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Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%BA%D9%84%D9%8A" title="توماس ميدغلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توماس ميدغلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomas_Micli" title="Tomas Micli – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tomas Micli" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr. – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Thomas Midgley Jr." data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AF%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1" title="توماس میدگلی جونیور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توماس میدگلی جونیور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr. – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Thomas Midgley Jr." data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%EB%A8%B8%EC%8A%A4_%EB%AF%B8%EC%A6%90%EB%A6%AC" title="토머스 미즐리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토머스 미즐리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD_%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%AC%D5%AB" title="Թոմաս Միջլի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թոմաս Միջլի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr. – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Thomas Midgley Jr." data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A1_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%92%27%D7%9C%D7%99" title="תומאס מידג'לי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תומאס מידג'לי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%88%D1%96_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Кіші Томас Миджли – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кіші Томас Миджли" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr. – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Thomas Midgley Jr." data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%88%E3%83%9E%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9F%E3%82%B8%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC" title="トマス・ミジリー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トマス・ミジリー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_jr." title="Thomas Midgley jr. – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Thomas Midgley jr." data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr. – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Thomas Midgley Jr." data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Миджли, Томас – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Миджли, Томас" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley,_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley, Jr. – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Thomas Midgley, Jr." data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr. – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Thomas Midgley Jr." data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley_Jr." title="Thomas Midgley Jr. – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Thomas Midgley Jr." data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81_%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%96_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B9)" title="Томас Міджлі (молодший) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Томас Міджлі (молодший)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley" title="Thomas Midgley – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thomas Midgley" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%B1%B3%E5%9F%BA%E5%88%A9" title="托马斯·米基利 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="托马斯·米基利" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q324992#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American chemist and engineer (1889–1944)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Thomas Midgley Jr.</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:ThomasMidgleyJr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/ThomasMidgleyJr.jpg/220px-ThomasMidgleyJr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3c/ThomasMidgleyJr.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="357" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Midgley <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1930s–1940s</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1889-05-18</span>)</span>May 18, 1889<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Falls,_Pennsylvania" title="Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania">Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">November 2, 1944<span style="display:none">(1944-11-02)</span> (aged 55)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Worthington,_Ohio" title="Worthington, Ohio">Worthington, Ohio</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaded_gasoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaded gasoline">Leaded gasoline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">CFCs</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Carrie Reynolds</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1911)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Nichols_Medal" title="William H. Nichols Medal">William H. Nichols Medal</a> (1922)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Longstreth_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Longstreth Medal">Longstreth Medal</a> (1925)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Perkin_Medal" title="Perkin Medal">Perkin Medal</a> (1937)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a> (1941)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a> (1942)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Mechanical engineering</li><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Thomas Midgley Jr.</b> (May 18, 1889 – November 2, 1944) was an American <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineer" title="Chemical engineer">chemical engineer</a>. He played a major role in developing <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">leaded gasoline</a> (tetraethyl lead) and some of the first <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">chlorofluorocarbons</a> (CFCs), better known in the United States by the brand name <a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a>; both products were later banned from common use due to their harmful impact on human health and the <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">environment</a>. He was granted more than 100 patents over the course of his career.