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towns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities_and_towns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Countryside" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Countryside"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Countryside </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countryside-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_and_cultural_setting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_and_cultural_setting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Political and cultural setting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_and_cultural_setting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statutory_rules_and_nationalist_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statutory_rules_and_nationalist_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Statutory rules and nationalist opposition 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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Regulamentul Organic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" > 13 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_(%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%BA%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82)" title="القانون الأساسي (البغدان والأفلاق) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="القانون الأساسي (البغدان والأفلاق)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Органик регламент – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Органик регламент" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Арганічны рэглямэнт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Арганічны рэглямэнт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Органически регламент – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Органически регламент" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisches_Reglement" title="Organisches Reglement – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Organisches Reglement" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulamentul_Organic" title="Regulamentul Organic – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Regulamentul Organic" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulamentul_Organic" title="Regulamentul Organic – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Regulamentul Organic" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulamentul_Organic" title="Regulamentul Organic – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Regulamentul Organic" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%99" title="התקנון האורגני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התקנון האורגני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulamentul_Organic" title="Regulamentul Organic – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Regulamentul Organic" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulamentul_organic" title="Regulamentul organic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Regulamentul organic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Wallachian_Regulamentul_organic_1832.png/220px-Wallachian_Regulamentul_organic_1832.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Wallachian_Regulamentul_organic_1832.png/330px-Wallachian_Regulamentul_organic_1832.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Wallachian_Regulamentul_organic_1832.png/440px-Wallachian_Regulamentul_organic_1832.png 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="1546" /></a><figcaption>1832 <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachian</a> copy of Regulamentul Organic (printed РEГUЛAMENTUЛ OРГANIK in the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_transitional_alphabet" title="Romanian transitional alphabet">Romanian transitional alphabet</a>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moldavian_copy_of_Regulamentul_Organic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Moldavian_copy_of_Regulamentul_Organic.png/220px-Moldavian_copy_of_Regulamentul_Organic.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Moldavian_copy_of_Regulamentul_Organic.png/330px-Moldavian_copy_of_Regulamentul_Organic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Moldavian_copy_of_Regulamentul_Organic.png/440px-Moldavian_copy_of_Regulamentul_Organic.png 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3074" /></a><figcaption>1846 <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavian</a> copy of the document (printed РEГЛЕМЕNТꙋЛ OРГANIK in the transitional alphabet)</figcaption></figure> Regulamentul Organic (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Romanian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Romanian" title="Help:IPA/Romanian">[reɡulaˈmentul orˈɡanik]</a>, English: Organic Regulation; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Règlement Organique; <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Органический регламент, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Organichesky reglament)<a href="#cite_note-name_Djuvara_323-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_123-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_203-3">[3]</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Romania" title="Constitution of Romania">quasi-constitutional</a> <a href="/wiki/Organic_law" title="Organic law">organic law</a> enforced in 1831–1832 by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial Russian</a> authorities in <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> (the two <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a> that were to become the basis of the modern <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania"> Romanian state</a>). The document partially confirmed the traditional government, including rule by the <a href="/wiki/Hospodar" title="Hospodar">hospodars</a>, and set up a common Russian <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> which lasted until 1854. The Regulament itself remained in force until 1858. <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservative</a> in its scope, it also engendered a period of unprecedented reforms which provided a setting for the <a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a> of the local society. The Regulament offered the two Principalities their first common system of government. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Romania" title="Category:History of Romania">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">History of Romania</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Romania.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Romania"><img alt="Coat of arms of Romania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Coat_of_arms_of_Romania.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Coat_of_arms_of_Romania.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Coat_of_arms_of_Romania.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="970" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistory of Romania">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni–Trypillia culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamangia_culture" title="Hamangia culture">Hamangia culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_in_Romania" title="Bronze Age in Romania">Bronze Age in Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Transylvania" title="Prehistory of Transylvania">Prehistory of Transylvania</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_Antiquity" title="Romania in Antiquity">Antiquity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Dacian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Roman Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Romanians" title="Origin of the Romanians">Origin of the Romanians</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Transylvania" title="History of Transylvania">History of Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banat_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Banat in the Middle Ages">Banat in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voivodeship_of_Maramure%C8%99" title="Voivodeship of Maramureș">Voivodeship of Maramureș</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Wallachia" title="Founding of Wallachia">Founding of Wallachia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Moldavia" title="Founding of Moldavia">Founding of Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumelia_Eyalet" title="Rumelia Eyalet">Rumelia Eyalet</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Romania">Early Modern Times</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silistra_Eyalet" title="Silistra Eyalet">Silistra Eyalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1570%E2%80%931711)" title="Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)">Principality of Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyalet_of_Temesvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyalet of Temesvar">Eyalet of Temesvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varat_Eyalet" title="Varat Eyalet">Varat Eyalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanariotes">Phanariotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">National Awakening</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_School" title="Transylvanian School">Transylvanian School</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Organic Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Moldavian Revolution of 1848">1848 Moldavian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Wallachian Revolution of 1848">1848 Wallachian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danube_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube Vilayet">Danube Vilayet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Principalities" class="mw-redirect" title="United Principalities">United Principalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asocia%C8%9Bia_Transilvan%C4%83_pentru_Literatura_Rom%C3%A2n%C4%83_%C8%99i_Cultura_Poporului_Rom%C3%A2n" class="mw-redirect" title="Asociația Transilvană pentru Literatura Română și Cultura Poporului Român">ASTRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_War_of_Independence" title="Romanian War of Independence">War of Independence</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Kingdom of Romania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_I" title="Romania in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Bessarabia_with_Romania" title="Union of Bessarabia with Romania">Union with Bessarabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Bukovina_with_Romania" title="Union of Bukovina with Romania">Union with Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Transylvania_with_Romania" title="Union of Transylvania with Romania">Union with Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Romania" title="Greater Romania">Greater Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania_under_Fascism" title="Kingdom of Romania under Fascism">Fascist Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">World War II</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Soviet occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Post-Revolution</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania_since_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Romania since 1989">Romania since 1989</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Romania">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romanian" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Romanian">Romanian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Romanian_history" title="Timeline of Romanian history">Historical timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Romania" title="Military history of Romania">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Romania" title="History of Christianity in Romania">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in Romania">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_Romania" title="Historical regions of Romania">By historical region</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banat" title="Banat">Banat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cri%C8%99ana" title="Crișana">Crișana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobruja" title="Dobruja">Dobruja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maramure%C8%99" title="History of Maramureș">Maramureș</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muntenia" title="Muntenia">Muntenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oltenia" title="Oltenia">Oltenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Transylvania" title="History of Transylvania">Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/16px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Romania" title="Template talk:History of Romania"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Romania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Romania"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Russo-Turkish Wars">History of the Russo-Turkish Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phanariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanariotes">Phanariotes</a></div> The two principalities, owing <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> and progressively ceding political control to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> had been subject to frequent Russian interventions as early as the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1710%E2%80%931711)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)">Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)</a>,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> when a Russian army penetrated Moldavia and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian rulers">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_I_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter I of Russia">Peter the Great</a> probably established links with the Wallachians.