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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-WWII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Pre-WWII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-WWII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cellars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Cellars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hochbunker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hochbunker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hochbunker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hochbunker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cellars_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellars_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Cellars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellars_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Basements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Railway_arches_and_subways_(underpasses)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railway_arches_and_subways_(underpasses)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Railway arches and subways (underpasses)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railway_arches_and_subways_(underpasses)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-London_Underground_stations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#London_Underground_stations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>London Underground stations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-London_Underground_stations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_tunnels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_tunnels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span>Other tunnels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_tunnels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Street_communal_shelter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Street_communal_shelter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.6</span> <span>Street communal shelter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Street_communal_shelter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anderson_shelter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anderson_shelter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.7</span> <span>Anderson shelter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anderson_shelter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morrison_shelter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morrison_shelter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.8</span> <span>Morrison shelter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morrison_shelter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scallywag_bunkers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scallywag_bunkers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.9</span> <span>Scallywag bunkers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scallywag_bunkers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stanton_shelters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stanton_shelters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.10</span> <span>Stanton shelters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stanton_shelters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Other construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air-raid_shelters_in_modern_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air-raid_shelters_in_modern_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Air-raid shelters in modern times</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Air-raid_shelters_in_modern_times-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Air-raid shelters in modern times subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Air-raid_shelters_in_modern_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Switzerland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Switzerland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Switzerland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Switzerland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Finland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Singapore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Taiwan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukraine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukraine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Ukraine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukraine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Air raid shelter</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A3_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="ملجأ موريسون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ملجأ موريسون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4ng-khong-h%C3%B4" title="Hông-khong-hô – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hông-khong-hô" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugi_antiaeri" title="Refugi antiaeri – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Refugi antiaeri" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protileteck%C3%BD_kryt" title="Protiletecký kryt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Protiletecký kryt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beskyttelsesrum" title="Beskyttelsesrum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Beskyttelsesrum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftschutzbunker" title="Luftschutzbunker – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Luftschutzbunker" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varjend" title="Varjend – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Varjend" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%86%CF%8D%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Αντιαεροπορικό καταφύγιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αντιαεροπορικό καταφύγιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugio_antia%C3%A9reo" title="Refugio antiaéreo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Refugio antiaéreo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aire-erasoentzako_babesleku" title="Aire-erasoentzako babesleku – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aire-erasoentzako babesleku" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%87%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="پناهگاه حمله هوایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پناهگاه حمله هوایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abri_antia%C3%A9rien" title="Abri antiaérien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Abri antiaérien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EA%B3%B5%ED%98%B8" title="방공호 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방공호" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B4%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Ռմբապաստարան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռմբապաստարան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlindungan_serangan_udara" title="Perlindungan serangan udara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perlindungan serangan udara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifugio_antiaereo" title="Rifugio antiaereo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rifugio antiaereo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%98_(%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9F)" title="מקלט (מיגון) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מקלט (מיגון)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Бомбапана – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бомбапана" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffugium_bellicum" title="Suffugium bellicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Suffugium bellicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumbu_patvertne" title="Bumbu patvertne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bumbu patvertne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schuilkelder" title="Schuilkelder – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schuilkelder" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E5%A3%95" title="防空壕 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="防空壕" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilfluktsrom" title="Tilfluktsrom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tilfluktsrom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombapana" title="Bombapana – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bombapana" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Fortified wartime structures which protect citizens from airborne