<sup id="cite_ref-Fame_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fame-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Midgley contracted <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a> in 1940 and was left disabled; in 1944, he was found strangled to death by a device he devised to allow him to get out of bed unassisted. It is often reported that he had been accidentally <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention" title="List of inventors killed by their own invention">killed by his own invention</a>, but his death was declared by the coroner to be a suicide. </p><p>While the harmful effects of CFCs were not appreciated until decades after Midgley's death, tetraethyl lead was known to be acutely toxic by those involved in the development of leaded gasoline. This included Midgley, who publicly insisted that there was nonetheless no health hazard posed by the use of leaded gasoline in internal combustion engines.<sup id="cite_ref-Secret_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Secret-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomas Midgley Jr. was born in <a href="/wiki/Beaver_Falls,_Pennsylvania" title="Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania">Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania</a>, on May 18, 1889, the son of Hattie Louise (née Emerson) (1865 – 1950) and Thomas Midgley Sr. (1840 – 1934). His family had a history of inventing; his father was an inventor in the field of automobile tires while his maternal grandfather, James Emerson, invented the inserted tooth <a href="/wiki/Saw" title="Saw">saw</a>. He grew up in <a href="/wiki/Columbus,_Ohio" title="Columbus, Ohio">Columbus, Ohio</a>, and graduated from <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> in 1911 with a degree in mechanical engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-Fame_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fame-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAS_bio_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAS_bio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early on, Midgley had a penchant for finding useful applications for known substances. In high school, he used the chewed bark of the slippery elm trees to give baseballs a more curved trajectory, a practice professional players would later pick up. Later in life, he was known to always carry a copy of the periodic table, his main tool in the search for the substance that would mark his breakthrough invention.<sup id="cite_ref-CNN_Prisco_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN_Prisco-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leaded_gasoline">Leaded gasoline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Leaded gasoline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EthylCorporationSign.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/EthylCorporationSign.jpg/220px-EthylCorporationSign.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/EthylCorporationSign.jpg/330px-EthylCorporationSign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/EthylCorporationSign.jpg/440px-EthylCorporationSign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Sign on an antique gasoline pump advertising the <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">TEL</a> anti-knock compound Ethyl, a <a href="/wiki/Gasoline_additive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasoline additive">gasoline additive</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1916, Midgley began working at <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>. In December 1921, while working under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Kettering" title="Charles F. Kettering">Charles Kettering</a> at <a href="/wiki/Delco_Electronics" title="Delco Electronics">Dayton Research Laboratories</a>, a subsidiary of General Motors, he discovered (after discarding <a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">tellurium</a> due to the difficult-to-eradicate smell) that the addition of <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">tetraethyllead</a> (TEL) to gasoline prevented <a href="/wiki/Engine_knocking" title="Engine knocking">knocking</a> in <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The company named the substance "Ethyl", avoiding all mention of lead in reports and advertising. <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Oil companies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry" title="Automotive industry">automobile manufacturers</a> (especially General Motors, which owned the patent jointly filed by Kettering and Midgley) promoted the TEL additive as an inexpensive alternative superior to <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">ethanol-blended fuels</a>, on which they could make very little profit.<sup id="cite_ref-Jacobson_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-disaster_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-disaster-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Secret_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Secret-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1922, the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> awarded Midgley the 1923 <a href="/wiki/William_H._Nichols_Medal" title="William H. Nichols Medal">Nichols Medal</a> for the "Use of Anti-Knock Compounds in Motor Fuels".<sup id="cite_ref-Nichols_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nichols-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first of several major awards he earned during his career.<sup id="cite_ref-Fame_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fame-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1923, Midgley took a long vacation in <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a> to cure himself of <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead poisoning</a>. He said, "I find that my lungs have been affected and that it is necessary to drop all work and get a large supply of fresh air."<sup id="cite_ref-Kovarik_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kovarik-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That year, General Motors created the General Motors Chemical Company (GMCC) to supervise the production of TEL by the <a href="/wiki/DuPont" title="DuPont">DuPont</a> company. Kettering was elected as president with Midgley as vice president. However, after two deaths and several cases of lead poisoning at the TEL prototype plant in <a href="/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio" title="Dayton, Ohio">Dayton, Ohio</a>, the staff at Dayton was said in 1924 to be "depressed to the point of considering giving up the whole tetraethyl lead program".