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Eventually, the Ottomans enforced a tighter control on the region, effected under <a href="/wiki/Phanariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanariotes">Phanariote</a> hospodars (who were appointed directly by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Porte">Porte</a>).<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Ottoman rule over the region remained contested by competition from Russia, which, as an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> empire with claim to a <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> heritage, exercised notable influence over locals.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> At the same time, the Porte made several concessions to the rulers and boyars of Moldavia and Wallachia, as a means to ensure the preservation of its rule.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Kaynarca" title="Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca">Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca</a>, signed in 1774 between the Ottomans and Russians, gave Russia the right to intervene on behalf of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects in general, a right which it used to sanction Ottoman interventions in the Principalities in particular.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Thus, Russia intervened to preserve reigns of hospodars who had lost Ottoman approval in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)">1806–12 conflict</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_282-4-11">[11]</a> and remained present in the Danubian states, vying for influence with the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>, well into the 19th century and annexing Moldavia's <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> in 1812.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Despite the influx of <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Romania" title="Greeks in Romania">Greeks</a>, arriving in the Principalities as a new <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> favored by the hospodars, the traditional <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Estates of the realm</a> (the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sfatul_boieresc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sfatul boieresc (page does not exist)">Divan</a>) remained under the tight control of a number of high <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyar</a> families, who, while intermarrying with members of newly arrived communities, opposed reformist attempts—and successfully preserved their <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(legal_ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege (legal ethics)">privileges</a> by appealing against their competitors to both <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rom1793-1812.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rom1793-1812.png/220px-Rom1793-1812.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rom1793-1812.png/330px-Rom1793-1812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rom1793-1812.png/440px-Rom1793-1812.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Moldavia (in orange) and Wallachia (in green), between 1793 and 1812[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> In the last decades of the 18th century, the growing strategic importance of the region brought about the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Consul_(representative)" title="Consul (representative)">consulates</a> representing European powers directly interested in observing local developments (Russia, the Austrian Empire, and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>; later, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussian</a> ones were opened as well).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorga-15">[15]</a> An additional way for consuls to exercise particular policies was the awarding of a privileged status and protection to various individuals, who were known as <a href="/wiki/Sudi%C8%9Bi" title="Sudiți">sudiți</a> ("subjects", in the language of the time) of one or the other of the foreign powers.<a href="#cite_note-Iorga-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_288-17">[17]</a> A seminal event occurred in 1821, when the rise of Greek <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> in various parts of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> in connection with the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> led to occupation of the two states by the <a href="/wiki/Filiki_Eteria" title="Filiki Eteria">Filiki Eteria</a>, a Greek <a href="/wiki/Secret_society" title="Secret society">secret society</a> who sought, and initially obtained, Russian approval. A mere takeover of the government in Moldavia, the Eterist expedition met a more complex situation in Wallachia, where a <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regency</a> of high boyars attempted to have the anti-Ottoman Greek nationalists confirm both their rule and the rejection of Phanariote institutions. A compromise was achieved through their common support for <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vladimirescu" title="Tudor Vladimirescu">Tudor Vladimirescu</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Oltenia" title="Oltenia">Oltenian</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vladimirescu%27s_Pandur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vladimirescu's Pandur (page does not exist)">pandur</a> leader who had already instigated an <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_uprising_of_1821" title="Wallachian uprising of 1821">anti-Phanariote rebellion</a> (as one of the Russian sudiți, it was hoped that Vladimirescu could assure Russia that the revolt was not aimed against its influence). However, the eventual withdrawal of Russian support made Vladimirescu seek a new agreement with the Ottomans, leaving him to be executed by an alliance of Eterists and weary locals (alarmed by his new anti-boyar program); after the Ottomans invaded the region and crushed the Eteria, the boyars, still perceived as a third party, obtained from the Porte an end to the Phanariote system.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_114-5-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_178-91-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Akkerman_Convention_and_Treaty_of_Adrianople">Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Akkerman Convention and Treaty of Adrianople">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Akkerman_Convention" title="Akkerman Convention">Akkerman Convention</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Adrianople_(1829)" title="Treaty of Adrianople (1829)">Treaty of Adrianople (1829)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galatzi_1826.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Galatzi_1826.jpg/220px-Galatzi_1826.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Galatzi_1826.jpg/330px-Galatzi_1826.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Galatzi_1826.jpg/440px-Galatzi_1826.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavian</a> <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> port of <a href="/wiki/Gala%C8%9Bi" title="Galați">Galați</a> (1826)</figcaption></figure> The first reigns through locals—<a href="/wiki/Ioan_Sturdza" title="Ioan Sturdza">Ioniță Sandu Sturdza</a> as <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Moldavia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Moldavia">Prince of Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grigore_IV_Ghica" title="Grigore IV Ghica">Grigore IV Ghica</a> as <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wallachia">Prince of Wallachia</a>—were, in essence, short-lived: although the <a href="/wiki/Clientelism" title="Clientelism">patron-client relation</a> between Phanariote hospodars and a foreign ruler was never revived, Sturdza and Ghica were deposed by the Russian military intervention during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War,_1828%E2%80%931829" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829">Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829</a>. Sturdza's time on the throne was marked by an important internal development: the last in a series of constitutional proposals,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rußo_VI-VII-23">[23]</a> advanced by boyars as a means to curb princely authority, ended in a clear conflict between the rapidly decaying class of low-ranking boyars (already forming the upper level of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> rather than a segment of the traditional nobility) and the high-ranking families who had obtained the decisive say in politics. The proponent, <a href="/wiki/Ionic%C4%83_T%C4%83utu" title="Ionică Tăutu">Ionică Tăutu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> was defeated in the Divan after the Russian consul sided with the conservatives (expressing the official view that the <a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">aristocratic-republican</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberal</a> aims of the document could have threatened international conventions in place).<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> On October 7, 1826, the Ottoman Empire—anxious to prevent Russia's intervention in the Greek Independence War—negotiated with it a new status for the region in <a href="/wiki/Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi" title="Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi">Akkerman</a>, one which conceded to several requests of the inhabitants: the resulting <a href="/wiki/Akkerman_Convention" title="Akkerman Convention">Akkerman Convention</a> was the first official document to nullify the principle of Phanariote reigns, instituting seven-year terms for new princes elected by the respective Divans, and awarding the two countries the right to engage in unrestricted <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> (as opposed to the tradition of limitations and Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a>, it only allowed Istanbul to impose its priorities in the <a href="/wiki/Grain_trade" title="Grain trade">grain trade</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_320-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_198-9-27">[27]</a> The convention also made the first mention of new Statutes, enforced by both powers as governing documents, which were not drafted until after the war—although both Sturdza and Ghica had appointed commissions charged with adopting such projects.<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_323-28">[28]</a> The Russian military presence on the Principalities' soil was inaugurated in the first days of the war: by late April 1828, the Russian army of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Wittgenstein" title="Peter Wittgenstein">Peter Wittgenstein</a> had reached the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> (in May, it entered present-day <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_320-26">[26]</a> The campaign, prolonged for the following year and coinciding with devastating <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> epidemics (which together killed around 1.6% of the population in both countries),<a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_122-29">[29]</a> soon became a drain on local economy:<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> according to British observers, the Wallachian state was required to indebt itself to European creditors for a total sum of ten million <a href="/wiki/Piastre" title="Piastre">piastres</a>, in order to provide for the Russian army's needs.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Accusations of widespread plunder were made by the French author <a href="/wiki/Marc_Girardin" title="Marc Girardin">Marc Girardin</a>, who travelled in the region during the 1830s; Girardin alleged that Russian troops had confiscated virtually all cattle for their needs, and that Russian officers had insulted the political class by publicly stating that, in case the supply in oxen was to prove insufficient, boyars were to be tied to carts in their place—an accusation backed by <a href="/wiki/Ion_Ghica" title="Ion Ghica">Ion Ghica</a> in his recollections.<a href="#cite_note-:0-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Girardin_321-33">[33]</a> He also recorded a mounting dissatisfaction with the new rule, mentioning that peasants were especially upset by the continuous maneuvers of troops inside the Principalities' borders.