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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Experiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Experiment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_and_publication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_and_publication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Reception and publication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_and_publication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purification_and_stabilisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purification_and_stabilisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Purification and stabilisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purification_and_stabilisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_use_and_mass_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_use_and_mass_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 Medical use and mass production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_use_and_mass_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antibiotic_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antibiotic_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.5 Antibiotic resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antibiotic_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Personal life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Awards and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Myths </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Myths-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Myths subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Myths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Fleming_myth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Fleming_myth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 The Fleming myth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Fleming_myth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Churchills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Churchills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 The Churchills </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Churchills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Alexander Fleming</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 114 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-114" aria-hidden="true" > 114 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AC" title="ألكسندر فلمنج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ألكسندر فلمنج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82" title="আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ফ্লেমিং" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Fleminq" title="Aleksandr Fleminq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aleksandr Fleminq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الکساندر فلمینگ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="الکساندر فلمینگ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82" title="অ্যালেকজান্ডার ফ্লেমিং – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যালেকজান্ডার ফ্লেমিং" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александр Флеминг – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Александр Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Аляксандр Флемінг – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аляксандр Флемінг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Аляксандар Флемінг – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Аляксандар Флемінг" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александър Флеминг – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Александър Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81_%CE%A6%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA" title="Αλεξάντερ Φλέμινγκ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλεξάντερ Φλέμινγκ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الکساندر فلمینگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکساندر فلمینگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%8F%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9D%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A1%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97" title="એલેક્ઝાન્ડર ફ્લેમિંગ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="એલેક્ઝાન્ડર ફ્લેમિંગ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EB%A0%89%EC%82%B0%EB%8D%94_%ED%94%8C%EB%A0%88%EB%B0%8D" title="알렉산더 플레밍 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알렉산더 플레밍" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D6%80_%D5%96%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A3" title="Ալեքսանդր Ֆլեմինգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալեքսանդր Ֆլեմինգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="अलेक्ज़ांडर फ्लेमिङ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अलेक्ज़ांडर फ्लेमिङ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="אלכסנדר פלמינג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלכסנדר פלמינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александр Флеминг – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Александр Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandrs_Flemings" title="Aleksandrs Flemings – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aleksandrs Flemings" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александар Флеминг – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Александар Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D" title="അലക്സാണ്ടർ ഫ്ലെമിങ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അലക്സാണ്ടർ ഫ്ലെമിങ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="अलेक्झांडर फ्लेमिंग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अलेक्झांडर फ्लेमिंग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%98" title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ალექსანდერ ფლემინგი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AC" title="الكسندر فلمنج – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الكسندر فلمنج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الکساندر فلمینگ – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="الکساندر فلمینگ" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александр Флеминг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Александр Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%87%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%92%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%96%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အလက်ဇန္ဒား ဖလင်းမင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အလက်ဇန္ဒား ဖလင်းမင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99" title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अलेक्जेन्डर फ्लेमिङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E3%83%BC%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%AC%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0" title="アレクサンダー・フレミング – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アレクサンダー・フレミング" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%86%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A1%E0%AC%B0_%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%99%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%97" title="ଆଲେକ୍‌ଜାଣ୍ଡର ଫ୍ଲେମିଙ୍ଗ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଆଲେକ୍‌ଜାଣ୍ଡର ଫ୍ଲେମିଙ୍ଗ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97" title="ਅਲੈਗਜ਼ੈਂਡਰ ਫ਼ਲੈਮਿੰਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਲੈਗਜ਼ੈਂਡਰ ਫ਼ਲੈਮਿੰਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%86%DA%88%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%85%DB%90%D9%86%DA%AB" title="الکساندر فلمېنګ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="الکساندر فلمېنګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александер Флеминг – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Александер Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3,_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Флеминг, Александр – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Флеминг, Александр" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya-li-san-ta.Bow-la-min" title="Ya-li-san-ta.Bow-la-min – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Ya-li-san-ta.Bow-la-min" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D" title="सर् अलेक्साण्डर् प्लेमिङ्ग् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सर् अलेक्साण्डर् प्लेमिङ्ग्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%82" title="ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩර් ෆ්ලෙමිං – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩර් ෆ්ලෙමිං" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Fileming" title="Aleksander Fileming – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Aleksander Fileming" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ئەلیکساندەر فلیمین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەلیکساندەر فلیمین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александер Флеминг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Александер Флеминг" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D" title="அலெக்சாண்டர் பிளெமிங் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அலெக்சாண்டர் பிளெமிங்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D2%A3" title="Александер Флемиң – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Александер Флемиң" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D" title="అలెగ్జాండర్ ఫ్లెమింగ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అలెగ్జాండర్ ఫ్లెమింగ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="อเล็กซานเดอร์ เฟลมมิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อเล็กซานเดอร์ เฟลมมิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D" title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಫ್ಲೆಮಿಂಗ್" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Александер Флемінг – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Александер Флемінг" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%D9%86%DA%88%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF" title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="الیگزنڈر فلیمنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E8%8E%B1%E6%98%8E" title="亚历山大·弗莱明 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="亚历山大·弗莱明" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E8%90%8A%E6%98%8E" title="弗萊明 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="弗萊明" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Alexander Fleming" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%86%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E8%8E%B1%E6%98%8E" title="亚历山大·弗莱明 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="亚历山大·弗莱明" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q37064#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scottish physician and microbiologist (1881–1955)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other people named Alexander Fleming, see <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Alexander Fleming (disambiguation)">Alexander Fleming (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Sir Alexander Fleming</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_College_of_Surgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons">FRCS</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg/220px-Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg/330px-Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg/440px-Synthetic_Production_of_Penicillin_TR1468.