attacks</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belsize_Park_deep_level_shelter_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Belsize_Park_deep_level_shelter_1.jpg/280px-Belsize_Park_deep_level_shelter_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Belsize_Park_deep_level_shelter_1.jpg/420px-Belsize_Park_deep_level_shelter_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Belsize_Park_deep_level_shelter_1.jpg/560px-Belsize_Park_deep_level_shelter_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption>One of the <a href="/wiki/London_deep-level_shelters" title="London deep-level shelters">London deep-level shelters</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Belsize_Park" title="Belsize Park">Belsize Park</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kleine_Berlin_Trieste_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kleine_Berlin_Trieste_1.jpg/280px-Kleine_Berlin_Trieste_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="383" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kleine_Berlin_Trieste_1.jpg/420px-Kleine_Berlin_Trieste_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kleine_Berlin_Trieste_1.jpg/560px-Kleine_Berlin_Trieste_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2245" data-file-height="3071" /></a><figcaption><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Kleines_Berlin" title="Kleines Berlin">Kleines Berlin</a></i></span> (<abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr><span> Little Berlin</span>) is the complex of underground air-raid tunnels dating to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, which still exists in <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_army" title="Regular army">Regular</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">Standing army</a> / <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman" title="Rifleman">Rifleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Comms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">Commissar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_infantry" title="Mechanized infantry">Mechanized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">foreign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmatch" title="Overmatch">Overmatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_Warfare" title="Unrestricted Warfare">Unrestricted Warfare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripwire_force" title="Tripwire force">Tripwire force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Wargaming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_simulation" title="Military simulation">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Exercises</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_other_than_war" title="Military operations other than war">Non-warfare</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_response" title="Disaster response">Disaster response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">Gunboat diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">Humanitarian aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-intensity_conflict" title="Low-intensity conflict">Low-intensity conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_force" title="Show of force">Show of force</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tradition" title="Military tradition">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_awards_and_decorations" title="Military awards and decorations">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_cry" title="Battle cry">Battle cry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_film" title="War film">War film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">War novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_drill" title="Foot drill">Foot drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_song" title="War song">War song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_uniform" title="Military uniform">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargame</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Air raid shelters</b> are structures for the protection of <a href="/wiki/Non-combatants" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-combatants">non-combatants</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Combatants" class="mw-redirect" title="Combatants">combatants</a> against enemy attacks from the air. They are similar to <a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">bunkers</a> in many regards, although they are not designed to defend against ground attack (but many have been used as defensive structures in such situations).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-WWII">Pre-WWII</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-WWII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, in 1924, an <a href="/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Raid Precautions in the United Kingdom">Air Raid Precautions</a> Committee was set up in the United Kingdom. For years, little progress was made with shelters because of the apparently irreconcilable conflict between the need to send the public underground for shelter and the need to keep them above ground for protection against <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">gas attacks</a>. In 1935, every city in the country was given a document to prepare air raid shelters.<sup id="cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTunnelNewc-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 1936 the <a href="/wiki/Home_Secretary" title="Home Secretary">Home Secretary</a> appointed a technical Committee on Structural Precautions against Air Attack. </p><p>By November 1937, there had only been slow progress, because of a serious lack of data on which to base any design recommendations and the Committee proposed that the Home Office should have its own department for research into structural precautions, rather than relying on research work done by the Bombing Test Committee to support the development of bomb design and strategy. This proposal was eventually implemented in January 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker19785_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker19785-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Munich_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich crisis">Munich crisis</a>, local authorities dug trenches to provide shelter. After the crisis, the British Government decided to make these a permanent feature, with a standard design of precast concrete trench lining. Unfortunately these turned out to perform very poorly. They also decided to issue free to poorer households the <a href="#Anderson_shelter">Anderson shelter</a>, and to provide steel props to create shelters in suitable basements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker19784_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker19784-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During World War II, many types of structures were used as air raid shelters, such as cellars, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hochbunker</i></span> (in Germany), basements, and underpasses. Bombing raids during World War I led the UK to build 80 specially adapted <a href="/wiki/London_Underground" title="London Underground">London Underground</a> stations as shelters. However, during World War II, the government initially ruled out using these as shelters. After Londoners flooded into underground stations during <a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a>, the government reversed its policy. The UK began building street communal shelters as air raid shelters in 1940. Anderson shelters, designed in 1938 and built to hold up to six people, were in common use in the UK. Indoor shelters known as Morrison shelters were introduced as well. </p><p>Air raid shelters are still in use to some extent in various nations such as Spain, Switzerland, Israel, Singapore and Taiwan. </p><p>Air raid shelters were built to serve as protection against enemy <a href="/wiki/Airstrike" title="Airstrike">air raids</a>. Existing <a href="/wiki/Edifice" class="mw-redirect" title="Edifice">edifices</a> designed for other functions, such as <a href="/wiki/London_Underground" title="London Underground">underground</a> stations (tube or <a href="/wiki/Subway_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Subway station">subway stations</a>), <a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">tunnels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">cellars</a> in houses or <a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">basements</a> in larger establishments and railway arches, above ground, were suitable for safeguarding people during air raids.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A commonly used home shelter known as the <a href="#Anderson_shelter">Anderson shelter</a> would be built in a garden and equipped with beds as a refuge from air raids.<sup id="cite_ref-fortunecity1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fortunecity1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellars">Cellars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cellars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Air_raid_shelter" title="Special:EditPage/Air raid shelter">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bunker04_HLFM01.