<a href="#cite_note-Girardin_323-34">[34]</a> Overall, <a href="/wiki/Russophilia" title="Russophilia">Russophilia</a> in the two Principalities appears to have suffered a major blow.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_51-35">[35]</a> Despite the confiscations, statistics of the time indicated that the pace of growth in heads of cattle remained steady (a 50% growth appears to have occurred between 1831 and 1837).<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Adrianople_(1829)" title="Treaty of Adrianople (1829)">Treaty of Adrianople</a>, signed on September 14, 1829, confirmed both the Russian victory and the provisions of the Akkerman Convention, partly amended to reflect the Russian political ascendancy over the area. Furthermore, Wallachia's southern border was settled on the Danube <a href="/wiki/Thalweg" title="Thalweg">thalweg</a>, and the state was given control over the previously Ottoman-ruled ports of <a href="/wiki/Br%C4%83ila" title="Brăila">Brăila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giurgiu" title="Giurgiu">Giurgiu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turnu_M%C4%83gurele" title="Turnu Măgurele">Turnu Măgurele</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_323-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_122_127-37">[37]</a> The freedom of commerce (which consisted mainly of grain exports from the region) and freedom of navigation on the river and on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> were passed into law, allowing for the creation of <a href="/wiki/Naval_fleet" title="Naval fleet">naval fleets</a> in both Principalities in the following years, as well as for a more direct contact with European traders, with the confirmation of the Moldavia and Wallachia's commercial privileges first stipulated at Akkerman (alongside the tight links soon established with Austrian and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Piedmont-Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia">Sardinian</a> traders, the first French ships visited Wallachia in 1830).<a href="#cite_note-Iorga-15">[15]</a> Russian occupation over Moldavia and Wallachia (as well as the Bulgarian town of <a href="/wiki/Silistra" title="Silistra">Silistra</a>) was prolonged pending the payment of <a href="/wiki/War_reparation" class="mw-redirect" title="War reparation">war reparations</a> by the Ottomans. <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Russia">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Nicholas I</a> assigned <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Petrovich_Pahlen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fyodor Petrovich Pahlen">Fyodor Pahlen</a> as governor over the two countries before the actual peace, as the first in a succession of three Plenipotentiary Presidents of the Divans in Moldavia and Wallachia,<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_122-29">[29]</a> and official supervisor of the two commissions charged with drafting the Statutes. The bodies, having for secretaries <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Asachi" title="Gheorghe Asachi">Gheorghe Asachi</a> in Moldavia and <a href="/wiki/Barbu_Dimitrie_%C8%98tirbei" title="Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei">Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei</a> in Wallachia, had resumed their work while the cholera epidemic was still raging, and continued it after Pahlen had been replaced with <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Zheltukhin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyotr Zheltukhin">Pyotr Zheltukhin</a> in February 1829.<a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_123-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adoption_and_character">Adoption and character</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Adoption and character">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kiseleff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kiseleff.jpg/170px-Kiseleff.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kiseleff.jpg/255px-Kiseleff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kiseleff.jpg/340px-Kiseleff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="1478" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Kiselyov" title="Pavel Kiselyov">Pavel Kiselyov</a></figcaption></figure> The post-Adrianople state of affairs was perceived by many of the inhabitants of Wallachia and Moldavia as exceptionally abusive, given that Russia confiscated both of the Principalities' <a href="/wiki/Treasury" title="Treasury">treasuries</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> and that Zheltukhin used his position to interfere in the proceedings of the commission, nominated his own choice of members, and silenced all opposition by having anti-Russian boyars expelled from the countries (including, notably, <a href="/wiki/Iancu_V%C4%83c%C4%83rescu" title="Iancu Văcărescu">Iancu Văcărescu</a>, a member of the Wallachian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sfatul_boieresc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sfatul boieresc (page does not exist)">Divan</a> who had questioned his methods of government).<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_323-28">[28]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> Ghica, "General Zheltukhin [and his subordinates] defended all Russian abuse and injustice. Their system consisted in never listening to complaints, but rather rushing in with accusations, so as to inspire fear, so as the plaintiff would run away for fear of not having to endure a harsher thing than the cause of his [original] complaint". However, the same source also indicated that this behaviour was hiding a more complex situation: "Those who nevertheless knew Zheltukhin better… said that he was the fairest, most honest, and most kind of men, and that he gave his cruel orders with an aching heart. Many gave assurance that he had addressed to the emperor heart-breaking reports on the deplorable state in which the Principalities were to be found, in which he stated that Russia's actions in the Principalities deserved the scorn of the entire world".<a href="#cite_note-:0-32">[32]</a> The third and last Russian governor, <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Kiselyov" title="Pavel Kiselyov">Pavel Kiselyov</a> (or Kiseleff), took office on October 19, 1829, and faced his first major task in dealing with the last outbreaks of plague and cholera, as well as the threat of <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_51-35">[35]</a> with which he dealt by imposing <a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantines</a> and importing grain from <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_202-39">[39]</a> His administration, lasting until April 1, 1834, was responsible for the most widespread and influential reforms of the period, and coincided with the actual enforcement of the new legislation. The earliest of Kiselyov's celebrated actions was the convening of the Wallachian Divan in November 1829, with the assurance that abuses were not to be condoned anymore.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> In 1829, two drafting commissions were formed, a Moldavian and a Wallachian one, which began working on Regulamentul Organic in Bucharest. Their work was finished on April 11, 1830 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">March 30, OS</a>) when the final text of the project was written. The documents were then sent to Saint Petersburg by a delegation consisting of Alexandru Vilara, <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sturdza" title="Mihail Sturdza">Mihail Sturdza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Asachi" title="Gheorghe Asachi">Gheorghe Asachi</a>, as well as two Russian officials, under the leadership of State Secretary Daschkoff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENegulescuAlexianu1944V-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Regulamentul Organic was adopted in its two very similar versions<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> on July 13, 1831 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">July 1, OS</a>) in Wallachia and January 13, 1832 (January 1, OS) in Moldavia, after having minor changes applied to it in Saint Petersburg where it was assessed further. Its <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratification</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Dynasty">Sultan</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> was not a requirement from Kiselyov's perspective, who began enforcing it as a <a href="/wiki/Fait_accompli" class="mw-redirect" title="Fait accompli">fait accompli</a> before this was granted.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The final version of the document sanctioned the first local government abiding by the principles of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of powers">balance of powers</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hospodars" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospodars">hospodars</a>, elected for life (and not for the seven-year term agreed in the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Akkerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention of Akkerman">Convention of Akkerman</a>) by an Extraordinary Assembly which comprised <a href="/wiki/Representation_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Representation (politics)">representatives</a> of merchants and <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a>, stood for the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>, with the right to nominate ministers (whose offices were still referred to using the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Romanian_ranks_and_titles" title="Historical Romanian ranks and titles">traditional titles of courtiers</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Public_official" class="mw-redirect" title="Public official">public officials</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_51-35">[35]</a> hospodars were to be voted in office by an <a href="/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">electoral college</a> with a confirmed majority of high-ranking boyars (in Wallachia, only 70 persons were members of the college).<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ob%C5%9Fteasca_Adunare,_1837.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ob%C5%9Fteasca_Adunare%2C_1837.jpg/220px-Ob%C5%9Fteasca_Adunare%2C_1837.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ob%C5%9Fteasca_Adunare%2C_1837.jpg/330px-Ob%C5%9Fteasca_Adunare%2C_1837.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ob%C5%9Fteasca_Adunare%2C_1837.jpg/440px-Ob%C5%9Fteasca_Adunare%2C_1837.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1529" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sfatul_boieresc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sfatul boieresc (page does not exist)">National Assembly</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> in 1837</figcaption></figure> Each National Assembly (approximate translation of Adunarea Obștească), inaugurated in 1831–32, was a <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a> itself under the control of high-ranking boyars, comprising 35 (in Moldavia) or 42 members (in Wallachia), voted into office by no more than 3,000 electors in each state; the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a> was, for the very first time, removed from the control of hospodars.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_204-5-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_51-2-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_204-49">[49]</a> In effect, the Regulament confirmed earlier steps leading to the eventual <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>, and, although <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> church authorities were confirmed a privileged position and a political say, the religious institution was closely supervised by the government (with the establishment of a quasi-<a href="/w/index.php?title=Salary_expense&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Salary expense (page does not exist)">salary expense</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_207-50">[50]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Tax_reform" title="Tax reform">fiscal reform</a> ensued, with the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Tax_per_head" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax per head">poll tax</a> (calculated per family), the elimination of most <a href="/wiki/Indirect_tax" title="Indirect tax">indirect taxes</a>, annual <a href="/wiki/State_budget" class="mw-redirect" title="State budget">state budgets</a> (approved by the Assemblies) and the introduction of a <a href="/wiki/Civil_list" title="Civil list">civil list</a> in place of the hospodars' personal treasuries.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> New methods of <a href="/wiki/Bookkeeping" title="Bookkeeping">bookkeeping</a> were regulated, and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">national banks</a> was projected, but, like the adoption of national <a href="/wiki/Fixed_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed currency">fixed currencies</a>, was never implemented.