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3493" data-file-height="4961" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Fleming in his laboratory, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1943</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1881-08-06)6 August 1881 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Darvel" title="Darvel">Darvel</a>, Ayrshire, Scotland</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">11 March 1955(1955-03-11) (aged 73) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">London, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" title="St Paul's Cathedral">St Paul's Cathedral</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Polytechnic_Institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Polytechnic Institution">Royal Polytechnic Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital_Medical_School" title="St Mary's Hospital Medical School">St Mary's Hospital Medical School</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_penicillin" title="Discovery of penicillin">Discovery of penicillin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Sarah Marion McElroy</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1915; died 1949)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Amalia_Fleming" title="Amalia Fleming">Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekas</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1953)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> (1945)<a href="#cite_note-NobelPrizeBio-1">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameron_Prize_for_Therapeutics_of_the_University_of_Edinburgh" title="Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh">Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actonian_Prize" title="Actonian Prize">Actonian Prize</a> (1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital,_London" title="St Mary's Hospital, London">St Mary's Hospital, London</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg/150px-Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg/225px-Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg/300px-Alexander_Fleming_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="103" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Sir Alexander Fleming <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_College_of_Surgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons">FRCS</a><a href="#cite_note-frs-2">[2]</a> (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish physician and <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a>, best known for discovering the world's first broadly effective <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a> substance, which he named <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>. His discovery in 1928 of what was later named <a href="/wiki/Benzylpenicillin" title="Benzylpenicillin">benzylpenicillin</a> (or penicillin G) from the mould <a href="/wiki/Penicillium_rubens" title="Penicillium rubens">Penicillium rubens</a> has been described as the "single greatest victory ever achieved over disease".<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-4">[4]</a> For this discovery, he shared the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1945 with <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lesprixnobel-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> He also discovered the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a> from his <a href="/wiki/Nasal_discharge" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal discharge">nasal discharge</a> in 1922, and along with it a bacterium he named Micrococcus lysodeikticus, later renamed <a href="/wiki/Micrococcus_luteus" title="Micrococcus luteus">Micrococcus luteus</a>. Fleming was <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">knighted</a> for his scientific achievements in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In 1999, he was named in <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine's list of the <a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">100 Most Important People of the 20th century</a>. In 2002, he was chosen in the BBC's television poll for determining the <a href="/wiki/100_Greatest_Britons" title="100 Greatest Britons">100 Greatest Britons</a>, and in 2009, he was also voted third "greatest Scot" in an opinion poll conducted by <a href="/wiki/STV_(TV_channel)" title="STV (TV channel)">STV</a>, behind only <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Wallace" title="William Wallace">William Wallace</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2></div> Born on 6 August 1881 at Lochfield farm near <a href="/wiki/Darvel" title="Darvel">Darvel</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Ayrshire" title="Ayrshire">Ayrshire</a>, Scotland, Alexander Fleming was the third of four children of farmer Hugh Fleming and Grace Stirling Morton, the daughter of a neighbouring farmer. Hugh Fleming had four surviving children from his first marriage. He was 59 at the time of his second marriage to Grace, and died when Alexander was seven.<a href="#cite_note-Fleming_bio-9">[9]</a> Fleming went to <a href="/wiki/Loudoun" title="Loudoun">Loudoun</a> Moor School and Darvel School, and earned a two-year scholarship to <a href="/wiki/Kilmarnock_Academy" title="Kilmarnock Academy">Kilmarnock Academy</a> before moving to London, where he attended the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Polytechnic_Institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Polytechnic Institution">Royal Polytechnic Institution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> After working in a shipping office for four years, the twenty-year-old Alexander Fleming inherited some money from an uncle, John Fleming. His elder brother, Tom, was already a physician and suggested to him that he should follow the same career, and so in 1903, the younger Alexander enrolled at <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital_Medical_School" title="St Mary's Hospital Medical School">St Mary's Hospital Medical School</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paddington" title="Paddington">Paddington</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_London" title="Imperial College London">Imperial College London</a>); he qualified with an <a href="/wiki/MBBS" class="mw-redirect" title="MBBS">MBBS</a> degree from the school with distinction in 1906.<a href="#cite_note-Fleming_bio-9">[9]</a> Fleming, who was a <a href="/wiki/Private_(rank)" title="Private (rank)">private</a> in the <a href="/wiki/London_Scottish_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="London Scottish Regiment">London Scottish Regiment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Volunteer_Force" title="Volunteer Force">Volunteer Force</a> from 1900<a href="#cite_note-lesprixnobel-5">[5]</a> to 1914,<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-11">[11]</a> had been a member of the rifle club at the medical school. The captain of the club, wishing to retain Fleming in the team, suggested that he join the research department at St Mary's, where he became assistant bacteriologist to Sir <a href="/wiki/Almroth_Wright" title="Almroth Wright">Almroth Wright</a>, a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccine</a> therapy and immunology. In 1908, he gained a <a href="/wiki/BSc" class="mw-redirect" title="BSc">BSc</a> degree with gold medal in <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a>, and became a lecturer at St Mary's until 1914. Commissioned lieutenant in 1914 and promoted captain in 1917,<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-11">[11]</a> Fleming served throughout <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps" title="Royal Army Medical Corps">Royal Army Medical Corps</a>, and was <a href="/wiki/Mentioned_in_Dispatches" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentioned in Dispatches">Mentioned in Dispatches</a>. He and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a> in France. In 1918 he returned to <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital,_London" title="St Mary's Hospital, London">St Mary's Hospital</a>, where he was elected Professor of Bacteriology of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a> in 1928. In 1951 he was elected the Rector of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> for a term of three years.<a href="#cite_note-Fleming_bio-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_contributions">Scientific contributions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiseptics">Antiseptics</h3></div> During World War I, Fleming with <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Colebrook" title="Leonard Colebrook">Leonard Colebrook</a> and Sir Almroth Wright joined the war efforts and practically moved the entire Inoculation Department of St Mary's to the British military hospital at <a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne-sur-Mer</a>. Serving as a temporary lieutenant of the Royal Army Medical Corps, he witnessed the death of many soldiers from <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a> resulting from infected <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wounds</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">Antiseptics</a>, which were used at the time to treat infected wounds, he observed, often worsened the injuries.<a href="#cite_note-SingMedJ-12">[12]</a> In an article published in the medical journal <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> in 1917, he described an ingenious experiment, which he was able to conduct as a result of his own <a href="/wiki/Glassblowing" title="Glassblowing">glassblowing</a> skills, in which he explained why antiseptics were killing more soldiers than infection itself during the war. Antiseptics worked well on the surface, but deep wounds tended to shelter <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobic bacteria">anaerobic bacteria</a> from the antiseptic agent, and antiseptics seemed to remove beneficial agents produced that protected the patients in these cases at least as well as they removed bacteria, and did nothing to remove the bacteria that were out of reach.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Wright strongly supported Fleming's findings, but despite this, most army physicians over the course of the war continued to use antiseptics even in cases where this worsened the condition of the patients.<a href="#cite_note-Fleming_bio-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_lysozyme">Discovery of lysozyme</h3></div> At St Mary's Hospital, Fleming continued his investigations into bacteria culture and antibacterial substances. As his research scholar at the time V. D. Allison recalled, Fleming was not a tidy researcher and usually expected unusual bacterial growths in his culture plates. Fleming had teased Allison of his "excessive tidiness in the laboratory", and Allison rightly attributed such untidiness as the success of Fleming's experiments, and said, "[If] he had been as tidy as he thought I was, he would not have made his two great discoveries."<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a> In late 1921, while Fleming was maintaining <a href="/wiki/Agar_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Agar plates">agar plates</a> for bacteria, he found that one of the plates was contaminated with bacteria from the air. When he added nasal mucus, he found that the mucus inhibited the bacterial growth.<a href="#cite_note-:2-15">[15]</a> Surrounding the mucus area was a clear transparent circle (1 cm from the mucus), indicating the <a href="/wiki/Zone_of_inhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Zone of inhibition">killing zone</a> of bacteria, followed by a glassy and translucent ring beyond which was an opaque area indicating normal bacterial growth. In the next test, he used bacteria maintained in saline that formed a yellow suspension. Within two minutes of adding fresh mucus, the yellow saline turned completely clear. He extended his tests using tears, which were contributed by his co-workers. As Allison reminisced, saying, "For the next five or six weeks, our tears were the source of supply for this extraordinary phenomenon. Many were the lemons we used (after the failure of onions) to produce a flow of tears... The demand by us for tears was so great, that laboratory attendants were pressed into service, receiving threepence for each contribution."<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a> His further tests with sputum, cartilage, blood, semen, ovarian cyst fluid, pus, and egg white showed that the bactericidal agent was present in all of these.<a href="#cite_note-:3-16">[16]</a> He reported his discovery before the Medical Research Club in December and before the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> the next year but failed to stir any interest, as Allison recollected:<blockquote> I was present at this [Medical Research Club] meeting as Fleming's guest. His paper describing his discovery was received with no questions asked and no discussion, which was most unusual and an indication that it was considered to be of no importance. The following year he read a paper on the subject before the Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly and he and I gave a demonstration of our work. Again with one exception little comment or attention was paid to it.