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bunker04_HLFM01.JPG/220px-Bunker04_HLFM01.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bunker04_HLFM01.JPG/330px-Bunker04_HLFM01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bunker04_HLFM01.JPG/440px-Bunker04_HLFM01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Single-person air raid shelter on display at the <a href="/wiki/Aviation_Museum_Hannover-Laatzen" title="Aviation Museum Hannover-Laatzen">Günter Leonhardt aviation museum</a> near <a href="/wiki/Hanover" title="Hanover">Hanover</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>Cellars have always been much more important in Continental Europe than in the United Kingdom and especially in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> almost all houses and apartment blocks have been and still are built with cellars. Air-raid precautions during World War II in Germany could be much more readily implemented by the authorities than was possible in the UK. All that was necessary was to ascertain that cellars were being prepared to accommodate all the residents of a building; that all the cellar hatch and window protections were in place; that access to the cellars was safe in the event of an air raid; that once inside, the occupants were secure for any incidents other than direct hits during the air raid and that means of escape was available. </p><p>The inadequacies of cellars and basements became apparent in the firestorms during the <a href="/wiki/Firebombing" title="Firebombing">incendiary attacks</a> on the larger German inner cities, especially <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hamburg in World War II">Hamburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Dresden_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Dresden in World War II">Dresden</a>. When burning buildings and apartment blocks above them collapsed in the raging winds (which could reach well over 800 °C or 1,470 °F), the occupants often became trapped in these basement shelters, which had also become overcrowded after the arrival of inhabitants from other buildings rendered unsafe in earlier attacks. Some occupants perished from heat stroke or carbon monoxide poisoning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hochbunker">Hochbunker</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hochbunker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hochbunker_von_Trier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hochbunker_von_Trier.jpg/220px-Hochbunker_von_Trier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hochbunker_von_Trier.jpg/330px-Hochbunker_von_Trier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Hochbunker_von_Trier.jpg/440px-Hochbunker_von_Trier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hochbunker</i></span> in <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wuensdorf_Winkelturm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Wuensdorf_Winkelturm.jpg/220px-Wuensdorf_Winkelturm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Wuensdorf_Winkelturm.jpg/330px-Wuensdorf_Winkelturm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Wuensdorf_Winkelturm.jpg/440px-Wuensdorf_Winkelturm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Winkelturm</i></span> in <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCnsdorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Wünsdorf">Wünsdorf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a></figcaption></figure> <p><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hochbunker</i></span> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">high-rise <a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">bunkers</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">blockhouses</a>), were a type of construction designed to relieve the pressure Nazi German authorities were facing to accommodate additional numbers of the population in high-density housing areas, as well as pedestrians on the streets during air raids. In contrast to other shelters, these buildings were considered completely bomb-proof. They had the advantage of being built upward, which was much cheaper than downward excavation. <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hochbunker</i></span> usually consisted of large concrete blocks above ground with walls between 1 and 1.5 metres (3 ft 3 in and 4 ft 11 in) thick and with huge lintels above doorways and openings. They often had a constant interior temperature of 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F), which made them perfectly suitable for laboratories, both during and after the war. They were used to protect people, administrative centres, important archives and works of art.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Their structures took many forms: usually consisting of square blocks or of low, long rectangular or triangular shapes; straight towers of a square plan rising to great heights, or round tower-like edifices, even pyramidal constructions. Some of the circular towers contained helical floors that gradually curved their way upward within the circular walls. Many of these structures may still be seen. They have been converted into offices, storage space; some have even been adapted for hotels, hospitals and schools, as well as many other peacetime purposes. In <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6neberg" title="Schöneberg">Schöneberg</a>, a block of flats was built over the Pallasstrasse air-raid shelter after World War II. During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> used the shelter for food storage.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cost of demolishing these edifices after the war would have been enormous, as the attempts at breaking up one of the six so-called <a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">Flak towers</a> of Vienna proved. The attempted demolition caused no more than a crack in one of the walls of the tower, after which efforts were abandoned. Only the <a href="/wiki/Zoo_Tower" title="Zoo Tower">Zoo Tower</a> in Berlin was successfully demolished.<sup id="cite_ref-charlesmccain1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-charlesmccain1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One particular variant of the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hochbunker</i></span> was the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Winkelturm</i></span>, named after its designer, Leo Winkel of <a href="/wiki/Duisburg" title="Duisburg">Duisburg</a>. Winkel patented his design in 1934, and from 1936 onward, Germany built 98 <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Winkeltürme</i></span> of five different types. The towers had a conical shape with walls that curved downward to a reinforced base. The dimensions of the towers varied. Diameters ranged between 8.4 and 10 metres (28 and 33 ft) and the height between 20 and 25 metres (66 and 82 ft). The walls of the towers had a minimum thickness for reinforced concrete of 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in) and 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) for ordinary concrete. The towers were able to shelter between 164 and 500 people, depending on the type. The intent with the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Winkeltürme</i></span> and the other <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hochbunker</i></span> was to protect workers in rail yards and industrial areas. Because of their shape, the towers became known colloquially as "cigar stubs" or "sugar beets".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The theory behind the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Winkeltürme</i></span> was that the curved walls would deflect any bomb hitting the tower, directing it down towards the base. The towers had a small footprint, which was probably a greater protection. A US bomb did hit one tower in Bremen in October 1944; the bomb exploded through the roof, killing five people inside. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Miklat (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">מקלט</span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">protected place</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) Is a type of air raid shelters found in Israel inside homes, near residential areas and in other places across the country. </p><p>These places are also called <a href="/wiki/Merkhav_Mugan" title="Merkhav Mugan">Merkhav Mugan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">מרחב מוגן</span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">protected space</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>). They are reinforced <a href="/wiki/Safe_room" title="Safe room">security rooms</a> required in all new buildings by <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israeli</a> law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Types_2">Types</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Miklat Tzibury</i> (מקלט ציבורי) – <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">public shelter</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, a partly underground facility, installed in residential areas. They are commonly used for community needs (clubs, education etc.). Maintained by the local governance and Home Front. They are located in streets and near public facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG/220px-AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG/330px-AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG/440px-AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Public <i>miklat</i> in <a href="/wiki/Holon" title="Holon">Holon</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><i>Miklat BeBayit Meshutaf</i> (מקלט בבית משותף) – <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">shelter</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> in a <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(living_space)" class="mw-redirect" title="Condominium (living space)">condominium</a>, a facility built into a building which has been declared as a condominium (commonly in a <a href="/wiki/Low-rise_building" title="Low-rise building">low-rise building</a>) it includes all the facilities that a public shelter has, but is maintained by the building residents.</li> <li><i>Merkhav Mugan Dirati</i> (מרחב מוגן דירתי or ממ״ד) – installed in residential apartments and private houses.</li> <li><i>Merkhav Mugan Komati</i> (מרחב מוגן קומתי or ממ״ק) – common floor space in apartment buildings in which there is no <i>Merkhav Mugan Dirati</i> in every apartment and in other multi-storey buildings (mostly offices and industry).</li> <li><i>Merkhav Mugan Mosadi</i> (מרחב מוגן מוסדי or ממ״מ) – installed in every public structure.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cellars_2">Cellars</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cellars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Air_raid_shelter" title="Special:EditPage/Air raid shelter">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Cellars in the UK, were mainly included only in larger houses, and in houses built up to the period of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, after which detached and semi-detached properties were constructed without cellars, usually to avoid the higher building costs entailed. Since house building had increased vastly between the wars, the lack of cellars in more recent housing became a major problem in the <a href="/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions" title="Air Raid Precautions">Air Raid Precautions</a> (ARP) programmes in the UK during World War II. </p><p>Alternatives had to be found speedily once it became clear that Germany was contemplating air raids as a means of demoralising the population and disrupting supply lines in the UK. Initial recommendations were that householders should shelter under the stairs. Later, authorities supplied materials to households to construct communal street shelters and <a href="#Morrison_shelter">Morrison</a> and <a href="#Anderson_shelter">Anderson shelters</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Basements">Basements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Basements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">Basements</a> also became available for the use of air raid shelters. Basements under factory premises, schools, hospitals, department stores and other businesses were utilised. However, these <i>ad hoc</i> shelters could bring additional dangers, as heavy machinery and materials or water storage facilities above the shelter, and insufficient support structures threatened to cause the collapse of basements. </p><p>When the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilkinson%27s_Lemonade&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilkinson's Lemonade (page does not exist)">Wilkinson's Lemonade</a> factory in <a href="/wiki/North_Shields" title="North Shields">North Shields</a> received a direct hit on Saturday, 3 May 1941 during a German attack on the north-east coast of England, 107 occupants lost their lives when heavy machinery fell through the ceiling of the basement in which they were sheltering.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Railway_arches_and_subways_(underpasses)"><span id="Railway_arches_and_subways_.28underpasses.29"></span>Railway arches and subways (underpasses)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Railway arches and subways (underpasses)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>British cities, prepared for use of railway arches and underpasses in 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTunnelNewc-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And railway arches and <a href="/wiki/Subway_(underpass)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subway (underpass)">subways</a><sup id="cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTunnelNewc-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were operationalized in the UK for air raid protection during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. </p><p>Railway arches were deep, curved structures of brick or concrete, set into the vertical sidewalls of railway lines, which had been intended originally for commercial depots, etc. The arches were covered usually with wooden or brick <a href="/w/index.php?title=Screen-wall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Screen-wall (page does not exist)">screen</a>- or <a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(architecture)" title="Curtain wall (architecture)">curtain walls</a>, thus giving a considerable amount of protection against air raids – provided, of course, that railway lines were not the prime target of the attack at the particular time and so being more likely to suffer from direct hits. Each arch could accommodate anything from around 60 to 150 people. However, fewer people could find shelter at night as sleeping areas for the occupants took up more of the space available – a limitation applying to any other type of shelter as well. Subways were actual <a href="/wiki/Thoroughfares" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoroughfares">thoroughfares</a> also in the shape of arches, normally allowing <a href="/wiki/Transit_passage" title="Transit passage">passage</a> underneath railway lines.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="London_Underground_stations">London Underground stations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: London Underground stations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the beginning of the war, shelter policy had been determined by <a href="/wiki/John_Anderson,_1st_Viscount_Waverley" title="John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley">John Anderson</a>, then Lord Privy Seal and, on the declaration of war, Home Secretary and Minister of Home Security. Anderson announced the policy to Parliament on 20 April 1939,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on a report from a committee chaired by Lord Hailey. This reaffirmed a policy of dispersal and eschewed the use of deep shelters, including the use of tube stations and underground tunnels as public shelters. Reasons given were the spread of disease due to the lack of toilet facilities at many stations, the inherent danger of people falling onto the lines, and that people sheltering in the stations and tunnels might be tempted to stay in them day and night because they would feel safer there than outside the stations. </p><p>None of these concerns had been borne out by experience during the bombing raids of the First World War, when eighty specially adapted tube stations had been pressed into use, but in a highly controversial decision in January 1924, Anderson, then chairman of the Air Raid Precautions Committee of Imperial Defence, had ruled out the tube station shelter option in any future conflict. </p><p>Following the intensive bombing of London on 7 September 1940 and the overnight raids of 7/8 September, there was considerable pressure to change the policy but, even following a review on 17 September, the government stood firm. On 19 September, <a href="/wiki/William_Mabane" class="mw-redirect" title="William Mabane">William Mabane</a>, parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Home Security, urged the public not to leave their <a href="#Anderson_shelter">Anderson shelters</a> for public shelters, saying it deprived others of shelter. "We're going to improve the amenities in existing shelters", he promised. "We're setting about providing better lighting and better accommodation for sleeping and better sanitary arrangements." The Ministries of Home Security and Transport jointly issued an "urgent appeal", telling