<sup id="cite_ref-disaster_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-disaster-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of the next year, eight more people died at DuPont's plant in <a href="/wiki/Deepwater,_New_Jersey" title="Deepwater, New Jersey">Deepwater, New Jersey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kovarik_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kovarik-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1924, dissatisfied with the speed of DuPont's TEL production using the "<a href="/wiki/Bromide" title="Bromide">bromide</a> process", General Motors and the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (now known as <a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">ExxonMobil</a>) created the <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_Corporation" title="Ethyl Corporation">Ethyl Gasoline Corporation</a> to produce and market TEL. Ethyl Corporation built a new <a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant" title="Chemical plant">chemical plant</a> using a high-temperature <a href="/wiki/Chloroethane" title="Chloroethane">ethyl chloride</a> process at the <a href="/wiki/Bayway_Refinery" title="Bayway Refinery">Bayway Refinery</a> in New Jersey.<sup id="cite_ref-Kovarik_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kovarik-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, within the first two months of its operation, the new plant was plagued by more cases of lead poisoning, <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insanity" title="Insanity">insanity</a>, and five deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-Secret_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Secret-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The risks associated with <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning#History" title="Lead poisoning">exposure to lead</a> have been known at least since the 2nd century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-Dap2014_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while efforts to limit lead's use date back to at least the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Need2004_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Need2004-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dap2014_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NeedlemanDentineLead_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeedlemanDentineLead-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Midgley experienced lead poisoning himself, and was warned about the risk of lead poisoning from TEL as early as 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Midgley well knew the hazards of lead. He investigated whether the risks, both in production and use, could be managed. Testing on the exhaust was completed, which he used to support the idea that 1 part tetraethyl lead per 1300 of gasoline could safely be used.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the initial worker exposures, controls were developed to allow the process to operate safely. Leaded gasoline use grew exponentially. The cumulative chronic impacts of environmental lead were grossly underestimated. </p><p>On October 30, 1924, Midgley participated in a <a href="/wiki/News_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="News conference">press conference</a> to demonstrate the apparent safety of TEL, in which he poured TEL over his hands, placed a bottle of the chemical under his nose, and inhaled its <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a> for sixty seconds, declaring that he could do this every day without succumbing to any problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Secret_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Secret-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deceit_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deceit-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the State of New Jersey ordered the Bayway plant to be closed a few days later, and Jersey Standard was forbidden to manufacture TEL again without state permission. Production was restarted in 1926 after intervention by the federal government. High-octane fuel, enabled by lead, was important to the military. Midgley later took a leave of absence from work after being diagnosed with lead poisoning.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was relieved of his position as vice president of GMCC in April 1925, reportedly due to his inexperience in organizational matters, but he remained an employee of General Motors.<sup id="cite_ref-Secret_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Secret-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freon">Freon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Freon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a> systems employed compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (NH<sub>3</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Chloromethane" title="Chloromethane">chloromethane</a> (CH<sub>3</sub>Cl), <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methyl_formate" title="Methyl formate">methyl formate</a> (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>2</sub>), and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> (SO<sub>2</sub>) as <a href="/wiki/Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">refrigerants</a>. Though effective, these were <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flammability" class="mw-redirect" title="Flammability">flammable</a> or <a href="/wiki/Explosive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive material">explosive</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Frigidaire" title="Frigidaire">Frigidaire</a> division of General Motors, at that time a leading manufacturer of such systems, sought a non-toxic, non-flammable alternative to these refrigerants.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneader2005_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneader2005-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Midgley, working with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Leon_Henne" title="Albert Leon Henne">Albert Leon Henne</a>, soon narrowed his focus to alkyl halides (the combination of carbon chains and <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>), which were known to be highly <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatile</a> (a requirement for a refrigerant) and also <a href="/wiki/Chemically_inert" title="Chemically inert">chemically inert</a>. They eventually settled on the concept of <a href="/wiki/Halogenation" title="Halogenation">incorporating fluorine</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a>. They rejected the assumption that such compounds would be toxic, believing that the stability of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon%E2%80%93fluorine_bond" title="Carbon–fluorine