<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a></blockquote> Reporting in the 1 May 1922 issue of the <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_B:_Biological_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a> under the title "On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions", Fleming wrote:<blockquote>In this communication I wish to draw attention to a substance present in the tissues and secretions of the body, which is capable of rapidly dissolving certain bacteria. As this substance has properties akin to those of ferments I have called it a "<a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">Lysozyme</a>", and shall refer to it by this name throughout the communication. The lysozyme was first noticed during some investigations made on a patient suffering from <a href="/wiki/Rhinitis" title="Rhinitis">acute coryza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-15">[15]</a></blockquote>This was the first recorded discovery of lysozyme. With Allison, he published further studies on lysozyme in October issue of the British Journal of Experimental Pathology the same year.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Although he was able to obtain larger amounts of lysozyme from egg whites, the enzyme was only effective against small counts of harmless bacteria, and therefore had little therapeutic potential. This indicates one of the major differences between <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogenic</a> and harmless bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-SingMedJ-12">[12]</a> Described in the original publication, "a patient suffering from acute coryza"<a href="#cite_note-:2-15">[15]</a> was later identified as Fleming himself. His research notebook dated 21 November 1921 showed a sketch of the culture plate with a small note: "Staphyloid coccus from A.F.'s nose."<a href="#cite_note-:3-16">[16]</a> He also identified the bacterium present in the nasal mucus as Micrococcus Lysodeikticus, giving the species name (meaning "lysis indicator" for its susceptibility to lysozymal activity).<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The species was reassigned as <a href="/wiki/Micrococcus_luteus" title="Micrococcus luteus">Micrococcus luteus</a> in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The "Fleming strain" (NCTC2665) of this bacterium has become a model in different biological studies.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The importance of lysozyme was not recognised, and Fleming was well aware of this, in his presidential address at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Medicine" title="Royal Society of Medicine">Royal Society of Medicine</a> meeting on 18 October 1932, he said:<blockquote>I choose lysozyme as the subject for this address for two reasons, firstly because I have a fatherly interest in the name, and, secondly, because its importance in connection with natural immunity does not seem to be generally appreciated.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> </blockquote>In his Nobel lecture on 11 December 1945, he briefly mentioned lysozyme, saying, "Penicillin was not the first antibiotic I happened to discover."<a href="#cite_note-:12-23">[23]</a> It was only towards the end of the 20th century that the true importance of Fleming's discovery in immunology was realised as lysozyme became the first <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimicrobial protein">antimicrobial protein</a> discovered that constitute part of our <a href="/wiki/Innate_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Innate immunity">innate immunity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_penicillin">Discovery of penicillin</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_penicillin" title="History of penicillin">History of penicillin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PenicillinPSAedit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/PenicillinPSAedit.jpg/220px-PenicillinPSAedit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/PenicillinPSAedit.jpg/330px-PenicillinPSAedit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/PenicillinPSAedit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>An advertisement advertising penicillin's "miracle cure"</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> One sometimes finds what one is not looking for. When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Alexander Fleming<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Experiment">Experiment</h4></div> By 1927, Fleming had been investigating the properties of <a href="/wiki/Staphylococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Staphylococci">staphylococci</a>. He was already well known from his earlier work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant researcher. In 1928, he studied the variation of <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a> grown under natural condition, after the work of Joseph Warwick Bigger, who discovered that the bacterium could grow into a variety of types (strains).<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> On 3 September 1928, Fleming returned to his laboratory having spent a holiday with his family at Suffolk. Before leaving for his holiday, he inoculated staphylococci on culture plates and left them on a bench in a corner of his laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-:3-16">[16]</a> On his return, Fleming noticed that one culture was contaminated with a fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal, famously remarking "That's funny".<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Fleming showed the contaminated culture to his former assistant Merlin Pryce, who reminded him, "That's how you discovered lysozyme."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> He identified the mould as being from the genus <a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a>. He suspected it to be P. chrysogenum, but a colleague Charles J. La Touche identified it as P. rubrum. (It was later corrected as P. notatum and then officially accepted as P. chrysogenum; in 2011, it was resolved as P. rubens.)<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fleming%27s_Plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1452410.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fleming%27s_Plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1452410.jpg/220px-Fleming%27s_Plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1452410.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fleming%27s_Plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1452410.jpg/330px-Fleming%27s_Plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1452410.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Fleming%27s_Plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1452410.jpg/440px-Fleming%27s_Plaque_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1452410.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Commemorative plaque marking Fleming's discovery of penicillin at <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital,_London" title="St Mary's Hospital, London">St Mary's Hospital, London</a> </figcaption></figure> The laboratory in which Fleming discovered and tested penicillin is preserved as the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming_Laboratory_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum">Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum</a> in St. Mary's Hospital, <a href="/wiki/Paddington" title="Paddington">Paddington</a>. The source of the fungal contaminant was established in 1966 as coming from La Touche's room, which was directly below Fleming's.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Fleming grew the mould in a pure culture and found that the culture broth contained an antibacterial substance. He investigated its anti-bacterial effect on many organisms, and noticed that it affected bacteria such as staphylococci and many other <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-positive">Gram-positive</a> pathogens that cause <a href="/wiki/Scarlet_fever" title="Scarlet fever">scarlet fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, but not <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paratyphoid_fever" title="Paratyphoid fever">paratyphoid fever</a>, which are caused by <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">Gram-negative</a> bacteria, for which he was seeking a cure at the time. It also affected <a href="/wiki/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae" title="Neisseria gonorrhoeae">Neisseria gonorrhoeae</a>, which causes <a href="/wiki/Gonorrhoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonorrhoea">gonorrhoea</a>, although this bacterium is Gram-negative. After some months of calling it "mould juice" or "the inhibitor", he gave the name <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> on 7 March 1929 for the antibacterial substance present in the mould.<a href="#cite_note-:52-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reception_and_publication">Reception and publication</h4></div> Fleming presented his discovery on 13 February 1929 before the Medical Research Club. His talk on "A medium for the isolation of <a href="/wiki/Pfeiffer%27s_bacillus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pfeiffer's bacillus">Pfeiffer's bacillus</a>" did not receive any particular attention or comment. Henry Dale, the then Director of <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Medical_Research" title="National Institute for Medical Research">National Institute for Medical Research</a> and chair of the meeting, much later reminisced that he did not even sense any striking point of importance in Fleming's speech.<a href="#cite_note-:3-16">[16]</a> Fleming published his discovery in 1929 in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> but little attention was paid to the article. His problem was the difficulty of producing penicillin in large amounts, and moreover, isolation of the main compound. Even with the help of Harold Raistrick and his team of biochemists at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Hygiene_%26_Tropical_Medicine" title="London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine">London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine</a>, chemical purification was futile. "As a result, penicillin languished largely forgotten in the 1930s", as <a href="/wiki/Milton_Wainwright" title="Milton Wainwright">Milton Wainwright</a> described.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[36]</a> As late as in 1936, there was no appreciation for penicillin. When Fleming talked of its medical importance at the Second International Congress of Microbiology held in London,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> no one believed him. As Allison, his companion in both the Medical Research Club and international congress meeting, remarked the two occasions:<blockquote>[Fleming at the Medical Research Club meeting] suggested the possible value of penicillin for the treatment of infection in man. Again there was a total lack of interest and no discussion. Fleming was keenly disappointed, but worse was to follow. He read a paper on his work on penicillin at a meeting of the International Congress of Microbiology, attended by the foremost bacteriologists from all over the world. There was no support for his views on its possible future value for the prevention and treatment of human infections and discussion was minimal. Fleming bore these disappointments stoically, but they did not alter his views or deter him from continuing his investigation of penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a></blockquote>In 1941, the <a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a> reported that "[Penicillin] does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view."<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Purification_and_stabilisation">Purification and stabilisation</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillin-G_3D.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Penicillin-G_3D.png/220px-Penicillin-G_3D.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Penicillin-G_3D.png/330px-Penicillin-G_3D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Penicillin-G_3D.png/440px-Penicillin-G_3D.png 2x" data-file-width="2757" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption>3D-model of benzylpenicillin</figcaption></figure> In Oxford, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Abraham" title="Edward Abraham">Edward Abraham</a> were studying the molecular structure of the antibiotic. Abraham was the first to propose the correct structure of penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Shortly after the team published its first results in 1940, Fleming telephoned <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a>, Chain's head of department, to say that he would be visiting within the next few days. When Chain heard that Fleming was coming, he remarked "Good God! I thought he was dead."