the public "to refrain from using Tube stations as air-raid shelters except in the case of urgent necessity". </p><p>Over the night of 19/20 September, thousands of Londoners took matters in their own hands. They had flocked to the Tubes for shelter, at some stations, they began to arrive as early as <span class="nowrap">4:00 pm,</span> with bedding and bags of food to sustain them for the night. By the time the evening rush hour was in progress, they had already staked their "pitches" on the platforms. The Police did not intervene and some station managers, on their own initiative, provided additional toilet facilities. Transport Minister <a href="/wiki/John_Reith,_1st_Baron_Reith" title="John Reith, 1st Baron Reith">John Reith</a>, and the chairman of London Transport, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Ashfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Ashfield">Lord Ashfield</a>, inspected <a href="/wiki/Holborn_tube_station" title="Holborn tube station">Holborn tube station</a> to see for themselves. </p><p>The government realised that it could not contain this popular revolt. On 21 September, it abruptly changed policy, removing its objections to the use of tube stations. In what it called part of its "deep shelter extension policy", it decided to close the short section of <a href="/wiki/Piccadilly_line" title="Piccadilly line">Piccadilly line</a> from Holborn to <a href="/wiki/Aldwych_tube_station" title="Aldwych tube station">Aldwych</a>, and convert different sections for specific wartime use, including a public air raid shelter at Aldwych. Floodgates were installed at various points to protect the network should bombs breach the tunnels under the Thames, or large water mains in the vicinity of stations. Seventy-nine stations were fitted with bunks for 22,000 people, supplied with first aid facilities and equipped with chemical toilets. 124 canteens opened in all parts of the tube system. Shelter marshals were appointed, whose function it was to keep order, give first aid and assist in case of the flooding of the tunnels. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blitz_West_End_Air_Shelter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Blitz_West_End_Air_Shelter.jpg/220px-Blitz_West_End_Air_Shelter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Blitz_West_End_Air_Shelter.jpg/330px-Blitz_West_End_Air_Shelter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Blitz_West_End_Air_Shelter.jpg/440px-Blitz_West_End_Air_Shelter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="848" data-file-height="1061" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/London_Underground" title="London Underground">London Underground</a> station in use as an air-raid shelter during World War II</figcaption></figure> <p>Businesses (for example <a href="/wiki/Plessey" title="Plessey">Plessey Ltd</a>) were allowed to use the Underground stations and unopened tunnels; government offices were installed in others and the anti-aircraft centre for London used a station as its headquarters. Tube stations and tunnels were still vulnerable to a direct hit and on 14 October 1940, a bomb penetrated the road and tunnel at <a href="/wiki/Balham_tube_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Balham tube station">Balham tube station</a>, blew up the water mains and sewage pipes, and killed 66 people. At <a href="/wiki/Bank_and_Monument_stations" title="Bank and Monument stations">Bank station</a>, a direct hit caused a crater of 37 by 30 metres (120 ft × 100 ft) on 11 January 1941; the road above the station collapsed and killed 56 occupants. The highest death toll was caused by an incident at the unfinished <a href="/wiki/Bethnal_Green_tube_station" title="Bethnal Green tube station">Bethnal Green tube station</a> on 8 March 1943, when 1,500 people entered the station. The crowd suddenly surged forward upon hearing the unfamiliar sound of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket being launched nearby. Someone stumbled on the stairs, and the crowd pushing on, were falling on top of one another, and 173 people were crushed to death in the disaster. </p><p>The London Underground system was considered one of the safest means of protecting relatively many people in a high-density area of the capital. An estimated 170,000 people sheltered in the tunnels and stations during the war. Although not a great number in comparison to the population of the capital, it almost certainly saved the lives of the people who probably would have had to find alternative, less secure means of protection.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artists and photographers such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moore" title="Henry Moore">Henry Moore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Brandt" title="Bill Brandt">Bill Brandt</a> were employed as war artists to document life in London's shelters during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_tunnels">Other tunnels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other tunnels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victoria_Tunnel_(Newcastle)_near_Ouse_Street_2010-02-19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Victoria_Tunnel_%28Newcastle%29_near_Ouse_Street_2010-02-19.jpg/220px-Victoria_Tunnel_%28Newcastle%29_near_Ouse_Street_2010-02-19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Victoria_Tunnel_%28Newcastle%29_near_Ouse_Street_2010-02-19.jpg/330px-Victoria_Tunnel_%28Newcastle%29_near_Ouse_Street_2010-02-19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Victoria_Tunnel_%28Newcastle%29_near_Ouse_Street_2010-02-19.jpg/440px-Victoria_Tunnel_%28Newcastle%29_near_Ouse_Street_2010-02-19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2878" data-file-height="2158" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Tunnel_(Newcastle)" title="Victoria Tunnel (Newcastle)">Victoria tunnels</a>, offered air raid shelter.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 300px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00yvk98">By 1935... the government stated, every city should have air raid protection.</a><sup id="cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTunnelNewc-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Many other types of tunnels were adapted for shelters to protect the civil population, and the military and administrative establishment in the UK during the war. Some had been built many years before, some had been part of an ancient defence system, and some had belonged to commercial enterprises, such as coal mining. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Victoria_Tunnel_(Newcastle)" title="Victoria Tunnel (Newcastle)">Victoria tunnels</a> at <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle upon Tyne</a>, for example, completed as long ago as 1842, and used for transporting coal from the collieries to the river Tyne, had been closed in 1860 and remained so until 1939. In places the tunnels were 12 metres (39 ft) deep, the tunnels, stretching in parts beneath the city of Newcastle, were converted to air raid shelters with a capacity for 9,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VTunnelNewc-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tunnels linked to <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Cathedral_Steps" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester Cathedral Steps">landing stages</a> built on the <a href="/wiki/River_Irwell" title="River Irwell">River Irwell</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> at the end of the nineteenth century were also used as air-raid shelters. </p><p>The medieval labyrinth of tunnels beneath <a href="/wiki/Dover_Castle" title="Dover Castle">Dover Castle</a> had been built originally as part of the defensive system of the approaches to England, extended over the centuries and further excavated and reinforced during the world wars, until it was capable of accommodating large parts of the secret defence systems protecting the British Isles. On 26 May 1940, it became the headquarters under <a href="/wiki/Vice_Admiral" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice Admiral">Vice Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Ramsay" title="Bertram Ramsay">Bertram Ramsay</a> of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dynamo" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Dynamo">Operation Dynamo</a>, from which the rescue and evacuation of up to 338,000 troops from France was directed. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Stockport" title="Stockport">Stockport</a>, 6 mi (9.7 km) south of Manchester, four sets of underground air raid shelter tunnels for civilian use were dug into the red sandstone on which the town centre stands. Preparation started in September 1938 and the first set of shelters was opened on 28 October 1939. (Stockport was not bombed until 11 October 1940.) The smallest of the tunnel shelters could accommodate 2,000 people and the largest 3,850 (subsequently expanded to take up to 6,500 people.) The largest of the <a href="/wiki/Stockport_Air_Raid_Shelters" title="Stockport Air Raid Shelters">Stockport Air Raid Shelters</a> are open to the public as part of the town's museum service.