep structural issues within the Qing dynasty, including economic strain, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and social unrest. These issues weakened the Qing state's ability to respond effectively to both internal and external pressures. The mounting frustrations of Chinese officials and the social dislocations they faced played a significant role in pushing the government towards harsher policies against the opium trade[4]. The Australian historian Harry G. Gelber argues that opium played a role similar to the tea dumped into the harbour in the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a> of 1773 leading to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. Gelber argues instead: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The British went to war because of Chinese military threats to defenceless British civilians, including women and children; because China refused to negotiate on terms of diplomatic equality and because China refused to open more ports than Guangzhou to trade, not just with Britain but with everybody. The belief about British "guilt" came later, as part of China's long catalogue of alleged Western "exploitation and aggression".<a href="#cite_note-253">[250]</a></blockquote> Western women were actually not legally permitted to enter Guangzhou although they were permitted to live in Macau.<a href="#cite_note-254">[251]</a> The Qing government hampered foreign trade and through the Canton System concentrated trade in Guangzhou. That being said, the policy of concentrating trade to a single port was also used in Western countries such as Spain and Portugal. Western merchants could also trade freely and legally with Chinese merchants in Xiamen and Macao or when the trade was conducted through ports outside China such as Manila and Batavia.<a href="#cite_note-255">[252]</a> Furthermore, Macao was restricted to Portuguese traders, and Xiamen the Spanish, who rarely made use of this privilege.<a href="#cite_note-256">[253]</a> The public in Western countries had earlier condemned the British government for supporting the opium trade.<a href="#cite_note-Melancon-2003b-114">[111]</a> Opium was the most profitable single commodity trade of the 19th century. As Timothy Brook and Bob Wakabayashi write of opium, "The British Empire could not survive were it deprived of its most important source of capital, the substance that could turn any other commodity into silver."<a href="#cite_note-257">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[255]</a> although this thesis is controversial<a href="#cite_note-259">[256]</a> Opium was the most common and the most profitable trade good and comprised 33–54% of all goods shipped from Bengal to the East between 1815 and 1818. Carl Trocki described "the British Empire east of Suez as of 1800 as essentially a drug cartel."<a href="#cite_note-260">[257]</a> James Bradley states that "between 1814 and 1850, the opium trade sucked out 11 percent of China's money supply".<a href="#cite_note-261">[258]</a> Although shipping was regulated, the Qianlong emperor's administration was diligent in accommodating the requisites of Western merchants. It hired a growing body of Western assistants for the Customs Office to help manage its fellow countrymen. The order to stay in Macao during the winter was lifted; tax was exempted on food, drink, and basic supplies for Western merchants; and protections were granted to Westerners and their property.<a href="#cite_note-262">[259]</a> Qing laws prevented Chinese from pursuing foreigners through the courts. The prohibition mainly dated from the Qianlong Emperor's strong conviction that mistreatment of foreigners had been a major cause of the overthrow of several earlier dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-263">[260]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The Qianlong Emperor granted Lord Macartney a golden sceptre, an important symbol of peace and wealth, but that was dismissed by the British, who were unaware of its symbolism. The Qianlong Emperor also dismissed the "lavish" presents that the British gave to facilitate diplomatic relations and concluded that they were no better than other European products. In 1806, Chinese officials compromised with the British on the murder of a Chinese man by British seamen, as Westerners refused to be punished under Chinese law, and local citizens vigorously protested for xenophobic reasons and because of perceived injustice. In 1816, the Jiaqing Emperor dismissed a British embassy for its refusal to kowtow, but he sent them an apologetic letter with gifts, which were later found in the Foreign Office, unread. The British ignored Chinese laws and warnings not to deploy military forces in Chinese waters. The British landed troops in Macao despite a Chinese and Portuguese agreement to bar foreign forces from Macao and then in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a> attacked American ships deep in the inner harbour of Guangzhou (the Americans had previously robbed British ships in Chinese waters as well). Those, in combination with the British support to Nepal during <a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">their invasion of Tibet</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Nepalese_War" title="Anglo-Nepalese War">British invasion of Nepal</a> after it became a Chinese tributary state, led the Chinese authorities to become highly suspicious of British intentions.<a href="#cite_note-264">[261]</a> In 1834, when British naval vessels intruded into Chinese waters again, the Daoguang Emperor commented: "How laughable and deplorable is it that we cannot even repel two barbarian ships. Our military had decayed so much. No wonder the barbarians are looking down on us."<a href="#cite_note-265">[262]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Question_of_inevitability">Question of inevitability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Question of inevitability">edit</a>]</div> Historians have often pondered whether the war could have been avoided.<a href="#cite_note-266">[263]</a> One factor was that China rejected diplomatic relations with the British or anyone else, as seen in the rejection of the Macartney mission in 1793. As a result, diplomatic mechanisms for negotiation and resolution were missing.<a href="#cite_note-267">[264]</a> Michael Greenberg locates the inevitable cause in the momentum for more and more overseas trade in Britain's expanding modern economy.<a href="#cite_note-268">[265]</a> On the other hand, the economic forces inside Britain that were war hawks, Radicals in Parliament and northern merchants and manufacturers, were a political minority and needed allies, especially Palmerston, before they could get their war.<a href="#cite_note-269">[266]</a> In Parliament, the Melbourne government faced a host of complex international threats including the <a href="/wiki/Chartism" title="Chartism">Chartist</a> riots at home, bothersome budget deficits, unrest in Ireland, rebellions in Canada and Jamaica, war in Afghanistan, and French threats to British business interests in Mexico and Argentina. The opposition demanded more aggressive answers, and it was Foreign Minister Palmerston who set up an easy war to solve the political crisis.<a href="#cite_note-270">[267]</a> It was not economics, opium sales or expanding trade that caused the British to go to war, Melancon argues, but it was more a matter of upholding aristocratic standards of national honour sullied by Chinese insults.<a href="#cite_note-271">[268]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>]<a href="#cite_note-272">[269]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] One historiographical problem is that the emphasis on the British causal factors tends to ignore the Chinese. The Manchu rulers were focused on internal unrest by Chinese elements and paid little attention to the minor issues happening in Guangzhou.<a href="#cite_note-273">[270]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page range too broad</a>] The historian James Polachek argues the reasons for trying to suppress the opium trade had to do with internal factionalism led by a purification-oriented group of literary scholars who paid no attention to the risk of international intervention by much more powerful military forces. Therefore, it was not a matter of inevitable conflict between contrasting worldviews.<a href="#cite_note-274">[271]</a> Lin and the Daoguang Emperor, comments Spence, "seemed to have believed that the citizens of Guangzhou and the foreign traders there had simple, childlike natures that would respond to firm guidance and statements of moral principles set out in simple, clear terms." Neither considered the possibility that the British government would be committed to protecting the smugglers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999152–158-275">[272]</a> Polachek argues, based on records of court debate, that growing court awareness that opium addiction in the Guangdong military garrisons, caused by widespread collusion between British smugglers, Chinese smugglers and Chinese officials, had completely impaired their military effectiveness. That left the entire southern flank of the Qing exposed to military threats and was more important in generating opposition to the drug trade than economic reasons. Polachek shows that Lin Zexu and the hardliners (mistakenly) believed that by arresting drug abusers, confiscating the opium supplies and promising to allow the British to continue trading in other goods, they could persuade the British to give up the drug trade without a war.<a href="#cite_note-276">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactive_map">Interactive map</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Interactive map">edit</a>]</div> <div class="center" style="border: 1px solid #000000; width: 765px"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/First_Opium_War_1839-42_Conflict_Overview_EN.svg/578px-First_Opium_War_1839-42_Conflict_Overview_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="578" height="923" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/First_Opium_War_1839-42_Conflict_Overview_EN.svg/867px-First_Opium_War_1839-42_Conflict_Overview_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/First_Opium_War_1839-42_Conflict_Overview_EN.svg/1156px-First_Opium_War_1839-42_Conflict_Overview_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="923" usemap="#ImageMap_09e3917c09bd602b" resource="/wiki/File:First_Opium_War_1839-42_Conflict_Overview_EN.svg" /><map name="ImageMap_09e3917c09bd602b"><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Canton_(March_1841)" shape="rect" coords="9,695,63,715" alt="First Battle of Canton" title="First Battle of Canton" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Canton_(May_1841)" shape="rect" coords="9,718,63,734" alt="Second Battle of Canton" title="Second Battle of Canton" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_First_Bar" shape="rect" coords="20,757,91,777" alt="Battle of First Bar" title="Battle of First Bar" /><area href="/wiki/Broadway_expedition" shape="rect" coords="32,783,91,803" alt="Broadway expedition" title="Broadway expedition" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Barrier" shape="rect" coords="28,806,92,829" alt="Battle of the Barrier" title="Battle of the Barrier" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Whampoa" shape="rect" coords="131,703,190,721" alt="Battle of Whampoa" title="Battle of Whampoa" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bogue" shape="rect" coords="159,748,227,768" alt="Battle of the Bogue" title="Battle of the Bogue" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kowloon" shape="rect" coords="199,798,270,818" alt="Battle of Kowloon" title="Battle of Kowloon" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chuenpi" shape="rect" coords="197,825,271,843" alt="Battle of Chuenpi" title="Battle of Chuenpi" /><area href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Chuenpi" shape="rect" coords="199,845,274,866" alt="Second Battle of Chuenpi" title="Second Battle of Chuenpi" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amoy" shape="rect" coords="242,646,302,667" alt="Battle of Amoy" title="Battle of Amoy" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ningpo" shape="rect" coords="339,465,404,487" alt="Battle of Ningpo" title="Battle of Ningpo" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chapu" shape="rect" coords="350,419,402,439" alt="Battle of Chapu" title="Battle of Chapu" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinkiang" shape="rect" coords="367,350,435,371" alt="Battle of Chinkiang" title="Battle of Chinkiang" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Woosung" shape="rect" coords="473,375,524,393" alt="Battle of Woosung" title="Battle of Woosung" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinhai" shape="rect" coords="472,396,543,418" alt="Battle of Chinhai" title="Battle of Chinhai" /><area href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan" shape="rect" coords="504,421,572,442" alt="Capture of Chusan" title="Capture of Chusan" /><area href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chusan_(1841)" shape="rect" coords="506,442,573,462" alt="Capture of Chusan (1841)" title="Capture of Chusan (1841)" /><area href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tzeki" shape="rect" coords="281,447,334,465" alt="Battle of Tzeki" title="Battle of Tzeki" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illustrated_Treatise_on_the_Maritime_Kingdoms" title="Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms">Illustrated Treatise on the Maritime Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Opium_War_(film)" title="The Opium War (film)">The Opium War (film)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individuals">Individuals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Individuals">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jardine_(merchant)" title="William Jardine (merchant)">William Jardine (merchant)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Napier,_9th_Lord_Napier" title="William Napier, 9th Lord Napier">William Napier, 9th Lord Napier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sassoon_(treasurer)" title="David Sassoon (treasurer)">David Sassoon</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Comprising 5 <a href="/wiki/Troopship" title="Troopship">troopships</a>, 3 <a href="/wiki/Brig" title="Brig">brigs</a>, 2 <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steamers</a>, 1 <a href="/wiki/Survey_vessel" title="Survey vessel">survey vessel</a>, and 1 <a href="/wiki/Hospital_ship" title="Hospital ship">hospital ship</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Refers to total troops in the provinces that were in the theatre of war, but only about 100,000 troops were actually mobilised for the war itself.<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Casualties include Manchu bannermen and their families who committed mass suicide at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chapu" title="Battle of Chapu">Battle of Chapu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chinkiang" title="Battle of Chinkiang">Battle of Chinkiang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-John_2008-8">[6]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-martin-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-martin_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-martin_1-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin,_Robert_Montgomery" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin, Robert Montgomery">Martin, Robert Montgomery</a> (1847). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinapoliticalc00martgoog">China: Political, Commercial, and Social; In an Official Report to Her Majesty's Government</a>. Volume 2. London: James Madden. pp. 80–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Mao 2016, pp. 50–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-p._248-5"><a href="#cite_ref-p._248_5-0">^</a> The Chinese Repository, vol. 12, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Bate 1952, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ref-1-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_7-2">c</a> Rait, Robert S. (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924088002120#page/n307/mode/2up">The Life and Campaigns of Hugh, First Viscount Gough, Field-Marshal</a>. Volume 1. p. 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-John_2008-8"><a href="#cite_ref-John_2008_8-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMakeham2008" class="citation book cs1">Makeham, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TQ4NAQAAMAAJ&q=Bannermen+desperately">China: The World's Oldest Living Civilization Revealed</a>. Thames & Hudson. p. 331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25142-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25142-3"><bdi>978-0-500-25142-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+The+World%27s+Oldest+Living+Civilization+Revealed&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-500-25142-3&rft.aulast=Makeham&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTQ4NAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DBannermen%2Bdesperately&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000l-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000l_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000l_10-1">b</a> Fay (2000) p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay_p143-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay_p143_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay_p143_11-1">b</a> Fay (2000) p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSs61pjvS8C&q=letter%20queen%20victoria">143.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cyber.harvard.edu/ChinaDragon/lin_xexu.html">"digital china/harvard: Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria"</a>. cyber.harvard.edu. Retrieved 23 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cyber.harvard.edu&rft.atitle=digital+china%2Fharvard%3A+Letter+of+Advice+to+Queen+Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcyber.harvard.edu%2FChinaDragon%2Flin_xexu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wps.pearsoncustom.com/wps/media/objects/2427/2486120/chap_assets/documents/doc24_1.html">"Longman World History"</a>. wps.pearsoncustom.com. Retrieved 23 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wps.pearsoncustom.com&rft.atitle=Longman+World+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwps.pearsoncustom.com%2Fwps%2Fmedia%2Fobjects%2F2427%2F2486120%2Fchap_assets%2Fdocuments%2Fdoc24_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars">"Opium Wars"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Opium+Wars&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FOpium-Wars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farooqui-2005-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farooqui-2005_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farooqui-2005_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarooqui2005" class="citation book cs1">Farooqui, Amar (March 2005). Smuggling as Subversion: Colonialism, Indian Merchants, and the Politics of Opium, 1790–1843. Lexington. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0886-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0886-7"><bdi>0-7391-0886-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Smuggling+as+Subversion%3A+Colonialism%2C+Indian+Merchants%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Opium%2C+1790%E2%80%931843&rft.pub=Lexington&rft.date=2005-03&rft.isbn=0-7391-0886-7&rft.aulast=Farooqui&rft.aufirst=Amar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Steve Tsang, A modern history of Hong Kong (2007) pp. 3–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Tsang, A modern history of Hong Kong p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://australian.museum/learn/cultures/international-collection/chinese/the-mechanics-of-opium-wars/">"The Mechanics of Opium Wars"</a>. The Australian Museum. Retrieved 28 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Australian+Museum&rft.atitle=The+Mechanics+of+Opium+Wars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faustralian.museum%2Flearn%2Fcultures%2Finternational-collection%2Fchinese%2Fthe-mechanics-of-opium-wars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGray200222–23-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGray200222–23_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGray2002">Gray 2002</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Carrera Stampa, Manuel. "La Nao de la China." Historia Mexicana 9 no. 33 (1959) 97–118. </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldstone-2016-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstone-2016_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstone-2016_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstone-2016_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstone-2016_21-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstone2016" class="citation book cs1">Goldstone, Jack A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mOu_DQAAQBAJ&q=chinese+european+bullion&pg=PT365">Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World: Population Change and State Breakdown in England, France, Turkey, and China, 1600–1850</a> (25th Anniversary ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-40860-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-40860-6"><bdi>978-1-315-40860-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+Rebellion+in+the+Early+Modern+World%3A+Population+Change+and+State+Breakdown+in+England%2C+France%2C+Turkey%2C+and+China%2C+1600%E2%80%931850&rft.edition=25th+Anniversary&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-315-40860-6&rft.aulast=Goldstone&rft.aufirst=Jack+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmOu_DQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchinese%2Beuropean%2Bbullion%26pg%3DPT365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mann-2011-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mann-2011_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann-2011_22-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Mann" title="Charles C. Mann">Charles C. Mann</a> (2011) pp. 123–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Spence (1999) p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999120-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence1999120_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence1999120_24-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpence1999">Spence 1999</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernstein_286-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein_286_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernstein2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_J._Bernstein" title="William J. Bernstein">Bernstein, William J.</a> (2008). A splendid exchange: how trade shaped the world. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87113-979-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87113-979-5"><bdi>978-0-87113-979-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+splendid+exchange%3A+how+trade+shaped+the+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-87113-979-5&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Van_Dyke_6-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Dyke_6_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Dyke_6_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Dyke2005" class="citation book cs1">Van Dyke, Paul A. (2005). The Canton trade: life and enterprise on the China coast, 1700–1845. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. pp. 6–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-209-749-9" title="Special:BookSources/962-209-749-9"><bdi>962-209-749-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Canton+trade%3A+life+and+enterprise+on+the+China+coast%2C+1700%E2%80%931845&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=962-209-749-9&rft.aulast=Van+Dyke&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Hucker, Charles O. (1958). "Governmental Organization of the Ming Dynasty". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. Harvard-Yenching Institute: 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-Peyrefitte-1792-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peyrefitte-1792_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peyrefitte-1792_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peyrefitte-1792_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peyrefitte-1792_28-3">d</a> Alain Peyrefitte, The Immobile Empire – The first great collision of East and West – the astonishing history of Britain's grand, an ill-fated expedition to open China to Western Trade, 1792–94 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), pp. 520–545 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000d-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000d_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000d_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000d_29-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000d_29-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000d_29-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000d_29-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000d_29-6">g</a> Fay (2000) pp. 38–45, 55–54, 60–68. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 62–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000h-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000h_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000h_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000h_31-2">c</a> Fay (2000) p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A21388322">Early American Trade</a>, BBC </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000e-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000e_33-9">j</a> Fay (2000) pp. 75–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-Peyrefitte_1993,_p487-503-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peyrefitte_1993,_p487-503_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peyrefitte_1993,_p487-503_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peyrefitte_1993,_p487-503_34-2">c</a> Peyrefitte 1993, pp. 487–503. </li> <li id="cite_note-China:_The_First_Opium_War-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China:_The_First_Opium_War_35-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101201214224/http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob36.html">"China: The First Opium War"</a>. John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob36.html">the original</a> on 1 December 2010. Retrieved 2 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=China%3A+The+First+Opium+War&rft.pub=John+Jay+College+of+Criminal+Justice%2C+City+University+of+New+York&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.jjay.cuny.edu%2F~jobrien%2Freference%2Fob36.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> Quoting British Parliamentary Papers, 1840, XXXVI (223), p. 374. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanes_2002-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanes_2002_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanes_2002_36-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanes_IIISanello2002" class="citation book cs1">Hanes III, W. Travis; <a href="/wiki/Frank_Sanello" title="Frank Sanello">Sanello, Frank</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/opiumwarsaddicti00hane">The Opium Wars</a>. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/opiumwarsaddicti00hane/page/20">20</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Opium+Wars&rft.place=Naperville%2C+IL&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Sourcebooks&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Hanes+III&rft.aufirst=W.+Travis&rft.au=Sanello%2C+Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fopiumwarsaddicti00hane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Meyers, Wang (2003) p. 587. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000g-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000g_38-0">^</a> Fay (2000) p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 74–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000m-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000m_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000m_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000m_40-2">c</a> Fay (2000) pp. 13–14, 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Lovell, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Peyrefitte, 1993 p. 520. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000f-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000f_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000f_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000f_43-2">c</a> Fay (2000) pp. 73–74. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asiapacificcurriculum.ca/learning-module/opium-wars-china">"The Opium Wars in China"</a>. Asia Pacific Curriculum. Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asia+Pacific+Curriculum&rft.atitle=The+Opium+Wars+in+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasiapacificcurriculum.ca%2Flearning-module%2Fopium-wars-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000j-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000j_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000j_45-1">b</a> Fay (2000) pp. 41–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeyrefitte2013" class="citation book cs1">Peyrefitte, Alain (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iELwe9Klc2sC&q=Opium+is+like+gold%2C+sell+it+at+anytime&pg=PA520">The Immobile Empire</a>. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0345803955" title="Special:BookSources/978-0345803955"><bdi>978-0345803955</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immobile+Empire&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0345803955&rft.aulast=Peyrefitte&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiELwe9Klc2sC%26q%3DOpium%2Bis%2Blike%2Bgold%252C%2Bsell%2Bit%2Bat%2Banytime%26pg%3DPA520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China#CITEREFLayton1997" title="History of opium in China">Layton 1997</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu/chinatrade/introduction04.html">"Early American Trade with China"</a>. teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu. Retrieved 8 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu&rft.atitle=Early+American+Trade+with+China&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu%2Fchinatrade%2Fintroduction04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JEAL-49"><a href="#cite_ref-JEAL_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1989" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Nancy (February 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jeal/vol1989/iss86/5">"Cargo Manifests and Custom Records from American China Trade Vessels Bound for the Port of Philadelphia 1790–1840"</a>. Journal of East Asian Libraries. 1989 (86): 17–20. Retrieved 23 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+East+Asian+Libraries&rft.atitle=Cargo+Manifests+and+Custom+Records+from+American+China+Trade+Vessels+Bound+for+the+Port+of+Philadelphia+1790%E2%80%931840&rft.volume=1989&rft.issue=86&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=1989-02&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fjeal%2Fvol1989%2Fiss86%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 76–80. </li> <li id="cite_note-Janin-1999-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Janin-1999_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janin-1999_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janin-1999_51-2">c</a> The History of Modern China (Beijing, 1976) quoted in Janin, Hunt (1999). The India–China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century. McFarland. p. 207. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-0715-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-0715-8">0-7864-0715-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-fu-52"><a href="#cite_ref-fu_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFu1966" class="citation book cs1">Fu, Lo-shu (1966). A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western relations, Volume 1. p. 380.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Documentary+Chronicle+of+Sino-Western+relations%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=380&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Fu&rft.aufirst=Lo-shu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovell2014" class="citation book cs1">Lovell, Julia (2014). The Opium War : drugs, dreams and the making of China. New York. pp. 2–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1468308952" title="Special:BookSources/978-1468308952"><bdi>978-1468308952</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Opium+War+%3A+drugs%2C+dreams+and+the+making+of+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1468308952&rft.aulast=Lovell&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Conversation-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conversation_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conversation_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2024" class="citation web cs1">Foster, Kevin (6 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/exploitation-brutality-and-misery-how-the-opium-trade-shaped-the-modern-world-227356">"Exploitation, brutality and misery: how the opium trade shaped the modern world"</a>. The Conversation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Exploitation%2C+brutality+and+misery%3A+how+the+opium+trade+shaped+the+modern+world&rft.date=2024-05-06&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fexploitation-brutality-and-misery-how-the-opium-trade-shaped-the-modern-world-227356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1880-06-04/debates/b53a59e8-4235-47f9-beec-31da92fdfbf4/TheOpiumTrade%E2%80%94Observations">"The Opium Trade—Observations"</a>. Hansard. 4 June 1880.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hansard&rft.atitle=The+Opium+Trade%E2%80%94Observations&rft.date=1880-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhansard.parliament.uk%2FCommons%2F1880-06-04%2Fdebates%2Fb53a59e8-4235-47f9-beec-31da92fdfbf4%2FTheOpiumTrade%25E2%2580%2594Observations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhattacharya2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bhattacharya, Prabir (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0260107920907196">"India in the Rise of Britain and Europe: A Contribution to the Convergence and Great Divergence Debates"</a>. Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics. 33 (1): 24–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0260107920907196">10.1177/0260107920907196</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0260-1079">0260-1079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+Economics&rft.atitle=India+in+the+Rise+of+Britain+and+Europe%3A+A+Contribution+to+the+Convergence+and+Great+Divergence+Debates&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0260107920907196&rft.issn=0260-1079&rft.aulast=Bhattacharya&rft.aufirst=Prabir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F0260107920907196&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wood-1849-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wood-1849_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wood-1849_57-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tqVLAAAAYAAJ&q=great+recoinage+1816+shillings&pg=PA172">Report from the Select Committee on the Royal Mint: together with the minutes of evidence, appendix and index, Volume 2</a> (Great Britain. Committee on Royal Mint, 1849), p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-Seabrooke-2006-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seabrooke-2006_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seabrooke-2006_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seabrooke-2006_58-2">c</a> L.Seabrooke (2006). "Global Standards of Market Civilization". p. 192. Taylor & Francis 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchirokauerBrown2012" class="citation book cs1">Schirokauer, Conrad; Brown, Miranda (2012). A Brief History of Chinese Civilization (4th ed.). Cengage. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0495913238" title="Special:BookSources/978-0495913238"><bdi>978-0495913238</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=221&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0495913238&rft.aulast=Schirokauer&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rft.au=Brown%2C+Miranda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXu2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xu, Zhongyou (2008). <bdi lang="zh">中國近代史：1600–2000中国的奋斗</bdi> [The rise of modern China] (in Chinese). World Book Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7506287128" title="Special:BookSources/978-7506287128"><bdi>978-7506287128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2%EF%BC%9A1600%E2%80%932000%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%8B%E6%96%97&rft.pub=World+Book+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-7506287128&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Zhongyou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Columbia-2017-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Columbia-2017_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Columbia-2017_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170512035204/http://www.learn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu/html/economy/">"Grandeur of the Qing Economy"</a>. www.learn.columbia.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.learn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu/html/economy/">the original</a> on 12 May 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.learn.columbia.edu&rft.atitle=Grandeur+of+the+Qing+Economy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.learn.columbia.edu%2Fnanxuntu%2Fhtml%2Feconomy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gao-2003-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gao-2003_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gao-2003_62-1">b</a> Gao, Feng (2003) p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Compilation Group for the "History of Modern China" Series. (2000). p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rowe-2009-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe-2009_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe-2009_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe-2009_64-2">c</a> T., Rowe, William (2009). China's last empire : the great Qing. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674036123" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674036123">978-0674036123</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/648759723">648759723</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Downs. pp. 22–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Liu, Henry C. K. (4 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202024102/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/JI04Cb03.html">Developing China with sovereign credit</a>. <a href="/wiki/Asia_Times_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Times Online">Asia Times Online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Guo Ting: History of Modern China, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1979 p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://asiapacificcurriculum.ca/learning-module/opium-wars-china">"The Opium Wars in China"</a>. Asia Pacific Curriculum. Retrieved 28 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asia+Pacific+Curriculum&rft.atitle=The+Opium+Wars+in+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fasiapacificcurriculum.ca%2Flearning-module%2Fopium-wars-china&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHariharanHariharan2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hariharan, Shantha; Hariharan, P. S. (1 December 2013). "The Expedition to Garrison Portuguese Macao with British Troops: Temporary Occupation and Re-embarkation, 1808". International Journal of Maritime History. 25 (2): 85–116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F084387141302500209">10.1177/084387141302500209</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0843-8714">0843-8714</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161472099">161472099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Maritime+History&rft.atitle=The+Expedition+to+Garrison+Portuguese+Macao+with+British+Troops%3A+Temporary+Occupation+and+Re-embarkation%2C+1808&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E85-%3C%2Fspan%3E116&rft.date=2013-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161472099%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0843-8714&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F084387141302500209&rft.aulast=Hariharan&rft.aufirst=Shantha&rft.au=Hariharan%2C+P.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 72–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 72–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pichon2006-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Pichon2006_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPichon2006" class="citation book cs1">Pichon, Alain Le (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ql7CqEV6d4C&q=Jejeebhoy">China Trade and Empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827–1843</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726337-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726337-2"><bdi>978-0-19-726337-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Trade+and+Empire%3A+Jardine%2C+Matheson+%26+Co.