<a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_207-50">[50]</a> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Nicolae Iorga</a>, "The [boyar] <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> was appeased [by the Regulament's adoption]: a beautifully harmonious modern form had veiled the old <a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">medieval</a> structure…. The <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>… held no influence. As for the peasant, he lacked even the right to administer his own <a href="/wiki/Commune_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Commune in Romania">commune</a>, he was not even allowed to vote for an Assembly deemed, as if in jest, «national»."<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a> Nevertheless, conservative boyars remained suspicious of Russian tutelage, and several expressed their fear that the regime was a step leading to the creation of a regional <a href="/wiki/Guberniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Guberniya">guberniya</a> for the Russian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Their mistrust was, in time, reciprocated by Russia, who relied on hospodars and the direct intervention of its consuls to push further reforms.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">[53]</a> Kiselyov himself voiced a plan for the region's <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annexation</a> to Russia, but the request was dismissed by his superiors.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_trends">Economic trends</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Economic trends">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cities_and_towns">Cities and towns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cities and towns">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AKauffmannJReyIasiFair.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/AKauffmannJReyIasiFair.PNG/220px-AKauffmannJReyIasiFair.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/AKauffmannJReyIasiFair.PNG/330px-AKauffmannJReyIasiFair.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/AKauffmannJReyIasiFair.PNG/440px-AKauffmannJReyIasiFair.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2379" data-file-height="1609" /></a><figcaption>A cosmopolitan fair in <a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i" title="Iași">Iași</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1845)</figcaption></figure> Beginning with the reformist administration of Kiselyov, the two countries experienced a series of profound changes, political, social, as well as cultural. Despite underrepresentation in politics, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> swelled in numbers, profiting from a growth in trade which had increased the status of merchants. Under continuous competition from the <a href="/wiki/Sudi%C8%9Bi" title="Sudiți">sudiți</a>, traditional guilds (bresle or isnafuri) faded away, leading to a more competitive, purely <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> environment.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_127_288-56">[56]</a> This nevertheless signified that, although the traditional <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Romania" title="Greeks in Romania">Greek</a> competition for <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanian</a> merchants and artisans had become less relevant, locals continued to face one from Austrian subjects of various nationalities, as well as from a sizeable <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">immigration of Jews</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Central_Europe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Galicia (Central Europe)">Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria</a> and Russia—prevented from settling in the countryside, Jews usually became keepers of <a href="/wiki/Inn" title="Inn">inns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tavern" title="Tavern">taverns</a>, and later both bankers and <a href="/wiki/Leasehold_estate" title="Leasehold estate">leaseholders of estates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">[58]</a> In this context, an anti-<a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in Romania">Catholic</a> sentiment was growing, based, according to <a href="/wiki/Keith_Hitchins" title="Keith Hitchins">Keith Hitchins</a>, on the assumption that Catholicism and Austrian influence were closely related, as well as on a widespread preference for <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bucuresti_punte_1837.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Bucuresti_punte_1837.jpg/220px-Bucuresti_punte_1837.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Bucuresti_punte_1837.jpg/330px-Bucuresti_punte_1837.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Bucuresti_punte_1837.jpg/440px-Bucuresti_punte_1837.jpg 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>A bridge in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a> (1837)</figcaption></figure> The Romanian middle class formed the basis for what was to become the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Romania">liberal electorate</a>, and accounted for the <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">xenophobic</a> discourse of the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(Romania,_1875)" title="National Liberal Party (Romania, 1875)">National Liberal Party</a> during the latter's first decade of existence (between 1875 and <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch9_185-7-61">[61]</a> Urban development occurred at a very fast pace: overall, the urban population had doubled by 1850.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Population estimates for <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, the capital of Wallachia, were about 70,000 inhabitants in 1831, 60,000 in 1851,<a href="#cite_note-Chambers-63">[63]</a> and about 120,000 in 1859. For <a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i" title="Iași">Iași</a>, the capital of Moldavia, the estimates were 60,000 inhabitants for 1831, 70,000 for 1851,<a href="#cite_note-Chambers-63">[63]</a> and about 65,000 for 1859.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Br%C4%83ila" title="Brăila">Brăila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giurgiu" title="Giurgiu">Giurgiu</a>, Danube ports returned to Wallachia by the Ottomans, as well as Moldavia's <a href="/wiki/Gala%C8%9Bi" title="Galați">Galați</a>, grew from the grain trade to become prosperous cities.<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_323-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_122_127-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">[58]</a> Kiselyov, who had centered his administration on Bucharest, paid full attention to its development, improving its infrastructure and services and awarding it, together with all other cities and towns, a local administration (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bucharest" title="History of Bucharest">History of Bucharest</a>).<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">Public works</a> were carried out in the urban sphere, as well as in the massive expansion of the transport and communications system.<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_328-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Countryside">Countryside</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Countryside">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raffet_-_Foire_de_St._Pierre_a_Giourgevo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Raffet_-_Foire_de_St._Pierre_a_Giourgevo.jpg/220px-Raffet_-_Foire_de_St._Pierre_a_Giourgevo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Raffet_-_Foire_de_St._Pierre_a_Giourgevo.jpg/330px-Raffet_-_Foire_de_St._Pierre_a_Giourgevo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Raffet_-_Foire_de_St._Pierre_a_Giourgevo.jpg/440px-Raffet_-_Foire_de_St._Pierre_a_Giourgevo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A peasant fair in the <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Giurgiu" title="Giurgiu">Giurgiu</a> (1837)</figcaption></figure> The success of the grain trade was secured by a conservative take on property, which restricted the right of peasants to exploit for their own gain those plots of land they leased on boyar <a href="/wiki/Estate_(land)" title="Estate (land)">estates</a> (the Regulament allowed them to consume around 70% of the total harvest per plot leased, while boyars were allowed to use a third of their estate as they pleased, without any legal duty toward the neighbouring peasant workforce);<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> at the same time, small properties, created after <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Mavrocordatos" title="Constantine Mavrocordatos">Constantine Mavrocordatos</a> had abolished <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> in the 1740s, proved less lucrative in the face of competition by large estates—boyars profited from the consequences, as more landowning peasants had to resort to leasing plots while still owing <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvées</a> to their lords.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Confirmed by the Regulament at up to 12 days a year,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> the corvée was still less significant than in other parts of Europe; however, since peasants relied on cattle for alternative food supplies and financial resources, and <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pastures</a> remained the exclusive property of boyars, they had to exchange right of use for more days of work in the respective boyar's benefit (as much as to equate the corresponding corvée requirements in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central European</a> countries, without ever being enforced by laws).<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_327-70">[70]</a> Several laws of the period display a particular concern in limiting the right of peasants to evade corvées by paying their equivalent in currency, thus granting the boyars a workforce to match a steady growth in grain demands on foreign markets.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In respect to pasture access, the Regulament divided peasants into three wealth-based categories: fruntași ("foremost people"), who, by definition, owned 4 <a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">working animals</a> and one or more cows (allowed to use around 4 <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectares</a> of pasture); mijlocași ("middle people")—two working animals and one cow (around 2 hectares); codași ("backward people")—people who owned no property, and not allowed the use of pastures.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> At the same time, the major <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demographic</a> changes took their toll on the countryside. For the very first time, food supplies were no longer abundant in front of a <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> ensured by, among other causes, the effective measures taken against epidemics; rural–urban migration became a noticeable phenomenon, as did the relative increase in <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> of traditional rural areas, with an explosion of settlements around established <a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">fairs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolae_Grigorescu_019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Nicolae_Grigorescu_019.jpg/220px-Nicolae_Grigorescu_019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Nicolae_Grigorescu_019.jpg/330px-Nicolae_Grigorescu_019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Nicolae_Grigorescu_019.jpg/440px-Nicolae_Grigorescu_019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1543" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Grigorescu" title="Nicolae Grigorescu">Nicolae Grigorescu</a>'s Countryside courtyard, depicting a typical peasant lodging in the 19th century</figcaption></figure> These processes also ensured that <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrialization</a> was minimal (although <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factories</a> had first been opened during the <a href="/wiki/Phanariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanariotes">Phanariotes</a>): most revenues came from a highly productive agriculture based on peasant labour, and were invested back into agricultural production.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_327-70">[70]</a> In parallel, hostility between agricultural workers and landowners mounted: after an increase in <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuits</a> involving leaseholders and the decrease in quality of corvée outputs, resistance, hardened by the examples of <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vladimirescu" title="Tudor Vladimirescu">Tudor Vladimirescu</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Hajduk" title="Hajduk">hajduks</a>, turned to <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a> and occasional violence.