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href="#University_of_Sheffield"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 University of Sheffield </div> </a> <ul id="toc-University_of_Sheffield-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-University_of_Oxford" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#University_of_Oxford"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 University of Oxford </div> </a> <ul id="toc-University_of_Oxford-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penicillin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penicillin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Penicillin </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Penicillin-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Penicillin subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Penicillin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_American_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_American_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 North American supply </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_American_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Clinical trials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 North Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Soviet Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Recognition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Later life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cephalosporins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cephalosporins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Cephalosporins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cephalosporins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australian_National_University" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australian_National_University"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Australian National University </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australian_National_University-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-President_of_the_Royal_Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#President_of_the_Royal_Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 President of the Royal Society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-President_of_the_Royal_Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provost_of_Queen's_College,_Oxford" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provost_of_Queen's_College,_Oxford"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Provost of Queen's College, Oxford </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provost_of_Queen's_College,_Oxford-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Personal life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honours_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Honours and awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Posthumous_honours_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Posthumous_honours_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Posthumous honours and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Posthumous_honours_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 In film </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Howard Florey</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" > 62 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="هاوارد فلوري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هاوارد فلوري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هاوارد فلری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هاوارد فلری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF" title="হাওয়ার্ড ফ্লোরি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হাওয়ার্ড ফ্লোরি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Хоўард Уолтэр Флоры – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Хоўард Уолтэр Флоры" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Хауърд Флори – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хауърд Флори" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هاوارد فلوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هاوارد فلوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%98%EC%9B%8C%EB%93%9C_%ED%94%8C%EB%A1%9C%EB%A6%AC" title="하워드 플로리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="하워드 플로리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%88%D6%82%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80_%D5%96%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AB" title="Հոուարդ Ուոլտեր Ֆլորի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոուարդ Ուոլտեր Ֆլորի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%A8_%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99" title="הווארד וולטר פלורי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הווארד וולטר פלורי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ჰაუარდ ფლორი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰაუარდ ფლორი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Говард Уолтер Флори – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Говард Уолтер Флори" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Gualterus_Florey" title="Howard Gualterus Florey – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Howard Gualterus Florey" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF" title="ഹൊവാർഡ് ഫ്ലോറി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹൊവാർഡ് ഫ്ലോറി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ჰოუარდ ფლორი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჰოუარდ ფლორი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%89" title="هاوارد فلورى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هاوارد فلورى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هاوارد فلری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="هاوارد فلری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%AF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC" title="ハワード・フローリー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハワード・フローリー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%92" title="ہوورڈ فلورے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہوورڈ فلورے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%89_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="هاوارډ فلوري – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هاوارډ فلوري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8,_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Флори, Хоуард Уолтер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Флори, Хоуард Уолтер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%84%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ھاوارد فلۆری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھاوارد فلۆری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98" title="Ховард Флореј – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ховард Флореј" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96" title="Говард Волтер Флорі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Говард Волтер Флорі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="ہورڈ فلوری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہورڈ فلوری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Walter_Florey" title="Howard Walter Florey – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Howard Walter Florey" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E5%8D%8E%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%87%8C%EF%BC%8C%E5%BC%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%87%8C%E7%94%B7%E7%88%B5" title="霍华德·弗洛里，弗洛里男爵 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="霍华德·弗洛里，弗洛里男爵" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Howard Florey" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BE%AF%E6%B4%BB%E5%BC%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%87%8C" title="侯活弗洛里 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="侯活弗洛里" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E8%8F%AF%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%87%8C%EF%BC%8C%E5%BC%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%87%8C%E7%94%B7%E7%88%B5" title="霍華德·弗洛里，弗洛里男爵 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="霍華德·弗洛里，弗洛里男爵" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q137106#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Australian pathologist (1898–1968)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Honourable" title="The Right Honourable">The Right Honourable</a></div><div class="fn">The Lord Florey</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_College_of_Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians">FRCP</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg/220px-Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg/330px-Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg/440px-Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1834" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Julian_Smith_(photographer)" title="Julian Smith (photographer)">Julian Smith</a>, 1930s</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Howard Walter Florey</div> (1898-09-24)24 September 1898 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Adelaide" title="Adelaide">Adelaide</a>, South Australia</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">21 February 1968(1968-02-21) (aged 69) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_College,_Adelaide" title="Scotch College, Adelaide">Scotch College, Adelaide</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/St_Peter%27s_College,_Adelaide" title="St Peter's College, Adelaide">St Peter's College, Adelaide</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Adelaide" title="University of Adelaide">University of Adelaide</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Magdalen_College,_Oxford" title="Magdalen College, Oxford">Magdalen College, Oxford</a></li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridge" title="Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge">Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_penicillin" title="Discovery of penicillin">Discovery of penicillin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ethel_Florey" title="Mary Ethel Florey">Mary Ethel Florey</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1926; died 1966)</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Jennings_(scientist)" title="Margaret Jennings (scientist)">Margaret Jennings</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1967)</div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2, including <a href="/wiki/Charles_du_V%C3%A9_Florey" title="Charles du Vé Florey">Charles du Vé</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Gardner" title="Hilda Gardner">Hilda Gardner</a> (sister)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Gardner_(microbiologist)" title="Joan Gardner (microbiologist)">Joan Gardner</a> (niece)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> (1941)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">Knight Bachelor</a> (1944)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Cameron_Prize_for_Therapeutics_of_the_University_of_Edinburgh" title="Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh">Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh</a> (1945)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> (1945)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Lister_Medal" title="Lister Medal">Lister Medal</a> (1945)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> (1951)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1957)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Life_peer" title="Life peer">Life peer</a> (1965)</li><li style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; width: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit" title="Order of Merit">Order of Merit</a> (1965)</li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>University of Adelaide</li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> Howard Walter Florey, Baron Florey, <a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_College_of_Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians">FRCP</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈflɔːri/</a>; 24 September 1898 – 21 February 1968) was an Australian <a href="/wiki/Pharmacologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacologist">pharmacologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">pathologist</a> who shared the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1945 with <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sir_Alexander_Fleming" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Alexander Fleming">Sir Alexander Fleming</a> for his role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>. Although Fleming received most of the credit for the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_penicillin" title="Discovery of penicillin">discovery of penicillin</a>, it was Florey and his team at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> who made it into a useful and effective drug, ten years after Fleming had abandoned its development. They developed techniques for growing, purifying and manufacturing the drug, tested it for toxicity and efficacy on animals, and carried out the first <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a>. In 1941, they used it to treat a <a href="/wiki/Police_constable" class="mw-redirect" title="Police constable">police constable</a> from <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>. He started to recover, but subsequently died because Florey was unable, at that time, to make enough penicillin. Later trials in Britain, the United States and North Africa were highly successful. A graduate of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Adelaide" title="University of Adelaide">University of Adelaide</a>, Florey studied at the University of Oxford as a <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Scholar" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodes Scholar">Rhodes Scholar</a> and in the United States on a fellowship from the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a>. In 1935, he became the director of the <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology" title="Sir William Dunn School of Pathology">Sir William Dunn School of Pathology</a> at Oxford. He assembled a multidisciplinary staff that could tackle major research projects. In addition to his work on penicillin, he researched many other subjects, most notably <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">contraception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporins</a>. He was involved in the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a> in Canberra and the establishment of its <a href="/wiki/John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research" title="John Curtin School of Medical Research">John Curtin School of Medical Research</a>, and he served as <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Australian_National_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor of the Australian National University">chancellor of the Australian National University</a> from 1965 until his death in 1968. He was elected a <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">fellow of the Royal Society</a> in 1941, and as its president from 1960 to 1965, he oversaw its move to new accommodations at <a href="/wiki/Carlton_House_Terrace" title="Carlton House Terrace">Carlton House Terrace</a> and the establishment of links with European organisations. In 1962, he became provost of <a href="/wiki/The_Queen%27s_College,_Oxford" title="The Queen's College, Oxford">The Queen's College, Oxford</a>. Florey's discoveries are estimated to have saved over 80 million lives, and he is regarded by the Australian scientific and medical community as one of its greatest figures. Australian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Menzies" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Menzies">Sir Robert Menzies</a> said, "In terms of world well-being, Florey was the most important man ever born in Australia."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995Back_cover-1">[1]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> Howard Walter Florey was born in <a href="/wiki/Malvern,_South_Australia" title="Malvern, South Australia">Malvern</a>, a southern suburb of <a href="/wiki/Adelaide" title="Adelaide">Adelaide</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a>, on 24 September 1898.<a href="#cite_note-ADB-2">[2]</a> His surname rhymes with "sorry".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197935-3">[3]</a> He was the only son of Joseph Florey, a bootmaker from <a href="/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a> in England, who as a boy moved to London where Florey's grandfather established a bootmaking business. Joseph Florey's first wife was Charlotte Ames, with whom he had two daughters, Charlotte, who was born in 1880, and Anne, who was born in 1882. After his wife contracted <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary tuberculosis">pulmonary tuberculosis</a>, the family emigrated to South Australia, where it was hoped that the climate would be more congenial. Her health gradually declined and she died in April 1886. Joseph Florey established his own bootmaking business in Adelaide, and married Bertha Mary Waldham, the daughter of his housekeeper.<a href="#cite_note-ADB-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197930–31-4">[4]</a> Their first child together, <a href="/wiki/Hilda_Gardner" title="Hilda Gardner">Hilda</a>, was born on 6 September 1890. She became a bacteriologist and a pioneer of laboratory medicine.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> A second daughter, Valetta, was born in 1891. Thus, Florey had two older sisters and two older half-sisters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197930–31-4">[4]</a> In 1906, the family moved to "Coreega", a mansion in the Adelaide suburb of <a href="/wiki/Mitcham,_South_Australia" title="Mitcham, South Australia">Mitcham</a>. Florey attended <a href="/wiki/Unley_Park_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Unley Park School">Unley Park School</a>, a local <a href="/wiki/Private_school" title="Private school">private school</a>, taking the two-mile (3.2 km) trip to school each day in a <a href="/wiki/Horse-drawn_tram" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse-drawn tram">horse-drawn tram</a> with Mollie Clampett, a friend who lived in the <a href="/wiki/Rectory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rectory">rectory</a> adjacent to Coreega. At school he acquired the lifelong nickname "Floss", this being, like "Florrie", a common diminutive form of "Florence". He transferred to <a href="/wiki/Kyre_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyre College">Kyre College</a>, a private boys' school, in 1908.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197933–35-6">[6]</a> In 1911, he entered <a href="/wiki/St_Peter%27s_College,_Adelaide" title="St Peter's College, Adelaide">St Peter's College, Adelaide</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197936-7">[7]</a> where he excelled in chemistry, physics, mathematics and history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELax201543–45-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197939-9">[9]</a> He played various sports for the school: <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Australian_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian football">Australian football</a>,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Track_and_field" title="Track and field">track and field</a> athletics as a <a href="/wiki/Sprint_(running)" title="Sprint (running)">sprinter</a> and <a href="/wiki/High_jump" title="High jump">high jumper</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197939-9">[9]</a> The cost of his education was covered by four scholarships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197939-9">[9]</a> He served in the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Army_Cadets" title="Australian Army Cadets">Senior Cadets</a>, in which he was commissioned as a <a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant" title="Second lieutenant">second lieutenant</a> in August 1916.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> broke out in 1914, he wished to enlist, but parental permission was required and was not forthcoming. He was <a href="/wiki/Head_boy" class="mw-redirect" title="Head boy">head boy</a> in his final year at school,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197941–43-14">[14]</a> and was ranked twelfth in the state in his final examinations.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Rather than become a businessman like his father, Florey elected to follow in the footsteps of his sister Hilda, who studied medicine. He entered the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Adelaide" title="University of Adelaide">University of Adelaide</a> in March 1917, his fees paid entirely by a state scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELax201543–45-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197941–43-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> This allowed him to continue his studies after his father died from a <a href="/wiki/Heart_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart attack">heart attack</a> on 15 September 1918, and the shoe company was found to be <a href="/wiki/Insolvency" title="Insolvency">insolvent</a> and went into <a href="/wiki/Liquidation" title="Liquidation">liquidation</a>. Coreega and other properties had to be sold, and in 1920, the family moved into a bungalow in <a href="/wiki/Glen_Osmond,_South_Australia" title="Glen Osmond, South Australia">Glen Osmond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197941–43-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams19848-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Florey participated in university athletics and tennis.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> He was an editor of the Medical Students' Society's Review and the Adelaide University Magazine. It was through the latter that he met <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ethel_Florey" title="Mary Ethel Florey">Mary Ethel Hayter Reed</a>, a fellow medical student, when he asked her to contribute an article on Women in Medicine.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rhodes_Scholar">Rhodes Scholar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rhodes Scholar">edit</a>]</div> Florey decided to pursue medical research, a speciality that required study overseas. In August 1920, he applied for a <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Scholarship" title="Rhodes Scholarship">Rhodes Scholarship</a> to pursue his studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> in England. His selection as the successful candidate for South Australia was announced on 8 December. This was a high honour, and came with a stipend of £300 (equivalent to $47,000 in 2022). The Rhodes Committee wanted him to commence in October, the start of the academic year at Oxford. This meant either postponing his scholarship for a year or deferring his final qualifying examinations for his medical degrees until he returned. Florey insisted that he would do neither; he would take his examinations and start at Oxford at the commencement of the <a href="/wiki/Hilary_term" title="Hilary term">Hilary term</a> in January 1922. With the aid of the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_South_Australia" title="Governor of South Australia">Governor of South Australia</a>, Sir <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Weigall" title="Archibald Weigall">Archibald Weigall</a>, Florey won the argument.