+and+the+Origins+of+British+Rule+in+Hong+Kong%2C+1827%E2%80%931843&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-726337-2&rft.aulast=Pichon&rft.aufirst=Alain+Le&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0ql7CqEV6d4C%26q%3DJejeebhoy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Derks2012-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Derks2012_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHans_Derks2012" class="citation book cs1">Hans Derks (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tlqD5SqS8dwC&q=Jejeebhoy">History of the Opium Problem: The Assault on the East, ca. 1600–1950</a>. Brill. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22158-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22158-1"><bdi>978-90-04-22158-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Opium+Problem%3A+The+Assault+on+the+East%2C+ca.+1600%E2%80%931950&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-04-22158-1&rft.au=Hans+Derks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtlqD5SqS8dwC%26q%3DJejeebhoy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000i-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000i_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000i_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000i_74-2">c</a> Fay (2000) pp. 110–113. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 57–58, 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Fay (2000) p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 62–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 84–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleary" class="citation web cs1">Cleary, Vern. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190624223400/http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/modernworldhistorytextbook/imperialism/section_5/firstopiumwar.html">"The First Opium War (1838–1842)"</a>. webs.bcp.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/modernworldhistorytextbook/imperialism/section_5/firstopiumwar.html#">the original</a> on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=webs.bcp.org&rft.atitle=The+First+Opium+War+%281838%E2%80%931842%29&rft.aulast=Cleary&rft.aufirst=Vern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebs.bcp.org%2Fsites%2Fvcleary%2Fmodernworldhistorytextbook%2Fimperialism%2Fsection_5%2Ffirstopiumwar.html%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Lydia He. LIU; Lydia He Liu (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LkTO2_-XDa8C&pg=PA47">The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 47–. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04029-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04029-8">978-0-674-04029-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Michie-2012-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Michie-2012_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Michie-2012_81-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichie2012" class="citation book cs1">Michie, Alexander (2012). The Englishman in China During the Victorian Era: As Illustrated in the Career of Sir Rutherford Alcock, Volume 1. HardPress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-290-63687-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-290-63687-2"><bdi>978-1-290-63687-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Englishman+in+China+During+the+Victorian+Era%3A+As+Illustrated+in+the+Career+of+Sir+Rutherford+Alcock%2C+Volume+1&rft.pub=HardPress&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-290-63687-2&rft.aulast=Michie&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MCR-1834-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MCR-1834_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MCR-1834_82-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141204215424/http://jds.cass.cn/Item/5699.aspx">"The Napier Affair (1834)"</a>. Modern China Research. Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jds.cass.cn/Item/5699.aspx">the original</a> on 4 December 2014. Retrieved 10 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Modern+China+Research&rft.atitle=The+Napier+Affair+%281834%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjds.cass.cn%2FItem%2F5699.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Hanes p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_D._Spence" title="Jonathan D. Spence">Jonathan D. Spence</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Search_for_Modern_China" title="The Search for Modern China">The Search for Modern China</a> (1990), p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/opiumwars/opiumwars1.html">"England and China: The Opium Wars, 1839–60"</a>. victorianweb.org. Retrieved 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=victorianweb.org&rft.atitle=England+and+China%3A+The+Opium+Wars%2C+1839%E2%80%9360&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fempire%2Fopiumwars%2Fopiumwars1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1839lin2.html">Commissioner Lin: Letter to Queen Victoria, 1839</a>. Modern History Sourcebook. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanesSanello200441-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanesSanello200441_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHanesSanello2004">Hanes & Sanello 2004</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharpe-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharpe_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharpe_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharpe_88-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharpe_88-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortGrassoCorrin2009" class="citation book cs1">Kort, Michael; Grasso, June M.; Corrin, Jay (2009). Modernization and revolution in China: from the opium wars to the Olympics (4th ed.). Armonk, NY: Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-2391-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-2391-1"><bdi>978-0-7656-2391-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modernization+and+revolution+in+China%3A+from+the+opium+wars+to+the+Olympics&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Sharpe&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-2391-1&rft.aulast=Kort&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Grasso%2C+June+M.&rft.au=Corrin%2C+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200423172227/https://theweek.com/articles/640709/why-chinese-military-still-haunted-by-19thcentury-humiliation">"Why the Chinese military is still haunted by this 19th-century 'humiliation'"</a>. 6 August 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theweek.com/articles/640709/why-chinese-military-still-haunted-by-19thcentury-humiliation">the original</a> on 23 April 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+the+Chinese+military+is+still+haunted+by+this+19th-century+%27humiliation%27&rft.date=2016-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheweek.com%2Farticles%2F640709%2Fwhy-chinese-military-still-haunted-by-19thcentury-humiliation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jjdDAAAAcAAJ&q=chinese+seize+opium&pg=PA72">Report from the select committee on the trade with China: together with the minutes of evidence ... Ordered ... to be printed 5 June 1840</a>. 1840.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Report+from+the+select+committee+on+the+trade+with+China%3A+together+with+the+minutes+of+evidence+...+Ordered+...+to+be+printed+5+June+1840&rft.date=1840&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjjdDAAAAcAAJ%26q%3Dchinese%2Bseize%2Bopium%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> "Foreign Mud: The opium imbroglio at Canton in the 1830s and the Anglo-Chinese War," by Maurice Collis, W.W. Norton, New York, 1946 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 192–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-coleman-93"><a href="#cite_ref-coleman_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman1999" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, Anthony (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/millenniumthousa00cole/page/243">Millennium</a>. Transworld. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/millenniumthousa00cole/page/243">243–244</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-593-04478-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-593-04478-9"><bdi>0-593-04478-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Millennium&rft.pages=243-244&rft.pub=Transworld&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-593-04478-9&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmillenniumthousa00cole%2Fpage%2F243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/doing-business-with-china.html">"Doing Business with China: Early American Trading Houses"</a>. www.library.hbs.edu. Retrieved 24 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.library.hbs.edu&rft.atitle=Doing+Business+with+China%3A+Early+American+Trading+Houses&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.hbs.edu%2Fhc%2Fheard%2Fdoing-business-with-china.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Hanes & Sanello 2002, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Hoe & Roebuck 1999, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Correspondence Relating to China 1840, p. 432. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Hanes & Sanello 2002, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoe-1999-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoe-1999_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoe-1999_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoe-1999_99-2">c</a> Hoe & Roebuck 1999, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Correspondence Relating to China 1840, p. 433. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay_2000_pp._203-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay_2000_pp._203_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay_2000_pp._203_101-1">b</a> Fay (2000) p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000a-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000a_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000a_102-1">b</a> Fay (2000) p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Hoe & Roebuck 1999, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lovell-2015-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lovell-2015_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovell-2015_104-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lovell-2015_104-2">c</a> Lovell, Julia (2015). The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams, and the Making of Modern China. The Overlook Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1468311735" title="Special:BookSources/1468311735">1468311735</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Correspondence Relating to China 1840, p. 447. </li> <li id="cite_note-p._449-106"><a href="#cite_ref-p._449_106-0">^</a> Correspondence Relating to China 1840, p. 449. </li> <li id="cite_note-Waley-1958-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waley-1958_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waley-1958_107-1">b</a> Waley 1958, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170901063029/http://empires-tv-series.net/gallery/fighting/the_battle_of_kowloon.html">"The Battle of Kowloon – Fighting – Gallery | Empires"</a>. empires-tv-series.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://empires-tv-series.net/gallery/fighting/the_battle_of_kowloon.html">the original</a> on 1 September 2017. Retrieved 5 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=empires-tv-series.net&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Kowloon+%E2%80%93+Fighting+%E2%80%93+Gallery+%7C+Empires&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fempires-tv-series.net%2Fgallery%2Ffighting%2Fthe_battle_of_kowloon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Elleman 2001, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanesSanello200468-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanesSanello200468_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHanesSanello2004">Hanes & Sanello 2004</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Hans, Sellano (2004) p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Parker (1888) pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-Elleman-2001-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elleman-2001_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elleman-2001_113-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elleman-2001_113-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elleman-2001_113-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElleman2001" class="citation book cs1">Elleman, Bruce A. (2001). Modern Chinese warfare, 1795–1989. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21474-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21474-2"><bdi>0-415-21474-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Chinese+warfare%2C+1795%E2%80%931989&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-21474-2&rft.aulast=Elleman&rft.aufirst=Bruce+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Melancon-2003b-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Melancon-2003b_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Melancon-2003b_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Melancon-2003b_114-2">c</a> Glenn Melancon (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V527VTyT29gC&pg=PA126">Britain's China Policy and the Opium Crisis: Balancing Drugs, Violence and National Honour, 1833–1840</a>. Ashgate. p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen-2016-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chen-2016_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen-2016_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen-2016_115-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2016" class="citation book cs1">Chen, Li (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mvHlCgAAQBAJ&q=First+opium+war&pg=PA212">Chinese Law in Imperial Eyes: Sovereignty, Justice, and Transcultural Politics</a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231540216" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231540216"><bdi>978-0231540216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Law+in+Imperial+Eyes%3A+Sovereignty%2C+Justice%2C+and+Transcultural+Politics&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0231540216&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Li&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmvHlCgAAQBAJ%26q%3DFirst%2Bopium%2Bwar%26pg%3DPA212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> pp. 221–228 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJon_Bursey2018" class="citation book cs1">Jon Bursey (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gcOIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP192">Captain Elliot and the Founding of Hong Kong: Pearl of the Orient</a>. Grub Street. p. 192. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1526722577" title="Special:BookSources/978-1526722577"><bdi>978-1526722577</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captain+Elliot+and+the+Founding+of+Hong+Kong%3A+Pearl+of+the+Orient&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Grub+Street&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1526722577&rft.au=Jon+Bursey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgcOIDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBursey2018" class="citation book cs1">Bursey (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gcOIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP192">Captain Elliot</a>. Grub Street. pp. 192–194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1526722577" title="Special:BookSources/978-1526722577"><bdi>978-1526722577</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captain+Elliot&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E192-%3C%2Fspan%3E194&rft.pub=Grub+Street&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1526722577&rft.au=Bursey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgcOIDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Fay (2000) p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-Su-2020-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Su-2020_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Su-2020_119-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Su-2020_119-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111230633/https://web.stanford.edu/group/journal/cgi-bin/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Su_SocSci_2008.pdf">"Justifiers of the British Opium Trade: Arguments by Parliament, Traders, and the Times Leading Up to the Opium War"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/journal/cgi-bin/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Su_SocSci_2008.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justifiers+of+the+British+Opium+Trade%3A+Arguments+by+Parliament%2C+Traders%2C+and+the+Times+Leading+Up+to+the+Opium+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Fjournal%2Fcgi-bin%2Fwordpress%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F09%2FSu_SocSci_2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRebecca_Berens_Matzke2011" class="citation book cs1">Rebecca Berens Matzke (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xkZeKCdl0f0C&pg=PA112">Deterrence Through Strength: British Naval Power and Foreign Policy Under Pax Britannica</a>. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 108–112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803235144" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803235144"><bdi>978-0803235144</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deterrence+Through+Strength%3A+British+Naval+Power+and+Foreign+Policy+Under+Pax+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E108-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0803235144&rft.au=Rebecca+Berens+Matzke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxkZeKCdl0f0C%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PalmerstonA-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PalmerstonA_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PalmerstonA_121-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801031638/http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/247">"Palmerston to Emperor – Feb, 1840 | China's external relations – a history"</a>. www.chinaforeignrelations.net. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.chinaforeignrelations.net&rft.atitle=Palmerston+to+Emperor+%E2%80%93+Feb%2C+1840+%7C+China%27s+external+relations+%E2%80%93+a+history&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaforeignrelations.net%2Fnode%2F247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PalmerstonB-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PalmerstonB_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PalmerstonB_122-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809035901/http://www.chinaforeignrelations.net/node/248">"Palmerston to Elliots – Feb, 1840 | China's external relations – a history"</a>. www.chinaforeignrelations.net. Archived from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.chinaforeignrelations.net&rft.atitle=Palmerston+to+Elliots+%E2%80%93+Feb%2C+1840+%7C+China%27s+external+relations+%E2%80%93+a+history&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaforeignrelations.net%2Fnode%2F248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Melancon-2003-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Melancon-2003_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Melancon-2003_123-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlenn_Melancon2003" class="citation book cs1">Glenn Melancon (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V527VTyT29gC&pg=PA126">Britain's China Policy and the Opium Crisis: Balancing Drugs, Violence and National Honour, 1833–1840</a>. Ashgate. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0754607045" title="Special:BookSources/978-0754607045"><bdi>978-0754607045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%27s+China+Policy+and+the+Opium+Crisis%3A+Balancing+Drugs%2C+Violence+and+National+Honour%2C+1833%E2%80%931840&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0754607045&rft.au=Glenn+Melancon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV527VTyT29gC%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elliott-1990-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elliott-1990_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elliott-1990_124-1">b</a> Elliott, Mark (June 1990). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/elliott/files/elliott_bannerman_and_townsman.pdf">Bannerman and Townsman: Ethnic Tension in Nineteenth-Century Jiangnan</a>". Late Imperial China 11 (1): 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rubin-1960-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin-1960_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin-1960_125-1">b</a> The Sino-Indian Border Disputes, by Alfred P. Rubin, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 1. (Jan. 1960), pp. 96–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-Westminster-1903-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Westminster-1903_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westminster-1903_126-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westminster-1903_126-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westminster-1903_126-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Westminster-1903_126-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924088002120#page/n269/mode/2up">"The life and campaigns of Hugh, first Viscount Gough, Field-Marshal"</a>. archive.org. Westminster, A. Constable & Co. 1903. Retrieved 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.org&rft.atitle=The+life+and+campaigns+of+Hugh%2C+first+Viscount+Gough%2C+Field-Marshal&rft.date=1903&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fcu31924088002120%23page%2Fn269%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glenn_Melancon_1840,_pp_854-874-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Glenn_Melancon_1840,_pp_854-874_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Glenn_Melancon_1840,_pp_854-874_127-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Glenn_Melancon_1840,_pp_854-874_127-2">c</a> Glenn Melancon, "Honor in Opium? The British Declaration of War on China, 1839–1840," International History Review (1999) 21#4 pp. 854–874. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/19989/page/1583">"No. 19989"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 18 June 1841. p. 1583. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> John K. Derden, "The British Foreign Office and Policy Formation: The 1840s," Proceedings & Papers of the Georgia Association of Historians (1981) pp. 64–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuscombe" class="citation web cs1">Luscombe, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/armycampaigns/asia/china/opiumwar.htm">"The British Empire, Imperialism, Colonialism, Colonies"</a>. www.britishempire.co.uk. Retrieved 26 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britishempire.co.uk&rft.atitle=The+British+Empire%2C+Imperialism%2C+Colonialism%2C+Colonies&rft.aulast=Luscombe&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishempire.co.uk%2Fforces%2Farmycampaigns%2Fasia%2Fchina%2Fopiumwar.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Rait (1903) p. 161 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000k-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000k_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000k_132-1">b</a> Fay (2000) pp. 210–223 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000c-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000c_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000c_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000c_133-2">c</a> Fay (2000) pp. 240–243 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999153–155-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence1999153–155_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpence1999">Spence 1999</a>, pp. 153–155. </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_135-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette19930" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/19930/page/2990">"No. 19930"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a>. 15 December 1840. pp. 2990–2991.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+19930&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2990-%3C%2Fspan%3E2991&rft.date=1840-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F19930%2Fpage%2F2990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Morse. p. 628 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Fay (2000) p. 252 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fay-2000b-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000b_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fay-2000b_138-1">b</a> Fay (2000) pp. 288, 289 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hummel-1943-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hummel-1943_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hummel-1943_139-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHummel1943" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Hummel_Sr." title="Arthur W. Hummel Sr.">Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.</a>, ed. (1943). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period">"Index" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period" title="Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period">Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Index&rft.btitle=Eminent+Chinese+of+the+Ch%27ing+Period&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-victorianweb-1839-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-victorianweb-1839_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-victorianweb-1839_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-victorianweb-1839_140-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/opiumwars/nemesis.html">"The Nemesis – Great Britain's Secret Weapon in the Opium Wars, 1839–60"</a>. www.victorianweb.org. Retrieved 30 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.victorianweb.org&rft.atitle=The+Nemesis+%E2%80%93+Great+Britain%27s+Secret+Weapon+in+the+Opium+Wars%2C+1839%E2%80%9360&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fempire%2Fopiumwars%2Fnemesis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Bingham 1843, pp. 400–401 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 276, 277 </li> <li id="cite_note-Haijian-2016-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haijian-2016_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haijian-2016_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMao2016" class="citation book cs1">Mao, Haijian (2016). The Qing Empire and the Opium War: the collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty. The Cambridge China library. Cambridge University Press. pp. 200–204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06987-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06987-9"><bdi>978-1-107-06987-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Qing+Empire+and+the+Opium+War%3A+the+collapse+of+the+Heavenly+Dynasty&rft.series=The+Cambridge+China+library&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E200-%3C%2Fspan%3E204&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-107-06987-9&rft.aulast=Mao&rft.aufirst=Haijian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacPherson-1843-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacPherson-1843_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacPherson-1843_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacPherson-1843_144-2">c</a> MacPherson 1843, pp. 312, 315–316. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dillon-2010-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dillon-2010_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dillon-2010_145-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dillon-2010_145-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dillon-2010_145-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dillon-2010_145-4">e</a> Dillon (2010) p. 55 </li> <li id="cite_note-BSI-1841-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BSI-1841_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BSI-1841_146-1">b</a> Bulletins of State Intelligence 1841, p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Bulletins of State Intelligence 1841, pp. 329–330 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Bingham. pp. 69–70 </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Perdue, Peter C. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2011. MIT Visualizing Cultures). p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bingham_1842_73_74-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Bingham_1842_73_74_150-0">^</a> Bingham 1842, pp. 73–74 </li> <li id="cite_note-McPherson-2013-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McPherson-2013_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McPherson-2013_151-1">b</a> McPherson, Carruthers (2013) pp. 54–55, 60 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Bernard, Hall (1847) p. 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Bernard, Hall (1844) pp. 378 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernard-1847-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bernard-1847_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bernard-1847_154-1">b</a> Bernard, Hall (1847) pp. 138–148 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Bernard, Hall (1844) p. 369 </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> McPherson, Carruthers (2013) p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Bernard, Hall (1844) p. 435 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> McPherson, Carruthers (2013) p. 60 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman196611–14-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman196611–14_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman196611–14_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWakeman1966">Wakeman (1966)</a>, pp. 11–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J9Q1AAAAMAAJ">Bulletins and Other State Intelligence</a>. 1841 p. 686 </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Rait (1903) p. 193 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Rait (1903) p. 203 </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Dillion (2010) p. 156 </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Rait (1903) pp. 204, 205 </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Rait (1903) p. 204 </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Rait (1903) p. 202 </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Rait (1903) 203–208 </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Rait (1903) p. 212 </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Frontier and Overseas Expeditions From India, vol. 6, p. 382 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Rait (1903) pp. 208–218 </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Hoiberg. pp. 27–28 </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsang2011" class="citation book cs1">Tsang, Steve Yui-Sang (2011). A modern history of Hong Kong. I. B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-419-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-419-0"><bdi>978-1-84511-419-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+modern+history+of+Hong+Kong&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-419-0&rft.aulast=Tsang&rft.aufirst=Steve+Yui-Sang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Bate, H. Maclear (1952). Reports from Formosa New York: E. P. Dutton. p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> MacPherson 1843, pp. 216, 359. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> MacPherson 1843, pp. 381–385 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Hall & Bernard 1846, p. 260 </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Rait (1903) pp. 236–240 </li> <li id="cite_note-Luscombe-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Luscombe_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luscombe_178-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Luscombe_178-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuscombe" class="citation web cs1">Luscombe, Stephen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/armycampaigns/asia/china/opiumwar.htm">"The British Empire, Imperialism, Colonialism, Colonies"</a>. www.britishempire.co.uk. Retrieved 30 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britishempire.co.uk&rft.atitle=The+British+Empire%2C+Imperialism%2C+Colonialism%2C+Colonies&rft.aulast=Luscombe&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishempire.co.uk%2Fforces%2Farmycampaigns%2Fasia%2Fchina%2Fopiumwar.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Waley 1958, p. 73 </li> <li id="cite_note-BSI-1842b-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BSI-1842b_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BSI-1842b_180-1">b</a> Bulletins of State Intelligence 1842, pp. 578, 594 </li> <li id="cite_note-Waley_2013_p._171-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waley_2013_p._171_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waley_2013_p._171_181-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waley" title="Arthur Waley">Waley, Arthur</a> (2013) p. 171 </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Lenton Robbren. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibet.cn/info/history/t20050316_18450_1.htm">"Tibetan Expeditionary Force participating in the Opium War"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714142143/http://www.tibet.cn/info/history/t20050316_18450_1.htm">Archived</a> 14 July 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. China Tibet Information Center. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Bulletins 1842, p. 601 </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Rait 1903, p. 264 </li> <li id="cite_note-BSI-1842-185">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BSI-1842_185-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BSI-1842_185-1">b</a> Bulletins of State Intelligence 1842, p. 918 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall-1846-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hall-1846_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hall-1846_186-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hall-1846_186-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hall-1846_186-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hall-1846_186-4">e</a> Hall & Bernard 1846, p. 330 </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fKG5VcYPtp0C&q=british+capture+emperor+tax+barges&pg=PA240">War: The Definitive Visual History</a>. Penguin. 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-6817-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-6817-4"><bdi>978-0-7566-6817-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%3A+The+Definitive+Visual+History&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7566-6817-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfKG5VcYPtp0C%26q%3Dbritish%2Bcapture%2Bemperor%2Btax%2Bbarges%26pg%3DPA240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Bulletins of State Intelligence 1842, pp. 759, 816 </li> <li id="cite_note-Rait-1903a-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rait-1903a_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rait-1903a_189-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rait-1903a_189-2">c</a> Rait 1903, pp. 267–268 </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Granville G. Loch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/closingeventsca01lochgoog">The Closing Events of the Campaign in China: The Operations in the Yang-tze-kiang and</a> treaty <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/closingeventsca01lochgoog">of Nanking</a>. London. 1843 [2014] </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Rait 1903. p. 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Academy of Military Sciences, "History of Modern Chinese War" Section VII of the British invasion of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Military Science Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> "The Count of Aberdeen to Sir Henry Pudding" The Jazz "History of the Chinese Empire" (Chinese translation) vol. 1, pp. 755–756. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> (3) Part 5 "Diary of the Grass". Shanghai Bookstore. 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-80622-800-4" title="Special:BookSources/7-80622-800-4">7-80622-800-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> John Makeham (2008). p. 331 </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Waley (1959) p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tqxz.com/lssj_readme.asp?id=177">Treaty Chinese humiliating first – the signing of the "Nanjing Treaty"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080424122428/http://www.tqxz.com/lssj_readme.asp?id=177">Archived</a> 24 April 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Chinese history theyatic networks. [2008-08-31]. Chinese source, used for dates only. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> "Opium War" Volume 5. Shanghai People's Publishing House. 2000: 305 pages. </li> <li id="cite_note-Greenwood-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_199-1">b</a> Greenwood ch.4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hbs-2017-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hbs-2017_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hbs-2017_200-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/heard/treaty-ports-compradors.html">"After the Opium War: Treaty Ports and Compradors"</a>. www.library.hbs.edu. Retrieved 26 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.library.hbs.edu&rft.atitle=After+the+Opium+War%3A+Treaty+Ports+and+Compradors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.hbs.edu%2Fhc%2Fheard%2Ftreaty-ports-compradors.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Opiumwar_blog-2014-201">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Opiumwar_blog-2014_201-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Opiumwar_blog-2014_201-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Opiumwar_blog-2014_201-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Opiumwar_blog-2014_201-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opiumwarexhibition.wordpress.com/2014/11/22/warfare-technology-in-the-opium-war/">"Warfare technology in the Opium War"</a>. The Opium War, 1839–1842. 22 November 2014. Retrieved 30 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Opium+War%2C+1839%E2%80%931842&rft.atitle=Warfare+technology+in+the+Opium+War&rft.date=2014-11-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopiumwarexhibition.wordpress.com%2F2014%2F11%2F22%2Fwarfare-technology-in-the-opium-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Jackson, Major Donovan (1940). India's Army. London: Low, Marston. pp. 1–8. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8187226374" title="Special:BookSources/8187226374">8187226374</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Kim Joosam "An Analysis of the Process of Modernization in East Asia and the Corresponding changes in China and Japan after the Opium Wars", Asian Study 11.3 (2009). The Korean Association of Philippine Studies. Web. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054623/http://www.zhkhfsg.com/en/about.asp">"Welcome to Zhenhai coast defence history museum"</a>. www.zhkhfsg.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zhkhfsg.com/en/about.asp">the original</a> on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.zhkhfsg.com&rft.atitle=Welcome+to+Zhenhai+coast+defence+history+museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zhkhfsg.com%2Fen%2Fabout.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hederic-205">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hederic_205-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hederic_205-1">b</a> Hederic, p. 234 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cone-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cone_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cone_206-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cone_206-2">c</a> Cone, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.emory.edu/home/documents/endeavors/volume4/Cone.pdf">An Indefensible Defense:The Incompetence of Qing Dynasty Officials in the Opium Wars, and the Consequences of Defeat</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170828210706/http://history.emory.edu/home/documents/endeavors/volume4/Cone.pdf">Archived</a> 28 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Hoiberg. pp. 28–30 </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Bulletins of State Intelligence 1841, p. 348 </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Dreyer, Edward L. (2007). Zheng He: China and the Ocean in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405–1433. New York: Pearson. p. 180.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zheng+He%3A+China+and+the+Ocean+in+the+Early+Ming+Dynasty%2C+1405%E2%80%931433&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPo2018" class="citation book cs1">Po, Ronald C. (2018). The Blue Frontier: Maritime Vision and Power in the Qing Empire Cambridge Oceanic Histories. Cambridge University Press. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1108424615" title="Special:BookSources/978-1108424615"><bdi>978-1108424615</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blue+Frontier%3A+Maritime+Vision+and+Power+in+the+Qing+Empire+Cambridge+Oceanic+Histories&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1108424615&rft.aulast=Po&rft.aufirst=Ronald+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Bingham 1843, p. 399 </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Bingham (1843), p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang1934" class="citation book cs1">Chang, T. T. (1934). Sino Portuguese Trade from 1514 to 1644. Leyden. p. 120.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sino+Portuguese+Trade+from+1514+to+1644&rft.place=Leyden&rft.pages=120&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=T.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> McPherson, Carruthers (2013) pp. 53 </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Haijian, Mao (2016). The Qing Empire and the Opium War. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107069879" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107069879">978-1107069879</a>. p. 32 </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Haijian, Mao (2016). The Qing Empire and the Opium War. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107069879" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107069879">978-1107069879</a>. p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rait-1903b-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rait-1903b_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rait-1903b_217-1">b</a> Rait (1903) pp. 189, 231 </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS-2017-218"><a href="#cite_ref-PBS-2017_218-0">^</a> PBS.org, "The Story of China; Age of Revolution". Aired 7 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.pbs.org/video/3001741892/">https://www.pbs.org/video/3001741892/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Haijian, Mao (2016). The Qing Empire and the Opium War. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107069879" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107069879">978-1107069879</a>. p. 201 </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrade-2016-220">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade-2016_220-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Andrade-2016_220-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrade2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tonio_Andrade" title="Tonio Andrade">Andrade, Tonio</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1jRJCgAAQBAJ&q=liu+and+zhang+qing+military&pg=PA241">The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7444-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7444-6"><bdi>978-1-4008-7444-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gunpowder+Age%3A+China%2C+Military+Innovation%2C+and+the+Rise+of+the+West+in+World+History&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-7444-6&rft.aulast=Andrade&rft.aufirst=Tonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1jRJCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dliu%2Band%2Bzhang%2Bqing%2Bmilitary%26pg%3DPA241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty#CITEREFElliott2001" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Elliott 2001</a>, pp. 283–284. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty#CITEREFElliott2001" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Elliott 2001</a>, pp. 283–284, 300–303. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty#CITEREFCrossleySiuSutton2006" title="Qing dynasty">CrossleySiuSutton (2006)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC&pg=PA50">50</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Rait (1903) p. 228 </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> Waley 1958, pp. 71–73 </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Haijian, Mao (2016). The Qing Empire and the Opium War. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107069879" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107069879">978-1107069879</a>. p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&searchArg=12033773&searchType=1&permalink=y">Treaty of peace, amity, and commerce, between the United States of America and the Chinese Empire</a>. s.n. 21 July 1846 – via catalog.loc.gov Library Catalog.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+peace%2C+amity%2C+and+commerce%2C+between+the+United+States+of+America+and+the+Chinese+Empire&rft.pub=s.n&rft.date=1846-07-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.loc.gov%2Fvwebv%2Fsearch%3FsearchCode%3DLCCN%26searchArg%3D12033773%26searchType%3D1%26permalink%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_228-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriscoll2020" class="citation book cs1">Driscoll, Mark W. (2020). The Whites are Enemies of Heaven: Climate Caucasianism and Asian Ecological Protection. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-1121-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4780-1121-7"><bdi>978-1-4780-1121-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Whites+are+Enemies+of+Heaven%3A+Climate+Caucasianism+and+Asian+Ecological+Protection&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4780-1121-7&rft.aulast=Driscoll&rft.aufirst=Mark+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-229"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_229-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoody2024" class="citation book cs1">Moody, Peter (2024). "The Vatican and Taiwan: An Anomalous Diplomatic Relationship". In <a href="/wiki/Suisheng_Zhao" title="Suisheng Zhao">Zhao, Suisheng</a> (ed.). The Taiwan Question in Xi Jinping's Era: Beijing's Evolving Taiwan Policy and Taiwan's Internal and External Dynamics. London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781032861661" title="Special:BookSources/9781032861661"><bdi>9781032861661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Vatican+and+Taiwan%3A+An+Anomalous+Diplomatic+Relationship&rft.btitle=The+Taiwan+Question+in+Xi+Jinping%27s+Era%3A+Beijing%27s+Evolving+Taiwan+Policy+and+Taiwan%27s+Internal+and+External+Dynamics&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9781032861661&rft.aulast=Moody&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lodwick2015-230"><a href="#cite_ref-Lodwick2015_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodwick2015" class="citation book cs1">Lodwick, Kathleen L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DrAeBgAAQBAJ&q=William+Gladstone+opium&pg=PA86">Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874–1917</a>. University Press of Kentucky. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4968-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-4968-4"><bdi>978-0-8131-4968-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crusaders+Against+Opium%3A+Protestant+Missionaries+in+China%2C+1874%E2%80%931917&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-4968-4&rft.aulast=Lodwick&rft.aufirst=Kathleen+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDrAeBgAAQBAJ%26q%3DWilliam%2BGladstone%2Bopium%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chouvy2009-231"><a href="#cite_ref-Chouvy2009_231-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChouvy2009" class="citation book cs1">Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qGl4TN_qIsgC&q=William+Gladstone+opium&pg=PA9">Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05134-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05134-8"><bdi>978-0-674-05134-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opium%3A+Uncovering+the+Politics+of+the+Poppy&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05134-8&rft.aulast=Chouvy&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Arnaud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqGl4TN_qIsgC%26q%3DWilliam%2BGladstone%2Bopium%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-QuinaultWindscheffel2013-232"><a href="#cite_ref-QuinaultWindscheffel2013_232-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinaultClaytonSwift2013" class="citation book cs1">Quinault, Roland; Clayton, Ruth Windscheffel; Swift, Roger (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hve4IOulDlwC&q=William+Gladstone+opium&pg=PT238">William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives</a>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-8327-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-8327-4"><bdi>978-1-4094-8327-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Gladstone%3A+New+Studies+and+Perspectives&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-8327-4&rft.aulast=Quinault&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft.au=Clayton%2C+Ruth+Windscheffel&rft.au=Swift%2C+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHve4IOulDlwC%26q%3DWilliam%2BGladstone%2Bopium%26pg%3DPT238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foxcroft2013-233"><a href="#cite_ref-Foxcroft2013_233-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoxcroft2013" class="citation book cs1">Foxcroft, Louise (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VPosEno3uNYC&q=William+Gladstone+opium&pg=PA66">The Making of Addiction: The 'Use and Abuse' of Opium in Nineteenth-Century Britain</a>. Ashgate. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7984-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-7984-0"><bdi>978-1-4094-7984-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Addiction%3A+The+%27Use+and+Abuse%27+of+Opium+in+Nineteenth-Century+Britain&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-7984-0&rft.aulast=Foxcroft&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVPosEno3uNYC%26q%3DWilliam%2BGladstone%2Bopium%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HanesSanello2004-234"><a href="#cite_ref-HanesSanello2004_234-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanesSanello2004" class="citation book cs1">Hanes, William Travis; Sanello, Frank (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jYmFAAAAQBAJ&q=William+Gladstone+opium&pg=PA78">Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another</a>. Sourcebooks. pp. 78, 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4022-0149-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4022-0149-3"><bdi>978-1-4022-0149-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opium+Wars%3A+The+Addiction+of+One+Empire+and+the+Corruption+of+Another&rft.pages=78%2C+88&rft.pub=Sourcebooks&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4022-0149-3&rft.aulast=Hanes&rft.aufirst=William+Travis&rft.au=Sanello%2C+Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjYmFAAAAQBAJ%26q%3DWilliam%2BGladstone%2Bopium%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Fay (2000) pp. 290 </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iow-chs.org/island-people/helen-jane-gladstone-1814-80/">"Isle of Wight Catholic History Society"</a>. iow-chs.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iow-chs.org&rft.atitle=Isle+of+Wight+Catholic+History+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiow-chs.org%2Fisland-people%2Fhelen-jane-gladstone-1814-80%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Isba2006-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Isba2006_237-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsba2006" class="citation book cs1">Isba, Anne (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gaxDs8_oz_QC&q=William+Gladstone+opium&pg=PA224">Gladstone and Women</a>. A&C Black. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-471-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-471-3"><bdi>978-1-85285-471-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gladstone+and+Women&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85285-471-3&rft.aulast=Isba&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgaxDs8_oz_QC%26q%3DWilliam%2BGladstone%2Bopium%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bebbington1993-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Bebbington1993_238-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBebbington1993" class="citation book cs1">Bebbington, David William (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jEzV7PYYe5kC&q=William+Gladstone+opium&pg=PA108">William Ewart Gladstone: Faith and Politics in Victorian Britain</a>. William B. Eerdmans. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0152-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0152-4"><bdi>978-0-8028-0152-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Ewart+Gladstone%3A+Faith+and+Politics+in+Victorian+Britain&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-0152-4&rft.aulast=Bebbington&rft.aufirst=David+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjEzV7PYYe5kC%26q%3DWilliam%2BGladstone%2Bopium%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Miron, Jeffrey A. and Feige, Chris. The Opium Wars: Opium Legalization and Opium Consumption in China. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080701002326/https://www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=48330&fullArticle=true&tocId=4212">"Lin Zexu"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=48330&fullArticle=true&tocId=4212">the original</a> on 1 July 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lin+Zexu&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Foscar%2Fprint%3FarticleId%3D48330%26fullArticle%3Dtrue%26tocId%3D4212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2007" class="citation web cs1">Lee, Khoon Choy (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006202706/http://www.eastasianstudies.com/eastasian/5921_01.htm">"Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese: Chapter 1: Fujian Rén & Lin Ze Xu: The Fuzhou Hero Who Destroyed Opium"</a>. East Asian Studies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eastasianstudies.com/eastasian/5921_01.htm">the original</a> on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=East+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Pioneers+of+Modern+China%3A+Understanding+the+Inscrutable+Chinese%3A+Chapter+1%3A+Fujian+R%C3%A9n+%26+Lin+Ze+Xu%3A+The+Fuzhou+Hero+Who+Destroyed+Opium&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Khoon+Choy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eastasianstudies.com%2Feastasian%2F5921_01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080922072522/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/china/beijing/sights/1000228991">"Monument to the People's Heroes"</a>. Lonely Planet. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/china/beijing/sights/1000228991">the original</a> on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lonely+Planet&rft.atitle=Monument+to+the+People%27s+Heroes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lonelyplanet.com%2Fworldguide%2Fchina%2Fbeijing%2Fsights%2F1000228991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160613173704/http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_museum/2003-09/24/content_30174.htm">"Lin Zexu Memorial"</a>. chinaculture.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_museum/2003-09/24/content_30174.htm">the original</a> on 13 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=chinaculture.org&rft.atitle=Lin+Zexu+Memorial&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaculture.org%2Fgb%2Fen_museum%2F2003-09%2F24%2Fcontent_30174.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061022111918/http://www.olamacauguide.com/lin-zexu-memorial-museum.html">"Lin Zexu Memorial Museum Ola Macau Travel Guide"</a>. olamacauguide.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olamacauguide.com/lin-zexu-memorial-museum.html">the original</a> on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 3 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=olamacauguide.com&rft.atitle=Lin+Zexu+Memorial+Museum+Ola+Macau+Travel+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.olamacauguide.com%2Flin-zexu-memorial-museum.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchellJohn_Delury2013" class="citation news cs1">Schell, Orville; John Delury (12 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324425204578599633633456090">"A Rising China Needs a New National Story"</a>. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Rising+China+Needs+a+New+National+Story&rft.date=2013-07-12&rft.aulast=Schell&rft.aufirst=Orville&rft.au=John+Delury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB10001424127887324425204578599633633456090&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Arthur Waley, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes (London: Allen and Unwin, 1958) </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (1970) p. 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> Ridley, 254–256. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> May Caroline Chan, “Canton, 1857” Victorian Review (2010), 36#1 pp 31–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> John K. Fairbank, Edwin O. Reischauer and Albert M. Craig, A History of East Asian Civilization: Volume Two: East Asia the Modern transformation (1965) p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston, (1970) p. 248 </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovell2015" class="citation book cs1">Lovell, Julia (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CxOEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP67">The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams, and the Making of Modern China</a>. Abrams. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1468313239" title="Special:BookSources/978-1468313239"><bdi>978-1468313239</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Opium+War%3A+Drugs%2C+Dreams%2C+and+the+Making+of+Modern+China&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Abrams&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1468313239&rft.aulast=Lovell&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCxOEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Harry G. Gelber, "China as 'Victim'? The Opium War That Wasn't" in Harvard University Center for European Studies, Working Paper Series #136 (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ces.fas.harvard.edu/uploads/files/Working-Papers-Archives/CES_WP136.pdf">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaley-Cohen2000" class="citation book cs1">Waley-Cohen, Joanna (2000). The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History. W. W. Norton. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/039324251X" title="Special:BookSources/039324251X"><bdi>039324251X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sextants+of+Beijing%3A+Global+Currents+in+Chinese+History&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=039324251X&rft.aulast=Waley-Cohen&rft.aufirst=Joanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVries2015" class="citation book cs1">Vries, Peer (2015). State, Economy and the Great Divergence: Great Britain and China, 1680s–1850s. Bloomsbury. pp. 353–354. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472526403" title="Special:BookSources/978-1472526403"><bdi>978-1472526403</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=State%2C+Economy+and+the+Great+Divergence%3A+Great+Britain+and+China%2C+1680s%E2%80%931850s&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E353-%3C%2Fspan%3E354&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1472526403&rft.aulast=Vries&rft.aufirst=Peer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1969" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, Michael (1969). British Trade and the Opening of China 1800-1842. Cambridge University Press. p. 47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Trade+and+the+Opening+of+China+1800-1842&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrookWakabayashi2000" class="citation book cs1">Brook, Timothy; Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2000). Opium Regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcalifornia%2F9780520220096.001.0001">10.1525/california/9780520220096.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520220096" title="Special:BookSources/9780520220096"><bdi>9780520220096</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opium+Regimes%3A+China%2C+Britain%2C+and+Japan%2C+1839%E2%80%931952&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fcalifornia%2F9780520220096.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780520220096&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Wakabayashi%2C+Bob+Tadashi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakemanFairbank1978" class="citation book cs1">Wakeman, Frederic Jr.; Fairbank, John K. (1978). "The Canton Trade in the Opium War". Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 10. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 172.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Canton+Trade+in+the+Opium+War&rft.btitle=Late+Ch%27ing%2C+1800%E2%80%931911&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic+Jr.