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> A more serious incident occurred in 1831, when around 60,000 peasants protested against projected <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> criteria; Russian troops dispatched to quell the revolt killed around 300 people.<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_328-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_and_cultural_setting">Political and cultural setting</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Political and cultural setting">edit</a>]</div> The most noted cultural development under the Regulament was Romanian <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a>, in close connection with <a href="/wiki/Francophile" title="Francophile">Francophilia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">Institutional modernization</a> engendered a renaissance of the <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>. In turn, the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>" was first expanded beyond its coverage of the boyar category,<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_54-76">[76]</a> and more members of the privileged displayed a concern in solving problems facing the peasantry: although rarer among the high-ranking boyars, the interest was shared by most <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a> political figures by the 1840s.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_331-78">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallachian_infantery_marching,_1837.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Wallachian_infantery_marching%2C_1837.jpg/220px-Wallachian_infantery_marching%2C_1837.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Wallachian_infantery_marching%2C_1837.jpg/330px-Wallachian_infantery_marching%2C_1837.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Wallachian_infantery_marching%2C_1837.jpg/440px-Wallachian_infantery_marching%2C_1837.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2771" data-file-height="1508" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_military_forces" title="Wallachian military forces">Wallachian militia</a> maneuvering in 1837</figcaption></figure> Nationalist themes now included a preoccupation for the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Romanians" title="Origin of the Romanians">Latin origin of Romanians</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> and the common (but since discarded) reference to the entire region as <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a> (first notable in the title of <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Kog%C4%83lniceanu" title="Mihail Kogălniceanu">Mihail Kogălniceanu</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dacia_Literar%C4%83" title="Dacia Literară">Dacia Literară</a>, a short-lived Romantic <a href="/wiki/Literary_magazine" title="Literary magazine">literary magazine</a> published in 1840). As a trans-border notion, Dacia also indicated a growth in Pan-Romanian sentiment—the latter had first been present in several boyar requests of the late 18th century, which had called for the union of the two <a href="/wiki/Danubian_Principalities" title="Danubian Principalities">Danubian Principalities</a> under the protection of European powers (and, in some cases, under the rule of a foreign prince).<a href="#cite_note-Berindei_8-80">[80]</a> To these was added the circulation of fake documents which were supposed to reflect the text of <a href="/wiki/Capitulations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire">Capitulations</a> awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> to its Wallachian and Moldavian <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, claiming to stand out as proof of rights and privileges which had been long neglected (see also <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Romania" title="Islam in Romania">Islam in Romania</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Berindei_8-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_192-3-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Romania" title="Education in Romania">Education</a>, still accessible only to the wealthy, was first removed from the domination of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Hellenism</a> upon the disestablishment of Phanariotes sometime after 1821; the attempts of <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Laz%C4%83r" title="Gheorghe Lazăr">Gheorghe Lazăr</a> (at the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sava_College" title="Saint Sava College">Saint Sava College</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Asachi" title="Gheorghe Asachi">Gheorghe Asachi</a> to engender a transition towards <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian-language</a> teaching had been only moderately successful, but Wallachia became the scene of such a movement after the start of <a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Ion Heliade Rădulescu</a>'s teaching career and the first issue of his newspaper, <a href="/wiki/Curierul_Rom%C3%A2nesc" title="Curierul Românesc">Curierul Românesc</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_125-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_235-6-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a> Moldavia soon followed, after Asachi began printing his highly influential magazine <a href="/wiki/Albina_Rom%C3%A2neasc%C4%83" title="Albina Românească">Albina Românească</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_244-85">[85]</a> The Regulament brought about the creation of new schools, which were dominated by the figures of <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvanian</a> Romanians who had taken exile after expressing their dissatisfaction with <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a> rule in their homeland—these teachers, who usually rejected the adoption of French cultural models in the otherwise <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservative</a> society (viewing the process as an unnatural one), counted among them <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ioan_Maiorescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ioan Maiorescu (page does not exist)">Ioan Maiorescu</a> and <a href="/wiki/August_Treboniu_Laurian" title="August Treboniu Laurian">August Treboniu Laurian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a> The Moldavian Regulation stipulated in article 421: "The course of all teachings will be in the Moldavian language, not only for the facilitation of the pupils and the cultivation of the language and the homeland, but also for the word that all public causes must be translated in this language, which the inhabitants use in church celebrations."<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Another impetus for nationalism was the Russian-supervised creation of small <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing armies</a> (occasionally referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militias</a>"; see <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_military_forces" title="Moldavian military forces">Moldavian military forces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_military_forces" title="Wallachian military forces">Wallachian military forces</a>). The Wallachian one first maneuvered in the autumn of 1831, and was supervised by Kiselyov himself.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ion_Ghica" title="Ion Ghica">Ion Ghica</a>, the prestige of military careers had a relevant tradition: "Only the arrival of the Muscovites [sic] in 1828 ended [the] young boyars' sons flighty way of life, as it made use of them as commissioners (mehmendari) in the service of Russian generals, in order to assist in providing the troops with [supplies]. In 1831 most of them took to the sword, signing up for the national militia."<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc,_1843.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc%2C_1843.jpg/220px-Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc%2C_1843.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc%2C_1843.jpg/330px-Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc%2C_1843.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc%2C_1843.jpg/440px-Reception_at_Palatul_Domnesc%2C_1843.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Party" title="Party">soirée</a> at the Princely Palace in Bucharest (1842)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a> of Romanian society took place at a rapid pace, and created a noticeable, albeit not omnipresent, <a href="/wiki/Generation_gap" title="Generation gap">generation gap</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Iorga-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_54-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_125-6-90">[90]</a> The paramount cultural model was the French one, following a pattern already established by contacts between the region and the <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First Empire</a> (attested, among others, by the existence of a Wallachian plan to <a href="/wiki/Petition" title="Petition">petition</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>, whom locals believed to be a descendant of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Byzantine Emperors">Byzantine Emperors</a>, with a complaint against the Phanariotes,<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ghica_Băltărețu-92">[92]</a> as well as by an actual anonymous petition sent in 1807 from Moldavia).<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> This trend was consolidated by the French cultural model partly adopted by the Russians,<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> a growing mutual sympathy between the Principalities and France, increasingly obvious under the French <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">July Monarchy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Iorga-15">[15]</a> and, as early as the 1820s, the enrolment of young boyars in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Parisian</a> educational institutions (coupled with the 1830 opening of a French-language school in Bucharest, headed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Alexandre_Vaillant" title="Jean Alexandre Vaillant">Jean Alexandre Vaillant</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Iorga-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russo_IV-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_213-97">[97]</a> The young generation eventually attempted to curb French borrowings, which it had come to see as endangering its nationalist aspirations.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statutory_rules_and_nationalist_opposition">Statutory rules and nationalist opposition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Statutory rules and nationalist opposition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1848_Moldavian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 Moldavian revolution">1848 Moldavian revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/1848_Wallachian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 Wallachian revolution">1848 Wallachian revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proclama%C5%A3ia_de_la_Islaz_(1848).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Proclama%C5%A3ia_de_la_Islaz_%281848%29.jpg/220px-Proclama%C5%A3ia_de_la_Islaz_%281848%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Proclama%C5%A3ia_de_la_Islaz_%281848%29.jpg/330px-Proclama%C5%A3ia_de_la_Islaz_%281848%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Proclama%C5%A3ia_de_la_Islaz_%281848%29.jpg/440px-Proclama%C5%A3ia_de_la_Islaz_%281848%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1379" data-file-height="1037" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Islaz_Proclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="Islaz Proclamation">Islaz Proclamation</a></figcaption></figure> In 1834, despite the founding documents' requirements, Russia and the Ottoman Empire agreed to appoint jointly the first two <a href="/wiki/Hospodar" title="Hospodar">hospodars</a> (instead of providing for their election), as a means to ensure both the monarchs' support for a moderate pace in reforms and their allegiance in front of conservative boyar opposition.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara,_p._325.-99">[99]</a> The choices were <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_II_Ghica" title="Alexandru II Ghica">Alexandru II Ghica</a> (the stepbrother of the previous monarch, <a href="/wiki/Grigore_IV_Ghica" title="Grigore IV Ghica">Grigore IV</a>) as <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wallachia">Prince of Wallachia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sturdza" title="Mihail Sturdza">Mihail Sturdza</a> (a distant cousin of <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Sturdza" title="Ioan Sturdza">Ioniță Sandu</a>) as <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Moldavia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Moldavia">Prince of Moldavia</a>. The two rulers (generally referred to as Domnii regulamentare—"statutory" or "regulated reigns"), closely observed by the Russian <a href="/wiki/Consul_(representative)" title="Consul (representative)">consuls</a> and various Russian technical advisors, soon met a vocal and unified opposition in the Assemblies and elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arderea_Regulamentului_Organic_%C5%9Fi_a_Arhondologiei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Arderea_Regulamentului_Organic_%C5%9Fi_a_Arhondologiei.jpg/220px-Arderea_Regulamentului_Organic_%C5%9Fi_a_Arhondologiei.