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams19849–10-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197950–52-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> He passed his examinations with <a href="/wiki/Second-class_honours" class="mw-redirect" title="Second-class honours">second-class honours</a>,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and he was awarded his <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Medicine,_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a> degree in absentia in December 1921.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> During the summer break he went to <a href="/wiki/Broken_Hill_Hospital" title="Broken Hill Hospital">Broken Hill Hospital</a>, where he worked as a clinical assistant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197953-27">[27]</a> On 11 December 1921, Florey embarked for England from <a href="/wiki/Port_Adelaide" title="Port Adelaide">Port Adelaide</a> on the SS Otira, an <a href="/wiki/Ocean_liner" title="Ocean liner">ocean liner</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Shaw,_Savill_%26_Albion_Line" title="Shaw, Savill & Albion Line">Shaw, Savill & Albion Line</a>, travelling for free as the ship's surgeon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197954–56-28">[28]</a> The ship reached <a href="/wiki/Kingston_upon_Hull" title="Kingston upon Hull">Hull</a> on 24 January 1922, and Florey took a train to London, where his sister Anne met him at <a href="/wiki/London_King%27s_Cross_railway_station" title="London King's Cross railway station">King's Cross Station</a>. Two days later he left for <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, where he met with the Secretary of the Rhodes Trust, <a href="/wiki/Francis_James_Wylie" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis James Wylie">Francis James Wylie</a>. He had to choose a college, and he chose to study at <a href="/wiki/Magdalen_College,_Oxford" title="Magdalen College, Oxford">Magdalen College, Oxford</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197958–61-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198412–13-30">[30]</a> where his high school headmaster, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Girdlestone" title="Henry Girdlestone">Henry Girdlestone</a>, had gone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams19844-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> He enrolled in the honour school of physiology,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197961-33">[33]</a> where he studied under the tutelage of Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETodman2008613-34">[34]</a> During the summer breaks he visited France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Czechoslovakia and Austria. He became a <a href="/wiki/Academic_ranks_in_the_United_Kingdom#Pathways" title="Academic ranks in the United Kingdom">demonstrator</a> in the physiology department, and he applied for a fellowship in physiology at <a href="/wiki/Merton_College,_Oxford" title="Merton College, Oxford">Merton College</a>, but was passed over in favour of <a href="/wiki/Gavin_de_Beer" title="Gavin de Beer">Gavin de Beer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197973–79-35">[35]</a> He was awarded the degree of <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> in 1924.<a href="#cite_note-ADB-2">[2]</a> At Sherrington's instigation, he studied the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> of cats. A paper was published in <a href="/wiki/Brain_(journal)" title="Brain (journal)">Brain</a> in March 1925.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> His thesis on "The capillary circulation together with associated observations made in connexion with this investigation" was later examined by <a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Gillies_Priestley" title="John Gillies Priestley">John Gillies Priestley</a> on 2 May 1925, and he was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a> degree.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971256–257-37">[37]</a> Florey was elected to a John Lucas Walker Studentship at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> for the 1924–1925 academic year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971256–257-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> This came with a stipend of £300 plus £200 for equipment. Before taking up this new position, he participated in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arctic_expeditions#20th_century" title="List of Arctic expeditions">1924 Oxford University Arctic Expedition</a> as the medical officer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197982–87-39">[39]</a> In July 1925, he won a fellowship from the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> to study in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979101-40">[40]</a> He sailed for New York on the <a href="/wiki/RMS_Caronia_(1904)" title="RMS Caronia (1904)">RMS Caronia</a> on 19 September 1925, intending to study under <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(biologist)" title="Robert Chambers (biologist)">Robert Chambers</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Medical_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornell University Medical College">Cornell University Medical College</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/Micromanipulator" title="Micromanipulator">micromanipulator</a> he required for his research on the blood vessels of the brain was not available, so he arranged to work at the laboratory of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Newton_Richards" title="Alfred Newton Richards">Alfred Newton Richards</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>. He finally joined Chambers in March 1926. He hoped to be able to return to the UK via Australia and marry Ethel Reed in Adelaide, but in November 1925 he accepted an offer of a research position at <a href="/wiki/London_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="London Hospital">London Hospital</a>. The position came with five years' tenure and a salary of £850 per annum (equivalent to £61,000 in 2023), but they wanted him to start immediately. Florey managed to negotiate a delay, but only until May 1926. He returned to the UK on 13 May. Ethel joined him there in September, and they were married at <a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity,_Paddington" title="Holy Trinity, Paddington">Holy Trinity, Paddington</a>, on 19 October.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198426–33-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early career">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="London_Hospital">London Hospital</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: London Hospital">edit</a>]</div> Florey was unhappy working at London Hospital; he disliked the long daily commute from <a href="/wiki/Chobham" title="Chobham">Chobham</a> that put his experimental work at the mercy of the railway timetable. In the summer Howard and Ethel lived in a flat in <a href="/wiki/Belsize_Park" title="Belsize Park">Belsize Park</a> so he could devote more time to his work. He wrote up the results of the research he had done in New York on <a href="/wiki/Lacteal" title="Lacteal">lacteals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphatic capillaries">lymphatic capillaries</a>, which was published in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Physiology">Journal of Physiology</a> in 1927.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979146–150-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Florey then embarked on writing a thesis for a fellowship at <a href="/wiki/Gonville_and_Caius_College,_Cambridge" title="Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge">Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge</a>, where he became an unofficial fellow in 1926.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979146–150-43">[43]</a> His thesis on "Physiology and pathology of the circulation of the blood and lymph" was accepted, and his fellowship awarded in 1927.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971259-46">[46]</a> He also continued his work on the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>. London Hospital's facilities for the laboratory animals he needed for his research were unsatisfactory, so these experiments were carried out at Oxford and Cambridge. However, he was able to study the lacteals in patients undergoing abdominal surgery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979146–150-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_of_Cambridge">University of Cambridge</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: University of Cambridge">edit</a>]</div> The sudden death of British pathologist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Strangeways" title="Thomas Strangeways">Thomas Strangeways</a> on 23 December 1926 created a vacancy in the Huddersfield Lectureship in Special Pathology at Cambridge,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> and it was offered to Florey.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979151–153-48">[48]</a> At Cambridge, Florey had a secure appointment and fine laboratory facilities, although the salary of £900 (equivalent to £66,000 in 2023) was only slightly higher. He had to teach, which he disliked, preferring research, but there was satisfaction that the new <a href="/wiki/Tripos" title="Tripos">tripos</a> course was largely designed by himself and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alan_Nigel_Drury&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alan Nigel Drury (page does not exist)">Alan Nigel Drury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979199-49">[49]</a> He recruited fourteen-year-old Jim Kent as his assistant. It was the practice at Cambridge that laboratory technicians would rotate through the various laboratory departments, which provided them with thorough training, but was frustrating to the researcher, who had to break in a new assistant every few months. Finding a good one was difficult for Florey; his reputation for hard work, long hours and exacting standards preceded him. He arranged for Kent to be permanently assigned as his assistant, and Kent would remain in the role for the next forty years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979151–152-50">[50]</a> The Floreys bought a house in Cambridge, and Florey cycled to work every day, including Sundays, arriving at 10:00, except on class days when he had to be there earlier.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979155–156-51">[51]</a> Ethel collaborated on two papers, co-written with Drury and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a> respectively,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198433–34-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> but stopped coming to the laboratory after she became pregnant. Nonetheless, during the summer break in 1929, she accompanied Florey to Spain, where Sherrington had arranged for him to study methods of nerve staining under <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a>. They decided to commemorate this trip by naming their daughter, who was born on 26 September 1929, Paquita Mary Joanna.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971258-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198434–35-56">[56]</a> Two years later they spent the summer with the French histologist and endocrinologist <a href="/wiki/Pol_Bouin" title="Pol Bouin">Pol Bouin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg" title="University of Strasbourg">University of Strasbourg</a>, where Florey studied mucinogen, the chemical precursor to <a href="/wiki/Mucin" title="Mucin">mucin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979205-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198435–36-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In January 1929, Florey began a study of <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979171-60">[60]</a> an enzyme that forms part of the immune system in animals. For Florey this was a natural extension of his work with mucus. Lysozyme occurs in secretions containing mucus, and Florey wondered if it was a property of mucus. He mastered lysozyme <a href="/wiki/Assay" title="Assay">assay</a>, and chemically identified it. He tested various animals for its presence; dogs, rabbits and guinea pigs all had it in their secretions, but cats had very little, and goats had none, except in their tears. In a paper published in 1930, Florey concluded that lysozyme played little part in natural immunity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979178–182-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_of_Sheffield">University of Sheffield</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: University of Sheffield">edit</a>]</div> There was little prospect for promotion at Cambridge; Florey hoped that a chair of experimental medicine would be created, but this did not occur until 1945. He collaborated with biochemist <a href="/wiki/Marjory_Stephenson" title="Marjory Stephenson">Marjory Stephenson</a> on his lysozyme project, but she did not have enough time to spare for a researcher in another department, and their results were not published. He yearned to have an interdisciplinary team and funds for work other than his own.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979202–203-62">[62]</a> The death of James Sholto Cameron Douglas on 30 October 1931 created a vacancy in the Joseph Hunter chair of pathology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a>, and Florey decided to apply.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979205-57">[57]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Florey_Lodge,_Sheffield.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Florey_Lodge%2C_Sheffield.jpg/220px-Florey_Lodge%2C_Sheffield.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Florey_Lodge%2C_Sheffield.jpg/330px-Florey_Lodge%2C_Sheffield.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Florey_Lodge%2C_Sheffield.jpg/440px-Florey_Lodge%2C_Sheffield.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Florey Lodge, Sheffield</figcaption></figure> That Florey was not a pathologist was not overlooked; the Scottish pathologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Muir_(pathologist)" title="Robert Muir (pathologist)">Robert Muir</a> declared: "There is no pathologist named Florey."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198436-64">[64]</a> The faculty board decided to take a chance on Florey, and he was appointed on 9 December. He took up the appointment in March 1932. The Floreys moved for the fourth time in five years, this time to a Victorian manor on 1 acre (0.40 ha) of ground about 1 mile (1.6 km) from the university, which later became student accommodation with the name "Florey Lodge". The chair came with a salary of £1,000 (equivalent to £80,000 in 2023) per annum, but there was no provision for an assistant. He took Kent with him anyway, eventually securing 50 shillings a week (equivalent to £200 in 2023) for him from the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(United_Kingdom)" title="Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)">Medical Research Council</a> (MRC). <a href="/wiki/Guy%27s_Hospital" title="Guy's Hospital">Guy's Hospital</a> in London offered Florey a chair in pathology in February 1933. This caused alarm at the university, for it had recently lost two of its senior professors through the retirement of <a href="/wiki/John_Beresford_Leathes" title="John Beresford Leathes">John Beresford Leathes</a> and the departure of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mellanby" title="Edward Mellanby">Edward Mellanby</a> to become the secretary of the MRC. The university officials did not wish to lose Florey as well, and they raised his salary to £1,200 per annum to induce him to stay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979208–214-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198436–41-66">[66]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sheffield_Medical_School" title="Sheffield Medical School">Sheffield Medical School</a> was small, with only about fourteen students each year. The lack of a first-rate pathologist was remedied when Beatrice Pullinger joined the staff in January 1934, and she became Florey's ally in successfully lifting the standard of research and teaching in the department.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979208–214-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198436–41-66">[66]</a> While Florey's main interest was lysozyme, he pursued other lines of research as well. The death of his brother-in-law, John Gardner, from <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> led to an interest in treating the disease, which he pursued in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes">Paul Fildes</a> and H. E. Harding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979221–225-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971259–261-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> He also researched the structure and function of the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a> with Pullinger,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971259–261-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> and continued his studies of <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">contraception</a> with Harry Carleton that had begun at London Hospital.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979221–225-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971259–261-68">[68]</a> Florey's son <a href="/wiki/Charles_du_V%C3%A9_Florey" title="Charles du Vé Florey">Charles du Vé</a> was born in Sheffield on 11 September 1934, but for a time Florey's relationship with Ethel had deteriorated to the point where they were communicating in writing and contemplating a legal separation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979221–225-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971259–261-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> This was regarded as a serious matter; no Oxford fellow divorced without resigning his fellowship until the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198441-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_of_Oxford">University of Oxford</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: University of Oxford">edit</a>]</div> Despite his success in revitalising the pathology department at Sheffield, Florey had grander ambitions than following the example of Douglas and dying in office. An opportunity arose with the death of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dreyer" title="Georges Dreyer">Georges Dreyer</a> on 17 August 1934, the holder of the chair of pathology in the <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology" title="Sir William Dunn School of Pathology">Sir William Dunn School of Pathology</a> at Oxford. Dreyer had overseen the construction of a palatial new laboratory, but by 1934 it had attracted few students and researchers. While Florey had reservations about leaving Sheffield for Guy's, he had none about Oxford.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979226–233-74">[74]</a> The electoral board met on 22 January 1935, and Florey was appointed Professor of Pathology and Fellow of <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_College,_Oxford" title="Lincoln College, Oxford">Lincoln College, Oxford</a>, which controlled the chair, effective 1 May 1935. The chair came with an annual salary of £1,700 (equivalent to £149,000 in 2023).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979234–239-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198442–43-76">[76]</a> The school's budget was £3,432 a year (equivalent to £301,000 in 2023) for all equipment and salaries except Florey's. He enforced strict economy measures such as forbidding the use of the <a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">lift</a>, which saved £25 a year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979243-77">[77]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology.jpg/220px-Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology.jpg/330px-Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology.jpg/440px-Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2314" data-file-height="1543" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology" title="Sir William Dunn School of Pathology">Sir William Dunn School of Pathology</a> in Oxford</figcaption></figure> While the building could accommodate a staff of thirty researchers, twenty-five technicians and forty to fifty students, there was only a fraction of that number, and morale was low. Florey retained Jean Orr-Ewing and Margaret Campbell-Renton, who had been working with Dreyer, and brought Kent with him. Pullinger joined them soon after as demonstrator of pathology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979240–243-78">[78]</a> Florey and Pullinger restructured the pathology course.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198447–48-79">[79]</a> He hired <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Jennings_(scientist)" title="Margaret Jennings (scientist)">Margaret Jennings</a> as a gastroenterologist in October 1936,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979240–243-78">[78]</a> and she worked with him on his studies of mucus secretion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979240–243-78">[78]</a> She became Florey's mistress in 1940; their affair was a poorly-kept secret.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELax2015128–130-80">[80]</a> He appointed P. J. Smart as the office administrator, and she remained in the role until she retired in 1976.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198447–48-79">[79]</a> He attracted Rhodes Scholars such as Australian <a href="/wiki/Brian_Gilmore_Maegraith" title="Brian Gilmore Maegraith">Brian Maegraith</a> and Americans <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_H._Ebert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert H. Ebert (page does not exist)">Robert H. Ebert</a> and Leslie Epstein to the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979261–263-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198455-82">[82]</a> other doctoral students included <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a>, Gordon Sanders and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Medawar" title="Jean Medawar">Jean Taylor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979266-83">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Duncan_Gardner" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Duncan Gardner">Arthur Duncan Gardner</a> headed the MRC's Standards Laboratory, which was located on the premises, and Gardner expected that his unit would have to move out, but Florey moved to keep him, as he needed a good bacteriologist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979240–243-78">[78]</a> He arranged for Gardner to become head of his bacteriological section, with the title of reader of bacteriology in 1936. The Standards Laboratory eventually moved to the MRC's laboratories at <a href="/wiki/Colindale" title="Colindale">Colindale</a>, but not until 1946.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979260-84">[84]</a> Florey also wanted a biochemist on his staff, but this proved difficult. He acquired the services of E. A. H. Roberts with a £300 MRC grant in July 1935, and for the next two years Roberts worked with Florey and Maegraith on Florey's lysozyme project. Still, Florey wanted a biochemist on his own staff. He tried to get <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Macdonald_Sinclair" title="Hugh Macdonald Sinclair">Hugh Macdonald Sinclair</a>, but Sinclair declined the offer. <a href="/wiki/Norman_Pirie" title="Norman Pirie">Norman Pirie</a> asked Florey if he could assume the role, but when Florey approached Sir <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a>, Pirie's boss, Hopkins refused to release Pirie. He tempered this refusal by recommending <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Boris_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Boris Chain">Ernst Boris Chain</a>, one of many Jewish refugees from <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> who had found sanctuary in the UK. Chain had recently completed his PhD thesis under Hopkins's supervision. He gratefully accepted Florey's offer of an appointment although it was initially for one year only, and with an annual salary of £200 (equivalent to £18,000 in 2023).