<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Heatley" title="Norman Heatley">Norman Heatley</a> suggested transferring the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by changing its acidity. This produced enough of the drug to begin testing on animals. There were many more people involved in the Oxford team, and at one point the entire <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology" title="Sir William Dunn School of Pathology">Sir William Dunn School of Pathology</a> was involved in its production. After the team had developed a method of purifying penicillin to an effective first stable form in 1940, several clinical trials ensued, and their amazing success inspired the team to develop methods for mass production and mass distribution in 1945.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Fleming was modest about his part in the development of penicillin, describing his fame as the "Fleming Myth" and he praised Florey and Chain for transforming the laboratory curiosity into a practical drug. Fleming was the first to discover the properties of the active substance, giving him the privilege of naming it: penicillin. He also kept, grew, and distributed the original mould for twelve years, and continued until 1940 to try to get help from any chemist who had enough skill to make penicillin. Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Harris_(scientist)" title="Henry Harris (scientist)">Henry Harris</a> summed up the process in 1998 as: "Without Fleming, no Chain; without Chain, no Florey; without Florey, no Heatley; without Heatley, no penicillin."<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The discovery of penicillin and its subsequent development as a prescription drug mark the start of modern <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medical_use_and_mass_production">Medical use and mass production</h4></div> In his first clinical trial, Fleming treated his research scholar Stuart Craddock who had developed severe infection of the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_antrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal antrum">nasal antrum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sinusitis" title="Sinusitis">sinusitis</a>). The treatment started on 9 January 1929 but without any effect. It probably was due to the fact that the infection was with influenza bacillus (Haemophilus influenzae), the bacterium which he had found unsusceptible to penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[32]</a> Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-:11-49">[49]</a> Although Wright reportedly said that it "seemed to work satisfactorily",<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> there are no records of its specific use. Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the <a href="/wiki/Sheffield_Royal_Infirmary" title="Sheffield Royal Infirmary">Royal Infirmary in Sheffield</a> and former student of Fleming, was the first to use penicillin successfully for medical treatment.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[36]</a> He cured eye infections (<a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">conjunctivitis</a>) of one adult and three infants (<a href="/wiki/Neonatal_conjunctivitis" title="Neonatal conjunctivitis">neonatal conjunctivitis</a>) on 25 November 1930.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Professor_Alexander_Fleming_at_work_in_his_laboratory_at_St_Mary%27s_Hospital,_London,_during_the_Second_World_War._D17801.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Professor_Alexander_Fleming_at_work_in_his_laboratory_at_St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London%2C_during_the_Second_World_War._D17801.jpg/220px-Professor_Alexander_Fleming_at_work_in_his_laboratory_at_St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London%2C_during_the_Second_World_War._D17801.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Professor_Alexander_Fleming_at_work_in_his_laboratory_at_St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London%2C_during_the_Second_World_War._D17801.jpg/330px-Professor_Alexander_Fleming_at_work_in_his_laboratory_at_St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London%2C_during_the_Second_World_War._D17801.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Professor_Alexander_Fleming_at_work_in_his_laboratory_at_St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London%2C_during_the_Second_World_War._D17801.jpg/440px-Professor_Alexander_Fleming_at_work_in_his_laboratory_at_St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London%2C_during_the_Second_World_War._D17801.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1844" /></a><figcaption>Fleming in his laboratory in 1943</figcaption></figure> Fleming also successfully treated severe conjunctivitis in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Keith Bernard Rogers, who had joined St Mary's as medical student in 1929,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> was captain of the London University rifle team and was about to participate in an inter-hospital rifle shooting competition when he developed conjunctivitis.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Fleming applied his penicillin and cured Rogers before the competition.<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> It is said that the "penicillin worked and the match was won." However, the report that "Keith was probably the first patient to be treated clinically with penicillin ointment"<a href="#cite_note-:9-56">[56]</a> is no longer true as Paine's medical records showed up.<a href="#cite_note-:52-34">[34]</a> There is a popular assertion both in popular and scientific literature that Fleming largely abandoned penicillin work in the early 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> In his review of <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Maurois" title="André Maurois">André Maurois</a>'s The Life of Sir Alexander Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, William L. Kissick went so far as to say that "Fleming had abandoned penicillin in 1932... Although the recipient of many honors and the author of much scientific work, Sir Alexander Fleming does not appear to be an ideal subject for a biography."<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> This is false, as Fleming continued to pursue penicillin research.<a href="#cite_note-:11-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> As late as in 1939, Fleming's notebook shows attempts to make better penicillin production using different media.<a href="#cite_note-:52-34">[34]</a> In 1941, he published a method for assessment of penicillin effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> As to the chemical isolation and purification, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_Infirmary" title="Radcliffe Infirmary">Radcliffe Infirmary</a> in Oxford took up the research to mass-produce it, which they achieved with support from World War II military projects under the British and US governments.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> By mid-1942, the Oxford team produced the pure penicillin compound as yellow powder.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In August 1942, Harry Lambert (an associate of Fleming's brother Robert) was admitted to St Mary's Hospital due to a life-threatening infection of the nervous system (streptococcal <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:13-4">[4]</a> Fleming treated him with <a href="/wiki/Sulphonamides" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphonamides">sulphonamides</a>, but Lambert's condition deteriorated. He tested the antibiotic susceptibility and found that his penicillin could kill the bacteria. He requested Florey for the isolated sample. Florey sent the incompletely purified sample, which Fleming immediately administered into Lambert's <a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">spinal canal</a>. Lambert showed signs of improvement the very next day,<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a> and completely recovered within a week.<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Fleming published the clinical case in <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> in 1943.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Upon this medical breakthrough, Allison informed the British <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Social_Care" title="Department of Health and Social Care">Ministry of Health</a> of the importance of penicillin and the need for mass production. The <a href="/wiki/War_Cabinet" class="mw-redirect" title="War Cabinet">War Cabinet</a> was convinced of the usefulness upon which Sir <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Weir" title="Cecil Weir">Cecil Weir</a>, Director General of Equipment, called for a meeting on the mode of action on 28 September 1942.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The Penicillin Committee was created on 5 April 1943. The committee consisted of Weir as chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir <a href="/wiki/Percival_Hartley" title="Percival Hartley">Percival Hartley</a>, Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members. The main goals were to produce penicillin rapidly in large quantities with collaboration of American companies, and to supply the drug exclusively for <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied armed forces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a> By <a href="/wiki/D-Day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day">D-Day</a> in 1944, enough penicillin had been produced to treat all the wounded of the Allied troops.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antibiotic_resistance">Antibiotic resistance</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Staphylococcus_aureus_(AB_Test).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/220px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/330px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/440px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2315" data-file-height="2097" /></a><figcaption>Modern antibiotics are tested using a method similar to Fleming's discovery.</figcaption></figure> Fleming also discovered very early that bacteria developed <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> whenever too little penicillin was used or when it was used for too short a period. Almroth Wright had predicted antibiotic resistance even before it was noticed during experiments. Fleming cautioned about the use of penicillin in his many speeches around the world. On 26 June 1945, he made the following cautionary statements: "the microbes are educated to resist penicillin and a host of penicillin-fast organisms is bred out ... In such cases the thoughtless person playing with penicillin is morally responsible for the death of the man who finally succumbs to infection with the penicillin-resistant organism. I hope this evil can be averted."<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> He cautioned not to use penicillin unless there was a properly diagnosed reason for it to be used, and that if it were used, never to use too little, or for too short a period, since these are the circumstances under which bacterial resistance to antibiotics develops.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> It had been experimentally shown in 1942 that S. aureus could develop penicillin resistance under prolonged exposure.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Elaborating the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions in his Nobel Lecture, Fleming said:<blockquote>The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.<a href="#cite_note-:12-23">[23]</a></blockquote>It was around that time that the first clinical case of penicillin resistance was reported.