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Arderea_Regulamentului_Organic_%C5%9Fi_a_Arhondologiei.jpg/330px-Arderea_Regulamentului_Organic_%C5%9Fi_a_Arhondologiei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Arderea_Regulamentului_Organic_%C5%9Fi_a_Arhondologiei.jpg/440px-Arderea_Regulamentului_Organic_%C5%9Fi_a_Arhondologiei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="717" data-file-height="878" /></a><figcaption>The burning of the Wallachian Regulament and of the register of <a href="/wiki/Historical_Romanian_ranks_and_titles" title="Historical Romanian ranks and titles">boyar ranks</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1848_Wallachian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 Wallachian revolution">1848 revolution</a></figcaption></figure> Immediately after the confirmation of the Regulament, Russia had begun demanding that the two local Assemblies each vote an Additional Article (Articol adițional)—one preventing any modification of the texts without the common approval of the courts in Istanbul and Saint Petersburg.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_329-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_210-102">[102]</a> In Wallachia, the issue turned into scandal after the pressure for adoption mounted in 1834, and led to a four-year-long standstill, during which a nationalist group in the legislative body began working on its own project for a constitution, proclaiming the Russian <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> and Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> to be over, and <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> with guarantees from all European Powers of the time.<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_329-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_210-1-103">[103]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> leader of the movement, <a href="/wiki/Ion_C%C3%A2mpineanu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion Câmpineanu">Ion Câmpineanu</a>, maintained close contacts with <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish</a> nobleman <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski" title="Adam Jerzy Czartoryski">Adam Jerzy Czartoryski</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Union_of_National_Unity" title="Union of National Unity">Union of National Unity</a> (as well as with other European nationalists Romantics);<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_329-101">[101]</a> after the Additional Article passed due to Ghica's interference and despite boyar protests, Câmpineanu was forced to abandon his seat and take refuge in Central Europe (until being arrested and sent back by the Austrians to be imprisoned in Bucharest).<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_329-101">[101]</a> From that point on, opposition to Ghica's rule took the form of <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonari" title="Carbonari">carbonari</a>-inspired <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (political)">conspiracies</a>, formed around young politicians such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mitic%C4%83_Filipescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mitică Filipescu (page does not exist)">Mitică Filipescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_B%C4%83lcescu" title="Nicolae Bălcescu">Nicolae Bălcescu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eftimie_Murgu" title="Eftimie Murgu">Eftimie Murgu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_Ghica" title="Ion Ghica">Ion Ghica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Tell" title="Christian Tell">Christian Tell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Macedonski" title="Dimitrie Macedonski">Dimitrie Macedonski</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cezar_Bolliac" title="Cezar Bolliac">Cezar Bolliac</a> (all of whom held Câmpineanu's ideology in esteem)<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a>—in 1840, Filipescu and most of his group (who had tried in vain to profit from the Ottoman crisis engendered by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali</a>'s rebellion)<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> were placed under arrest and imprisoned in various locations.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_132-3-107">[107]</a> Noted abuses against the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> and the consequent threat of rebellion made the Ottoman Empire and Russia withdraw their support for Ghica in 1842,<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara,_p._325.-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_212-108">[108]</a> and his successor, <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Bibescu" title="Gheorghe Bibescu">Gheorghe Bibescu</a>, reigned as the first and only prince to have been elected by any one of the two Assemblies. In Moldavia, the situation was less tense, as Sturdza was able to calm down and manipulate opposition to Russian rule while introducing further reforms.<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara,_p._325.-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_213-5-109">[109]</a> In 1848, upon the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">European revolutions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Romania">liberalism</a> consolidated itself into more overt opposition, helped along by contacts between Romanian students with the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in France">French movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a> Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/1848_Moldavian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 Moldavian revolution">Moldavian revolution</a> of late March 1848 was an abortive one, and led to the return of Russian troops on its soil.<a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_331-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins,_pp._292-4-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/1848_Wallachian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 Wallachian revolution">Wallachia's revolt</a> was successful: after the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Islaz" title="Proclamation of Islaz">Proclamation of Islaz</a> on June 21 sketched a new legal framework and <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> with an end to all <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvées</a> (a program acclaimed by the crowds), the conspirators managed to topple Bibescu, who had by then dissolved the Assembly,<a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_212-108">[108]</a> without notable violence, and established a Provisoral Government in Bucharest.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_133-5-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_294-307-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_55-114">[114]</a> The new executive, orchestrating the public burning of the Regulament in September, attempted to play Ottoman interests against Russian ones, trying to obtain backing from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Porte">Porte</a>; the relative initial success was rendered void after Russian diplomats pressured <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Dynasty">Sultan</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd-ul-Mejid_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ul-Mejid I">Abd-ul-Mejid I</a> to intervene in their place (and thus not risk losing yet more control over the region to a more determined Russian expedition).<a href="#cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara_331-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_55-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giurescu_135-6-115">[115]</a> A Russian occupation over Wallachia soon joined the Ottoman one (begun on September 18), and both lasted until April 1851; in 1849, the two powers signed the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Balta_Liman" title="Convention of Balta Liman">Convention of Balta Liman</a>, which asserted the right of the Porte to nominate hospodars for seven-year terms.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_55-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitchins_335-6-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crimean_War">Crimean War</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Crimean War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Austrian_troops,_25_August-6_September_1854,_Lanzedelli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Austrian_troops%2C_25_August-6_September_1854%2C_Lanzedelli.jpg/220px-Austrian_troops%2C_25_August-6_September_1854%2C_Lanzedelli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Austrian_troops%2C_25_August-6_September_1854%2C_Lanzedelli.jpg/330px-Austrian_troops%2C_25_August-6_September_1854%2C_Lanzedelli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Austrian_troops%2C_25_August-6_September_1854%2C_Lanzedelli.jpg/440px-Austrian_troops%2C_25_August-6_September_1854%2C_Lanzedelli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3041" data-file-height="2513" /></a><figcaption>Austrian troops in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, 1854</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> again brought the two countries under Russian military administration, inaugurated in 1853. The hospodars of the period, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Moldavia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Moldavia">Prince</a> <a href="/wiki/Grigore_Alexandru_Ghica" title="Grigore Alexandru Ghica">Grigore Alexandru Ghica</a> in Moldavia and <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wallachia">Prince</a> <a href="/wiki/Barbu_Dimitrie_%C8%98tirbei" title="Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei">Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei</a> in Wallachia, were removed from their thrones, and the region was governed by the Russian general <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aleksandr_Ivanovich_Budberg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aleksandr Ivanovich Budberg (page does not exist)">Aleksandr Ivanovich Budberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cahul_Ismail_si_Bolgrad.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cahul_Ismail_si_Bolgrad.PNG/220px-Cahul_Ismail_si_Bolgrad.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cahul_Ismail_si_Bolgrad.PNG/330px-Cahul_Ismail_si_Bolgrad.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cahul_Ismail_si_Bolgrad.PNG/440px-Cahul_Ismail_si_Bolgrad.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2259" data-file-height="2886" /></a><figcaption>Russian–Moldavian border in 1856–1857</figcaption></figure> As the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> remained a secondary theatre of war, the two Principalities were taken over by a neutral Austrian administration in September 1854—part of a settlement between the Porte and Russia (the Austrians remained until 1857).<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_56-119">[119]</a> Grigore Ghica and Știrbei were returned to the thrones in the same year, and completed the last series of reforms carried under the terms of the Regulament. The most far-reaching among these were the ones concerning <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Roma slavery</a>. In Moldavia, Romas were liberated, without a period of transition, on December 22, 1855; the change was more gradual in Wallachia, where measures to curb trade had been taken earlier, and where the decision to ban the ownership of slaves was taken by Știrbei on February 20, 1856.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Concerned by worsening boyar-peasant relations, Știrbei, who governed without an Assembly (and had instead appointed his own Divan), enacted measures to improve the situation in the countryside, and ultimately enforced <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">contract-based</a> work as the rule on estates (whereby peasants who were not indebted after five years in service could leave the land they were working on).<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> This was the moment when the call for union of the two Principalities began to be voiced with confidence, and the two monarchs showed more or less approval for the designs of the unionist <a href="/wiki/Partida_Na%C8%9Bional%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Partida Națională">Partida Națională</a> (created by 1848 revolutionaries who had returned from exile).