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979252–257-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198452–53-86">[86]</a> In turn, Chain felt that he needed a collaborator, and he had one in mind: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Heatley" title="Norman Heatley">Norman Heatley</a>, who was finishing his PhD in Hopkins's department. Heatley was happy to come, and Florey was able to arrange for the MRC to fund the position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979274-87">[87]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillin_Past,_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin,_England,_1944_D17803.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1944_D17803.jpg/170px-Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1944_D17803.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1944_D17803.jpg/255px-Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1944_D17803.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1944_D17803.jpg/340px-Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1944_D17803.jpg 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Florey in his office in 1944</figcaption></figure> In 1936, Florey received a letter from Hilda stating that their mother Bertha had terminal cancer, so he arranged to travel to Australia with Ethel, Paquita and Charles during the summer break. They travelled on the <a href="/wiki/SS_Orsova_(1908)" title="SS Orsova (1908)">SS Orsova</a> to Melbourne, where they were met by Bertha, Charlotte, Hilda, Valetta and Hilda's daughter <a href="/wiki/Joan_Gardner_(microbiologist)" title="Joan Gardner (microbiologist)">Joan Gardner</a>. In addition to spending time with his family, he visited <a href="/wiki/Peter_MacCallum" title="Peter MacCallum">Peter MacCallum</a> at his laboratory. MacCallum introduced Florey to <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wright_(physiologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roy Wright (physiologist)">Roy Douglas (Pansy) Wright</a>, an experimental physiologist, and they arranged for Wright to come to Oxford the following year to assist Florey and Jennings with their work on mucus secretion. Florey then joined Ethel and the children in Adelaide. The family returned to Oxford in October. Bertha died on 27 November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979268–271-88">[88]</a> Henceforth, Florey would lead an interdisciplinary team in an attack on a particular problem. Each member of the team tackled a particular aspect in their own way, with simultaneous research along different lines building up a complete picture. This was a manner of collaboration that was practically unknown in the UK at the time. However, the team members, including Florey, all worked on multiple projects at the same time. Florey was strict with his own collaborators, but gave considerable latitude to those working on other aspects of a project. He did not hold team meetings, although he encouraged team members to discuss issues with himself and each other, and he dropped by each laboratory nearly every day to view progress and provide suggestions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979266–267,_274–275,_305-89">[89]</a> The first such project was an investigation of <a href="/wiki/Lymphocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphocytes">lymphocytes</a>. Florey developed a detailed project plan and deployed eight graduate researchers on it, including Sanders, Medawar and Taylor. Florey performed delicate surgery on rabbits to examine the effects of lymphocyte deprivation. The project, not completed for many years, resulted in several papers and advances in the understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979266–267,_274–275,_305-89">[89]</a> Florey continued with his lysozyme project. Although the MRC had agreed to pay Roberts's salary, it baulked at providing money for a piece of apparatus that he required. Florey then turned to the Rockefeller Foundation for assistance, and was provided with US$1,250 (about £320)(equivalent to $27,000 in 2023). Florey and Maegraith harvested lysozyme from animals, and Roberts was able to purify it. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Abraham" title="Edward Abraham">Edward Abraham</a> then managed to <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallize</a> it in 1937. Chain and Epstein then studied it and determined that it was a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polysaccharidase" class="extiw" title="wikt:polysaccharidase">polysaccharidase</a> and, with Gardner's help, were able to determine its structure, and how it acted on <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979276–278-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The lysozyme research was successful, but while it was lethal to <a href="/wiki/Micrococcus" title="Micrococcus">micrococci</a>, these bacteria are not usually <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogenic</a>, and were of little concern to medicine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198460–62-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Penicillin">Penicillin</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Penicillin">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_penicillin" title="History of penicillin">History of penicillin</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Development">edit</a>]</div> In the course of his work on lysozyme, Chain read papers on the enzyme in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> in volumes 3 and 8, and by Florey in volume 11. While doing so he came across Fleming's paper discussing the antibacterial effects of <a href="/wiki/Penicillium_notatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillium notatum">Penicillium notatum</a> mould in volume 10. The erroneous impression given by Fleming that penicillin was a <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">bactericidal</a> enzyme led Chain to consider that it would be similar to lysozyme.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979281–283-93">[93]</a> Money was short at the time; the office had an overdraft of £500 (equivalent to £44,000 in 2023) and Florey had to forbid the purchase of any further equipment. Chain and Florey decided to create a large research project on antibacterial substances produced by micro-organisms that could attract long-term funding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChain1971297-94">[94]</a> Three sources were initially chosen for investigation: <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_subtilis" title="Bacillus subtilis">Bacillus subtilis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trueperella_pyogenes" title="Trueperella pyogenes">Trueperella pyogenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> mould.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979285-95">[95]</a> Florey later said: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">People sometimes think that I and the others worked on penicillin because we were interested in suffering humanity. I don't think it ever crossed our minds about suffering humanity. This was an interesting scientific exercise, and because it was of some use in medicine is very gratifying, but this was not the reason that we started working on it.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></blockquote> Florey approached the MRC for funding in September 1939, shortly after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, and Mellanby authorised the project, allocating £250 (equivalent to £19,578 in 2023) to launch the project, with £300 for salaries and £100 for expenses per annum for three years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979300–303-97">[97]</a> Florey felt that more would be required. On 1 November 1939, Henry M. "Dusty" Miller, Jr, from the Natural Sciences Division of the Rockefeller Foundation dropped by to discuss funding Heatley's position. Heatley had fallen out with Chain, and had accepted a new position at the <a href="/wiki/Carlsberg_Laboratory" title="Carlsberg Laboratory">Carlsberg Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> on a Rockefeller Fellowship, but due to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, he had decided to remain at Oxford. Miller arranged for Heatley to retain his fellowship. Instead of working for Chain, Heatley would report directly to Florey as his personal research assistant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979300–303-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022119–121-98">[98]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillin_development_(43818514272).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Penicillin_development_%2843818514272%29.jpg/220px-Penicillin_development_%2843818514272%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Penicillin_development_%2843818514272%29.jpg/330px-Penicillin_development_%2843818514272%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Penicillin_development_%2843818514272%29.jpg/440px-Penicillin_development_%2843818514272%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blue_plaque" title="Blue plaque">Blue plaque</a> commemorating the isolation and purification of penicillin at the <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Dunn_School_of_Pathology" title="Sir William Dunn School of Pathology">Sir William Dunn School of Pathology</a> in Oxford</figcaption></figure> As a bacteriologist, Miller was enthusiastic about the antibacterial project; he encouraged Florey to apply for a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, and recommended to his headquarters that the request for financial support be given serious consideration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022119–121-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonas1989267–268-99">[99]</a> "The work proposed", Florey wrote in his application letter, "in addition to its theoretical importance, may have practical value for therapeutic purposes."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonas1989269-100">[100]</a> Florey's application was approved, with the Rockefeller Foundation allocating US$5,000 (£1,250) per annum for five years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979300–303-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022119–121-98">[98]</a> Florey's team already had a sample of penicillin mould; Dreyer had been given a sample of the mould in 1930 for his work on <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>. He had lost interest in penicillin when he discovered that it was not a bacteriophage, but Campbell-Renton had continued to cultivate it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobby198564–65-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1976156-102">[102]</a> The team developed techniques for growing the mould on a surface of liquid <a href="/wiki/Czapek-Dox_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Czapek-Dox medium">Czapek-Dox medium</a>. Most laboratory containers did not provide a large, flat area, so glass bottles laid on their sides were used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979306–307-103">[103]</a> Later, specially-made containers were fabricated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979316-104">[104]</a> As the laboratory gradually became a penicillin factory, Florey hired six women to perform the cultivation and extraction work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979325-105">[105]</a> It had to be carried out under sterile conditions;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979325-105">[105]</a> Abraham and Chain discovered that some airborne bacteria produced <a href="/wiki/Penicillinase" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillinase">penicillinase</a>, an enzyme that destroys penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Heatley and Chain tackled the problem of how penicillin could be extracted from the mould. The liquid was filtered through parachute silk to remove the <a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> and other solid debris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979305–308-107">[107]</a> The <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> was lowered by the addition of <a href="/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a> and the liquid was then cooled.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In this form the penicillin could be drawn off by a solvent. Initially <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">diethyl ether</a> was used,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979305–308-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022122–123-109">[109]</a> but it is highly inflammable.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> At Chain's suggestion, they tried the much less flammable <a href="/wiki/Amyl_acetate" title="Amyl acetate">amyl acetate</a>, and found that it also worked. Penicillin-bearing solvent was easily separated, but now they encountered the problem that had stymied earlier attempts: recovering the penicillin from the solvent. Heatley reasoned that if the penicillin could pass from water to solvent when the solution was <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidic</a>, maybe it would pass back again if the solution was <a href="/wiki/Alkaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline">alkaline</a>. Florey told him to give it a try. This method, which Heatley called "reverse extraction", was found to work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979305–308-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198469–70-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022122–123-109">[109]</a> Chain hit upon the idea of <a href="/wiki/Freeze_drying" title="Freeze drying">freeze drying</a> to enable the water to be removed without damaging the penicillin. The team had thus developed a complete process for growing, extracting and purifying penicillin, resulting in a dry, brown powder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979305–308-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1976158–159-112">[112]</a> By early 1942, they could prepare a highly purified compound,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> and had proposed the chemical formula.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Heatley developed an assay method. An Oxford unit was defined as the purity required to produce a 25 mm bacteria-free ring.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan198230-115">[115]</a> It was an arbitrary measurement, as the chemistry of penicillin was not yet known; the first research was conducted with solutions containing four or five Oxford units per milligram. Later, highly pure penicillin became available with 2,000 Oxford units per milligram.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198499-116">[116]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillin_Past,_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin,_England,_1943_D16965.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1943_D16965.jpg/220px-Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1943_D16965.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1943_D16965.jpg/330px-Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1943_D16965.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1943_D16965.jpg/440px-Penicillin_Past%2C_Present_and_Future-_the_Development_and_Production_of_Penicillin%2C_England%2C_1943_D16965.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A laboratory worker sprays a solution containing penicillin mould into flasks of <a href="/wiki/Corn_steep_liquor" title="Corn steep liquor">corn steep liquor</a> to encourage further penicillin growth.</figcaption></figure> The team discovered that Penicillium extract killed several types of bacteria. Gardner and Orr-Ewing tested it against <a href="/wiki/Gonococcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonococcus">gonococci</a> (against which it was most effective), <a href="/wiki/Meningococcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Meningococcus">meningococci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Streptococcus" title="Streptococcus">streptococci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">staphylococci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthrax_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthrax bacteria">anthrax bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Actinomyces" title="Actinomyces">Actinomyces</a> and the organisms that caused <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a>. Florey and Jennings experimented on rats, mice, rabbits and cats in which penicillin was administered in various ways,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979308–312-117">[117]</a> and found no evidence of toxicity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheehan198232-118">[118]</a> On 25 May 1940, Florey injected eight mice with a virulent strain of streptococcus, and then four of them with penicillin. A day later all four of the untreated mice were dead, but all of the treated ones were still alive, although one died two days later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979313–316-119">[119]</a> Over the following weeks Jennings and Florey repeated the experiment with ever-larger batches of mice, and with different bacteria. They found that penicillin was also effective against staphylococci and the bacteria that cause gangrene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979319–320-120">[120]</a> They published their findings in <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> on 24 August 1940.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Florey reminded his staff that as promising as their results were, a man weighed 3,000 times as much as a mouse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022152-122">[122]</a> In February 1941, Florey and Chain treated their first patient, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Alexander_(police_officer)" title="Albert Alexander (police officer)">Albert Alexander</a>, who had had a small sore at the corner of his mouth, which then spread, leading to a severe facial infection involving streptococci and staphylococci. His whole face, eyes and scalp were swollen to the extent that he had had an eye removed to relieve the pain. Within a day of being given penicillin, he started to recover. However, the researchers did not have enough penicillin to help him to a full recovery, and he relapsed and died. Because of this experience and the difficulty in producing sufficient penicillin, Florey switched his focus to children, who could be treated with smaller quantities of penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979330–331-123">[123]</a> Florey expected that penicillin would be hailed as a breakthrough, but he was disappointed; his results aroused little interest. He spent the next two years attempting to generate interest in what he believed to be the most important medical discovery of the century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979322-124">[124]</a> He was elected a <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">Fellow of the Royal Society</a> in March 1941,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984128-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> but his work with penicillin played little part in this.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979346-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_American_supply">North American supply</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: North American supply">edit</a>]</div> As the war intensified with German air raids on the UK, Florey and Ethel decided to send their children away to a safer country in July 1940. The United States was not yet at war, and <a href="/wiki/John_Farquhar_Fulton" title="John Farquhar Fulton">John Fulton</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sterling_Professor" title="Sterling Professor">Sterling Professor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a> at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>, and his wife Lucia agreed to care for them at their home in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>, "for the duration".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979320–321-128">[128]</a> In April 1941, the Rockefeller Foundation's <a href="/wiki/Warren_Weaver" title="Warren Weaver">Warren Weaver</a> met with Florey, and they discussed the difficulty of producing sufficient penicillin to conduct clinical trials. Weaver arranged for the foundation to fund a three-month visit to the United States for Florey and a colleague so they could explore the possibility of the production of penicillin there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984125–128-129">[129]</a> Since his aim was to persuade a firm to manufacture penicillin, and Heatley knew the most about penicillin production, Florey chose to take Heatley with him, and did not tell Chain until the morning of their departure. Chain, who saw penicillin as a joint project between himself and Florey, with Heatley as a laboratory technician, was greatly offended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022196–197-130">[130]</a> Chain later wrote: "I left the room silently but shattered by the experience of this underhand trick and act of bad faith, the worst so far in my experience of Florey. It spoiled my initially good relations with this man for ever."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark198568-131">[131]</a> Florey and Heatley left for the United States by air on 27 June 1941. In New Haven Florey met Fulton and was reunited with his children. Fulton introduced him to <a href="/wiki/Ross_Granville_Harrison" title="Ross Granville Harrison">Ross Harrison</a>, the Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a>, and Harrison introduced him to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thom" title="Charles Thom">Charles Thom</a>, the chief <a href="/wiki/Mycologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycologist">mycologist</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Plant_Industry_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Plant Industry (United States)">Bureau of Plant Industry</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> (USDA), and the man who had identified the mould reported by Fleming. Thom took them to <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, to see Percy Wells, the acting head of the USDA's four laboratories, and Wells sent them to Orville May, the director of the UDSA's <a href="/wiki/Northern_Regional_Research_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Regional Research Laboratory">Northern Regional Research Laboratory</a> (NRRL) in <a href="/wiki/Peoria,_Illinois" title="Peoria, Illinois">Peoria, Illinois</a>. May arranged for them to meet with Robert D. Coghill, the chief of the NRRL's <a href="/wiki/Industrial_fermentation" title="Industrial fermentation">fermentation</a> division, who raised the possibility that fermentation in large vessels (deep submergence) might be the key to large-scale production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984130–134-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> On 17 August, Florey met with Richards, who had become the chairman of the Medical Research Committee of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a>, who promised his support. Florey returned to Oxford in September without undertakings to produce the kilogram quantities of penicillin required for clinical trials,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984134–137-134">[134]</a> but the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> in December 1941 brought the United States into the war and infused a new urgency into penicillin production.