bond">carbon–fluorine bond</a> would be sufficient to prevent the release of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">hydrogen fluoride</a> or other potential <a href="/wiki/Chemical_decomposition" title="Chemical decomposition">breakdown products</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sneader2005_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneader2005-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The team eventually synthesized <a href="/wiki/Dichlorodifluoromethane" title="Dichlorodifluoromethane">dichlorodifluoromethane</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">chlorofluorocarbon</a> (CFC), which they named "<a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Sneader2005_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sneader2005-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This compound is more commonly referred to today as "Freon 12", or "<a href="/wiki/Dichlorodifluoromethane" title="Dichlorodifluoromethane">R12</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Freon and other CFCs soon largely replaced other refrigerants, but also had other applications. A notable example was their use as a propellant in <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosol</a> products and <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> inhalers.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Chemical_Industry" title="Society of Chemical Industry">Society of Chemical Industry</a> awarded Midgley the <a href="/wiki/Perkin_Medal" title="Perkin Medal">Perkin Medal</a> in 1937 for this work.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941, the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a> gave Midgley its highest award, the <a href="/wiki/Priestley_Medal" title="Priestley Medal">Priestley Medal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Priestley_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priestley-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a> in 1942. He also held two <a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">honorary degrees</a> and was elected to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">United States National Academy of Sciences</a>. In 1944, he was elected president and chairman of the American Chemical Society.<sup id="cite_ref-Fame_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fame-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1940, at the age of 51, Midgley contracted <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a> and was left severely disabled. He devised an elaborate system of ropes and pulleys to lift himself out of bed. On November 2, 1944, at the age of 55, he was found dead at his home in <a href="/wiki/Worthington,_Ohio" title="Worthington, Ohio">Worthington, Ohio</a>. He had been <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention" title="List of inventors killed by their own invention">killed by his own device</a> after he became entangled in it and died of strangulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryson_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bellows2007_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bellows2007-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Milestones_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milestones-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-giunta_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-giunta-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His death was ruled a suicide by the coroner.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He left behind a widow, Carrie M. Reynolds from <a href="/wiki/Delaware,_Ohio" title="Delaware, Ohio">Delaware, Ohio</a>, whom he had married on August 3, 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-NAS_bio_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAS_bio-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Midgley's legacy is tied in with the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">negative environmental impact</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">leaded gasoline</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">freon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight-2014_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-2014-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental historian</a> <a href="/wiki/J._R._McNeill" title="J. R. McNeill">J. R. McNeill</a> opined that Midgley "had more adverse impact on the atmosphere than any other single organism in Earth's history",<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Bryson" title="Bill Bryson">Bill Bryson</a> remarked that Midgley possessed "an instinct for the regrettable that was almost uncanny".<sup id="cite_ref-Bryson_pg_195_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryson_pg_195-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fred_Pearce" title="Fred Pearce">Fred Pearce</a>, writing for <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>, described Midgley as a "one-man environmental disaster".<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Use of leaded gasoline, which he invented, released large quantities of lead into the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">atmosphere</a> all over the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight-2014_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-2014-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning#Epidemiology" title="Lead poisoning">atmospheric lead</a> levels have been linked with serious long-term health problems from childhood, including neurological impairment,<sup id="cite_ref-CABS_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CABS-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Golub_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golub-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hu_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hu-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with increased levels of violence and criminality in America<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT2_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT2-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MJ_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MJ-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine included both leaded gasoline and CFCs on its list of "The 50 Worst Inventions".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Midgley died three decades before the <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone-depleting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> effects of <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion#CFCs_and_related_compounds_in_the_atmosphere" title="Ozone depletion">CFCs in the atmosphere</a> became widely known.