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The war ended with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856)" title="Treaty of Paris (1856)">Treaty of Paris</a> (March 30, 1856), which placed the countries, still as Ottoman vassals, under the protectorate of all European Powers (the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">French Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Piedmont-Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia">Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>, Austria, and, never again completely, Russia). The protector states had to decide on a compromise formula for the projected union; the Ottomans demanded and obtained, in contradiction with the Regulament, the removal of both hospodars from their thrones, pending elections for the <a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc_Divans" title="Ad hoc Divans">ad hoc Divans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_56-119">[119]</a> The outcome remained disputed until the election of <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Ioan_Cuza" title="Alexandru Ioan Cuza">Alexandru Ioan Cuza</a>, who reigned as first <a href="/wiki/Domnitor" title="Domnitor">Domnitor</a> of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, the basis of modern <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bucharest" title="History of Bucharest">History of Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">History of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Kingdom of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Imperial Russia">Military history of Imperial Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire">Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_history,_1796%E2%80%931855" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian history, 1796–1855">Russian history, 1796–1855</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-name_Djuvara_323-1"><a href="#cite_ref-name_Djuvara_323_1-0">^</a> The name also has plural versions in all languages concerned, referring to the dual nature of the document; however, the singular version is usually preferred. The text was originally written in French, submitted to the approval of the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="State Council of Imperial Russia">State Council of Imperial Russia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, and then subject to debates in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sfatul_boieresc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sfatul boieresc (page does not exist)">Assemblies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i" title="Iași">Iași</a>; the Romanian translation followed the adoption of the Regulamentul in its French-language version. (Djuvara, p. 323). </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_123-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_123_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_123_2-1">b</a> Giurescu, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_203-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_203_3-0">^</a> It is probable that the title was chosen over designation as "Constitution(s)" in order to avoid the revolutionary meaning implied by the latter (Hitchins, p. 203). </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 24, 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 31, 76–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Djuvara, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 41–58. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 284–285, 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 57, 92–93, 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 81, 284. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara_282-4-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_282-4_11-0">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 282–284. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 133, 184–187, 281–304. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 69, 123–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-Iorga-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_15-5">f</a> Iorga, Histoire des relations. La Monarchie de juillet… </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 184–187. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_288-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_288_17-0">^</a> Giurescu, p. 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 296–301. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_114-5-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_114-5_19-0">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 114–115. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_178-91-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_178-91_20-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 178–191. </li> <li id="cite_note-Iorga_Roumains-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iorga_Roumains_21-11">l</a> Iorga, Histoire des Roumains. Renaissance roumaine. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Djuvara, p. 318. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rußo_VI-VII-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Rußo_VI-VII_23-0">^</a> Russo, VI–VII. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Russo, VI. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 318–319. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara_320-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_320_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_320_26-1">b</a> Djuvara, p. 320. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_198-9-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_198-9_27-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 198–199. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara_323-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_323_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_323_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_323_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_323_28-3">d</a> Djuvara, p. 323. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_122-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_122_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_122_29-1">b</a> Giurescu, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Hitchins, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 321–322. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-1">b</a> Ghica, Bârzof. </li> <li id="cite_note-Girardin_321-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Girardin_321_33-0">^</a> Girardin, in Djuvara, p. 321. </li> <li id="cite_note-Girardin_323-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Girardin_323_34-0">^</a> Girardin, in Djuvara, p. 323, writing down (1836) the words of a peasant who expressed his skepticism upon receiving news of Russian withdrawal in 1834: "…I see them leaving, returning, and turning their backs on each other, as if dancing. In order for them to leave, they would have to turn their backs on us, all of them, at once!" </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_51-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_51_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_51_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_51_35-2">c</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 3, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Djuvara, p. 232. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_122_127-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_122_127_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_122_127_37-1">b</a> Giurescu, pp. 122, 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Hitchins, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_202-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_202_39-0">^</a> Hitchins, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Hitchins, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENegulescuAlexianu1944V-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENegulescuAlexianu1944V_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNegulescuAlexianu1944">Negulescu & Alexianu 1944</a>, p. V. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCostin_AnghelMihai_Stirbu2005" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Costin Anghel; Mihai Stirbu (21 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jurnalul.ro/special-jurnalul/reportaje/cum-s-au-nascut-certificatele-de-nastere-34908.html">"Cum s-au nascut certificatele de nastere"</a>. jurnalul.ro (in Romanian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jurnalul.ro&rft.atitle=Cum+s-au+nascut+certificatele+de+nastere&rft.date=2005-10-21&rft.au=Costin+Anghel&rft.au=Mihai+Stirbu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjurnalul.ro%2Fspecial-jurnalul%2Freportaje%2Fcum-s-au-nascut-certificatele-de-nastere-34908.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulamentul+Organic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Differences were only obvious in regard to <a href="/wiki/Government_budget" title="Government budget">government budgets</a> and restrictions on the respective total military forces (Giurescu, p. 123). </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Hitchins, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 323, 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 323–324. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_204-5-47"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_204-5_47-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 204–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_51-2-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_51-2_48-0">^</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 3, pp. 51–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_204-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_204_49-0">^</a> Detailed membership of the Assembly in Wallachia: the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_of_Hungro-Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan of Hungro-Wallachia">Metropolitan bishop</a> was president, and all other <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> were members, together with 20 high-ranking boyars and 18 other boyars (Hitchins, p. 204). </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_207-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_207_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_207_50-1">b</a> Hitchins, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 206–207 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 324–326 </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_52-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_52_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_52_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_52_53-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_52_53-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_52_53-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_52_53-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_52_53-6">g</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 3, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 208–209. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 187, 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_127_288-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_127_288_56-0">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 127, 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 180–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_53-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_53_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_53_58-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_53_58-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_53_58-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_53_58-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_53_58-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_53_58-6">g</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 3, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Hitchins, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Djuvara, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch9_185-7-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch9_185-7_61-0">^</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 9, pp. 185–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Hitchins, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chambers-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chambers_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chambers_63-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924087904623#page/n405/mode/2up">Chambers's Encyclopaedia</a> Vol. II, 1861 based on <a href="/wiki/Brockhaus_Enzyklop%C3%A4die" title="Brockhaus Enzyklopädie">Brockhaus Enzyklopädie</a>, 10th Edition </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Djuvara, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 123–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara_328-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_328_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_328_66-1">b</a> Djuvara, p. 328. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Djuvara, p. 326. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 259–261. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 259–260. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara_327-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_327_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_327_70-1">b</a> Djuvara, p. 327. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Hitchins, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 326–327. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 215–216. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 262–263, 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Berindei, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_54-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_54_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_54_76-1">b</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 3, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Berindei, pp. 9, 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara_331-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_331_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_331_78-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_331_78-2">c</a> Djuvara, p. 331. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 175, 176–177. </li> <li id="cite_note-Berindei_8-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berindei_8_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berindei_8_80-1">b</a> Berindei, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_192-3-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_192-3_81-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 192–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 215, 352. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_125-83"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_125_83-0">^</a> Giurescu, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_235-6-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_235-6_84-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 235–236. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_244-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_244_85-0">^</a> Hitchins, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSava1944" class="citation book cs1">Sava, Aurel, ed. (1944). Regulamentele organice ale Valahiei și Moldovei. Vol. 1, Textele puse în aplicare la 1 Iulie 1831 în Valahia și la 1 Ianuarie 1832 în Moldova. Bucureşti: Întreprinderile Eminescu. p. 340.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regulamentele+organice+ale+Valahiei+%C8%99i+Moldovei.+Vol.+1%2C+Textele+puse+%C3%AEn+aplicare+la+1+Iulie+1831+%C3%AEn+Valahia+%C8%99i+la+1+Ianuarie+1832+%C3%AEn+Moldova&rft.place=Bucure%C5%9Fti&rft.pages=340&rft.pub=%C3%8Entreprinderile+Eminescu&rft.date=1944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulamentul+Organic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Giurescu, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Ghica, Din vremea lui Caragea. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Berindei, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_125-6-90"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_125-6_90-0">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 125–126. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Berindei, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghica_Băltărețu-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Ghica_Băltărețu_92-0">^</a> Ghica, Băltărețu. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Hitchins, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Giurescu, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Djuvara, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-Russo_IV-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Russo_IV_96-0">^</a> Russo, IV. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_213-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_213_97-0">^</a> The refoundation of the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sava_College" title="Saint Sava College">Saint Sava College</a> as a French-language school under <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Bibescu" title="Gheorghe Bibescu">Gheorghe Bibescu</a> was, nevertheless, viewed with hostility by <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberal</a> political figures, who were by then stronger supporters of <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalism</a> and, as such, of teaching in Romanian (Hitchins, p. 213) </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 240–241. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara,_p._325.-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara,_p._325._99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara,_p._325._99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara,_p._325._99-2">c</a> Djuvara, p. 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 324, 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara_329-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_329_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_329_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_329_101-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_329_101-3">d</a> Djuvara, p. 329. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_210-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_210_102-0">^</a> Hitchins, p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_210-1-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_210-1_103-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 210–211. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Berindei, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Hitchins, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Djuvara, p. 330. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_132-3-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_132-3_107-0">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 132–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_212-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_212_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_212_108-1">b</a> Hitchins, p. 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_213-5-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_213-5_109-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 213–215. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins,_pp._292-4-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins,_pp._292-4_110-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 292–294. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 330–331. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_133-5-112"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_133-5_112-0">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 133–135. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_294-307-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_294-307_113-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 294–307. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_55-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_55_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_55_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_55_114-2">c</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 3, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giurescu_135-6-115"><a href="#cite_ref-Giurescu_135-6_115-0">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 135–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Giurescu, pp. 139–140. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hitchins_335-6-117"><a href="#cite_ref-Hitchins_335-6_117-0">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 335–336. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiachir1965" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ciachir, Nicolae (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bmim.muzeulbucurestiului.ro/?articol=18073-unele-aspecte-privind-orasul-bucuresti-in-timpul-razboiului-crimeii-1853-1856">"Unele aspecte privind orașul București în timpul Războiului Crimeii (1853-1856)"</a>. București - Materiale de Istorie și Muzeografie (in Romanian). Bucharest: Muzeul de Istorie a orașului București: 197–198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bucure%C8%99ti+-+Materiale+de+Istorie+%C8%99i+Muzeografie&rft.atitle=Unele+aspecte+privind+ora%C8%99ul+Bucure%C8%99ti+%C3%AEn+timpul+R%C4%83zboiului+Crimeii+%281853-1856%29&rft.pages=197-198&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Ciachir&rft.aufirst=Nicolae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbmim.muzeulbucurestiului.ro%2F%3Farticol%3D18073-unele-aspecte-privind-orasul-bucuresti-in-timpul-razboiului-crimeii-1853-1856&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulamentul+Organic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pavlowitch_ch3_56-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_56_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pavlowitch_ch3_56_119-1">b</a> Pavlowitch, Chapter 3, p. 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Djuvara, pp. 276–278. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Hitchins, pp. 337–338. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Svetlana Bounegru, Regulamentul Organic din Valahia 1832, Smart Press, Rome, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-906235-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-906235-0-9">978-88-906235-0-9</a></li> <li>Svetlana Bounegru, Regulamentul Organic al Moldavie 1837, Smart Press, Rome, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-906235-1-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-906235-1-6">978-88-906235-1-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Berindei" title="Dan Berindei">Dan Berindei</a>, "Precursorii României moderne", in <a href="/wiki/Magazin_Istoric" title="Magazin Istoric">Magazin Istoric</a>, August 2001</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neagu_Djuvara" title="Neagu Djuvara">Neagu Djuvara</a>, Între Orient și Occident. Țările române la începutul epocii moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Ghica" title="Ion Ghica">Ion Ghica</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Scrisori_c%C4%83tre_Vasile_Alecsandri">Scrisori către Vasile Alecsandri</a> (in Romanian): <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Scrisori_c%C4%83tre_Vasile_Alecsandri:Din_vremea_lui_Caragea">Din vremea lui Caragea</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Scrisori_c%C4%83tre_Vasile_Alecsandri:B%C4%83lt%C4%83re%C5%A3u">Băltărețu</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Scrisori_c%C4%83tre_Vasile_Alecsandri:B%C3%A2rzof">Bârzof</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_C._Giurescu" title="Constantin C. Giurescu">Constantin C. Giurescu</a>, Istoria Bucureștilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pînă în zilele noastre, Ed. Pentru Literatură, Bucharest, 1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Hitchins" title="Keith Hitchins">Keith Hitchins</a>, Românii, 1774–1866, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1998 (translation of the English-language edition The Romanians, 1774–1866, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, US, 1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Nicolae Iorga</a>, <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Histoire_des_relations_entre_la_France_et_les_Roumains">Histoire des relations entre la France et les Roumains</a>:<a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Histoire_des_relations_entre_la_France_et_les_Roumains:La_Monarchie_de_juillet_et_les_Roumains">La Monarchie de juillet et les Roumains</a> (in French)</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Histoire_des_Roumains_et_de_leur_civilisation">Histoire des Roumains et de leur civilisation</a>: <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Renaissance_roumaine_au_XIXe_si%C3%A8cle_avant_l%27union_des_Principaut%C3%A9s">Renaissance roumaine au XIXe siècle avant l'union des Principautés</a> (in French)</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNegulescuAlexianu1944" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Negulescu, Paul; Alexianu, George (1944). Regulamentele Organice ale Valahiei și Moldovei (in Romanian). Vol. I. Bucharest: Intreprinderile Eminescu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regulamentele+Organice+ale+Valahiei+%C8%99i+Moldovei&rft.place=Bucharest&rft.pub=Intreprinderile+Eminescu&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Negulescu&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Alexianu%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulamentul+Organic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Stevan K. Pavlowitch, Istoria Balcanilor, Polirom, Iași, 2002 (translation of the English-language edition A History of the Balkans 1804–1945, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., 1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alecu_Russo" title="Alecu Russo">Alecu Russo</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Amintiri_%28Russo%29">Amintiri</a> (in Romanian)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regulamentul_Organic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061020093840/http://crvp.org/book/Series04/IVA-22/chapter_iv.htm">Ioan Stanomir, The Temptation of the West: The Romanian Constitutional Tradition</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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