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984134–137-134">[134]</a> Chain suggested applying for a <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> on the penicillin process. His motivation was not potential profits, but the danger of it being patented elsewhere. Florey took up the issue with Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a>, the chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust" title="Wellcome Trust">Wellcome Trust</a> and a member of the Scientific Advisory Panel to the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Cabinet of the United Kingdom">British Cabinet</a>, and John William Trevan, the director of the Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory, but they were adamantly opposed, as they considered the notion of researchers profiting from their work as unethical. The Americans had no such scruples, and took out patents on the deep submergence processes they developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979336-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984129-136">[136]</a> Chain regarded Florey as naive for not patenting the penicillin production process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022319-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clinical_trials">Clinical trials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Clinical trials">edit</a>]</div> In addition to the increased production at the Dunn School, commercial production from a <a href="/wiki/Pilot_plant" title="Pilot plant">pilot plant</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chemical_Industries" title="Imperial Chemical Industries">Imperial Chemical Industries</a> became available in January 1942, and Kembel, Bishop and Company delivered its first batch of 200 imperial gallons (910 L) on 11 September. Florey conducted a second series of clinical trials. Ethel was placed in charge, but while Florey was a consulting pathologist at Oxford hospitals and therefore entitled to use their wards and services, Ethel, to his annoyance, was accredited merely as his assistant. Doctors tended to refer patients to the trial who were in desperate circumstances rather than those who were the most suitable candidates for treatment, but when penicillin did succeed anyway, confidence in its efficacy rose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979342–346-138">[138]</a> Harry Lambert, a friend of Fleming's dying from a meningococcal infection, became the twelfth case on 5 August 1942. He survived, but someone at <a href="/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital,_London" title="St Mary's Hospital, London">St. Mary's Hospital</a> leaked the result to the press, resulting in an editorial in <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> on 27 August. Florey was appalled; this could only create a public demand for penicillin when all available supplies were needed for the clinical trials. On 25 September, Florey met with Sir Cecil McAlpine Weir, the Director-General of Equipment and Stores at the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Supply" title="Ministry of Supply">Ministry of Supply</a>, who promised overriding priority for the mass production of penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022273–276-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Ethel and Howard Florey published the results of clinical trials of 187 cases of treatment with penicillin in The Lancet on 27 March 1943.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Africa">North Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: North Africa">edit</a>]</div> The Medical Research Council decided that the time had come for field trials of penicillin. The location of centres to receive the drug was kept secret so as to not provoke demand for the drug when it was still in short supply.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobby1985122–124-142">[142]</a> Florey was asked to go to North Africa, where the <a href="/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North African campaign</a> was ongoing. He travelled to <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> on the hospital ship <a href="/wiki/HMHS_Newfoundland" title="HMHS Newfoundland">HMHS Newfoundland</a> in May 1943. On 29 June he was joined by <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Cairns_(surgeon)" title="Hugh Cairns (surgeon)">Hugh Cairns</a>, another Rhodes Scholar from Adelaide, who now held the rank of <a href="/wiki/Brigadier" title="Brigadier">brigadier</a> in the British Army, and was in charge of <a href="/wiki/St_Hugh%27s_College,_Oxford#Second_World_War" title="St Hugh's College, Oxford">St Hugh's Military Hospital (Head Injuries)</a> in Oxford, who brought with him a stockpile of 40 million Oxford units of penicillin. Florey resisted well-intentioned efforts by the <a href="/wiki/War_Office" title="War Office">War Office</a> to grant him military rank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984177–179-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Over the next two months Florey and Cairns flew back and forth between Algiers, <a href="/wiki/Sousse" title="Sousse">Sousse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>, with a week in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. They treated over one hundred cases and compiled a report that ran to over one hundred pages. He gave lectures on penicillin, and his report contained recommendations for training of medical officers in its use. The fighting in North Africa ended in May 1943, so most of the cases Florey saw were not recently wounded soldiers, but ones with old wounds that had not healed; battle casualties began arriving again after the <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a> in July. He considered that the source of infection in many cases was from the hospital rather than the battlefield, and advocated changes to the way that patients were treated to take advantage of the properties of penicillin. He argued that wounds should be cleaned and sealed up promptly. This was a radical idea; normally this would have been inviting <a href="/wiki/Gas_gangrene" title="Gas gangrene">gas gangrene</a>, but Florey proposed leaving that to the penicillin. His recommendations were acted upon, and the War Office established a training course for pathologists and clinicians at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Herbert_Hospital" title="Royal Herbert Hospital">Royal Herbert Hospital</a>, which made use of film that Florey shot in North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984177–182-145">[145]</a> Although he intended that penicillin be used to treat the seriously wounded, there were large numbers of <a href="/wiki/Venereal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal disease">venereal disease</a> cases, against which penicillin was particularly effective, and from a military point of view being able to cure <a href="/wiki/Gonorrhea" title="Gonorrhea">gonorrhea</a> in 48 hours was a breakthrough. The supply situation improved, and 20 million units per day were made available for the <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of Italy</a> in September. Two out of three gas gangrene casualties now survived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984177–182-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022279–280-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Soviet Union">edit</a>]</div> One result of the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> in November 1943 was an invitation for an Anglo-American scientific mission to visit the Soviet Union. The British team consisted of Florey and Sanders; the American of <a href="/wiki/Albert_Baird_Hastings" title="Albert Baird Hastings">Albert Baird Hastings</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Boris_Shimkin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Boris Shimkin (page does not exist)">Michael Boris Shimkin</a>. After a month's travel via North Africa and Iran, they reached Moscow on 23 January 1944, where they met Soviet microbiologist <a href="/wiki/Zinaida_Yermolyeva" title="Zinaida Yermolyeva">Zinaida Yermolyeva</a>. Florey gave her samples of penicillin, and she gave him a sample of the antibiotic <a href="/wiki/Gramicidin_S" title="Gramicidin S">Gramicidin S</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984185–190-147">[147]</a> He arrived back at Oxford on 29 March 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022283-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Howard_Florey_with_sister_Hilda_on_arrival_in_Melbourne,_1944.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Howard_Florey_with_sister_Hilda_on_arrival_in_Melbourne%2C_1944.jpg/170px-Howard_Florey_with_sister_Hilda_on_arrival_in_Melbourne%2C_1944.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Howard_Florey_with_sister_Hilda_on_arrival_in_Melbourne%2C_1944.jpg/255px-Howard_Florey_with_sister_Hilda_on_arrival_in_Melbourne%2C_1944.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Howard_Florey_with_sister_Hilda_on_arrival_in_Melbourne%2C_1944.jpg/340px-Howard_Florey_with_sister_Hilda_on_arrival_in_Melbourne%2C_1944.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2795" data-file-height="3761" /></a><figcaption>Florey with his sister <a href="/wiki/Hilda_Gardner" title="Hilda Gardner">Hilda Gardner</a> on arrival in Melbourne in 1944</figcaption></figure> In May 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Prime Minister</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Curtin" title="John Curtin">John Curtin</a> and the Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Army, <a href="/wiki/General_(Australia)" title="General (Australia)">General</a> Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blamey" title="Thomas Blamey">Thomas Blamey</a>, visited London for the <a href="/wiki/1944_Commonwealth_Prime_Ministers%27_Conference" title="1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference">1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference</a>. At Blamey's request, Curtin asked Florey if he would visit Australia as an advisor on the use of penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984190–192-150">[150]</a> Florey arrived in Australia in August 1944 to a hero's welcome,<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022283–284-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995230–231-153">[153]</a> and was awarded the degree of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (MD) by the University of Adelaide.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> In accepting the degree, he recapitulated his own career, and spoke about the need to make it easier for research to be conducted in Australia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022285–286-155">[155]</a> Florey met with Blamey; the two men got along well and chatted for several hours. It ended with Blamey convinced that Florey was the man to head a project Blamey had in mind: a medical research institute in <a href="/wiki/Canberra" title="Canberra">Canberra</a>, the national capital. Blamey put his proposal to Curtin on 24 October. It was quickly approved, but Curtin became ill, and he died in July 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984224–225-156">[156]</a> Florey discovered that penicillin production was already underway in Australia at the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Serum_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Serum Laboratories">Commonwealth Serum Laboratories</a> (CSL) in Melbourne. In 1943, the <a href="/wiki/War_Cabinet#Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="War Cabinet">War Cabinet</a> had agreed to produce penicillin in Australia, and Colonel <a href="/wiki/Esmond_Venner_Keogh" title="Esmond Venner Keogh">E. V. (Bill) Keogh</a>, the Army's Director of Hygiene and Pathology, detailed Captain <a href="/wiki/Percival_Bazeley" title="Percival Bazeley">Percival Bazeley</a> and Lieutenant H. H. Kretchmar to establish a production facility. They visited Peoria, and obtained penicillin cultures from Coghill. The first Australian-made penicillin began reaching the troops in New Guinea in December 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995224–230-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthews2008323–324-158">[158]</a> Florey was full of praise for their achievement, but disturbed that they had turned to the Americans for advice instead of him. "Am I not Australian?" he asked Keogh, "Have I not had some leading role in this thing?"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995231-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition">Recognition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Recognition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillin-plaque-oxford.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The inscription reads: This rose garden was given in honour of the research workers in this university who discovered the clinical importance of penicillin. For saving of life, relief of suffering and inspiration to further research all mankind is in their debt. Those who did this work were E. P. Abraham, E. Chain, C. M. Fletcher, H. W. Florey, M. E. Florey, A. D. Gardner, N. G. Heatley, M. A. Jennings, J. Orr-Ewing, A. G. Sanders. Presented by the Albert and Mary Lasker Foundation New York June 1953" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Penicillin-plaque-oxford.jpg/170px-Penicillin-plaque-oxford.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Penicillin-plaque-oxford.jpg/255px-Penicillin-plaque-oxford.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Penicillin-plaque-oxford.jpg/340px-Penicillin-plaque-oxford.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Commemorative plaque outside the Botanic Gardens, Oxford</figcaption></figure> Florey returned to the UK in October 1944,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995235-160">[160]</a> collecting his children from Fulton while en route.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984225-161">[161]</a> He was created a <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">Knight Bachelor</a> on 8 June 1944, and <a href="/wiki/Investiture" title="Investiture">invested</a> by King <a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a> at <a href="/wiki/Buckingham_Palace" title="Buckingham Palace">Buckingham Palace</a> on 4 July 1944.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> He shared the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1945 with Ernst Boris Chain and Alexander Fleming.<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-163">[163]</a> Fleming first observed the antibiotic properties of the mould that makes penicillin, but it was Chain and Florey who developed it into a useful treatment.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Florey maintained that the penicillin project was originally driven by scientific interests, and that the medicinal discovery was a bonus.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The neuroscientist <a href="/wiki/W._Maxwell_Cowan" title="W. Maxwell Cowan">W. Maxwell Cowan</a> observed that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Fleming was the first person Florey saved. Without Florey's work he would have gone down as a somewhat eccentric microbiologist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELax2015251-166">[166]</a> </blockquote> Florey always insisted that the development of penicillin was a team effort and that he received more credit than he deserved, but the team itself was his creation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979357-167">[167]</a> The philanthropist <a href="/wiki/William_Morris,_1st_Viscount_Nuffield" title="William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield">Lord Nuffield</a> offered Florey £50,000 (equivalent to £2,726,000 in 2023) as a personal gift; Florey asked him instead to use it to establish research fellowships at the Sir William Dunn School. The first beneficiaries included Abraham, Heatley and Sanders. When the <a href="/wiki/Lasker_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lasker Foundation">Albert and Mary Lasker Foundation</a> asked if it could reward him, as it had the staff at Peoria, he arranged for a commemorative rose garden with a memorial stone honouring Abraham, Chain, Fletcher, himself, Ethel Florey, Gardner, Jennings, Orr-Ewing and Sanders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995250–251-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life">Later life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Later life">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cephalosporins">Cephalosporins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cephalosporins">edit</a>]</div> After the war ended, Florey directed his team at the Sir William Dunn School in the investigation of antibiotic substances produced by plants and microorganisms. They studied claviformin, proactinomycin, helvolic acid, <a href="/wiki/Mycophenolic_acid" title="Mycophenolic acid">mycophenolic acid</a>, hirsutic acid, <a href="/wiki/Bacitracin" title="Bacitracin">bacitracin</a> and micrococcin. In 1949, they published Antibiotics: A Survey of Penicillin, Streptomycin, and Other Antimicrobial Substances from Fungi, Actinomycetes, Bacteria and Plants, a massive two-volume work. Florey also edited Lectures on General Pathology, which was published in 1954.<a href="#cite_note-ADB-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971269–272-169">[169]</a> Chain departed in 1948, but <a href="/wiki/Guy_Newton" title="Guy Newton">Guy Newton</a> joined the team in his place as its biochemist. Financial support came from the Medical Research Council, the Albert and Mary Lasker Foundation, and American pharmaceutical companies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971269–272-169">[169]</a> In September 1953 Newton and Abraham isolated crystalline <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin_C" title="Cephalosporin C">cephalosporin C</a> from a fungus originally isolated by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Brotzu" title="Giuseppe Brotzu">Giuseppe Brotzu</a> in Sardinia,<a href="#cite_note-pmid11449655-170">[170]</a> and found that it had antibiotic properties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971269–272-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1976250–251-171">[171]</a> Their initial evaluation of the antibiotic activity of cephalosporin C was that it was low, so Abraham sent Florey, who was in Australia, a letter asking if research should continue. Florey saw an intellectually challenging line of research, and told them to continue. They found that it was resistant to penicillinase produced by <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">gram-positive bacteria</a>. When he returned to Oxford, Florey and Jennings conducted a series of experiments that determined that it was not toxic to mice but could protect them against streptococci and penicillinase-producing staphylococci. The Oxford team analysed the chemical properties of the <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporin</a> ring system, opening the door to the production of semisynthetic cephalosporins created through replacing <a href="/wiki/Side_chain" title="Side chain">side chains</a>, as had been done with penicillin to create semisynthetic penicillins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971269–272-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995257–259-172">[172]</a> "Everybody I have questioned who was involved in the development of cephalosporin C," science writer David Wilson reported, "when asked if one man was responsible for keeping the project going, replied: 'Florey'."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1976253-173">[173]</a> Controversy over British firms having to pay royalties to American ones for the use of the deep submergence techniques developed in the United States to produce penicillin when penicillin was seen as a British innovation led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Development_Corporation" title="National Research Development Corporation">National Research Development Corporation</a> (NRDC) in June 1948. The Oxford team patented their work on cephalosporins and assigned the patents to the NRDC. By 1978, the annual world sales of cephalosporins were worth over £600,000 (equivalent to £4,348,000 in 2023) and the NRDC was reaping £100,000 (equivalent to £725,000 in 2023) a year in royalties. Florey received a 0.5 per cent share in the last two years of his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984314–316-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australian_National_University">Australian National University</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Australian National University">edit</a>]</div> In the original design of the city of Canberra, the architect, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Burley_Griffin" title="Walter Burley Griffin">Walter Burley Griffin</a> had provided for a university, and had set aside land for it at the base of <a href="/wiki/Black_Mountain_(Australian_Capital_Territory)" title="Black Mountain (Australian Capital Territory)">Black Mountain</a>, where it would ultimately be built.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984222-175">[175]</a> Sir <a href="/wiki/David_Rivett" title="David Rivett">David Rivett</a> chaired a committee constituted to investigate the proposed medical research institute, how much it would cost, and how it would affect existing and proposed institutions. Florey mailed Rivett a 19-page proposal on 7 April 1945. Florey envisaged a funding body in Australia similar to the Medical Research Council in the UK. The institute would be headed by a director, and have about one hundred staff, which he calculated would cost about £100,000 (equivalent to £5,451,000 in 2023). His estimate of the cost of the building was too low; Florey estimated that £240,000 (equivalent to £13,082,000 in 2023) would be enough for a building for 60 researchers, but it would eventually cost almost four times as much.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984226–231-176">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Howard_Florey_Building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Howard_Florey_Building.jpg/220px-Howard_Florey_Building.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Howard_Florey_Building.jpg/330px-Howard_Florey_Building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Howard_Florey_Building.jpg/440px-Howard_Florey_Building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>The original <a href="/wiki/John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research" title="John Curtin School of Medical Research">John Curtin School of Medical Research</a>, now the Florey Building, at the <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a> in Canberra</figcaption></figure> The Australian National University Act received <a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">royal assent</a> on 1 August 1946.