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In southeast London, residents made use of the <a href="/wiki/Chislehurst_Caves" title="Chislehurst Caves">Chislehurst Caves</a> beneath <a href="/wiki/Chislehurst" title="Chislehurst">Chislehurst</a>, a 35-kilometre-long (22 mi) network of caves which have existed since the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> for the mining of <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Street_communal_shelter">Street communal shelter</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Street communal shelter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Air_raid_shelter" title="Special:EditPage/Air raid shelter">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the United Kingdom, it was being recognised early that public shelters in open spaces, especially near streets, were urgently needed for pedestrians, drivers and passengers in passing vehicles, etc. The programme of building <b>street communal shelters</b> commenced in March 1940, the government supplying the materials, and being the moving force behind the scheme, and private builders executing the work under the supervision of surveyors. These shelters consisted of 360-millimetre (14 in) brick walls and 300-millimetre-thick (1 ft) reinforced concrete roofs, similarly to, but much larger than, the private shelters in backyards and gardens being introduced slightly later. The communal shelters were usually intended to accommodate about fifty persons, and were divided into various sections by interior walls with openings connecting the different sections. Sections were normally furnished with six bunks. </p><p>The construction work then went on rapidly, until the resources of concrete and bricks began to be depleted due to the excessive demand placed on them so suddenly. Also, the performance of the early street shelters was a serious blow to public confidence. Their walls were shaken down either by earth shock or blast, and the concrete roofs then fell onto the helpless occupants, and this was there for all to see.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1978_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1978-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At around the same time rumours of accidents started to circulate, such as on one occasion people being drowned due to a burst main filling up the shelter with water. Although much improved designs were being introduced whose performance had been demonstrated in explosion trials, communal shelters became highly unpopular, and shortly afterwards householders were being encouraged to build or have built private shelters on their properties, or within their houses, with materials being supplied by the government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anderson_shelter">Anderson shelter</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anderson shelter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG/250px-AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG/375px-AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG/500px-AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>An unburied Anderson Shelter in 2007, showing the distinctive curved shape of its walls; this shelter had seen use after the war as a shed</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anderson3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Anderson3.jpg/250px-Anderson3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Anderson3.jpg/375px-Anderson3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Anderson3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="486" data-file-height="490" /></a><figcaption>Children preparing to sleep in the Anderson shelter installed in their garden during frequent bombing raids on Bournemouth in 1941</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Anderson_shelters" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Anderson shelters">Anderson shelters</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <p>The <b>Anderson shelter</b> was designed in 1938 by William Paterson and Oscar Carl (Karl) Kerrison in response to a request from the Home Office. It was named after Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Anderson,_1st_Viscount_Waverley" title="John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley">John Anderson</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Lord_Privy_Seal" title="Lord Privy Seal">Lord Privy Seal</a> with special responsibility for preparing air-raid precautions immediately prior to the outbreak of World War II, and it was he who then initiated the development of the shelter.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lavelle_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lavelle-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After evaluation by David Anderson, Bertram Lawrence Hurst, and Sir Henry Jupp, of the <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Civil_Engineers" title="Institution of Civil Engineers">Institution of Civil Engineers</a>, the design was released for production. </p><p>Anderson shelters were designed to accommodate up to six people. The main principle of protection was based on curved and straight <a href="/wiki/Corrugated_galvanised_iron" title="Corrugated galvanised iron">galvanised corrugated steel</a> <a href="/wiki/Structural_insulated_panel" title="Structural insulated panel">panels</a>. Six curved panels were bolted together at the top, so forming the main body of the shelter, three straight sheets on either side, and two more straight panels were fixed to each end, one containing the door—a total of fourteen panels. A small drainage <a href="/wiki/Sump" title="Sump">sump</a> was often incorporated in the floor to collect rainwater seeping into the shelter. </p><p>The shelters were 1.8 metres (6 ft) high, 1.4 metres (4.5 ft) wide, and 2.0 metres (6.5 ft) long. When installed underground, they were buried 1.2 metres (4 ft) deep in the soil and then covered with a minimum of 38 centimetres (15 in) of soil above the roof. When they were buried outside, the earth banks could be planted with vegetables and flowers, that at times could be quite an appealing sight and in this way would become the subject of competitions of the best-planted shelter among householders in the neighbourhood. The internal fitting out of the shelter was left to the owner and so there were wide variations in comfort.<sup id="cite_ref-fortunecity1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fortunecity1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anderson shelters were issued free to all householders who earned less than £5 a week (equivalent to £390 in 2023, when adjusted for <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>). Those with a higher income were charged £7 (£550 in 2023) for their shelter. One and a half million shelters of this type were distributed between February 1939 and the outbreak of war. During the war a further 2.1<span class="nowrap"> </span>million were erected.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large numbers were manufactured at <a href="/wiki/John_Summers_%26_Sons" title="John Summers & Sons">John Summers & Sons</a> ironworks at <a href="/wiki/Shotton,_Flintshire" title="Shotton, Flintshire">Shotton</a> on Deeside with production peaking at 50,000 units per week.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Anderson shelters performed well under blast and ground shock, because they had good connectivity and ductility, which meant that they could absorb a great deal of energy through plastic deformation without falling apart. (This was in marked contrast to other trench shelters which used concrete for the sides and roof, which were inherently unstable when disturbed by the effects of an explosion – if the roof slab lifted, the walls fell in under the static earth pressure; if the walls were pushed in, the roof would be unsupported at one edge and would fall.) However, when the pattern of all-night alerts became established, it was realised that in winter Anderson shelters installed outside were cold damp holes in the ground and often flooded in wet weather, and so their occupancy factor would be poor. This led to the development of the indoor <a href="#Morrison_shelter">Morrison shelter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1978_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1978-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the end of the war in Europe, households who had received an Anderson shelter were expected to remove their shelters and local authorities began the task of reclaiming the corrugated iron. Householders who wished to keep their Anderson shelter (or more likely the valuable metal) could pay a nominal fee. </p><p>Because of the large number made and their robustness, many Anderson shelters still survive. Many were dug up after the war and converted into storage sheds for use in gardens and <a href="/wiki/Allotment_(gardening)" title="Allotment (gardening)">allotments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lavelle_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lavelle-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morrison_shelter">Morrison shelter</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Morrison shelter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_couple_sleeping_in_a_Morrison_shelter_during_the_Second_World_War._D2055.