&rft.au=Fairbank%2C+John+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlimburg2001" class="citation journal cs1">Klimburg, Alexander (2001). "Some Research Notes on Carl A. Trocki's Publication "Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy"". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 64 (2): 260–267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X01000155">10.1017/S0041977X01000155</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3657672">3657672</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18546608">18546608</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34708108">34708108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Some+Research+Notes+on+Carl+A.+Trocki%27s+Publication+%22Opium%2C+Empire+and+the+Global+Political+Economy%22&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E260-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18546608&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34708108%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657672%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X01000155&rft.aulast=Klimburg&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrocki2019" class="citation book cs1">Trocki, Carl (2019). Opium and Empire: Chinese Society in Colonial Singapore, 1800–1910. Cornell University Press. pp. 50–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1501746352" title="Special:BookSources/978-1501746352"><bdi>978-1501746352</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opium+and+Empire%3A+Chinese+Society+in+Colonial+Singapore%2C+1800%E2%80%931910&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E50-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1501746352&rft.aulast=Trocki&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2009" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, James (2009). "Chapter 10". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/imperialcruisese0000brad/page/274">The Imperial Cruise, a Secret History of Empire and War</a>. Little & Brown. pp. 274–275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316049665" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316049665"><bdi>978-0316049665</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Cruise%2C+a+Secret+History+of+Empire+and+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E274-%3C%2Fspan%3E275&rft.pub=Little+%26+Brown&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0316049665&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimperialcruisese0000brad%2Fpage%2F274&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPo2013" class="citation thesis cs1">Po, Chung-yam (28 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/18877/1/PhD_Dissertation_CyPO.pdf">Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime World in the Long Eighteenth Century</a> (PDF) (Thesis). Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg. pp. 203–204.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Conceptualizing+the+Blue+Frontier%3A+The+Great+Qing+and+the+Maritime+World+in+the+Long+Eighteenth+Century&rft.inst=Ruprecht-Karls-Universit%C3%A4t+Heidelberg&rft.date=2013-06-28&rft.aulast=Po&rft.aufirst=Chung-yam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fvolltextserver%2F18877%2F1%2FPhD_Dissertation_CyPO.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaley-Cohen2000" class="citation book cs1">Waley-Cohen, Joanna (2000). "Chapter 4". The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History. New York; London: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/039324251X" title="Special:BookSources/039324251X"><bdi>039324251X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4&rft.btitle=The+Sextants+of+Beijing%3A+Global+Currents+in+Chinese+History&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=039324251X&rft.aulast=Waley-Cohen&rft.aufirst=Joanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaley-Cohen2000" class="citation book cs1">Waley-Cohen, Joanna (2000). The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History. W. W. Norton. pp. 104, 126, 129–131, 136–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/039324251X" title="Special:BookSources/039324251X"><bdi>039324251X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sextants+of+Beijing%3A+Global+Currents+in+Chinese+History&rft.pages=104%2C+126%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E131%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E136-%3C%2Fspan%3E137&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=039324251X&rft.aulast=Waley-Cohen&rft.aufirst=Joanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSng" class="citation book cs1">Sng, Tuan-Hwee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apebhconference.files.wordpress.com/2009/08/sng.pdf">Size and dynastic decline. The principal-agent problem in late imperial China, 1700–1850</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Size+and+dynastic+decline.+The+principal-agent+problem+in+late+imperial+China%2C+1700%E2%80%931850&rft.aulast=Sng&rft.aufirst=Tuan-Hwee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapebhconference.files.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F08%2Fsng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Glenn Paul Melancon, "Palmerston, Parliament and Peking: The Melbourne Ministry and the Opium Crisis, 1835–1840" (PhD LSU, 1994) pp. 222–239. </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> Spence, The Search for Modern China (1990) pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> Michael Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800–1842 (1951), p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> Peter J. Cain, and Anthony G. Hopkins. British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688–1914 (1993) p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (1970) pp. 248–260. </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Glen Melancon, "Honour in Opium? The British Declaration of War on China, 1839–1840." International History Review 21 (1999): 855–874 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40109164">online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> Glenn Melancon, Britain's China Policy and the Opium Crisis: Balancing Drugs, Violence and National Honour, 1833–1840 (2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (1984), pp. 9–55, 97–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolachek1992" class="citation book cs1">Polachek, James M. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3-GILbpJUv0C&pg=PA74">The Inner Opium War</a>. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 73–76, 134–135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674454460" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674454460"><bdi>978-0674454460</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inner+Opium+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E76%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E134-%3C%2Fspan%3E135&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0674454460&rft.aulast=Polachek&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3-GILbpJUv0C%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence1999152–158-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence1999152–158_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpence1999">Spence 1999</a>, pp. 152–158. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolachek1992" class="citation book cs1">Polachek, James M. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3-GILbpJUv0C&pg=PA74">The Inner Opium War</a>. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 109, 128–135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674454460" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674454460"><bdi>978-0674454460</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Inner+Opium+War&rft.pages=109%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E128-%3C%2Fspan%3E135&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0674454460&rft.aulast=Polachek&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3-GILbpJUv0C%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Beeching" title="Jack Beeching">Beeching, Jack</a>, The Chinese Opium Wars (Hutchinson, 1975)</li> <li>Bingham, John Elliot (1843). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.511770">Narrative of the Expedition to China from the Commencement of the War to Its Termination in 1842</a> (2nd ed.). Volume 2. London: Henry Colburn.</li> <li>Compilation Group for the "History of Modern China" Series. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2W1Jmh2QpukC">The Opium War</a>. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific; reprint from 1976 edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89875-150-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-89875-150-0">0-89875-150-0</a>.</li> <li>Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Siu, Helen F.; Sutton, Donald S. (2006), Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China, University of California Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23015-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-23015-9">0-520-23015-9</a>.</li> <li>Derden, John K. "The British Foreign Office and Policy Formation: The 1840s," Proceedings & Papers of the Georgia Association of Historians (1981) pp. 64–79.</li> <li>Dillon, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4wODajYOA-0C">China: A Modern History</a>. I. B. Tauris. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-582-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-582-2">978-1-85043-582-2</a>.</li> <li>Downs, Jacques M. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw4wBQAAQBAJ">The Golden Ghetto: The American Commercial Community at Canton and the Shaping of American China Policy, 1784–1844</a>. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press; reprinted, Hong Kong University Press, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-934223-35-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-934223-35-1">0-934223-35-1</a>.</li> <li>Elliot, Mark C. (2001), The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-4684-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-4684-2">0-8047-4684-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_King_Fairbank" title="John King Fairbank">Fairbank, John King</a>, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast; the Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854 (Harvard University Press, 1953).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTengFairbank1979" class="citation book cs1">Teng, Ssu-yu; <a href="/wiki/John_K._Fairbank" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Fairbank">Fairbank, John King</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0maVJuCh78oC">China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674120259" title="Special:BookSources/9780674120259"><bdi>9780674120259</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Response+to+the+West%3A+A+Documentary+Survey%2C+1839%E2%80%931923&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780674120259&rft.aulast=Teng&rft.aufirst=Ssu-yu&rft.au=Fairbank%2C+John+King&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0maVJuCh78oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Fay, Peter Ward, The Opium War, 1840–1842: Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the early part of the nineteenth century and the way by which they forced the gates ajar (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>, 2000).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray2002" class="citation book cs1">Gray, Jack (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ApTwKwW5dDwC">Rebellions and Revolutions: China from the 1800s to 2000</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870069-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870069-2"><bdi>978-0-19-870069-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebellions+and+Revolutions%3A+China+from+the+1800s+to+2000&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-870069-2&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DApTwKwW5dDwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Greenberg, Michael. British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800–42. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Studies in Economic History, 1951). Various reprints. Uses Jardine Matheson papers to detail the British side of the trade.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenwood2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Greenwood" title="Adrian Greenwood">Greenwood, Adrian</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160221172547/http://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/index.php/victoria-s-scottish-lion-26465.html/">Victoria's Scottish Lion: The Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde</a>. History Press. p. 496. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-5685-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-5685-7"><bdi>978-0-7509-5685-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/index.php/victoria-s-scottish-lion-26465.html">the original</a> on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victoria%27s+Scottish+Lion%3A+The+Life+of+Colin+Campbell%2C+Lord+Clyde&rft.pages=496&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-7509-5685-7&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehistorypress.co.uk%2Findex.php%2Fvictoria-s-scottish-lion-26465.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hoe, Susanna; Roebuck, Derek (1999). The Taking of Hong Kong: Charles and Clara Elliot in China Waters. Curzon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1145-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1145-7">0-7007-1145-7</a>.</li> <li>Hsin-Pao Chang. Commissioner Lin and the Opium War. (Harvard University Press, Harvard East Asian Series, 1964).</li> <li>Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). "Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl". Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. p. 28. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8">978-1-59339-837-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHummel1943" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Hummel_Sr." title="Arthur W. Hummel Sr.">Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.</a>, ed. (1943). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period">"Index" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period" title="Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period">Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Index&rft.btitle=Eminent+Chinese+of+the+Ch%27ing+Period&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kendall_Johnson" title="Kendall Johnson">Johnson, Kendall</a>, The New Middle Kingdom: China and the Early American Romance of Free Trade (Johns Hopkins UP, 2017 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2251-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2251-0">978-1-4214-2251-0</a>).</li> <li>Klein, Thoralf. "Rethinking the Origins of ‘Western’ Imperialism in China: Global Constellations and Imperial Policies, 1790–1860." History Compass 10.11 (2012): 789–801. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/40205850/Rethinking_the_Origins_of_Western_Imperialism_in_China_review2.doc">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li>Mao, Haijian, (2016). The Qing Empire and the Opium War. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107069879" title="Special:BookSources/9781107069879">9781107069879</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Lovell" title="Julia Lovell">Lovell, Julia</a>, The Opium War: Drug, Dreams and the Making of China (London, Picador, 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-330-45747-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-330-45747-0">0-330-45747-0</a>). Well referenced narrative using both Chinese and western sources and scholarship.</li> <li>McPherson, Duncan, Carruthers, Bob. The First Opium War, The Chinese Expedition 1840–1842, the illustrated edition (Coda Books, 2013). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1781583609" title="Special:BookSources/978-1781583609">978-1781583609</a>.</li> <li>MacPherson, D. (1842). <a href="//archive.org/details/twoyearsinchina00macpgoog" class="extiw" title="iarchive:twoyearsinchina00macpgoog">Two Years in China: Narrative of the Chinese Expedition, from Its Formation in April 1840, Till April 1842: with an Appendix, Containing the Most Important of the General Orders & Despatches Published During the Above Period</a>. London: Saunders and Otley.</li> <li>Madancy, Joyce. "Unearthing popular attitudes toward the opium trade and opium suppression in Late Qing and Early Republican Fujian." Modern China 27.4 (2001): 436–483. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/2947_10mc01.pdf#page=33">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191224152158/https://www.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/2947_10mc01.pdf#page=33">Archived</a> 24 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Makeham, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TQ4NAQAAMAAJ">China: The World's Oldest Living Civilization Revealed</a>. Thames & Hudson. p. 331. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25142-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25142-3">978-0-500-25142-3</a>.</li> <li>Melancon, Glenn. "Honour in Opium? The British Declaration of War on China, 1839–1840." International History Review 21.4 (1999): 855–874. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40109164">online</a></li> <li>Melancon, Glenn. Britain's China Policy and the Opium Crisis: Balancing Drugs, Violence and National Honour, 1833–1840 (Routledge, 2017).</li> <li>Morse, Hosea Ballou. <a href="//archive.org/details/internationalrel00mors" class="extiw" title="iarchive:internationalrel00mors">The International Relations of the Chinese Empire</a>. Volume 1. (1910)</li> <li>Manhong Lin. China Upside Down: Currency, Society, and Ideologies, 1808–1856. (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Asia Center, Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-02268-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-02268-8">0-674-02268-8</a>. Detailed study of the economics of the trade.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMironFeige2008" class="citation journal cs1">Miron, Jeffrey A. & Feige, Chris (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/11379703/miron-opium-wars.pdf?sequence=3">"The Opium Wars: Opium Legalization and Opium Consumption in China"</a> (PDF). Applied Economics Letters. 15 (12): 911–913. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13504850600972295">10.1080/13504850600972295</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218639653">218639653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Economics+Letters&rft.atitle=The+Opium+Wars%3A+Opium+Legalization+and+Opium+Consumption+in+China&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E911-%3C%2Fspan%3E913&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13504850600972295&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218639653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Miron&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+A.&rft.au=Feige%2C+Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F11379703%2Fmiron-opium-wars.pdf%3Fsequence%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Newman, Richard K. "Opium smoking in late imperial China: a reconsideration." Modern Asian Studies 29.4 (1995): 765–794.</li> <li>Polachek, James M., The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1992.) Based on court records and diaries, presents the debates among Chinese officials whether to legalise or suppress the use and trade in opium.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay_03.pdf">Perdue, Peter C., "The First Opium War: The Anglo-Chinese War of 1839–1842: Hostilities"</a> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2011. MIT Visualizing Cultures).</li> <li>Rait, Robert S. (1903). <a href="//archive.org/details/cu31924088002120" class="extiw" title="iarchive:cu31924088002120">The Life and Campaigns of Hugh, First Viscount Gough, Field-Marshal</a>. Volume 1. Westminster: Archibald Constable.</li> <li>Frontier and Overseas Expeditions From India, vol. 6, p. 382</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpence1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spence" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan Spence">Spence, Jonathan D.</a> (1999). The Search for Modern China (2nd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97351-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97351-8"><bdi>978-0-393-97351-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+Modern+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-393-97351-8&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Spence, Jonathan D. "Opium Smoking in Ch’ing China." in Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China. Edited by Frederic Wakeman Jr. and Carolyn Grant. (U of California Press, 1975).