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984235-177">[177]</a> The act created the <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a> (ANU), and gave the medical research institute the name "<a href="/wiki/John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research" title="John Curtin School of Medical Research">John Curtin School of Medical Research</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984241-178">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/H._C._Coombs" title="H. C. Coombs">H. C. "Nugget" Coombs</a>, an economist and head of the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Post-War_Reconstruction" title="Department of Post-War Reconstruction">Department of Post-War Reconstruction</a>, accompanied the Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Ben_Chifley" title="Ben Chifley">Ben Chifley</a>, on an official visit to the UK as his principal advisor. Coombs met with Florey in Oxford in May 1946. They agreed that the success of the new university would depend on the quality of faculty they could attract, and he wanted four eminent scholars to lead the four research schools: Florey for medicine, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a> for physics, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Hancock_(historian)" title="Keith Hancock (historian)">Keith Hancock</a> for history, and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_William_Firth" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond William Firth">Raymond William Firth</a> for Pacific studies. Each received an official invitation in April 1947, and they were invited to come to Canberra for consultation in December 1947 and January 1948. They would constitute an academic advisory committee, for which they would be paid £250 (equivalent to $40,483 in 2022) plus £200 (equivalent to $32,387 in 2022) expenses per annum. Since they were all located in the UK, a London office of the university was opened to provide liaison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMason2022324–326-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984238–239-180">[180]</a> Florey never moved to Canberra, but he did accept the position of acting director of the John Curtin School of Medical Research for a five-year term commencing in May 1948 in order to establish it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984245,_263-181">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Lewis_(architect)" title="Brian Lewis (architect)">Brian Lewis</a> had been appointed university architect, but Florey hired Stephen Welsh, the professor of architecture at Sheffield University.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984250–252-182">[182]</a> Outfitting a scientific building with five laboratories full of the latest world-class specialised equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Biosafety_cabinet" title="Biosafety cabinet">biosafety cabinets</a>, cold rooms, <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilisers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incubator_(culture)" title="Incubator (culture)">incubators</a> was never going to be cheap or simple in a relatively remote location like Canberra, and much of the equipment had to be paid for in scarce US dollars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984241-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Professors_John_Eccles,_Adrien_Albert,_Frank_Fenner_and_Hugh_Ennor_study_the_plans_for_the_proposed_new_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Professors_John_Eccles%2C_Adrien_Albert%2C_Frank_Fenner_and_Hugh_Ennor_study_the_plans_for_the_proposed_new_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg/220px-Professors_John_Eccles%2C_Adrien_Albert%2C_Frank_Fenner_and_Hugh_Ennor_study_the_plans_for_the_proposed_new_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Professors_John_Eccles%2C_Adrien_Albert%2C_Frank_Fenner_and_Hugh_Ennor_study_the_plans_for_the_proposed_new_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg/330px-Professors_John_Eccles%2C_Adrien_Albert%2C_Frank_Fenner_and_Hugh_Ennor_study_the_plans_for_the_proposed_new_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Professors_John_Eccles%2C_Adrien_Albert%2C_Frank_Fenner_and_Hugh_Ennor_study_the_plans_for_the_proposed_new_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg/440px-Professors_John_Eccles%2C_Adrien_Albert%2C_Frank_Fenner_and_Hugh_Ennor_study_the_plans_for_the_proposed_new_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adrien_Albert" title="Adrien Albert">Adrien Albert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Ennor" title="Hugh Ennor">Hugh Ennor</a> study the plans for the <a href="/wiki/John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research" title="John Curtin School of Medical Research">John Curtin School of Medical Research</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Cabinet approved a 50,000-square-foot (4,600 m2) building at £3 per square foot in 1947 (equivalent to $458 in 2022), but the design Florey and Sanders agreed upon was a 235,000-square-foot (21,800 m2) building at £4 per square foot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984253-184">[184]</a> In 1950, the Cabinet approved £810,000 (equivalent to $47,137,000 in 2022) for the building and £200,000 (equivalent to $11,639,000 in 2022) for equipment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984255-185">[185]</a> People were also important, and Florey had a fairly free hand hiring his professors. He recruited <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Ennor" title="Hugh Ennor">Hugh Ennor</a> as his professor of biochemistry, <a href="/wiki/Adrien_Albert" title="Adrien Albert">Adrien Albert</a> as professor of medical chemistry, and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> as professor of microbiology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984247–250-186">[186]</a> A. F. Bunker was appointed the laboratory manager, and he outfitted the building.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984255-185">[185]</a> Florey visited Canberra in March 1953, but he made it clear that he did not wish to continue as acting director of the John Curtin School of Medical Research, nor take up the position of director, although he reluctantly agreed to continue as an advisor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984263-187">[187]</a> He was pessimistic about the project, writing home to Jennings that "it will be a miracle if this place can be given a real university atmosphere".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984263-187">[187]</a> By this time the project was in jeopardy; while the prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Menzies" title="Robert Menzies">Robert Menzies</a>, supported it, a faction in the Cabinet led by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Casey,_Baron_Casey" title="Richard Casey, Baron Casey">Richard Casey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Kent_Hughes" title="Wilfrid Kent Hughes">Wilfrid Kent Hughes</a> did not; they were chagrined that it was named after a man they despised, and that it called itself a school when it would not train doctors. Changing the name required amending the act, and this did not occur. In November 1953, Florey was informed that works would proceed as planned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984264–266-188">[188]</a> On 27 March 1958, Florey ceremoniously opened the John Curtin School of Medical Research and received an honorary Doctor of Science degree along with Sir <a href="/wiki/Norman_Gregg" title="Norman Gregg">Norman Gregg</a>. Menzies, Coombes, Ennor and Curtin's family were in attendance.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> This was not the end of Florey's association with the ANU. In 1964, he accepted the role of <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Australian_National_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor of the Australian National University">chancellor</a>,<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> a position he held from 1965 until his death in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="President_of_the_Royal_Society">President of the Royal Society</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: President of the Royal Society">edit</a>]</div> One of the most prestigious institutions in the UK was the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>. Mellanby put Florey's name forward for membership in 1937, but at that time it accepted only twenty new members each year. He was elected a fellow in 1941. The Royal Society was governed by a council of twenty-one fellows, and Florey served on the council from 1942 to 1943, and again from 1951 to 1953, when he was vice president. He received the Royal Society's <a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> in 1951 and its <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> in 1957. By custom, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">president of the Royal Society</a> served for five years, and the position alternated between the mathematical and physical sciences, and the biological sciences, so Florey was eligible in 1960. Since the president was a public figure, his private life had to be beyond reproach, which was a sore point due to his relationship with Margaret Jennings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971282–285-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984320–323-193">[193]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Society_(geograph_5899669).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/The_Royal_Society_%28geograph_5899669%29.jpg/220px-The_Royal_Society_%28geograph_5899669%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/The_Royal_Society_%28geograph_5899669%29.jpg/330px-The_Royal_Society_%28geograph_5899669%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/The_Royal_Society_%28geograph_5899669%29.jpg/440px-The_Royal_Society_%28geograph_5899669%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Carlton_House_Terrace" title="Carlton House Terrace">Carlton House Terrace</a> </figcaption></figure> Florey became the President of the Royal Society on 30 November 1960.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971282–285-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Since 1873, the Royal Society had occupied <a href="/wiki/Burlington_House" title="Burlington House">Burlington House</a>. While it had a sumptuous Meeting Room and Council Room, the administrative staff, who numbered about seventy in 1960, worked in cramped conditions in the awkward-to-access offices in the attic and basement. Florey decided to seek better accommodation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984325–329-195">[195]</a> In December 1960, Florey was informed that plans to build new accommodation for the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Office">Foreign Office</a> at <a href="/wiki/Carlton_House_Terrace" title="Carlton House Terrace">Carlton House Terrace</a> had fallen though and that the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Estate_Commissioners" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Estate Commissioners">Crown Estate Commissioners</a> had suggested that the premises might be suitable for the headquarters of cultural bodies. Florey inspected the property and lodged a formal application to occupy four houses on the site, numbers 6 to 9. Florey raised the money required to realise the architect Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Holford,_Baron_Holford" title="William Holford, Baron Holford">William Holford</a>'s vision for the interiors. While the government paid the rent and upkeep on the Royal Society's accommodation, about £45,000 in 1963 (equivalent to £1,190,000 in 2023), repairs and alterations were at the Royal Society's expense and ultimately came to around £850,000 (equivalent to £22,482,000 in 2023). The move was not completed during Florey's term of office; the new building was opened by Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a> on 21 November 1967.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971282–285-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984331–337-196">[196]</a> Florey pursued a more progressive and internationalist outlook for the Royal Society. He hosted <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> at a luncheon at Burlington House, and led Royal Society visits to Russia in 1965 and 1967. He saw that Britain's future lay in being part of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a>, and he established ties with the <a href="/wiki/European_Organization_for_Nuclear_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="European Organization for Nuclear Research">European Organization for Nuclear Research</a> (CERN), the <a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Organization" title="European Molecular Biology Organization">European Molecular Biology Organization</a> (EMBO) and the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Research_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="European Space Research Organization">European Space Research Organization</a> (ESRO).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984341–342-197">[197]</a> In 1959, the Royal Society provided for only one research fellowship, the Foulerton Professorship, but in 1961, at his suggestion, the Henry Dale Research Professorship was created for a researcher in physiology and pharmacology. Government funding was provided to create three more professorships in 1964, and another two in 1967. Reflecting his attempt to move with the times, a chair was established for the social sciences, and two new lecture series were instituted, for technology and the behavioural sciences. Aware of the acute danger of overpopulation that the life-saving drugs that he had pioneered could cause, he established a population study group, and in 1967, he became the president of the <a href="/wiki/Family_Planning_Association" title="Family Planning Association">Family Planning Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971282–285-192">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provost_of_Queen's_College,_Oxford">Provost of Queen's College, Oxford</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Provost of Queen's College, Oxford">edit</a>]</div> As he approached the age of sixty, Florey faced mandatory retirement. He had to vacate the university house he had occupied since 1935, which was subsequently demolished, with a new school erected on the site. He bought a parcel of land in <a href="/wiki/Marston,_Oxford" title="Marston, Oxford">Marston, Oxford</a>, and built a house on it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995271–272-198">[198]</a> No sooner had they moved in than Florey accepted the position of Provost of <a href="/wiki/The_Queen%27s_College,_Oxford" title="The Queen's College, Oxford">The Queen's College, Oxford</a>, to which he was elected on 25 June 1962,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984354-199">[199]</a> and he moved into the provost's lodgings. This meant relinquishing his chair at the Sir William Dunn School.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995277–278-200">[200]</a> He was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Harris_(scientist)" title="Henry Harris (scientist)">Henry Harris</a>, a fellow Australian scientist who had been invited to study at the Sir William Dunn School by Florey in 1952 on an ANU scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984319-201">[201]</a> Florey was the first provost of Queen's College with no prior association with the college as an undergraduate, graduate researcher or fellow, and the first scientist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984354-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971278–279-202">[202]</a> The role was closely associated with the academic establishment, of which he had been critical,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984346–347-203">[203]</a> but he could stay until 1971, the lodgings came with a housekeeper, and he could make use of its facilities to entertain visiting scientists and dignitaries. Florey had a lift installed to make it easier for Ethel and himself to reach the upstairs bedrooms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995277–278-200">[200]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Florey_Building_(3415375924).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/The_Florey_Building_%283415375924%29.jpg/220px-The_Florey_Building_%283415375924%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/The_Florey_Building_%283415375924%29.jpg/330px-The_Florey_Building_%283415375924%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/The_Florey_Building_%283415375924%29.jpg/440px-The_Florey_Building_%283415375924%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Florey_Building" title="Florey Building">Florey Building</a> in Oxford</figcaption></figure> Based on his own experience as a Rhodes Scholar, Florey created a version for European students. The European Studentship scheme provided support for graduates from eleven western European and Scandinavian countries with an annual stipend of £1,100 (equivalent to £23,000 in 2023) for two years. Florey raised the money for nine studentships. Florey did not live to see the first studentship awarded in 1969, and without him additional funding was not forthcoming and the money was exhausted by 1980. By then 76 students had benefited from the scheme, and they had published 15 books and 250 articles in peer-reviewed journals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984359–360-204">[204]</a> During his term as provost, there was a major construction program to provide enough accommodation for all undergraduates to be able to spend at least two years in residence. This involved three developments, the largest of which was Florey's personal project: the construction of a new building on the <a href="/wiki/River_Cherwell" title="River Cherwell">River Cherwell</a> at <a href="/wiki/St_Clement%27s,_Oxford" title="St Clement's, Oxford">St Clement's, Oxford</a>. The cost was substantial—the purchase price of the site alone was £500,000 (equivalent to £13,225,000 in 2023)—but Florey was accustomed to raising large sums of money. It was designed by the British architect Sir <a href="/wiki/James_Stirling_(architect)" title="James Stirling (architect)">James Stirling</a>. Florey died the day that construction work was scheduled to begin. When the building was opened in 1971, it was named the <a href="/wiki/Florey_Building" title="Florey Building">Florey Building</a> in his honour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984357–358-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Buildings were also named after Florey in Adelaide,<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> Melbourne,<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> and Canberra,<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> where his refurbished original John Curtin School of Medicine Building was renamed the Florey Building in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> Ethel Florey's health deteriorated. She had <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> and respiratory and heart problems, and walked with a stick. She travelled to Australia one more time in 1965 to give lectures on penicillin, but collapsed in Canberra and was hospitalised in Sydney. She recovered sufficiently to return to Oxford. When she found out that her son Charles was getting married at Fulton's house in New Haven in 1966, she wanted to attend. Florey refused to pay for this; if she collapsed in the United States the cost of medical care would be astronomical. Robert Webb, an American friend from the Cambridge days arranged for US$5,000 (equivalent to $47,000 in 2023) of insurance cover to allow her to attend.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979378–379-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel199524,_284–285-212">[212]</a> She died in Oxford on 10 October 1966.<a href="#cite_note-ADB-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> On 6 June 1967, Florey married Margaret Jennings at the Old Register Office in <a href="/wiki/St_Giles%27,_Oxford" title="St Giles', Oxford">St Giles', Oxford</a>, in a ceremony deliberately kept as quiet as possible. The only other persons present were Jim Kent and Cecilia Little, Jennings's housekeeper, who acted as witnesses. There was a small celebration in Florey's rooms at Queen's College and they honeymooned in the Caribbean before visiting Fulton in New Haven.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984373-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELax2015259-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honours_and_awards">Honours and awards</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Honours and awards">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Howard_Florey_1960_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Howard_Florey_1960_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Howard_Florey_1960_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Howard_Florey_1960_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Howard_Florey_1960_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Howard_Florey_1960_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Howard_Florey_1960_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="1334" /></a><figcaption>Florey in 1960</figcaption></figure> Florey was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Cameron_Prize_for_Therapeutics_of_the_University_of_Edinburgh" title="Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh">Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lister_Medal" title="Lister Medal">Lister Medal</a> in 1945, for his contributions to surgical science.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> The corresponding Lister Oration, given at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons_of_England" title="Royal College of Surgeons of England">Royal College of Surgeons of England</a> later that year, was titled "Use of Micro-organisms for Therapeutic Purposes".<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> He was awarded many honorary degrees from British and foreign universities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971292-218">[218]</a> including <a href="/wiki/University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="University of São Paulo">University of São Paulo</a> in Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> He won the Gold Medal of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Medicine" title="Royal Society of Medicine">Royal Society of Medicine</a> in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> He became a commander of the French <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a> in 1946 and was awarded the American <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> in 1948 and the <a href="/wiki/James_Smithson_Medal" title="James Smithson Medal">James Smithson Medal</a> in 1965.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971292-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Florey was elected to the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1963,<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> and was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> the following year.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> He became an honorary Fellow of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Surgeons" title="Royal College of Surgeons">Royal College of Surgeons</a> in 1961.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbraham1971282–285-192">[192]</a> On 4 February 1965, Florey was created a <a href="/wiki/Life_peer" title="Life peer">life peer</a> and became Baron Florey, of Adelaide in the Commonwealth of Australia and of Marston in the City of Oxford.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> This was a higher honour than the knighthood awarded to Sir Alexander Fleming, and it recognised the monumental work Florey had done in making penicillin available in sufficient quantities to save millions of lives. He was formally introduced to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> in April, sponsored by <a href="/wiki/John_Fremantle,_4th_Baron_Cottesloe" title="John Fremantle, 4th Baron Cottesloe">Lord Cottesloe</a>, Margaret Jennings's brother, and <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Lord Adrian</a>, one of Florey's predecessors as President of the Royal Society. On 15 July 1965 he was appointed a member of the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit" title="Order of Merit">Order of Merit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984362–363-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> Florey published his last scientific paper, co-written with Jennings, in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995288-228">[228]</a> He had written or co-written over two hundred papers.