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_couple_sleeping_in_a_Morrison_shelter_during_the_Second_World_War._D2055.jpg/250px-A_couple_sleeping_in_a_Morrison_shelter_during_the_Second_World_War._D2055.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_couple_sleeping_in_a_Morrison_shelter_during_the_Second_World_War._D2055.jpg/375px-A_couple_sleeping_in_a_Morrison_shelter_during_the_Second_World_War._D2055.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/A_couple_sleeping_in_a_Morrison_shelter_during_the_Second_World_War._D2055.jpg/500px-A_couple_sleeping_in_a_Morrison_shelter_during_the_Second_World_War._D2055.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption>A couple demonstrating the use of a Morrison shelter</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Morrison_shelter" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Morrison shelter">Morrison shelter</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <p>The <b>Morrison shelter</b>, officially termed <i>Table (Morrison) Indoor Shelter</i>, had a cage-like construction beneath it. It was designed by <a href="/wiki/John_Baker,_Baron_Baker" title="John Baker, Baron Baker">John Baker</a> and named after <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Stanley_Morrison" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Stanley Morrison">Herbert Morrison</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Home_Security" title="Ministry of Home Security">Minister of Home Security</a> at the time. It was the result of the realisation that due to the lack of house cellars it was necessary to develop an effective type of indoor shelter. The shelters came in <a href="/wiki/Ready-to-assemble_furniture" title="Ready-to-assemble furniture">assembly kits</a>, to be bolted together inside the home. They were approximately 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 in) long, 1.2 metres (4 ft) wide and 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 in) high, had a solid <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>3.2 millimetres (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) steel plate "table" top, welded wire mesh sides, and a metal lath "mattress"-type floor. Altogether it had 359 parts and had three tools supplied with the pack. </p><p>The shelter was provided free to households whose combined income was less than £400 per year (equivalent to £31,000 in 2023). </p><p>Head of the Engineering Department at <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a>, Professor <a href="/wiki/John_Baker,_Baron_Baker" title="John Baker, Baron Baker">John Baker (later Lord Baker)</a> presented an undergraduate lecture on the principles of design of the shelter as an introduction to his theory of plastic design of structures, which can be summarised as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It was impractical to produce a design for mass production that could withstand a direct hit, and so it was a matter of selecting a suitable design target that would save lives in many cases of blast damage to bombed houses. Examination of bombed buildings indicated that in many instances, one end wall of a house was sucked or blown out by a nearby blast, and the floor of the first storey pivoted about its other end (supported by a largely intact wall) and killed the inhabitants. The Morrison shelter was therefore designed to be able to withstand the upper floor falling, of a typical two storey-house undergoing a partial collapse. The shelter was designed to absorb this energy by plastic deformation, since this can absorb two or three orders of magnitude more energy than elastic deformation.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its design enabled the family to sleep under the shelter at night or during raids, and to use it as a dining table in the daytime, making it a practical item in the house.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Half a million Morrison shelters had been distributed by the end of 1941, with a further 100,000 being added in 1943 to prepare the population for the expected German <a href="/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb" title="V-1 flying bomb">V-1 flying bomb</a> (doodlebug) attacks. </p><p>In one examination of 44 severely damaged houses it was found that 3 people had been killed, 13 seriously injured, and 16 slightly injured out of a total of 136 people who had occupied Morrison shelters; thus 120 out of 136 escaped from severely bomb-damaged houses without serious injury. Furthermore, it was discovered that the fatalities had occurred in a house which had suffered a direct hit, and some of the severely injured were in shelters sited incorrectly within the houses.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1950, the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors made an award of £3,000 (£130,000) to Baker for his design of the Morrison shelter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1978[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2014)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1978[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2014)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scallywag_bunkers">Scallywag bunkers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Scallywag bunkers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parham_airfield,_Museum_of_the_British_Resistance_Organisation_-_Auxiliary_unit_operational_base.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Parham_airfield%2C_Museum_of_the_British_Resistance_Organisation_-_Auxiliary_unit_operational_base.jpg/220px-Parham_airfield%2C_Museum_of_the_British_Resistance_Organisation_-_Auxiliary_unit_operational_base.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Parham_airfield%2C_Museum_of_the_British_Resistance_Organisation_-_Auxiliary_unit_operational_base.jpg/330px-Parham_airfield%2C_Museum_of_the_British_Resistance_Organisation_-_Auxiliary_unit_operational_base.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Parham_airfield%2C_Museum_of_the_British_Resistance_Organisation_-_Auxiliary_unit_operational_base.jpg/440px-Parham_airfield%2C_Museum_of_the_British_Resistance_Organisation_-_Auxiliary_unit_operational_base.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a Scallywag bunker at <a href="/wiki/Parham_Airfield_Museum" title="Parham Airfield Museum">Parham Airfield Museum</a>, Suffolk</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Scallywag_bunker" title="Scallywag bunker">Scallywag bunkers</a> or Operational Base/OB were underground bunkers used by <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_Units" title="Auxiliary Units">Auxiliary Units</a> of the British Resistance against axis invasion of the United Kingdom. They were provided with elaborately-concealed underground Operational Bases (OB), usually built by the Royal Engineers in a local woodland, with a camouflaged entrance and emergency escape tunnel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stanton_shelters">Stanton shelters</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Stanton shelters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Stanton_shelter" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Stanton shelter">Stanton shelter</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disused_air-raid_shelter,_Dilton,_New_Forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_430429.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Disused_air-raid_shelter%2C_Dilton%2C_New_Forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_430429.jpg/250px-Disused_air-raid_shelter%2C_Dilton%2C_New_Forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_430429.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Disused_air-raid_shelter%2C_Dilton%2C_New_Forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_430429.jpg/375px-Disused_air-raid_shelter%2C_Dilton%2C_New_Forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_430429.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Disused_air-raid_shelter%2C_Dilton%2C_New_Forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_430429.jpg/500px-Disused_air-raid_shelter%2C_Dilton%2C_New_Forest_-_geograph.org.uk_-_430429.