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight-2015_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight-2015-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1987, the <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Protocol" title="Montreal Protocol">Montreal Protocol</a> phased out the use of <a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">CFCs</a> like Freon.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The harm of leaded gasoline and chlorofluorocarbons have been framed as lessons in known unknowns and <a href="/wiki/Unknown_unknowns" class="mw-redirect" title="Unknown unknowns">unknown unknowns</a>, respectively. When leaded gasoline was invented it was known that lead had harmful effects on human health in large quantities, and that leaded gasoline caused emissions of trace amounts of lead to the atmosphere, but it was not known whether those trace amounts had adverse effects. The existence of the ozone layer, however, and the potential for chlorofluorocarbons to harm it, was not known at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2024 it was announced that <a href="/wiki/Terence_Winter" title="Terence Winter">Terence Winter</a>--writer of 2013's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wolf_of_Wall_Street_(2013_film)" title="The Wolf of Wall Street (2013 film)">The Wolf of Wall Street</a></i>--has co-written a feature film about Midgley entitled "Midge."<sup id="cite_ref-IMDb_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IMDb-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN_Prisco_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN_Prisco-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131015080435/http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?gs=&ln=&fn=&keyword=&subject=&award=LONG%2B&sy=1924&ey=1926&name=Submit">"Franklin Laureate Database – Edward Longstreth Medal 1925 Laureates"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?gs=&ln=&fn=&keyword=&subject=&award=LONG+&sy=1924&ey=1926&name=Submit">the original</a> on October 15, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Tetraethyl Lead Poison Hazards". <i>Industrial and Engineering Chemistry</i>. <b>17</b> (8): 827–828. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fie50188a020">10.1021/ie50188a020</a>. <q>After mixing tetraethyl lead with gasoline, no great precaution need be exercised, the ratio being 1 part tetraethyl lead to 1300 of gasoline. From this point on no health hazards actually exist unless the gasoline is used very abnormally for purposes for which it was not intended.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Industrial+and+Engineering+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Tetraethyl+Lead+Poison+Hazards&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=827-828&rft.date=1925-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fie50188a020&rft.aulast=Midgley&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+Midgley+Jr." class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deceit-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Deceit_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Markowitz, Gerald and Rosner, David. <i>Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/15/magazine/cfcs-inventor.html">the original</a> on July 18, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 21,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Brilliant+Inventor+Who+Made+Two+of+History%27s+Biggest+Mistakes&rft.date=2023-03-15&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F03%2F15%2Fmagazine%2Fcfcs-inventor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+Midgley+Jr." class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IMDb-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IMDb_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt31322301/reference/">"Midge"</a>. <i>IMDb.com</i>. IMDb.com, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IMDb.com&rft.atitle=Midge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Ftitle%2Ftt31322301%2Freference%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+Midgley+Jr." class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTim_Harford2022" class="citation web cs1">Tim Harford (November 11, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timharford.com/2022/11/cautionary-tales-the-inventor-who-almost-ended-the-world/">"Cautionary Tales–The inventor who almost ended the world"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Podcast)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cautionary+Tales%E2%80%93The+inventor+who+almost+ended+the+world&rft.date=2022-11-11&rft.au=Tim+Harford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimharford.com%2F2022%2F11%2Fcautionary-tales-the-inventor-who-almost-ended-the-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+Midgley+Jr." class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230315182035/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/15/magazine/cfcs-inventor.html?campaign_id=61&emc=edit_ts_20230315&instance_id=87762&nl=the-great-read&regi_id=58413496&segment_id=127851&te=1&user_id=80cf60cec3adc1d45fcb7c0a94e1fe11">The Brilliant Inventor Who Made Two of History’s Biggest Mistakes</a>. Stephen Johnson, <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times Magazine">New York Times Magazine</a>, March 15, 2023.</li> <li>Midgley–Man of Marvels, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88063294/1945-03-25/ed-1/seq-72/">(page 1 of 2)</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88063294/1945-03-25/ed-1/seq-73/">(page 2 of 2)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Kettering" title="Charles F. Kettering">Charles F. Kettering</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_American_Weekly" title="The American Weekly">The American Weekly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearst_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearst Corporation">Hearst Corporation</a>, March 25, 1945.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Midgley_Jr.&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMidgley1942" class="citation journal cs1">Midgley, T. (1942). "A Critical Examination of Some Concepts in Rubber Chemistry". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>96</b> (2485): 143–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1942Sci....96..143M">1942Sci....96..143M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.96.2485.143">10.1126/science.96.2485.143</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17833986">17833986</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=A+Critical+Examination+of+Some+Concepts+in+Rubber+Chemistry&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=2485&rft.pages=143-6&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17833986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.96.2485.143&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1942Sci....96..143M&rft.aulast=Midgley&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+Midgley+Jr." class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121015120545/http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/tmidgley.pdf">Biographical Memoir by Charles F. Kettering</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived October 15, 2012)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiunta2006" class="citation journal cs1">Giunta, Carmen J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160423012402/http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/bulletin_open_access/v31-2/v31-2%20p66-74.pdf">"Thomas Midgley Jr. and the Invention of Chlorofluorocarbon Refrigerants"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_for_the_History_of_Chemistry" title="Bulletin for the History of Chemistry">Bulletin for the History of Chemistry</a></i>. <b>31</b> (2): 66–74. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/bulletin_open_access/v31-2/v31-2%20p66-74.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 23, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+for+the+History+of+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Thomas+Midgley+Jr.+and+the+Invention+of+Chlorofluorocarbon+Refrigerants&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=66-74&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Giunta&rft.aufirst=Carmen+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scs.illinois.edu%2F~mainzv%2FHIST%2Fbulletin_open_access%2Fv31-2%2Fv31-2%2520p66-74.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThomas+Midgley+Jr." class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IV3dnLzthDA">The Man Who Accidentally Killed The Most People In History</a> (video by YouTube producer <a href="/wiki/Derek_Muller" title="Derek Muller">Derek Muller</a> on Thomas Midgley Jr., April 2022)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Template:Presidents of the American Chemical Society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Template talk:Presidents of the American Chemical Society"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the American Chemical Society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Presidents of the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1876–1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Draper" title="John William Draper">John W. Draper</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lawrence_Smith_(chemist)" title="J. Lawrence Smith (chemist)">J. Lawrence Smith</a> (1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_William_Johnson" title="Samuel William Johnson">Samuel William Johnson</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sterry_Hunt" title="Thomas Sterry Hunt">T. Sterry Hunt</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Augustus_Genth" title="Frederick Augustus Genth">Frederick A. Genth</a> (1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Chandler" title="Charles F. Chandler">Charles F. Chandler</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mallet" title="John Mallet">John W. Mallet</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Curtis_Booth" title="James Curtis Booth">James C. Booth</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Benjamin_Prescott" title="Albert Benjamin Prescott">Albert B. Prescott</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Anthony_Goessmann" title="Charles Anthony Goessmann">Charles Anthony Goessmann</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sterry_Hunt" title="Thomas Sterry Hunt">T. Sterry Hunt</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Chandler" title="Charles F. Chandler">Charles F. Chandler</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bradford_Nason" title="Henry Bradford Nason">Henry B. Nason</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_Barker" title="George Frederick Barker">George F. Barker</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Chapman_Caldwell" title="George Chapman Caldwell">George C. Caldwell</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Washington_Wiley" title="Harvey Washington Wiley">Harvey W. Wiley</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Fahs_Smith" title="Edgar Fahs Smith">Edgar Fahs Smith</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Benjamin_Dudley" title="Charles Benjamin Dudley">Charles B. Dudley</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Munroe" title="Charles Edward Munroe">Charles E. Munroe</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_W._Morley" title="Edward W. Morley">Edward W. Morley</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McMurtrie" title="William McMurtrie">William McMurtrie</a> (1900)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wigglesworth_Clarke" title="Frank Wigglesworth Clarke">Frank W. Clarke</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Remsen" title="Ira Remsen">Ira Remsen</a> (1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Long_(chemist)" title="John H. Long (chemist)">John H. Long</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Amos_Noyes" title="Arthur Amos Noyes">Arthur Amos Noyes</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Preston_Venable" title="Francis Preston Venable">Francis P. Venable</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Hillebrand" title="William Francis Hillebrand">William F. Hillebrand</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marston_T._Bogert" title="Marston T. Bogert">Marston T. Bogert</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_R._Whitney" title="Willis R. Whitney">Willis R. Whitney</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilder_Dwight_Bancroft" title="Wilder Dwight Bancroft">Wilder D. Bancroft</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Smith_(chemist)" title="Alexander Smith (chemist)">Alexander Smith</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Dehon_Little" title="Arthur Dehon Little">Arthur Dehon Little</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">Theodore W. Richards</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Herty" title="Charles Herty">Charles H. Herty</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Stieglitz" title="Julius Stieglitz">Julius Stieglitz</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Nichols" title="William H. Nichols">William H. Nichols</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_A._Noyes" title="William