<a href="#cite_note-ADB-2">[2]</a> He died at his home at the provost's lodgings, of <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">congestive heart failure</a> on 21 February 1968.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979380-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984373-214">[214]</a> Although Florey was an agnostic,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984p._363."As_an_agnostic,_the_chapel_services_meant_nothing_to_Florey_but,_unlike_some_contemporary_scientists,_he_was_not_aggressive_in_his_disbelief."_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984p._363."As_an_agnostic,_the_chapel_services_meant_nothing_to_Florey_but,_unlike_some_contemporary_scientists,_he_was_not_aggressive_in_his_disbelief."-231">[231]</a> a funeral service was held in the St. Nicholas' parish church in Marston. A memorial plaque was placed on the outside wall near the entrance; the church refused to allow it to be placed inside because Florey had been so outspoken in his disbelief. A larger service at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> in London was attended by about 500 people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984373-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELax2015260-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> His remains were cremated.<a href="#cite_note-ADB-2">[2]</a> In 1980, Lady Hamilton Fairley, the widow of Sir <a href="/wiki/Neil_Hamilton_Fairley" title="Neil Hamilton Fairley">Neil Hamilton Fairley</a> began a campaign to have a memorial to Florey in London. The <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_South_Australia" title="Premier of South Australia">Premier of South Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Tonkin" title="David Tonkin">David Tonkin</a>, agreed to provide South Australian marble for a memorial stone. South Australian sculptor Paul Trappe was commissioned to engrave it from a design by John Peters. The 60-by-90-centimetre (24 by 35 in) stone was flown to London by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force" title="Royal Australian Air Force">Royal Australian Air Force</a>, and unveiled by Lady (Margaret) Florey on 2 November 1981.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1984375–376-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> The inscription on the stone reads:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> In grateful memory of HOWARD WALTER BARON FLOREY O.M. His vision, leadership and research made penicillin available to mankind. Born Adelaide 1898 Died Oxford 1968<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> </div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Posthumous_honours_and_legacy">Posthumous honours and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Posthumous honours and legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Howard_Florey_at_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Bust_of_Howard_Florey_at_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg/170px-Bust_of_Howard_Florey_at_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Bust_of_Howard_Florey_at_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg/255px-Bust_of_Howard_Florey_at_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Bust_of_Howard_Florey_at_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg/340px-Bust_of_Howard_Florey_at_John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Howard Florey by <a href="/wiki/John_Dowie_(artist)" title="John Dowie (artist)">John Dowie</a> in the <a href="/wiki/John_Curtin_School_of_Medical_Research" title="John Curtin School of Medical Research">John Curtin School of Medical Research</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a> </figcaption></figure> Florey's portrait appeared on the <a href="/wiki/Australian_fifty-dollar_note" title="Australian fifty-dollar note">Australian fifty-dollar note</a> for 22 years between 1973 and 1995. The note also depicted the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Penicillin notatum, mice used in penicillin experiments, colonies of mould inhibiting bacterial growth on a <a href="/wiki/Petri_dish" title="Petri dish">Petri dish</a>, and Heatley's assay method.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> The street of Florey Drive and <a href="/wiki/Florey,_Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Florey, Australian Capital Territory">suburb of Florey</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Australian Capital Territory">Australian Capital Territory</a>,<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Florey_Institute_of_Neuroscience_and_Mental_Health" title="Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health">Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Melbourne" title="University of Melbourne">University of Melbourne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria, Australia">Victoria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> the Florey Unit of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Berkshire_Hospital" title="Royal Berkshire Hospital">Royal Berkshire Hospital</a> in <a href="/wiki/Reading,_Berkshire" title="Reading, Berkshire">Reading, Berkshire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> the Florey Institute for Host–Pathogen Interactions at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a>,<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> and a lecture theatre in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Adelaide" title="University of Adelaide">University of Adelaide</a>'s medical school are named after him.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Florey" title="Electoral district of Florey">Electoral district of Florey</a>, a single-member <a href="/wiki/Electoral_districts_of_South_Australia" title="Electoral districts of South Australia">electoral district</a> for the <a href="/wiki/South_Australian_House_of_Assembly" title="South Australian House of Assembly">South Australian House of Assembly</a>, is also named after him.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> It was estimated that the development of penicillin saved over 80 million lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodward2009239-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_film">In film</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: In film">edit</a>]</div> Penicillin: The Magic Bullet is a 2006 Australian film production written by Gordon Glenn and financed by the <a href="/wiki/Film_Finance_Corporation_Australia" title="Film Finance Corporation Australia">Film Finance Corporation</a> and Arcimedia Productions in association with <a href="/wiki/Film_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Film Victoria">Film Victoria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Breaking The Mould is a 2009 historical drama that tells the story of the development of penicillin in the 1930s and 1940s, by the group of scientists at Oxford headed by Florey at the William Dunn School of Pathology. The film stars <a href="/wiki/Dominic_West" title="Dominic West">Dominic West</a> as Florey, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Lawson" title="Denis Lawson">Denis Lawson</a> as Fleming, and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Dimsdale" title="Oliver Dimsdale">Oliver Dimsdale</a> as Chain; and was written by <a href="/wiki/Kate_Brooke" title="Kate Brooke">Kate Brooke</a> and directed by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Hoar" title="Peter Hoar">Peter Hoar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBickel1995Back_cover-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBickel1995Back_cover_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBickel1995">Bickel 1995</a>, p. Back cover. </li> <li id="cite_note-ADB-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ADB_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADB_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADB_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADB_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADB_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADB_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADB_2-6">g</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFenner1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Fenner, Frank</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/florey-howard-walter-10206">"Florey, Howard Walter (Baron Florey) (1898–1968)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Dictionary_of_Biography" title="Australian Dictionary of Biography">Australian Dictionary of Biography</a>. Vol. 14. Canberra: Melbourne University Press. pp. 188–190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-522-84459-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-522-84459-7"><bdi>978-0-522-84459-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1833-7538">1833-7538</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70677943">70677943</a>. Retrieved 10 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Florey%2C+Howard+Walter+%28Baron+Florey%29+%281898%E2%80%931968%29&rft.btitle=Australian+Dictionary+of+Biography&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pages=188-190&rft.pub=Melbourne+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70677943&rft.issn=1833-7538&rft.isbn=978-0-522-84459-7&rft.aulast=Fenner&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadb.anu.edu.au%2Fbiography%2Fflorey-howard-walter-10206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197935-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197935_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197930–31-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197930–31_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197930–31_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohn" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cohn, Helen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eoas.info/biogs/P005815b.htm">"Gardner, Hilda Josephine (1890–1953)"</a>. Encyclopedia of Australian Science. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220401172450/https://www.eoas.info/biogs/P005815b.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2022. 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Vol. LI, no. 14193. South Australia. 11 December 1916. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103708/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/204683235">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 27 January 2023 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal&rft.atitle=College+Cricket&rft.volume=LI&rft.issue=14193&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1916-12-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article204683235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60608952">"College Football"</a>. <a href="/wiki/South_Australian_Register" title="South Australian Register">The Register</a>. Vol. LXXXI, no. 21, 742. South Australia. 15 July 1916. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103711/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/60608952">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 27 January 2023 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=College+Football.&rft.volume=LXXXI&rft.issue=21%2C+742&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1916-07-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article60608952&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article6455089">"Inter-Collegiate Tennis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Advertiser_(Adelaide)" title="The Advertiser (Adelaide)">The Advertiser</a>. Vol. LIX, no. 18, 093. South Australia. 9 October 1916. p. 11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103710/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/6455089">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. 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South Australia. 19 August 1916. p. 37. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103709/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/164670635">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 27 January 2023 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Observer&rft.atitle=Military+Appointments&rft.volume=LXXIII&rft.issue=5%2C+607&rft.pages=37&rft.date=1916-08-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article164670635&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197941–43-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197941–43_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197941–43_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197941–43_14-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, pp. 41–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article5543286">"University of Adelaide"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Advertiser_(Adelaide)" title="The Advertiser (Adelaide)">The Advertiser</a>. Vol. LIX, no. 18, 147. South Australia. 11 December 1916. p. 11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103708/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/5543286">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. 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South Australia. 27 December 1916. p. 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103709/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/124852630">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. 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South Australia. 17 September 1918. p. 6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103708/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/5591019">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 27 January 2023 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Advertiser&rft.atitle=Personal&rft.volume=LXI&rft.issue=18%2C+698&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1918-09-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article5591019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63417614">"University Sports"</a>. <a href="/wiki/South_Australian_Register" title="South Australian Register">The Register</a>. Vol. LXXXVI, no. 25, 250. South Australia. 14 May 1921. p. 10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025103710/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/63417614">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2023 – via National Library of Australia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=University+Sports&rft.volume=LXXXVI&rft.issue=25%2C+250&rft.pages=10&rft.date=1921-05-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article63417614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63038600">"Lawn Tennis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/South_Australian_Register" title="South Australian Register">The Register</a>. Vol. LXXXVI, no. 25, 221. South Australia. 11 April 1921. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025104250/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/63038600">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. 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Canberra: National Centre of Biography, <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-522-84459-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-522-84459-7"><bdi>978-0-522-84459-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1833-7538">1833-7538</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70677943">70677943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Florey%2C+Mary+Ethel+Hayter+%281900%E2%80%931966%29&rft.btitle=Australian+Dictionary+of+Biography&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=National+Centre+of+Biography%2C+Australian+National+University&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70677943&rft.issn=1833-7538&rft.isbn=978-0-522-84459-7&rft.aulast=Fenner&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadb.anu.edu.au%2Fbiography%2Fflorey-mary-ethel-hayter-10695&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams19849–10-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams19849–10_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams1984">Williams 1984</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197950–52-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197950–52_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, pp. 50–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article165915004">"Rhodes Scholar for 1921"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Observer_(Adelaide)" title="The Observer (Adelaide)">Observer</a>. 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South Australia. 1 December 1921. p. 10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025104213/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/63353466">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. 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Canberra: National Centre of Biography, <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-522-84459-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-522-84459-7"><bdi>978-0-522-84459-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1833-7538">1833-7538</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70677943">70677943</a>. Retrieved 14 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Girdlestone%2C+Henry+%281863%E2%80%931926%29&rft.btitle=Australian+Dictionary+of+Biography&rft.place=Canberra&rft.pub=National+Centre+of+Biography%2C+Australian+National+University&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70677943&rft.issn=1833-7538&rft.isbn=978-0-522-84459-7&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Selwyn+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adb.online.anu.edu.au%2Fbiogs%2Fgirdlestone-henry-6394%2Ftext10929.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197961-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197961_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETodman2008613-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETodman2008613_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTodman2008">Todman 2008</a>, p. 613. "His mentor was the neurophysiologist and Nobel Laureate, Sir Charles Sherrington who directed him in neuroscience research. Florey's initial studies on the cerebral circulation represent an original contribution to medical knowledge and highlight his remarkable scientific method. The mentorship and close personal relationship with Sherrington was a crucial factor in Florey's early research career." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197973–79-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane197973–79_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, pp. 73–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlorey1925" class="citation journal cs1">Florey, Howard (1 March 1925). "Microscopical Observations on the Circulation of the Blood in the Cerebral Cortex". 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Vol. LXXXIX, no. 26, 191. South Australia. 5 December 1924. p. 9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025104254/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/64060123">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. 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Vol. XCI, no. 26, 607. South Australia. 26 November 1926. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025104255/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/54821764">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. 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The Journal of Physiology. 62 (3): 267–272. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1113%2Fjphysiol.1927.sp002357">10.1113/jphysiol.1927.sp002357</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3751">0022-3751</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1514841">1514841</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16993848">16993848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Physiology&rft.atitle=Observations+on+the+Contractility+of+Lacteals+%E2%80%93+Part+I&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=267-272&rft.date=1927-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1514841%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0022-3751&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16993848&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1113%2Fjphysiol.1927.sp002357&rft.aulast=Florey&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1514841&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlorey1927" class="citation journal cs1">Florey, Howard (7 June 1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1514918">"Observations on the Contractility of Lacteals - Part II"</a>. 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(15 January 1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F119092a0">"Mr. T. S. P. Strangeways"</a>. Nature. 119 (92): 92. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927Natur.119...92R">1927Natur.119...92R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F119092a0">10.1038/119092a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4072016">4072016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Mr.+T.+S.+P.+Strangeways&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=92&rft.pages=92&rft.date=1927-01-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F119092a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4072016%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1927Natur.119...92R&rft.aulast=R&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F119092a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979151–153-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979151–153_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, pp. 151–153. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979199-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979199_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979151–152-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979151–152_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, pp. 151–152. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979155–156-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacfarlane1979155–156_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacfarlane1979">Macfarlane 1979</a>, pp. 155–156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198433–34-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams198433–34_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams1984">Williams 1984</a>, pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDruryFloreyFlorey1929" class="citation journal cs1">Drury, A. N.; Florey, H.; <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ethel_Florey" title="Mary Ethel Florey">Florey, M. E.</a> (23 October 1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1402856">"The vascular reactions of the colonic mucosa of the dog to fright"</a>. 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Retrieved 13 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Howard+Florey&rft.pub=Westminster+Abbey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westminster-abbey.org%2Fabbey-commemorations%2Fcommemorations%2Fhoward-florey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://museum.rba.gov.au/exhibitions/collection-spotlight/celebrating-science.html">"Collection Spotlight"</a>. Reserve Bank of Australia Museum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213194716/https://museum.rba.gov.au/exhibitions/collection-spotlight/celebrating-science.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 13 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Collection+Spotlight&rft.pub=Reserve+Bank+of+Australia+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuseum.rba.gov.au%2Fexhibitions%2Fcollection-spotlight%2Fcelebrating-science.