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman1966" class="citation book cs1">Wakeman, Frederic E. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCgXTcXH-3MC">Strangers at the Gate; Social Disorder in South China, 1839–1861</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520212398" title="Special:BookSources/0520212398"><bdi>0520212398</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strangers+at+the+Gate%3B+Social+Disorder+in+South+China%2C+1839%E2%80%931861&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0520212398&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNCgXTcXH-3MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waley" title="Arthur Waley">Waley, Arthur</a>, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes (London: Allen & Unwin, 1958; reprinted Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1968). Translations and narrative based on Lin's writings.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=StpbAAAAQAAJ">Correspondence Relating to China</a> (1840). London: Printed by T. R. Harrison.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0JZCAAAAYAAJ">The Chinese Repository</a> (1840). Volume 8.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waley" title="Arthur Waley">Waley, Arthur</a> (2013) [First published 1958]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acH8AQAAQBAJ">The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes</a>. Taylor & Francis. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-57665-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-57665-2">978-1-136-57665-2</a>.</li> <li>Myers, H. Ramon; Wang, Yeh-Chien (2002), "Economic developments, 1644–1800", in Peterson Willard J. (ed.), Part One: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, The Cambridge History of China, 9, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 563–647, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6">978-0-521-24334-6</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Mann" title="Charles C. Mann">Charles C. Mann</a> (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1493uncoveringne00mann">1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created</a>, Random House Digital, pp. 123–163, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307596727" title="Special:BookSources/9780307596727">9780307596727</a></li> <li>Bernard, William Dallas; Hall, William Hutcheon (1847). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nemesisinchinac01hallgoog">The Nemesis in China</a> (3rd ed.). London: Henry Colburn.</li> <li>Parker, Edward Harper (1888). Chinese Account of the Opium War. Shanghai</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeadrick1979" class="citation journal cs1">Headrick, Daniel R. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629144158/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/articles/headrick.pdf">"The Tools of Imperialism: Technology and the Expansion of European Colonial Empires in the Nineteenth Century"</a> (PDF). The Journal of Modern History. 51 (2): 231–263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F241899">10.1086/241899</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144141748">144141748</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/articles/headrick.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 29 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Tools+of+Imperialism%3A+Technology+and+the+Expansion+of+European+Colonial+Empires+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E231-%3C%2Fspan%3E263&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F241899&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144141748%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Headrick&rft.aufirst=Daniel+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fimperialism%2Farticles%2Fheadrick.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFirst+Opium+War" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J9Q1AAAAMAAJ">Bulletins and Other State Intelligence</a>. Compiled and arranged from the official documents published in the London Gazette. London: F. Watts. 1841.</li> <li>Granville G. Loch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/closingeventsca01lochgoog">The Closing Events of the Campaign in China: The Operations in the Yang-tze-kiang and</a> treaty <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/closingeventsca01lochgoog">of Nanking</a>. London. 1843 [2014-07-13]</li> <li>"The Count of Aberdeen to Sir Henry Pudding" The "History of the Chinese Empire" (Chinese translation) vol. 1, pp. 755–756.</li> <li>Gao, Shujuan (高淑娟); Feng, Bin (冯斌) (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FR367iWJdb8C">Comparative Outline of Chinese and Japanese Foreign Policy: Central Trade Policy in the Final Years of the Imperial Era (中日对外经济政策比较史纲: 以封建末期贸易政策为中心)</a>. Qinghua University Chinese Economic Historiography Series (清华大学中国经济史学丛书) (in Chinese). <a href="/wiki/Qinghua_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinghua University">Qinghua University</a> Publishing (清华大学出版社). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7302075172" title="Special:BookSources/978-7302075172">978-7302075172</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:First_Opium_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:First Opium War">First Opium War</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/sittings/1840/index.html">Hansard of the British Parliament 1840s</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay01.html">Perdue, Peter C., "The First Opium War: The Anglo-Chinese War of 1839–1842: Opium Trade"</a> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2011. MIT Visualizing Cultures).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay_03.pdf">Perdue, Peter C., "The First Opium War: The Anglo-Chinese War of 1839–1842: Hostilities"</a> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2011. MIT Visualizing Cultures).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_opium.htm">"The Opium War and Foreign Encroachment", Education for Educators (Columbia University)</a>. Resources for teaching.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://artsandculture.google.com/partner/opium-war-museum">Opium War Museum, Dongguan, Guangzhou; Google Arts & Culture</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Colonial_conflicts_involving_the_English/British_Empire160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:British_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:British colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:British_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:British colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:British_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:British colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Colonial_conflicts_involving_the_English/British_Empire160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonial conflicts involving the <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a>/<a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Ireland</a> (1593–1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Virginia</a> (1609–46)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Swally" title="Battle of Swally">Swally</a> (1612)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_capture_of_Ormuz" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Persian capture of Ormuz">Ormuz</a> (1622)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago_Genocide_of_1626" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalinago Genocide of 1626">Saint Kitts</a> (1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_17_July_1628" title="Action of 17 July 1628">Quebec</a> (1628)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a> (1634–38)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">Irish Rebellion</a> (1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Confederate_Wars" title="Irish Confederate Wars">Confederate War</a> (1641–53)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromwellian_conquest_of_Ireland" title="Cromwellian conquest of Ireland">Cromwellian conquest of Ireland</a> (1649–53)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Acadians#English_colony_(1654–1667)" title="History of the Acadians">Acadia</a> (1654–67)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1654%E2%80%931660)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)">Anglo-Spanish War</a> (1654–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Maroon_War" title="First Maroon War">Jamaica</a> (1655–1739)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangier_(1662)" title="Battle of Tangier (1662)">1st Tangier</a> (1662)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tangier_(1664)" title="Battle of Tangier (1664)">2nd Tangier</a> (1664)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a> (1675–78)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Mughal_War_(1686%E2%80%931690)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)">Child's War</a> (1686–90)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Siamese_War" title="Anglo-Siamese War">Siam</a> (1687)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williamite_War_in_Ireland" title="Williamite War in Ireland">Williamite War</a> (1688–91)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a> (1688–97)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komenda_Wars" title="Komenda Wars">Ghana</a> (1694–1700)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a> (1702–13)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a> (1711–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a> (1715–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Father Rale's War/Dummer's War</a> (1722–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a> (1740–42)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a> (1744–48)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnatic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnatic Wars">Carnatic Wars</a> (1746–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Le_Loutre%27s_War" title="Father Le Loutre's War">Nova Scotia</a> (1749–55)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> (1754–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain_in_the_Seven_Years%27_War" title="Great Britain in the Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_War" title="Bengal War">Bengal War</a> (1756–65)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Cherokee_War" title="Anglo-Cherokee War">Anglo-Cherokee War</a> (1758–61)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacky%27s_Revolt" title="Tacky's Revolt">Jamaica</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1762%E2%80%931763)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1762–1763)">Anglo-Spanish War</a> (1762–63)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a> (1763–66)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_Movement_in_North_Carolina" title="Regulator Movement in North Carolina">Regulator Movement in North Carolina</a> (1765–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Carib_War" title="First Carib War">First Carib War</a> (1769–73)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Rohilla_War" title="First Rohilla War">Rohilkhand</a> (1773–74)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a> (1774)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–83)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="First Anglo-Maratha War">First Anglo-Maratha War</a> (1775–82)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Second Anglo-Mysore War">Second Anglo-Mysore War</a> (1779–84)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley%27s_Gold_Coast_expedition" title="Shirley's Gold Coast expedition">Gold Coast</a> (1781–82)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Radharam" title="Revolt of Radharam">Assam</a> (1786)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars" title="Australian frontier wars">Australian frontier wars</a> (1788–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Crisis" title="Nootka Crisis">Nootka Sound</a> (1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Third Anglo-Mysore War">Third Anglo-Mysore War</a> (1789–92)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotiote_War" title="Cotiote War">Cotiote (Wayanad) War</a> (1793–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Rohilla_War" title="Second Rohilla War">Rohilkhand</a> (1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Cape_Colony" title="Invasion of the Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Maroon_War" title="Second Maroon War">Jamaica</a> (1795–96)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9don%27s_rebellion" title="Fédon's rebellion">Grenada</a> (1795–96)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Ceylon" title="Invasion of Ceylon">Ceylon</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandyan_Wars" title="Kandyan Wars">Kandyan Wars</a> (1796–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion</a> (1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(1798%E2%80%931800)" title="Siege of Malta (1798–1800)">Malta</a> (1798–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War" title="Fourth Anglo-Mysore War">Fourth Anglo-Mysore War</a> (1798–99)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dwyer#Guerilla_campaign" title="Michael Dwyer">Dwyer's guerrilla campaign</a> (1799–1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygar_Wars" title="Polygar Wars">Polygar Wars</a> (1799–1805)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Irish_Uprising_in_Newfoundland" title="United Irish Uprising in Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> (1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Second Anglo-Maratha War">Second Anglo-Maratha War</a> (1803–05)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castle_Hill_convict_rebellion" title="Castle Hill convict rebellion">Castle Hill convict rebellion</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Surinam_(1804)" title="Invasion of Surinam (1804)">Surinam</a> (1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blaauwberg" title="Battle of Blaauwberg">Cape Colony</a> (1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_invasions_of_the_River_Plate" title="British invasions of the River Plate">Río de la Plata</a> (1806–07)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_expedition_of_1807" title="Alexandria expedition of 1807">Egypt</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Froberg_mutiny" title="Froberg mutiny">Froberg mutiny</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Santo_Domingo_of_1808" title="Siege of Santo Domingo of 1808">Santo Domingo</a> (1808–09)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Martinique_(1809)" title="Invasion of Martinique (1809)">Martinique</a> (1809)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_campaign_of_1809" title="Persian Gulf campaign of 1809">Persian Gulf</a> (1809)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Guadeloupe_(1810)" title="Invasion of Guadeloupe (1810)">Guadeloupe</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_%C3%8Ele_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Île Bonaparte">Reunion</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Isle_de_France" title="Invasion of Isle de France">Mauritius</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Seychelles#The_Quincy_era" title="History of Seychelles">Seychelles</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Spice_Islands" title="Invasion of the Spice Islands">Spice Islands</a> (1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Java_(1811)" title="Invasion of Java (1811)">Java</a> (1810–11)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_Wars" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a> (1811–79)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">USA</a> (1812–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Nepalese_War" title="Anglo-Nepalese War">Nepal</a> (1814–16)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Guadeloupe_(1815)" title="Invasion of Guadeloupe (1815)">Guadeloupe</a> (1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slachter%27s_Nek_Rebellion" title="Slachter's Nek Rebellion">Cape Colony</a> (1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1816)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1816)">Algiers</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha War</a> (1817–18)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf_campaign_of_1819" title="Persian Gulf campaign of 1819">Persian Gulf</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demerara_rebellion_of_1823" title="Demerara rebellion of 1823">Guiana</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Ashanti_wars" title="Anglo-Ashanti wars">Anglo-Ashanti wars</a> (1824–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="First Anglo-Burmese War">First Anglo-Burmese War</a> (1824–26)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_War" title="Black War">Black War (Van Diemen's Land)</a> (1828–32)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptist_War" title="Baptist War">Jamaica</a> (1831–32)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naning_War" title="Naning War">Malacca</a> (1831–33)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada_Rebellion" title="Lower Canada Rebellion">Lower Canada</a> (1837–38)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Canada_Rebellion" title="Upper Canada Rebellion">Upper Canada</a> (1837–38)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Expedition" title="Aden Expedition">Aden Expedition</a> (1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Ottoman_War_(1839%E2%80%931841)" title="Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)">Egyptian–Ottoman War</a> (1839–41)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">First Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1839–42)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Opium War</a> (1839–42)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Wars" title="New Zealand Wars">New Zealand Wars</a> (1845–72)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Sikh War">First Anglo-Sikh War</a> (1845–46)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-French_blockade_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (1845–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Canton" title="Expedition to Canton">Canton</a> (1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Caste War of Yucatán">British Honduras</a> (1847–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matale_rebellion" title="Matale rebellion">Ceylon</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">Second Anglo-Sikh War</a> (1848–49)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="Second Anglo-Burmese War">Second Anglo-Burmese War</a> (1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka Rebellion</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85land_War" title="Åland War">Åland War</a> (1854–56)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_War" title="Anglo-Persian War">Anglo-Persian War</a> (1856–57)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a> (1856–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion</a> (1857–59)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Rajab_Ali" title="Revolt of Rajab Ali">Revolt of Rajab Ali</a> (1857–58)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Kagoshima" title="Bombardment of Kagoshima">Kagoshima</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambela_campaign" title="Ambela campaign">Ambela campaign</a> (1863–64)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimonoseki_campaign" title="Shimonoseki campaign">Shimonoseki</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duar_War" title="Duar War">Duar War</a> (1864–65)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenian_raids" title="Fenian raids">Fenian Rebellion in Canada</a> (1866–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Expedition_to_Abyssinia" class="mw-redirect" title="British Expedition to Abyssinia">Abyssinia</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Manitoba</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perak_War" title="Perak War">Perak</a> (1875–76)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Zulu_War" title="Anglo-Zulu War">Anglo-Zulu War</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1879–80)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basuto_Gun_War" title="Basuto Gun War">Basutoland</a> (1880–81)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a> (1880–81)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdist_War" title="Mahdist War">Mahdist War</a> (1881–99)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian War</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North-West_Rebellion" title="North-West Rebellion">Saskatchewan</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="Third Anglo-Burmese War">Third Anglo-Burmese War</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emin_Pasha_Relief_Expedition" title="Emin Pasha Relief Expedition">Central Africa</a> (1886–89)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazara_Expedition_of_1888" title="Hazara Expedition of 1888">Hazara</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Column" title="Pioneer Column">Mashonaland</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunza%E2%80%93Nagar_Campaign" title="Hunza–Nagar Campaign">Hunza–Nagar Campaign</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Manipur_War" title="Anglo-Manipur War">Anglo-Manipur War</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahang_Uprising" title="Pahang Uprising">Pahang Uprising</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Matabele_War" title="First Matabele War">Matabeleland</a> (1893–94)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mat_Salleh_Rebellion" title="Mat Salleh Rebellion">North Borneo</a> (1894–1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitral_Expedition" title="Chitral Expedition">Chitral Expedition</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jameson_Raid" title="Jameson Raid">Jameson Raid South Africa</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Zanzibar_War" title="Anglo-Zanzibar War">Anglo-Zanzibar War</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Chimurenga" class="mw-redirect" title="First Chimurenga">Matabeleland</a> (1896–97)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin_Expedition_of_1897" title="Benin Expedition of 1897">Benin Expedition</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Malakand" title="Siege of Malakand">Siege of Malakand</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohmand_campaign_of_1897%E2%80%931898" title="Mohmand campaign of 1897–1898">First Mohmand campaign</a> (1897–98)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirah_campaign" title="Tirah campaign">Tirah campaign</a> (1897–98)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War_(1899)" title="Six-Day War (1899)">Six-Day War</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> (1898–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a> (1899–1902)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somaliland_campaign" title="Somaliland campaign">Somaliland</a> (1900–20)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Aro_War" title="Anglo-Aro War">West Africa</a> (1901–02)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">Tibet expedition</a> (1903–04)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bambatha_Rebellion" title="Bambatha Rebellion">Bambatha Rebellion</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_in_the_Tochi" title="Operations in the Tochi">Tochi</a> (1914–15)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilembwe_uprising" title="Chilembwe uprising">Nyasaland</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bussa_rebellion" title="Bussa rebellion">Nigeria</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_against_the_Mohmands,_Bunerwals_and_Swatis_in_1915" title="Operations against the Mohmands, Bunerwals and Swatis in 1915">Peshawar</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohmand_blockade" title="Mohmand blockade">Mohmand</a> (1916–17)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_Crisis_of_1917" title="Conscription Crisis of 1917">Quebec</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adubi_War" title="Adubi War">Nigeria</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waziristan_campaign_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Waziristan campaign (1919–1920)">Waziristan campaign</a> (1919–20)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malabar_rebellion" title="Malabar rebellion">Malabar rebellion</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Barzanji_revolts" title="Mahmud Barzanji revolts">Kurdistan</a> (1922–24)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adwan_Rebellion" title="Adwan Rebellion">Transjordan</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink%27s_War" title="Pink's War">Pink's War</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhwan_revolt" title="Ikhwan revolt">Ikhwan revolt</a> (1927–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afridi_Redshirt_Rebellion,_Indian_North_West_Frontier_1930%E2%80%931931" title="Afridi Redshirt Rebellion, Indian North West Frontier 1930–1931">Tirah</a> (1930–31)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Barzani_revolt" title="Ahmed Barzani revolt">Barzani revolt</a> (1931–32)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohmand_campaign_of_1935" title="Mohmand campaign of 1935">Second Mohmand campaign</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">Arab revolt in Palestine</a> (1936–39)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waziristan_campaign_(1936%E2%80%931939)" title="Waziristan campaign (1936–1939)">Waziristan campaign</a> (1936–39)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woyane_rebellion" title="Woyane rebellion">Ethiopia</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine">Jewish revolt in Palestine</a> (1944–48)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Indochina</a> (1945–46)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Surabaya" title="Battle of Surabaya">Indonesia</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-cession_movement_of_Sarawak" title="Anti-cession movement of Sarawak">Sarawak</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a> (1948–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Kenya Emergency</a> (1952–60)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Oman</a> (1954–59)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a> (1955–59)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhofar Rebellion">Oman</a> (1962–76)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei_revolt" title="Brunei revolt">Brunei</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Sarawak</a> (1962–90)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Malaysia</a> (1962–66)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden</a> (1963–67)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands</a> (1982)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics313" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics313" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;">(1616–1683)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;">(1683–1799)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;">(1801–1900)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;">(1901–1912)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces & mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society & culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a> </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qing_(People%27s_Republic)" title="History of Qing (People's Republic)">History of Qing (People's Republic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">Treaty ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1244" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q191282#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4172641-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85024090">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560070">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph914536&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007285783405171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&oldid=1274844837">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&oldid=1274844837</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:First_Opium_War" title="Category:First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1839_in_China" title="Category:1839 in China">1839 in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1840_in_China" title="Category:1840 in China">1840 in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1841_in_China" title="Category:1841 in China">1841 in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1842_in_China" title="Category:1842 in China">1842 in China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_British_East_India_Company" title="Category:Wars involving the British East India Company">Wars involving the British East India Company</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Royal_Marines" title="Category:History of the Royal Marines">History of the Royal Marines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Punitive_expeditions_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Punitive expeditions of the United Kingdom">Punitive expeditions of the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Eight_Banners" title="Category:Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_of_Taiwan" title="Category:Military history of Taiwan">Military history of Taiwan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Organized_crime_conflicts" title="Category:Organized crime conflicts">Organized crime conflicts</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Chinese-language_script_(zh)" title="Category:CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)">CS1 uses Chinese-language script (zh)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Chinese-language_sources_(zh)" title="Category:CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)">CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1: unfit URL">CS1: unfit URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_April_2020" title="Category:EngvarB from April 2020">EngvarB from April 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_March_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from March 2022">Use dmy dates from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text">Articles containing Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text">Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_incomplete_citations" title="Category:All articles with incomplete citations">All articles with incomplete citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_incomplete_citations_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles with incomplete citations from November 2022">Articles with incomplete citations from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_more_precise_page_number_citations_from_September_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing more precise page number citations from September 2021">Wikipedia articles needing more precise page number citations from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_failed_verification" title="Category:All articles with failed verification">All articles with failed verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_failed_verification_from_September_2021" title="Category:Articles with failed verification from September 2021">Articles with failed verification from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_September_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2021">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_September_2021" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from September 2021">Articles lacking reliable references from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_November_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_failed_verification_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles with failed verification from November 2022">Articles with failed verification from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_September_2021" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2021">Articles with dead external links from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_pages_needing_factual_verification" title="Category:All pages needing factual verification">All pages needing factual verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_March_2022" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from March 2022">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_February_2022" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from February 2022">Articles lacking reliable references from February 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_November_2022" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from November 2022">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_November_2021" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from November 2021">Articles lacking reliable references from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_failed_verification_from_November_2021" title="Category:Articles with failed verification from November 2021">Articles with failed verification from November 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_January_2025" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2025">Articles with dead external links from January 2025</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 February 2025, at 15:44 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Opium_War&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >First Opium War</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 73 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-qdhph","wgBackendResponseTime":149,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.033","walltime":"3.489","ppvisitednodes":{"value":43392,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":632793,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":86377,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":32,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":566457,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3070.460 1 -total"," 32.93% 1011.191 110 Template:Fix"," 27.22% 835.753 180 Template:Delink"," 21.43% 658.082 2 Template:Reflist"," 16.64% 510.806 39 Template:Page_needed"," 13.11% 402.667 33 Template:Page_range_too_broad"," 10.13% 311.132 58 Template:Cite_book"," 7.81% 239.791 1 Template:Infobox_Chinese"," 7.43% 228.002 192 Template:Category_handler"," 5.77% 177.304 1 Template:Infobox_military_conflict"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.747","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":22710260,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREF\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREF1840\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrade2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBebbington1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernstein2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhattacharya2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrookWakabayashi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBursey2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChang1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChouvy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCleary\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeman1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDreyer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDriscoll2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElleman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarooqui2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoster2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoxcroft2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFu1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlenn_Melancon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldstone2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenberg1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanesSanello2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanes_IIISanello2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHans_Derks2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHariharanHariharan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeadrick1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsba2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJon_Bursey2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlimburg2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKortGrassoCorrin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLodwick2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovell2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuscombe\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMakeham2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMao2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichie2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMironFeige2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoody2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeyrefitte2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPichon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPo2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolachek1992\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFQuinaultClaytonSwift2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRebecca_Berens_Matzke2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchellJohn_Delury2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchirokauerBrown2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSng\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpence1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTengFairbank1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrocki2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsang2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Dyke2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVries2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakeman1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWakemanFairbank1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaley-Cohen2000\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFXu2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF张莉\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"'\"] = 2,\n [\"Age in years, months, weeks and days\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 9,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 6,\n [\"Bpmfsp\"] = 1,\n [\"British colonial campaigns\"] = 1,\n [\"Campaignbox First Opium War\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite ECCP\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 58,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 31,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Opium War, 1st\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Endplainlist\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Est.\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 10,\n [\"First Opium War 1839-42 Conflict Overview\"] = 1,\n [\"Flag\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagcountry\"] = 1,\n [\"Flagicon image\"] = 1,\n [\"For-multi\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"HMS\"] = 4,\n [\"IPAc-cmn\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-yue\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 27,\n [\"Infobox Chinese\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox military conflict\"] = 1,\n [\"KIA\"] = 3,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang-zh\"] = 2,\n [\"London Gazette\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"OCLC\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 39,\n [\"Page range too broad\"] = 33,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 4,\n [\"Primary source inline\"] = 9,\n [\"Qing dynasty topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 3,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfnb\"] = 2,\n [\"Ship\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Tonesup\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n \"Gazette%d+\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","500","24.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","340","16.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","11.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","240","11.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","140","6.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","6.7"],["(for generator)","60","2.9"],["(for generator) \u003Cmw.lua:676\u003E","40","1.9"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","1.9"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","40","1.9"],["[others]","300","14.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-5p2x4","timestamp":"20250214040804","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"First Opium War","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_Opium_War","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q191282","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q191282","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-11-04T02:43:00Z","dateModified":"2025-02-09T15:44:35Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/89\/Destroying_Chinese_war_junks%2C_by_E._Duncan_%281843%29.jpg","headline":"war between Great Britain and China in the 19th century"}</script> </body> </html>