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St-Pauls-Cathedral_London_Plaque-for-Sir-Alexander-Fleming-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/St-Pauls-Cathedral_London_Plaque-for-Sir-Alexander-Fleming-01.jpg/220px-St-Pauls-Cathedral_London_Plaque-for-Sir-Alexander-Fleming-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/St-Pauls-Cathedral_London_Plaque-for-Sir-Alexander-Fleming-01.jpg/330px-St-Pauls-Cathedral_London_Plaque-for-Sir-Alexander-Fleming-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/St-Pauls-Cathedral_London_Plaque-for-Sir-Alexander-Fleming-01.jpg/440px-St-Pauls-Cathedral_London_Plaque-for-Sir-Alexander-Fleming-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2663" data-file-height="1902" /></a><figcaption>Grave of Sir Alexander Fleming in the crypt of <a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" title="St Paul's Cathedral">St Paul's Cathedral</a>, London</figcaption></figure> On 24 December 1915, Fleming married a trained nurse, Sarah Marion McElroy of <a href="/wiki/Killala" title="Killala">Killala</a>, County Mayo, Ireland. Their only child, Robert Fleming (1924–2015), became a <a href="/wiki/General_practitioner" title="General practitioner">general medical practitioner</a>. After his first wife's death in 1949, Fleming married <a href="/wiki/Amalia_Fleming" title="Amalia Fleming">Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekas</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greek</a> colleague at St. Mary's, on 9 April 1953; she died in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Fleming came from a <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> background, while his first wife Sarah was a (lapsed) Roman Catholic. It is said that he was not particularly religious, and their son Robert was later received into the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican church">Anglican church</a>, while still reportedly inheriting his two parents' fairly irreligious disposition.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> When Fleming learned of Robert D. Coghill and Andrew J. Moyer patenting the method of penicillin production in the United States in 1944,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> he was furious, and commented:<blockquote>I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?<a href="#cite_note-:0-14">[14]</a></blockquote>From 1921 until his death in 1955, Fleming owned a country home named "The Dhoon" in <a href="/wiki/Barton_Mills" title="Barton Mills">Barton Mills</a>, Suffolk.<a href="#cite_note-:13-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div> On 11 March 1955, Fleming died at his home in London of a heart attack. His ashes are buried in <a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" title="St Paul's Cathedral">St Paul's Cathedral</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NobelPrizeBio-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_legacy">Awards and legacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flemingawardsnationalmuseumofscotland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Flemingawardsnationalmuseumofscotland.jpg/220px-Flemingawardsnationalmuseumofscotland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Flemingawardsnationalmuseumofscotland.jpg/330px-Flemingawardsnationalmuseumofscotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/33/Flemingawardsnationalmuseumofscotland.jpg/440px-Flemingawardsnationalmuseumofscotland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="884" /></a><figcaption>Display of Fleming's awards, including his Nobel Prize. Also shows a sample of penicillin and an example of an early apparatus for preparing it.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg/220px-Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg/330px-Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg/440px-Nobelpristagare_Fleming_Midi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption>Sir Alexander Fleming (centre) receiving the Nobel prize from King <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_V_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustaf V of Sweden">Gustaf V of Sweden</a> (right) in 1945</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faroe_stamp_079_europe_(fleming).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Faroe_stamp_079_europe_%28fleming%29.jpg/220px-Faroe_stamp_079_europe_%28fleming%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Faroe_stamp_079_europe_%28fleming%29.jpg/330px-Faroe_stamp_079_europe_%28fleming%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Faroe_stamp_079_europe_%28fleming%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a> postage stamp commemorating Fleming</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barcelona_a_Sir_Alexander_Fleming.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Barcelona_a_Sir_Alexander_Fleming.JPG/220px-Barcelona_a_Sir_Alexander_Fleming.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Barcelona_a_Sir_Alexander_Fleming.JPG/330px-Barcelona_a_Sir_Alexander_Fleming.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Barcelona_a_Sir_Alexander_Fleming.JPG/440px-Barcelona_a_Sir_Alexander_Fleming.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="2856" /></a><figcaption>Barcelona to Sir Alexander Fleming (1956), by <a href="/wiki/Catalans" title="Catalans">Catalan</a> sculptor <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josep_Manuel_Benedicto" class="extiw" title="es:Josep Manuel Benedicto">Josep Manuel Benedicto</a>. <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>: jardins del Doctor Fleming.</figcaption></figure> Fleming's discovery of penicillin changed the world of modern medicine by introducing the age of useful <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a>; penicillin has saved, and is still saving, millions of people around the world.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The laboratory at St Mary's Hospital where Fleming discovered penicillin is home to the <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital,_London#Fleming_Museum" title="St Mary's Hospital, London">Fleming Museum</a>, a popular London attraction. His alma mater, <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital_Medical_School" title="St Mary's Hospital Medical School">St Mary's Hospital Medical School</a>, merged with <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_London" title="Imperial College London">Imperial College London</a> in 1988. The Sir Alexander Fleming Building on the <a href="/wiki/South_Kensington" title="South Kensington">South Kensington</a> campus was opened in 1998, where his son Robert and his great-granddaughter Claire were presented to the Queen; it is now one of the main preclinical teaching sites of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_School_of_Medicine" title="Imperial College School of Medicine">Imperial College School of Medicine</a>. His other alma mater, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Westminster" title="University of Westminster">University of Westminster</a>) has named one of its student halls of residence Alexander Fleming House, which is near to <a href="/wiki/Old_Street" title="Old Street">Old Street</a>. <div><ul><li>Fleming, Florey and Chain jointly received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Medicine">Nobel Prize in Medicine</a> in 1945. According to the rules of the Nobel committee, a maximum of three people may share the prize. Fleming's Nobel Prize medal was acquired by the <a href="/wiki/National_Museums_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museums of Scotland">National Museums of Scotland</a> in 1989 and is on display after the museum re-opened in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></li><li>He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Pontifical Academy of Sciences">Pontifical Academy of Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lesprixnobel-5">[5]</a></li><li>He was elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1943" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1943">Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1943</a>.<a href="#cite_note-frs-2">[2]</a></li><li>He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Hunterian_Professorship" title="Hunterian Professorship">Hunterian Professorship</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_of_England" title="Royal College of Surgeons of England">Royal College of Surgeons of England</a>.</li><li>He was <a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom">knighted</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">Knight Bachelor</a> by King George VI in 1944.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li><li>He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> by the President of the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-11">[11]</a></li><li>He was made a Grand Cross of the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a> by the French Republic.<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-11">[11]</a></li><li>He was made a Grand Cross of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Phoenix_(Greece)" title="Order of the Phoenix (Greece)">Order of the Phoenix</a> of Greece.<a href="#cite_note-Kelly-11">[11]</a></li><li>He was made a Knight Grand Cross of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Alfonso_X_the_Wise" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Alfonso X the Wise">Order of Alfonso X the Wise</a> (Spain) in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li><li>In 1999, <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine named Fleming one of the <a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">100 Most Important People of the 20th century</a>, stating: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It was a discovery that would change the course of history. The active ingredient in that mould, which Fleming named penicillin, turned out to be an infection-fighting agent of enormous potency. When it was finally recognized for what it was, the most efficacious life-saving drug in the world, penicillin would alter forever the treatment of bacterial infections. By the middle of the century, Fleming's discovery had spawned a huge <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a>, churning out synthetic penicillins that would conquer some of mankind's most ancient scourges, including <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></blockquote></li><li>The importance of his work was recognized by the placement of an <a href="/wiki/International_Historic_Chemical_Landmark" class="mw-redirect" title="International Historic Chemical Landmark">International Historic Chemical Landmark</a> plaque at the Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum in London on 19 November 1999.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li><li>When 2000 was approaching, at least three large Swedish magazines ranked penicillin as the most important discovery of the millennium.</li><li>In 2002, Fleming was named in the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>'s list of the <a href="/wiki/100_Greatest_Britons" title="100 Greatest Britons">100 Greatest Britons</a> following a nationwide vote.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></li><li>A statue of him stands outside the main bullring in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, Plaza de Toros de <a href="/wiki/Las_Ventas" title="Las Ventas">Las Ventas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewine-89">[89]</a> It was erected by subscription from grateful <a href="/wiki/Matador" class="mw-redirect" title="Matador">matadors</a>, as penicillin greatly reduced the number of deaths in the bullring.<a href="#cite_note-Lewine-89">[89]</a></li><li>Flemingovo náměstí is a square named after Fleming in the university area of the <a href="/wiki/Dejvice" title="Dejvice">Dejvice</a> community in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>.</li><li>A secondary school is named after him in <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, Bulgaria.</li><li>In <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, a small square in the downtown district of Votanikos is named after Fleming and bears his bust. There are also a number of streets in greater Athens and other towns in Greece named after either Fleming or his Greek second wife Amalia.</li><li>In mid-2009, he was commemorated on a new series of <a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Banknotes of the pound sterling">banknotes</a> issued by the <a href="/wiki/Clydesdale_Bank" title="Clydesdale Bank">Clydesdale Bank</a>; his image appears on the new issue of £5 notes.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li><li>In 2009, Fleming was voted third greatest Scot in an opinion poll conducted by <a href="/wiki/STV_(TV_channel)" title="STV (TV channel)">STV</a>, behind only Scotland's <a href="/wiki/National_poet" title="National poet">national poet</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> and national hero <a href="/wiki/William_Wallace" title="William Wallace">William Wallace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/91006_Fleming" class="mw-redirect" title="91006 Fleming">91006 Fleming</a>, an asteroid in the Asteroid Belt, is named after him.</li><li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_metro_station" title="Fleming metro station">Fleming metro station</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki_Metro" title="Thessaloniki Metro">Thessaloniki Metro</a> system, takes its name from Fleming Street on which it is located.