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160427094349/http://museum.rba.gov.au/displays/rba-currency-reform/#inflation-and-the-note-issue">"Inflation and the Note Issue"</a>. Reserve Bank of Australia Museum. Reserve Bank of Australia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museum.rba.gov.au/displays/rba-currency-reform/#inflation-and-the-note-issue">the original</a> on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reserve+Bank+of+Australia+Museum&rft.atitle=Inflation+and+the+Note+Issue&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseum.rba.gov.au%2Fdisplays%2Frba-currency-reform%2F%23inflation-and-the-note-issue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://app.actmapi.act.gov.au/actmapi/index.html?viewer=pn">"Place name search"</a>. ACT Environment and Sustainable Development. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190518174021/http://app.actmapi.act.gov.au/actmapi/index.html?viewer=pn">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Place+name+search&rft.pub=ACT+Environment+and+Sustainable+Development&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapp.actmapi.act.gov.au%2Factmapi%2Findex.html%3Fviewer%3Dpn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> (not possible to link directly to search results) </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.florey.edu.au/about/history">"About Us | History"</a>. The Florey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191215170103/https://www.florey.edu.au/about/history">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Florey&rft.atitle=About+Us+%7C+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.florey.edu.au%2Fabout%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091021090735/http://www.royalberkshire.nhs.uk/wards__departments/s/sexual_health.aspx?theme=patient">"Sexual Health Department"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royalberkshire.nhs.uk/wards__departments/s/sexual_health.aspx?theme=Patient">the original</a> on 21 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sexual+Health+Department&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.royalberkshire.nhs.uk%2Fwards__departments%2Fs%2Fsexual_health.aspx%3Ftheme%3DPatient&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988">. royalberkshire.nhs.uk </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.floreyinstitute.com/">"The Florey Institute"</a>. University of Sheffield. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190607132554/http://www.floreyinstitute.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Florey+Institute&rft.pub=University+of+Sheffield&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.floreyinstitute.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/campuses/mapscurrent/north_terrace.pdf">"North Terrace Campus Map"</a> (PDF). University of Adelaide. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.adelaide.edu.au/campuses/mapscurrent/north_terrace.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=North+Terrace+Campus+Map&rft.pub=University+of+Adelaide&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.adelaide.edu.au%2Fcampuses%2Fmapscurrent%2Fnorth_terrace.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecsa.sa.gov.au/electoral-districts/electoral-district-profiles/florey">"Florey"</a>. Electoral Commission South Australia. Retrieved 25 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Florey&rft.pub=Electoral+Commission+South+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecsa.sa.gov.au%2Felectoral-districts%2Felectoral-district-profiles%2Fflorey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodward2009239-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodward2009239_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodward2009">Woodward 2009</a>, p. 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlenn" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Glenn, Gordon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/39074028">Penicillin: The Magic Bullet</a>. A Film Finance Corporation and Arcimedia Productions production in association with Film Victoria. National Library of Australia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801161304/https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/39074028">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2022 – via Trove.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Penicillin%3A+The+Magic+Bullet&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Australia&rft.aulast=Glenn&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrove.nla.gov.au%2Fversion%2F39074028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAddley2009" class="citation news cs1">Addley, Esther (30 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2009/jul/30/breaking-the-mould-silverville">"Breaking the Mould and Silverville"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221226031001/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2009/jul/30/breaking-the-mould-silverville">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2022. Retrieved 26 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Breaking+the+Mould+and+Silverville&rft.date=2009-07-30&rft.aulast=Addley&rft.aufirst=Esther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2F2009%2Fjul%2F30%2Fbreaking-the-mould-silverville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ly0t1">"Breaking the Mould: The Story of Penicillin"</a>. BBC Four. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230529234659/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00ly0t1">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Breaking+the+Mould%3A+The+Story+of+Penicillin&rft.pub=BBC+Four&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb00ly0t1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Abraham" title="Edward Abraham">Abraham, E. P.</a> (1971). "Howard Walter Florey. Baron Florey of Adelaide and Marston 1898–1968". <a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a>. 17: 255–302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1971.0011">10.1098/rsbm.1971.0011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-4606">0080-4606</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11615426">11615426</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29766722">29766722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Howard+Walter+Florey.+Baron+Florey+of+Adelaide+and+Marston+1898%E2%80%931968&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=255-302&rft.date=1971&rft.issn=0080-4606&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29766722%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11615426&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1971.0011&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=E.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickel1995" class="citation book cs1">Bickel, Lennard (1995) [1972]. 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New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-48419-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-48419-4"><bdi>978-0-312-48419-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12970320">12970320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+Ernst+Chain%3A+Penicillin+and+Beyond&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12970320&rft.isbn=978-0-312-48419-4&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Ronald+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeofernstchain0000clar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobby1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Lounsbury_Hobby" title="Gladys Lounsbury Hobby">Hobby, Gladys L.</a> (1985). Penicillin: Meeting the Challenge. New haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-03225-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-03225-0"><bdi>0-300-03225-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11157939">11157939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Penicillin%3A+Meeting+the+Challenge&rft.place=New+haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11157939&rft.isbn=0-300-03225-0&rft.aulast=Hobby&rft.aufirst=Gladys+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonas1989" class="citation book cs1">Jonas, Gerald (1989). The Circuit Riders: Rockefeller Money and the Rise of Modern Science. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02640-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02640-5"><bdi>978-0-393-02640-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17873576">17873576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Circuit+Riders%3A+Rockefeller+Money+and+the+Rise+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17873576&rft.isbn=978-0-393-02640-5&rft.aulast=Jonas&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLax2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Lax" title="Eric Lax">Lax, Eric</a> (2015). The Mold in Dr. Florey's Coat: The Story of the Penicillin Miracle. New York: Henry Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62779-644-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62779-644-6"><bdi>978-1-62779-644-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/910881004">910881004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mold+in+Dr.+Florey%27s+Coat%3A+The+Story+of+the+Penicillin+Miracle&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F910881004&rft.isbn=978-1-62779-644-6&rft.aulast=Lax&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacfarlane1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gwyn_Macfarlane" title="Robert Gwyn Macfarlane">Macfarlane, Gwyn</a> (1979). Howard Florey: The Making of a Great Scientist. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858161-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858161-1"><bdi>978-0-19-858161-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4835043">4835043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Howard+Florey%3A+The+Making+of+a+Great+Scientist&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4835043&rft.isbn=978-0-19-858161-1&rft.aulast=Macfarlane&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason2022" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brett_Mason" title="Brett Mason">Mason, Brett</a> (2022). Wizards of Oz: How Oliphant and Florey Helped Win the War and Shape the Modern World. Kensington, New South Wales: NewSouth Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74223-745-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74223-745-9"><bdi>978-1-74223-745-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1334109106">1334109106</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wizards+of+Oz%3A+How+Oliphant+and+Florey+Helped+Win+the+War+and+Shape+the+Modern+World&rft.place=Kensington%2C+New+South+Wales&rft.pub=NewSouth+Books&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1334109106&rft.isbn=978-1-74223-745-9&rft.aulast=Mason&rft.aufirst=Brett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2008" class="citation journal cs1">Matthews, John A. (December 2008). "The Birth of the Biotechnology Era: Penicillin in Australia 1943–80". Prometheus. 26 (4): 317–333. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08109020802459306">10.1080/08109020802459306</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1470-1030">1470-1030</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143123783">143123783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Prometheus&rft.atitle=The+Birth+of+the+Biotechnology+Era%3A+Penicillin+in+Australia+1943%E2%80%9380&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=317-333&rft.date=2008-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143123783%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1470-1030&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08109020802459306&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Sheehan" title="John C. Sheehan">Sheehan, John C.</a> (1982). The Enchanted Ring. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-19204-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-19204-7"><bdi>0-262-19204-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8170304">8170304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enchanted+Ring&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts+and+London%2C+England&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8170304&rft.isbn=0-262-19204-7&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Todman, Donald (2008). "Howard Florey and research on the cerebral circulation". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Clinical_Neuroscience" title="Journal of Clinical Neuroscience">Journal of Clinical Neuroscience</a>. 15 (6): 613–616. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jocn.2007.04.017">10.1016/j.jocn.2007.04.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0967-5868">0967-5868</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18280740">18280740</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40353145">40353145</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Howard+Florey+and+research+on+the+cerebral+circulation&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=613-616&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0967-5868&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40353145%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18280740&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jocn.2007.04.017&rft.aulast=Todman&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1984" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Trevor I. (1984). Howard Florey: Penicillin and After. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858173-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-858173-4"><bdi>978-0-19-858173-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10696385">10696385</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Howard+Florey%3A+Penicillin+and+After&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10696385&rft.isbn=978-0-19-858173-4&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Trevor+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1976" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, David (1976). Penicillin in Perspective. London: Faber & Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-571-10839-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-571-10839-3"><bdi>0-571-10839-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3091743">3091743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Penicillin+in+Perspective&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3091743&rft.isbn=0-571-10839-3&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodward2009" class="citation book cs1">Woodward, Billy (2009). "Howard Florey-Over 80 million Lives Saved". In Popkin, Gabriel (ed.). Scientists Greater Than Einstein. Fresno, California: Quill Driver Books. pp. 233–262. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884956-87-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884956-87-4"><bdi>978-1-884956-87-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/697068657">697068657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Howard+Florey-Over+80+million+Lives+Saved&rft.btitle=Scientists+Greater+Than+Einstein&rft.place=Fresno%2C+California&rft.pages=233-262&rft.pub=Quill+Driver+Books&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F697068657&rft.isbn=978-1-884956-87-4&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=Billy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Joklik" title="Wolfgang Joklik">Joklik, W. K.</a> (March 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffasebj.10.4.8647352">"The Story of Penicillin: The View from Oxford in the Early 1950s"</a>. The FASEB Journal. 10 (4): 525–528. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1096%2Ffasebj.10.4.8647352">10.1096/fasebj.10.4.8647352</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0892-6638">0892-6638</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8647352">8647352</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40758069">40758069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+FASEB+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Story+of+Penicillin%3A+The+View+from+Oxford+in+the+Early+1950s&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=525-528&rft.date=1996-03&rft.issn=0892-6638&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40758069%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8647352&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1096%2Ffasebj.10.4.8647352&rft.aulast=Joklik&rft.aufirst=W.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1096%252Ffasebj.10.4.8647352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">York, Barry (September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20120119224400/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/131760/20120120-0944/www.nla.gov.au/pub/nlanews/2001/sep01/sep01news.html">"Howard Florey and the development of penicillin"</a>. National Library of Australia News. XI (12): 18–20. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nla.gov.au/pub/nlanews/2001/sep01/sep01news.html">the original</a> on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Library+of+Australia+News&rft.atitle=Howard+Florey+and+the+development+of+penicillin&rft.volume=XI&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=18-20&rft.date=2001-09&rft.aulast=York&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nla.gov.au%2Fpub%2Fnlanews%2F2001%2Fsep01%2Fsep01news.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHoward+Florey" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Howard_Florey&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/341">Sir Howard Florey</a> on Nobelprize.org <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137106#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> including the Nobel Lecture, "Penicillin", 11 December 1945</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nla.gov.au/digital-classroom/year-9/use-and-influence-science/oral-histories/oral-history-sir-howard-florey">Oral History: Sir Howard Florey</a>—Interviewed by <a href="/wiki/Hazel_de_Berg" title="Hazel de Berg">Hazel de Berg</a> in 1967 (audio recording)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">3rd <a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_National_University_people#Chancellors" title="List of Australian National University people">Chancellor of the Australian National University</a> 1965–1968 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/H._C._Coombs" title="H. C. Coombs">H. C. Coombs</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid lightgreen">Professional and academic associations </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">51st <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">President of the Royal Society</a> 1960–1965 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1951–2000)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Keilin" title="David Keilin">David Keilin</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kluyver" title="Albert Kluyver">Albert Kluyver</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">E. T. Whittaker</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1956)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Howard Florey</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Edensor_Littlewood" title="John Edensor Littlewood">John Edensor Littlewood</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys" title="Harold Jeffreys">Harold Jeffreys</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes">Paul Fildes</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">Lawrence Bragg</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander R. Todd</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Pirie" title="Norman Pirie">Norman Pirie</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Nevill Francis Mott</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._V._D._Hodge" title="W. V. D. Hodge">W. V. D. Hodge</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Robert Porter</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)" title="Robin Hill (biochemist)">Robin Hill</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Michael Atiyah</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James D. Watson</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Charles_Frank" title="Frederick Charles Frank">Frederick Charles Frank</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cottrell" title="Alan Cottrell">Alan Cottrell</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Huxley" title="Hugh Huxley">Hugh Huxley</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lighthill" title="James Lighthill">James Lighthill</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_R._Battersby" title="Alan R. Battersby">Alan Battersby</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1901: <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil Behring</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Finsen</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Alphonse Laveran</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Emil Kocher</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Albrecht Kossel</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a></li> <li>1914: <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3bert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" class="mw-redirect" title="Róbert Bárány">Róbert Bárány</a></li> <li>1915</li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917</li> <li>1918</li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Jules Bordet</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a></li> <li>1921</li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Otto Meyerhof</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a></li> <li>1925</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Johannes Fibiger</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Christiaan Eijkman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a></li> <li>1931: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Warburg</a></li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Adrian</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgan</a></li> <li>1934: <a href="/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William Murphy</a></li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Hans Spemann</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Heymans</a></li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a></li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Henrik Dam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Edward Doisy</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Howard Florey</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Muller</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">Carl Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Paul Müller</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Hench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Lipmann</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Weller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Robbins</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Theorell" title="Hugo Theorell">Hugo Theorell</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Cournand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Edward Tatum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Burnet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Konrad Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Feodor_Lynen" title="Feodor Lynen">Feodor Lynen</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Rous</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Charles B. Huggins</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> / <a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Hartline</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Khorana</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Julius Axelrod</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland_Jr." title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.">Earl Sutherland Jr.