A. Noyes">William A. Noyes</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Fahs_Smith" title="Edgar Fahs Smith">Edgar Fahs Smith</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Curtis_Franklin" title="Edward Curtis Franklin">Edward C. Franklin</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo H. Baekeland</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Flack_Norris" title="James Flack Norris">James Flack Norris</a> (1925)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=George_D._Rosengarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George D. Rosengarten (page does not exist)">George D. Rosengarten</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._Parr" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel W. Parr">Samuel W. Parr</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McPherson_(university_president)" title="William McPherson (university president)">William McPherson</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Gomberg" title="Moses Gomberg">Moses Gomberg</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_V._Redman" title="Lawrence V. Redman">Lawrence V. Redman</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_B._Lamb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur B. Lamb (page does not exist)">Arthur B. Lamb</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_L._Reese&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles L. Reese (page does not exist)">Charles L. Reese</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Adams" title="Roger Adams">Roger Adams</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bartow" title="Edward Bartow">Edward Bartow</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_R._Weidlein" title="Edward R. Weidlein">Edward R. Weidlein</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_C._Whitmore" title="Frank C. Whitmore">Frank C. Whitmore</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Kraus" title="Charles A. Kraus">Charles A. Kraus</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._Lind" title="Samuel C. Lind">Samuel C. Lind</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Lloyd_Evans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Lloyd Evans (page does not exist)">William Lloyd Evans</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harry_N._Holmes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harry N. Holmes (page does not exist)">Harry N. Holmes</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Per_K._Frolich&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Per K. Frolich (page does not exist)">Per K. Frolich</a> (1943)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thomas Midgley Jr.</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Shipp_Marvel" title="Carl Shipp Marvel">Carl S. Marvel</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bradley_Dewey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bradley Dewey (page does not exist)">Bradley Dewey</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._Albert_Noyes_Jr." title="W. Albert Noyes Jr.">W. Albert Noyes Jr.</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles A. Thomas</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_H._Volwiler" title="Ernest H. Volwiler">Ernest H. Volwiler</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=N._Howell_Funnan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N. Howell Funnan (page does not exist)">N. Howell Funnan</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edgar_C._Britton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edgar C. Britton (page does not exist)">Edgar C. Britton</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farrington_Daniels" title="Farrington Daniels">Farrington Daniels</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_L._Fisher" title="Harry L. Fisher">Harry L. Fisher</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Henry_Hildebrand" title="Joel Henry Hildebrand">Joel H. Hildebrand</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_C._Warner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John C. Warner (page does not exist)">John C. Warner</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_J._Williams" title="Roger J. Williams">Roger J. Williams</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clifford_F._Rassweiler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clifford F. Rassweiler (page does not exist)">Clifford F. Rassweiler</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Bailar_Jr." title="John C. Bailar Jr.">John C. Bailar Jr.</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_L._Elder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert L. Elder (page does not exist)">Albert L. Elder</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Cope" title="Arthur C. Cope">Arthur C. Cope</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_August_Folkers" title="Karl August Folkers">Karl Folkers</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Eyring_(chemist)" title="Henry Eyring (chemist)">Henry Eyring</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_H._Arveson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice H. Arveson (page does not exist)">Maurice H. Arveson</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Price" title="Charles C. Price">Charles C. Price</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Sparks" title="William J. Sparks">William J. Sparks</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Overberger" title="Charles G. Overberger">Charles G. Overberger</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cairns" title="Robert W. Cairns">Robert W. Cairns</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_R._Brode" title="Wallace R. Brode">Wallace R. Brode</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byron_Riegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byron Riegel (page does not exist)">Byron Riegel</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Tishler" title="Max Tishler">Max Tishler</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alan_C._Nixon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alan C. Nixon (page does not exist)">Alan C. Nixon</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bernard_S._Friedman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernard S. Friedman (page does not exist)">Bernard S. Friedman</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Bailey" title="William J. Bailey">William J. Bailey</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry A. Hill">Henry A. Hill</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_J._Harrison" title="Anna J. Harrison">Anna