</li><li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Alexander_Fleming_College" title="Sir Alexander Fleming College">Sir Alexander Fleming College</a>, a British school in <a href="/wiki/Trujillo,_Peru" title="Trujillo, Peru">Trujillo</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Per%C3%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="Perú">Perú</a></li><li>He and <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> were jointly awarded the <a href="/wiki/Cameron_Prize_for_Therapeutics_of_the_University_of_Edinburgh" title="Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh">Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh</a> in 1945.</li><li>Rue Alexander Fleming in the borough of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Laurent_(borough)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Laurent (borough)">Saint-Laurent</a> in Montreal is named in his honour.</li><li>The <a href="/wiki/Fleming_(crater)" title="Fleming (crater)">Fleming crater</a> on the moon is named after him and the Scottish astronomer <a href="/wiki/Williamina_Fleming" title="Williamina Fleming">Williamina Fleming</a>.</li><li>Mount Fleming in New Zealand's <a href="/wiki/Paparoa_Range" title="Paparoa Range">Paparoa Range</a> was named after him in 1970 by the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research_(New_Zealand)" title="Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (New Zealand)">Department of Scientific and Industrial Research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming_Biomedical_Sciences_Research_Center" title="Alexander Fleming Biomedical Sciences Research Center">Biomedical Sciences Research Center "Alexander Fleming"</a>, a research organization in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> established in the vision of his wife <a href="/wiki/Amalia_Fleming" title="Amalia Fleming">Amalia Fleming</a>.</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Myths">Myths</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Fleming_myth">The Fleming myth</h3></div> By 1942, penicillin, produced as pure compound, was still in short supply and not available for clinical use. When Fleming used the first few samples prepared by the Oxford team to treat Harry Lambert who had streptococcal meningitis,<a href="#cite_note-:4-3">[3]</a> the successful treatment was major news, particularly popularised in <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. Wright was surprised to discover that Fleming and the Oxford team had not been mentioned, though Oxford was attributed as the source of the drug. Wright wrote to the editor of The Times, which eagerly interviewed Fleming, but Florey prohibited the Oxford team from seeking media coverage. As a consequence, only Fleming was widely publicised in the media,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> which led to the misconception that he was entirely responsible for the discovery and development of the drug.<a href="#cite_note-History:_Great_myths_die_hard-94">[94]</a> Fleming himself referred to this incident as "the Fleming myth."<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Churchills">The Churchills</h3></div> The popular story<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Randolph_Churchill" title="Lord Randolph Churchill">Winston Churchill's father</a> paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston</a> from death is false.<a href="#cite_note-History:_Great_myths_die_hard-94">[94]</a> According to the biography, Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution by <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Brown_(historian_of_medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevin Brown (historian of medicine)">Kevin Brown</a>, Alexander Fleming, in a letter<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> to his friend and colleague Andre Gratia,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> described this as "A wondrous fable." Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Churchill was saved by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilson,_1st_Baron_Moran" title="Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran">Lord Moran</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulphonamides</a>, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in Tunisia in 1943. <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Morning_Post" title="The Morning Post">The Morning Post</a> on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. He was saved by the new sulphonamide drug <a href="/wiki/Sulphapyridine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphapyridine">sulphapyridine</a>, known at the time under the research code M&B 693, discovered and produced by <a href="/wiki/May_%26_Baker" title="May & Baker">May & Baker</a> Ltd, <a href="/wiki/Dagenham" title="Dagenham">Dagenham</a>, Essex – a subsidiary of the French group <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne-Poulenc" title="Rhône-Poulenc">Rhône-Poulenc</a>. In a subsequent radio broadcast, Churchill referred to the new drug as "This admirable M&B".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_Prize_Lecture" title="Fleming Prize Lecture">Fleming Prize Lecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_on_banknotes#Scotland" title="List of people on banknotes">People on Scottish banknotes</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NobelPrizeBio-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NobelPrizeBio_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NobelPrizeBio_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/fleming-bio.html">"Sir Alexander Fleming – Biography"</a>. 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Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 33 (4): 322–327. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F665010">10.1086/665010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22418625">22418625</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24828623">24828623</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/48207C6BE27AB8C26F17672EF25F5808/S0195941700041175a.pdf/div-class-title-policy-statement-on-antimicrobial-stewardship-by-the-society-for-healthcare-epidemiology-of-america-shea-the-infectious-diseases-society-of-america-idsa-and-the-pediatric-infectious-diseases-society-pids-div.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infection+Control+%26+Hospital+Epidemiology&rft.atitle=Policy+statement+on+antimicrobial+stewardship+by+the+Society+for+Healthcare+Epidemiology+of+America+%28SHEA%29%2C+the+Infectious+Diseases+Society+of+America+%28IDSA%29%2C+%26+the+Pediatric+Infectious+Diseases+Society+%28PIDS%29&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=322-327&rft.date=2012-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24828623%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22418625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F665010&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Infectious+Diseases+Society+of+America&rft.au=Pediatric+Infectious+Diseases+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F48207C6BE27AB8C26F17672EF25F5808%2FS0195941700041175a.pdf%2Fdiv-class-title-policy-statement-on-antimicrobial-stewardship-by-the-society-for-healthcare-epidemiology-of-america-shea-the-infectious-diseases-society-of-america-idsa-and-the-pediatric-infectious-diseases-society-pids-div.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenblatt-Farrell2009" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenblatt-Farrell, Noah (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2702430">"The Landscape of Antibiotic Resistance"</a>. Environmental Health Perspectives. 117 (6): 244–150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.117-a244">10.1289/ehp.117-a244</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2702430">2702430</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19590668">19590668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=The+Landscape+of+Antibiotic+Resistance&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=244-150&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2702430%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19590668&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.117-a244&rft.aulast=Rosenblatt-Farrell&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2702430&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRammelkampMaxon1942" class="citation journal cs1">Rammelkamp, Charles H.; Maxon, Thelma (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3181/00379727-51-13986">"Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to the Action of Penicillin"</a>. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 51 (3): 386–389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3181%2F00379727-51-13986">10.3181/00379727-51-13986</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87530495">87530495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Society+for+Experimental+Biology+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Resistance+of+Staphylococcus+aureus+to+the+Action+of+Penicillin.&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=386-389&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3181%2F00379727-51-13986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A87530495%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rammelkamp&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft.au=Maxon%2C+Thelma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.3181%2F00379727-51-13986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlough1945" class="citation journal cs1">Plough, Harold H. (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcp/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ajcp/15.10.446">"Penicillin Resistance of Staphylococcus Aureus and its Clinical Implications"</a>. 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The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-902198-84-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-902198-84-X"><bdi>0-902198-84-X</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 January 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Index+of+Former+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh+1783%E2%80%932002&rft.pub=The+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.date=2006-07&rft.isbn=0-902198-84-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.royalsoced.org.uk%2Fcms%2Ffiles%2Ffellows%2Fbiographical_index%2Ffells_indexp1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution. The History Press. September 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-3153-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-3153-1"><bdi>0-7509-3153-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Penicillin+Man%3A+Alexander+Fleming+and+the+Antibiotic+Revolution&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2005-09&rft.isbn=0-7509-3153-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2423873">US 2423873</a>, Coghill, Robert D. & <a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Moyer" title="Andrew J. Moyer">Moyer, Andrew J.</a>, "Method for production of increased yields of penicillin", published 15 July 1947<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=2423873&rft.cc=US&rft.title=Method+for+production+of+increased+yields+of+penicillin&rft.inventor=Coghill&rft.appldate=1944-06-17&rft.pubdate=15 July 1947">  </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartonmills.net/local-history/">BartonMills.net local history</a>. Retrieved 17 October 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsIngram2001" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Michael; Ingram, Neil (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=juiDySqWVYkC&pg=PT120">Biology</a> (2nd, illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7487-6238-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7487-6238-8"><bdi>0-7487-6238-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 March 2012. <q>Penicillin is just one of a very large number of drugs which today are used by doctors to treat people with diseases.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.pages=105&rft.edition=2nd%2C+illustrated&rft.pub=Nelson+Thornes&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7487-6238-8&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Ingram%2C+Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjuiDySqWVYkC%26pg%3DPT120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120223192704/http://www.nms.ac.uk/about_us/about_us/press_office/press_releases/2011/100%2C000_visitors_in_6_days.aspx">"100,000 visitors in 6 days"</a>. National Museums Scotland. 