</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Albert Claude</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Christian de Duve</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Palade</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Temin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Blumberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Daniel Gajdusek</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew Schally</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Werner Arber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_O._Smith" title="Hamilton O. Smith">Hamilton O. Smith</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Allan_MacLeod_Cormack" title="Allan MacLeod Cormack">Allan Cormack</a> / <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Godfrey Hounsfield</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Snell</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Sune Bergström</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bengt_I._Samuelsson" title="Bengt I. Samuelsson">Bengt I. Samuelsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">John Vane</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Jerne</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges Köhler</a> / <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Michael Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">James W. Black</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_H._Hitchings" title="George H. Hitchings">George H. Hitchings</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Varmus" title="Harold E. Varmus">Harold E. Varmus</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> / <a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Erwin Neher</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Bert Sakmann</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Edmond_H._Fischer" title="Edmond H. Fischer">Edmond Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Krebs" title="Edwin G. Krebs">Edwin G. Krebs</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> / <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Sharp</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman" title="Alfred G. Gilman">Alfred G. Gilman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Martin Rodbell</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_F._Wieschaus" title="Eric F. Wieschaus">Eric F. Wieschaus</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Doherty">Peter C. Doherty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rolf_M._Zinkernagel" title="Rolf M. Zinkernagel">Rolf M. Zinkernagel</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Robert F. Furchgott</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Louis Ignarro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Ferid Murad</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Günter Blobel</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Leland_H._Hartwell" title="Leland H. Hartwell">Leland H. Hartwell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Tim Hunt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Paul Nurse</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> / <a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">H. Robert Horvitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John E. Sulston</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Andrew Fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edwards_(physiologist)" title="Robert Edwards (physiologist)">Robert G. Edwards</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (posthumously)</li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/John_Gurdon" title="John Gurdon">John Gurdon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Shinya Yamanaka</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James Rothman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Randy Schekman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas C. Südhof">Thomas C. Südhof</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> / <a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/William_C._Campbell_(scientist)" title="William C. Campbell (scientist)">William C. Campbell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_%C5%8Cmura" title="Satoshi Ōmura">Satoshi Ōmura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/Yoshinori_Ohsumi" title="Yoshinori Ohsumi">Yoshinori Ohsumi</a></li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Jeffrey C. Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Michael Rosbash</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Michael W. Young</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">James P. Allison</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Tasuku Honjo</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Gregg_L._Semenza" title="Gregg L. Semenza">Gregg L. Semenza</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Ratcliffe" title="Peter J. Ratcliffe">Peter J. Ratcliffe</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Kaelin_Jr." title="William Kaelin Jr.">William Kaelin Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter" title="Harvey J. Alter">Harvey J. Alter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Houghton_(virologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Houghton (virologist)">Michael Houghton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Rice" title="Charles M. Rice">Charles M. Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">David Julius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Ardem Patapoutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a> / <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ambros" title="Victor Ambros">Victor Ambros</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ruvkun" title="Gary Ruvkun">Gary Ruvkun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:1945_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1945 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1945_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1945 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1945_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1945 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artturi_Ilmari_Virtanen" title="Artturi Ilmari Virtanen">Artturi Ilmari Virtanen</a> (Finland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1945_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1945 Nobel Prize in Literature">1945</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gabriela_Mistral" title="Gabriela Mistral">Gabriela Mistral</a> (Chile)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> (Austria)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Boris Chain</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Howard Florey</a> (Australia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1940_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1940 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1940</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1941_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1941 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1941</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:1942_Nobel_Prize_winners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:1942 Nobel Prize winners (page does not exist)">1942</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1943_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1943 Nobel Prize winners">1943</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1944_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1944 Nobel Prize winners">1944</a></dd> <dd>1945 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1946_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1946 Nobel Prize winners">1946</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1947_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1947 Nobel Prize winners">1947</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1948_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1948 Nobel Prize winners">1948</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1949_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1949 Nobel Prize winners">1949</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1950_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1950 Nobel Prize winners">1950</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chancellors_of_Australian_National_University" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Australian_National_University_chancellors" title="Template:Australian National University chancellors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Australian_National_University_chancellors" title="Template talk:Australian National University chancellors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Australian_National_University_chancellors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Australian National University chancellors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chancellors_of_Australian_National_University" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_National_University_people#Chancellors" title="List of Australian National University people">Chancellors of Australian National University</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Bruce" title="Stanley Bruce">Stanley Bruce</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a> (1961)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Baron Florey</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._C._Coombs" title="H. C. Coombs">H. C. Coombs</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Crawford_(economist)" title="John Crawford (economist)">John Crawford</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Blackburn" title="Richard Blackburn">Richard Blackburn</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Jackson_(businessman)" title="Gordon Jackson (businessman)">Gordon Jackson</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Yeend" title="Geoffrey Yeend">Geoffrey Yeend</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Baume" title="Peter Baume">Peter Baume</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Hawke" title="Allan Hawke">Allan Hawke</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Beazley" title="Kim Beazley">Kim Beazley</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gareth_Evans_(politician)" title="Gareth Evans (politician)">Gareth Evans</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julie_Bishop" title="Julie Bishop">Julie Bishop</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template talk:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">Presidents</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Brouncker,_2nd_Viscount_Brouncker" title="William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker">Viscount Brouncker</a> (1662)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Williamson_(English_politician)" title="Joseph Williamson (English politician)">Joseph Williamson</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> (1680)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Hoskyns,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir John Hoskyns, 2nd Baronet">John Hoskyns</a> (1682)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Wyche" title="Cyril Wyche">Cyril Wyche</a> (1683)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> (1684)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Vaughan,_3rd_Earl_of_Carbery" title="John Vaughan, 3rd Earl of Carbery">Earl of Carbery</a> (1686)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Herbert,_8th_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Southwell_(diplomat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Southwell (diplomat)">Robert Southwell</a> (1690)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Montagu,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax">Charles Montagu</a> (1695)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers" title="John Somers, 1st Baron Somers">Lord Somers</a> (1698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1703)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a> (1727)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Folkes" title="Martin Folkes">Martin Folkes</a> (1741)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Parker,_2nd_Earl_of_Macclesfield" title="George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield">Earl of Macclesfield</a> (1752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Douglas,_14th_Earl_of_Morton" title="James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton">Earl of Morton</a> (1764)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_West_(antiquary)" title="James West (antiquary)">James West</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pringle_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pringle (physician)">John Pringle</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a> (1778)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davies_Gilbert" title="Davies Gilbert">Davies Gilbert</a> (1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Augustus_Frederick,_Duke_of_Sussex" title="Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex">Duke of Sussex</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Compton,_2nd_Marquess_of_Northampton" title="Spencer Compton, 2nd Marquess of Northampton">Marquess of Northampton</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Parsons,_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse" title="William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse">Earl of Rosse</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wrottesley,_2nd_Baron_Wrottesley" title="John Wrottesley, 2nd Baron Wrottesley">Lord Wrottesley</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet">Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Spottiswoode" title="William Spottiswoode">William Spottiswoode</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Gabriel Stokes</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> (1895)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Huggins" title="William Huggins">William Huggins</a> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Geikie" title="Archibald Geikie">Archibald Geikie</a> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(organic_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Robinson (organic chemist)">Robert Robinson</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian,_1st_Baron_Adrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian">Lord Adrian</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1955)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Howard Florey</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Lord Todd</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Sir Michael Atiyah</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Sir Aaron Klug</a> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_May,_Baron_May_of_Oxford" title="Robert May, Baron May of Oxford">Lord May</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees,_Baron_Rees_of_Ludlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow">Lord Rees</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Sir Paul Nurse</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venki Ramakrishnan</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(statistician)" title="Adrian Smith (statistician)">Adrian Smith</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="James_Smithson_Medal_recipients" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:James_Smithson_Medal_recipients" title="Template:James Smithson Medal recipients"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:James_Smithson_Medal_recipients" title="Template talk:James Smithson Medal recipients"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:James_Smithson_Medal_recipients" title="Special:EditPage/Template:James Smithson Medal recipients"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="James_Smithson_Medal_recipients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/James_Smithson_Medal" title="James Smithson Medal">James Smithson Medal recipients</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1965: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Howard Florey</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Preston_Richardson" title="Edgar Preston Richardson">Edgar Preston Richardson</a></li> <li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Julie_Johnson_Kidd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julie Johnson Kidd (page does not exist)">Julie Johnson Kidd</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Robert_McCormick_Adams_Jr." title="Robert McCormick Adams Jr.">Robert McCormick Adams Jr.</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Ira_Michael_Heyman" title="Ira Michael Heyman">Ira Michael Heyman</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/G._Wayne_Clough" title="G. Wayne Clough">G. Wayne Clough</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Warren_Winiarski" title="Warren Winiarski">Warren Winiarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137106#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137106#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137106#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000083629613">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/20520673">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/127188/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmdy3jGWDXcybGBQbFtKd">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/120773945">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n83312471">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16616357g">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16616357g">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00620668">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UBOV073980">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35910717">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000079403&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1271546">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070996091">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90155051">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC202310967">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/wt799b8f0vs29t2">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007276598605171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02751183?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6505886552">Scopus</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/32506df2-c012-47d3-b455-e91c1d64cdeb">MusicBrainz</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/582921">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/florey-howard-walter-10206">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd120773945.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/073464880">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w64x59cx">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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Template:Cite_journal"," 6.13% 158.399 18 Template:Inflation/UK"," 5.94% 153.477 36 Template:Inflation/UK/dataset"," 5.04% 130.185 28 Template:Cite_news"," 4.66% 120.318 6 Template:Ublist"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.404","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16835049,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREF\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbraham1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbrahamBakerChainFlorey1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbrahamChain1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbrahamChain1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbrahamChainFletcherFlorey1941\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAddley2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBickel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBo2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChain1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChainFloreyAdelaideGardner1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDruryFloreyFlorey1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEpsteinChain1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFenner1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFlorey1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlorey1927\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFlorey1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlorey1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlorey1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloreyHardingFildes1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloreySzent-GyörgyiFlorey1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlenn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobby1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonas1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJudson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLax2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacfarlane1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthews2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrtiz-Hidalgo1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPullingerFlorey1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheehan1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSutherland1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSutherlandTenkate1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTodman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodward2009\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"1945 Nobel Prize winners\"] = 1,\n [\"Australian National University chancellors\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AuDB\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite interview\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 29,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 25,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 7,\n [\"Copley Medallists 1951-2000\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Florey, Howard Walter\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"HMHS\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 26,\n [\"Infobox scientist\"] = 1,\n [\"James Smithson Medal recipients\"] = 1,\n [\"London Gazette\"] = 3,\n [\"Longitem\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 2,\n [\"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1926-1950\"] = 1,\n [\"Nobelprize\"] = 2,\n [\"Nobold\"] = 1,\n [\"Portalbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Post-nominals\"] = 2,\n [\"RMS\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Royal Society presidents 1900s\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aca\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 2,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 2,\n [\"S-break\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-npo\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 2,\n [\"SS\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 209,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Ublist\"] = 6,\n [\"Use Australian English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","460","27.7"],["?","260","15.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","260","15.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","7.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","3.6"],["type","60","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","40","2.4"],["date","40","2.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","40","2.4"],["[others]","240","14.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-s9c2f","timestamp":"20241125133802","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Howard Florey","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Howard_Florey","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q137106","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q137106","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-25T15:51:15Z","dateModified":"2024-09-24T17:28:00Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0d\/Sir_Howard_Florey.jpg","headline":"Australian pathologist (1898-1968)"}</script> </body> </html>