J. Harrison</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gardner_W._Stacy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gardner W. Stacy (page does not exist)">Gardner W. Stacy</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_D._D%27Ianni" title="James D. D'Ianni">James D. D'Ianni</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albert_C._Zettlemoyer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albert C. Zettlemoyer (page does not exist)">Albert C. Zettlemoyer</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Parry" title="Robert W. Parry">Robert W. Parry</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Basolo" title="Fred Basolo">Fred Basolo</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_D._Niederhauser" title="Warren D. Niederhauser">Warren D. Niederhauser</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ellis_K._Fields&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ellis K. Fields (page does not exist)">Ellis K. Fields</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Pimentel" title="George C. Pimentel">George C. Pimentel</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_L._Good" title="Mary L. Good">Mary L. Good</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gordon_L._Nelson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gordon L. Nelson (page does not exist)">Gordon L. Nelson</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clayton_F._Callis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clayton F. Callis (page does not exist)">Clayton F. Callis</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_G._Gassman" title="Paul G. Gassman">Paul G. Gassman</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=S._Allen_Heininger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="S. Allen Heininger (page does not exist)">S. Allen Heininger</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_L._Eliel" title="Ernest L. Eliel">Ernest L. Eliel</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Murray_Free" title="Helen Murray Free">Helen M. Free</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_D._Heindel" title="Ned D. Heindel">Ned D. Heindel</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brian_M._Rushton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brian M. Rushton (page does not exist)">Brian M. Rushton</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Breslow" title="Ronald Breslow">Ronald Breslow</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_S._Anderson" title="Paul S. Anderson">Paul S. Anderson</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_H.L._Walter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul H.L. Walter (page does not exist)">Paul H.L. Walter</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edel_Wasserman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edel Wasserman (page does not exist)">Edel Wasserman</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daryle_H._Busch" title="Daryle H. Busch">Daryle H. Busch</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–<i>present</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attila_E._Pavlath&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attila E. Pavlath (page does not exist)">Attila E. Pavlath</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eli_M._Pearce" title="Eli M. Pearce">Eli M. Pearce</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elsa_Reichmanis" title="Elsa Reichmanis">Elsa Reichmanis</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_P._Casey" title="Charles P. Casey">Charles P. Casey</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_F._Carroll_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William F. Carroll Jr. (page does not exist)">William F. Carroll Jr.</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Ann_Nalley" title="Elizabeth Ann Nalley">Elizabeth Ann Nalley</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_T._Hunt" title="Catherine T. Hunt">Catherine T. Hunt</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_E._Bursten" title="Bruce E. Bursten">Bruce E. Bursten</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_H._Lane" title="Thomas H. Lane">Thomas H. Lane</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Francisco" title="Joseph Francisco">Joseph Francisco</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_B._Jackson" title="Nancy B. Jackson">Nancy B. Jackson</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassam_Shakhashiri" title="Bassam Shakhashiri">Bassam Z. Shakhashiri</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinda_Li_Wu" title="Marinda Li Wu">Marinda Li Wu</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Barton" title="Thomas J. Barton">Thomas J. Barton</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Grob_Schmidt" title="Diane Grob Schmidt">Diane Grob Schmidt</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Nelson" title="Donna Nelson">Donna J. Nelson</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allison_A._Campbell" title="Allison A. Campbell">Allison A. Campbell</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_K._Dorhout" title="Peter K. Dorhout">Peter K. Dorhout</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonnie_A._Charpentier" title="Bonnie A. Charpentier">Bonnie A. Charpentier</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Echegoyen" title="Luis Echegoyen">Luis Echegoyen</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H.N._Cheng" class="mw-redirect" title="H.N. Cheng">H.N. Cheng</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_K._Wilson" title="Angela K. Wilson">Angela K. Wilson</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Giordan" title="Judith Giordan">Judith Giordan</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_K._Carroll" title="Mary K. Carroll">Mary K. Carroll</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_J._Phillips" title="Dorothy J. Phillips">Dorothy J. Phillips</a>, President Elect (2025)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q324992#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q324992#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q324992#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000061592813">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/47683711">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/487534/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJhMh99QrxjhmBprCxyWXd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/124000134">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2002112228">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=js20090625009&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6j406w9">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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