3 August 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nms.ac.uk/about_us/about_us/press_office/press_releases/2011/100,000_visitors_in_6_days.aspx">the original</a> on 23 February 2012. Retrieved 4 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=100%2C000+visitors+in+6+days&rft.pub=National+Museums+Scotland&rft.date=2011-08-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nms.ac.uk%2Fabout_us%2Fabout_us%2Fpress_office%2Fpress_releases%2F2011%2F100%2C000_visitors_in_6_days.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette36544" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36544/supplement/2566">"No. 36544"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a> (Supplement). 2 June 1944. p. 2566.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+36544&rft.pages=2566&rft.date=1944-06-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F36544%2Fsupplement%2F2566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> "People of the century". P. 78. CBS News. Simon & Schuster, 1999 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantesmases2017" class="citation book cs1">Santesmases, María Jesús (18 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9ehDDwAAQBAJ&q=gran+cruz+alfonso+x+fleming&pg=PA41">The Circulation of Penicillin in Spain: Health, Wealth and Authority</a>. Springer. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-69718-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-69718-5"><bdi>978-3-319-69718-5</bdi></a>. 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Time. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-781X">0040-781X</a>. Retrieved 17 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Bacteriologist+Alexander+Fleming&rft.date=1999-03-29&rft.issn=0040-781X&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C990612%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelwyn1980" class="citation journal cs1">Selwyn, Sydney (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00222615-13-3-483">"Howard Florey: the making of a great scientist"</a>. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 13 (3): 483. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00222615-13-3-483">10.1099/00222615-13-3-483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Howard+Florey%3A+the+making+of+a+great+scientist&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=483&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2F00222615-13-3-483&rft.aulast=Selwyn&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252F00222615-13-3-483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlexander+Fleming" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> e.g., The Philadelphia Inquirer, 17 July 1945: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 43 to Chapter 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> 14 November 1945; British Library Additional Manuscripts 56115: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 44 to Chapter 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> see Wikipedia <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_penicillin" title="Discovery of penicillin">Discovery of penicillin</a> article entry for 1920 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> A History of May & Baker 1834–1984, Alden Press 1984.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lifeofsiralexand000085mbp#page/n7/mode/2up">The Life Of Sir Alexander Fleming, Jonathan Cape, 1959. Maurois, André.</a></li> <li>Nobel Lectures, the Physiology or Medicine 1942–1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1964</li> <li>An Outline History of Medicine. London: Butterworths, 1985. Rhodes, Philip.</li> <li>The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Porter, Roy, ed.</li> <li>Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution, Stroud, Sutton, 2004. Brown, Kevin.</li> <li>Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gwyn_Macfarlane" title="Robert Gwyn Macfarlane">Macfarlane, Gwyn</a></li> <li>Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, Ludovici, Laurence J., 1952</li> <li>The Penicillin Man: the Story of Sir Alexander Fleming, Lutterworth Press, 1957, Rowland, John.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Alexander_Fleming" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/339">Alexander Fleming</a> on Nobelprize.org <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37064#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1945 Penicillin</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://himetop.wikidot.com/alexander-fleming">Some places and memories related to Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/005299">Newspaper clippings about Alexander Fleming</a> in the <a href="/wiki/20th_Century_Press_Archives" title="20th Century Press Archives">20th Century Press Archives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_National_Library_of_Economics" title="German National Library of Economics">ZBW</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Alastair_Sim" title="Alastair Sim">Alastair Sim</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Rector_of_the_University_of_Edinburgh" title="Rector of the University of Edinburgh">Rector of the University of Edinburgh</a> 1951–1954 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Smith_(forensic_expert)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney Smith (forensic expert)">Sydney Smith</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output 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id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1901: <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil Behring</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Finsen</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Alphonse Laveran</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Emil Kocher</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Albrecht Kossel</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a></li> <li>1914: <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3bert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" class="mw-redirect" title="Róbert Bárány">Róbert Bárány</a></li> <li>1915</li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917</li> <li>1918</li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Jules Bordet</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a></li> <li>1921</li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Otto Meyerhof</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a></li> <li>1925</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Johannes Fibiger</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Christiaan Eijkman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Warburg</a></li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Adrian</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgan</a></li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William Murphy</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Hans Spemann</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Heymans</a></li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a></li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Henrik Dam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Edward Doisy</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a></li> <li>1945: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander Fleming</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Muller</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">Carl Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Paul Müller</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Hench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Lipmann</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Weller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Robbins</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Theorell" title="Hugo Theorell">Hugo Theorell</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Cournand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Edward Tatum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Burnet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Konrad Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Feodor_Lynen" title="Feodor Lynen">Feodor Lynen</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Rous</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Charles B. Huggins</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> / <a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Hartline</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Khorana</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Julius Axelrod</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland_Jr." title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.">Earl Sutherland Jr.</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Albert Claude</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Christian de Duve</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Palade</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Temin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Blumberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Daniel Gajdusek</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew Schally</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Werner Arber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_O._Smith" title="Hamilton O. Smith">Hamilton O. Smith</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Allan_MacLeod_Cormack" title="Allan MacLeod Cormack">Allan Cormack</a> / <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Godfrey Hounsfield</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Snell</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Sune Bergström</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bengt_I._Samuelsson" title="Bengt I. Samuelsson">Bengt I. Samuelsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">John Vane</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Jerne</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges Köhler</a> / <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Michael Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">James W. Black</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_H._Hitchings" title="George H. Hitchings">George H. Hitchings</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Varmus" title="Harold E. Varmus">Harold E. Varmus</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> / <a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Erwin Neher</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Bert Sakmann</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Edmond_H._Fischer" title="Edmond H. Fischer">Edmond Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Krebs" title="Edwin G. Krebs">Edwin G. Krebs</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> / <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Sharp</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman" title="Alfred G. Gilman">Alfred G. Gilman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Martin Rodbell</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_F._Wieschaus" title="Eric F. Wieschaus">Eric F. Wieschaus</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Doherty">Peter C. Doherty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rolf_M._Zinkernagel" title="Rolf M. Zinkernagel">Rolf M. Zinkernagel</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Robert F. Furchgott</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Louis Ignarro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Ferid Murad</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Günter Blobel</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Leland_H._Hartwell" title="Leland H. Hartwell">Leland H. Hartwell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Tim Hunt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Paul Nurse</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> / <a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">H. Robert Horvitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John E. Sulston</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Andrew Fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edwards_(physiologist)" title="Robert Edwards (physiologist)">Robert G. Edwards</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (posthumously)</li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/John_Gurdon" title="John Gurdon">John Gurdon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Shinya Yamanaka</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James Rothman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Randy Schekman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas C. Südhof">Thomas C. Südhof</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> / <a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/William_C._Campbell_(scientist)" title="William C. Campbell (scientist)">William C. Campbell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_%C5%8Cmura" title="Satoshi Ōmura">Satoshi Ōmura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Yoshinori_Ohsumi" title="Yoshinori Ohsumi">Yoshinori Ohsumi</a></li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Jeffrey C. Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Michael Rosbash</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Michael W. Young</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">James P. Allison</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Tasuku Honjo</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Gregg_L._Semenza" title="Gregg L. Semenza">Gregg L. Semenza</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Ratcliffe" title="Peter J. Ratcliffe">Peter J. Ratcliffe</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Kaelin_Jr." title="William Kaelin Jr.">William Kaelin Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter" title="Harvey J. Alter">Harvey J. Alter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Houghton_(virologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Houghton (virologist)">Michael Houghton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Rice" title="Charles M. Rice">Charles M. Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">David Julius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Ardem Patapoutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a> / <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ambros" title="Victor Ambros">Victor Ambros</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ruvkun" title="Gary Ruvkun">Gary Ruvkun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1945_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1945 Nobel Prize in Literature">1945</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabriela_Mistral" title="Gabriela Mistral">Gabriela Mistral</a> (Chile)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> (Austria)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander Fleming</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Boris Chain</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (Australia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1940_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1940 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1940</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1941_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1941 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1941</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1942_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1942 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1942</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1943_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1943 Nobel Prize winners">1943</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1944_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1944 Nobel Prize winners">1944</a></dd> <dd>1945 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1946_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1946 Nobel Prize winners">1946</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1947_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1947 Nobel Prize winners">1947</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1948_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1948 Nobel Prize winners">1948</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1949_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1949 Nobel Prize winners">1949</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1950_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1950 Nobel Prize winners">1950</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1943" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:FRS_1943" title="Template:FRS 1943"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:FRS_1943" title="Template talk:FRS 1943"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:FRS_1943" title="Special:EditPage/Template:FRS 1943"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1943" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellows</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> elected <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1943" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1943">in 1943</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fellows</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanti_Swaroop_Bhatnagar" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar">Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_De_Burgh_Daly" title="Ivan De Burgh Daly">Ivan De Burgh Daly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._A._Buxton" title="P. A. Buxton">Patrick Alfred Buxton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Augustine_Edgell" title="John Augustine Edgell">John Augustine Edgell</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18575937" class="extiw" title="d:Q18575937">Arthur James Ewins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Felix" title="Arthur Felix">Arthur Felix</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19043128" class="extiw" title="d:Q19043128">John Jacob Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Michael_Herbert_Greaves" title="William Michael Herbert Greaves">William Michael Herbert Greaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Harland" title="Sydney Harland">Sydney Harland</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21166467" class="extiw" title="d:Q21166467">George Armand Robert Kon</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18534124" class="extiw" title="d:Q18534124">Andrew McCance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilder_Penfield" title="Wilder Penfield">Wilder Penfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Ellcock_Pilgrim" title="Guy Ellcock Pilgrim">Guy Ellcock Pilgrim</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18821832" class="extiw" title="d:Q18821832">Reginald Stradling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sykes_(metallurgist)" title="Charles Sykes (metallurgist)">Charles Sykes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lighton_Synge" title="John Lighton Synge">John Lighton Synge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_James_Temple" title="George Frederick James Temple">George Frederick James Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_du_Toit" title="Alexander du Toit">Alexander du Toit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solly_Zuckerman,_Baron_Zuckerman" title="Solly Zuckerman, Baron Zuckerman">Solly Zuckerman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Goldschmidt" title="Victor Goldschmidt">Victor Goldschmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_infectious_diseases" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Template talk:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_infectious_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of infectious diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_infectious_diseases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">infectious diseases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cholera" title="History of cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS" title="History of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_leprosy" title="History of leprosy">Leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_malaria" title="History of malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plague" title="History of plague">Plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_polio" title="History of polio">Polio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox" title="History of smallpox">Smallpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_syphilis" title="History of syphilis">Syphilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_tuberculosis" title="History of tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_typhoid_fever" title="History of typhoid fever">Typhoid fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_yellow_fever" title="History of yellow fever">Yellow fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignaz Semmelweis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_Jacob_Kligler" title="Israel Jacob Kligler">Israel Jacob Kligler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">Major epidemics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> (1346–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_HIV/AIDS" title="Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS pandemic</a> (1981–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2019–present<abbr title="Peaked from 2020-2023">*</abbr>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery of disease-causing pathogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_eradication" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox eradication">Smallpox eradication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_viruses" title="Social history of viruses">Social history of viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template talk:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">Time 100: The Most Important People of the 20th Century</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders & revolutionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & entertainers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Ball" title="Lucille Ball">Lucille Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlon_Brando" title="Marlon Brando">Marlon Brando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coco_Chanel" title="Coco Chanel">Coco Chanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aretha_Franklin" title="Aretha Franklin">Aretha Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Martha Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Henson" title="Jim Henson">Jim Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rodgers_and_Oscar_Hammerstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein">Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_Simpson" title="Bart Simpson">Bart Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sinatra" title="Frank Sinatra">Frank Sinatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Builders & titans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bechtel_Sr." title="Stephen Bechtel Sr.">Stephen Bechtel Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Burnett" title="Leo Burnett">Leo Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Carrier" title="Willis Carrier">Willis Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Giannini" title="Amadeo Giannini">Amadeo Giannini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Kroc" title="Ray Kroc">Ray Kroc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Est%C3%A9e_Lauder_(businesswoman)" title="Estée Lauder (businesswoman)">Estée Lauder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Levitt" title="William Levitt">William Levitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Luciano" title="Lucky Luciano">Lucky Luciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_B._Mayer" title="Louis B. Mayer">Louis B. Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Merrill" title="Charles E. Merrill">Charles E. Merrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Rozelle" title="Pete Rozelle">Pete Rozelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Trippe" title="Juan Trippe">Juan Trippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Walton" title="Sam Walton">Sam Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists & thinkers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leakey_family" title="Leakey family">Leakey family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> & <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heroes & icons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I." title="G.I.">The American G.I.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Diana, Princess of Wales">Lady Diana Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tenzing_Norgay" title="Tenzing Norgay">Tenzing Norgay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Kennedy family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Harvey Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe" title="Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmeline_Pankhurst" title="Emmeline Pankhurst">Emmeline Pankhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pel%C3%A9" title="Pelé">Pelé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_W." title="Bill W.">Bill W.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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