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An abandoned Stanton shelter at the disused airfield <a href="/wiki/RAF_Beaulieu" title="RAF Beaulieu">RAF Beaulieu</a> (2007)</figcaption></figure> <p>A segment shelter manufactured by the <a href="/wiki/Ilkeston#Stanton_Ironworks" title="Ilkeston">Stanton Ironworks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilkeston" title="Ilkeston">Ilkeston</a>, Derbyshire. The shop producing <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_casting_(industrial)" title="Centrifugal casting (industrial)">spun-concrete</a> lighting columns ceased production and turned over to concrete air-raid shelters, of which 100,000 tonnes (220 million pounds) were manufactured, principally for the air ministry. Reinforced concrete proved an ideal material for air-raid shelters, being strong and resistant to shock with no deterioration with the passing of time. This type of segment shelter was of simple design and of low cost—any length of shelter could be built up from the pre-cast steel reinforced concrete segments. </p><p>The segments were 510 millimetres (20 in) wide; a pair of them formed an arch 2.1 metres (7 ft) high and transverse struts were provided to ensure rigidity. These fitted into longitudinal bearers which were grooved to receive the foot of each segment. Each pair of segments was bolted together at the apex of the arch and each segment was also bolted to its neighbour, the joints being sealed with a bituminous compound. The convenient handling of these segments enabled them to be transported onto sites where close access by motor lorry was not possible. Partly buried in the ground, with a suitably screened entrance, this bolted shelter afforded safe protection against blast and splinters.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_construction">Other construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Other construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gdansk_Remontowa_Shipyard_air-raid_shelter_Ostrowica_IV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gdansk_Remontowa_Shipyard_air-raid_shelter_Ostrowica_IV.jpg/250px-Gdansk_Remontowa_Shipyard_air-raid_shelter_Ostrowica_IV.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gdansk_Remontowa_Shipyard_air-raid_shelter_Ostrowica_IV.jpg/375px-Gdansk_Remontowa_Shipyard_air-raid_shelter_Ostrowica_IV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Gdansk_Remontowa_Shipyard_air-raid_shelter_Ostrowica_IV.jpg/500px-Gdansk_Remontowa_Shipyard_air-raid_shelter_Ostrowica_IV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>German anti-aircraft shelter from the Second World War at the shipyard in <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a> was built without a basement due to the presence of groundwater</figcaption></figure> <p>Some air-raid shelters were constructed in residential building schemes in anticipation of the Second World War. There is a surviving example at <a href="/wiki/St_Leonard%27s_Court" title="St Leonard's Court">St Leonard's Court</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Sheen" title="East Sheen">East Sheen</a>, southwest London. </p><p>Military air-raid shelters included <a href="/wiki/Blast_pen" class="mw-redirect" title="Blast pen">blast pens</a> at <a href="/wiki/Airfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Airfield">airfields</a> for the security of <a href="/wiki/Aircrew" title="Aircrew">aircrews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_maintenance" title="Aircraft maintenance">aircraft maintenance</a> personnel away from the main airbase buildings. </p><p>Few shelters could survive a direct bomb-hit. The German authorities claimed that <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Hochbunker</i></span> were totally bomb-proof, but none were targeted by any of the 41 10,000-kilogram (22,000 lb) <a href="/wiki/Grand_Slam_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Slam bomb">Grand Slam</a> earthquake bombs dropped by the RAF by the end of World War II. Two of these bombs were dropped on the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">U-Bootbunkerwerft</i></span> <a href="/wiki/Valentin_submarine_pens" title="Valentin submarine pens">Valentin submarine pens</a> near <a href="/wiki/Bremen_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bremen (city)">Bremen</a> and these barely penetrated 4 to 7 metres (13 to 23 ft) of reinforced concrete, bringing down the roof. </p><p>More recently, the penetration by laser-guided <a href="/wiki/Guided_bomb" title="Guided bomb">"smart bombs"</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Amiriyah_shelter_bombing" title="Amiriyah shelter bombing">Amiriyah shelter</a> during the 1991 <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> showed how vulnerable even reinforced concrete shelters are to direct hits from bunker-buster bombs. However, the air-raid shelters are built to protect the civilian population, so protection against a direct hit is of secondary value. The most important dangers are the blast and shrapnel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air-raid_shelters_in_modern_times">Air-raid shelters in modern times</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Air-raid shelters in modern times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old air-raid shelters, such as the <a href="#Anderson_shelter">Anderson</a>, can still be found in back gardens, in which they are commonly used as sheds, or (on a roof covered with earth) as vegetable patches. </p><p>Countries which have kept air-raid shelters intact and in ready condition include <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switzerland">Switzerland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Switzerland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Air_raid_shelter" title="Special:EditPage/Air raid shelter">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Many Swiss houses and apartment blocks still have structurally reinforced, underground basements, often featuring a concrete door around 40 cm (16 in) thick. In more modern, post-war times, these shelters are often used as storage, with the footprint of the reinforced basement divided up into individual storage units according to the number of apartments in the house. The basement shelters are built to more stringent building codes, as the ceiling especially should protect shelter-seeking people from the house collapsing. Although most Swiss houses provide their own shelters, those that don't are required by law to post directions to the nearest shelter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> was <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Barcelona" title="Bombing of Barcelona">severely bombed</a> by Italian and German Air Forces during <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>, particularly in 1937 and 1938. Tunnels were used as shelters at the same time that the population undertook the building of bomb shelters under the coordination of a committee for civil defense (<a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>: <i lang="ca">Junta de defensa passiva</i>) providing planning and technical assistance. Hundreds of bomb shelters were built. Most of them are recorded, but only a few are well preserved. Among these stand out the <span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca">Plaça del Diamant</i></span> refuge as well as air-shelter 307 (<span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca">Refugi 307</i></span>), today one of the <a href="/wiki/Barcelona_City_History_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Barcelona City History Museum">Barcelona City History Museum</a> heritage sites.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other cities with extant bomb shelters from the Spanish Civil War include <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guadalajara,_Castile-La_Mancha" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha">Guadalajara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcal%C3%A1_de_Henares" title="Alcalá de Henares">Alcalá de Henares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santander,_Spain" title="Santander, Spain">Santander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ja%C3%A9n,_Spain" title="Jaén, Spain">Jaén</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alca%C3%B1iz" title="Alcañiz">Alcañiz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shelter_of_Cervantes" title="Shelter of Cervantes">Alcoy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valencia" title="Valencia">Valencia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">Cartagena</a>. During the war, Cartagena, an important naval base, was one of the main targets for Franco's bombers. Cartagena suffered between 40 and 117 bombings (sources are mixed about the number of attacks). The most dramatic was one carried out by the German <a href="/wiki/Condor_Legion" title="Condor Legion">Condor Legion</a> on 25 November 1936. The largest air raid shelter in Cartagena, which could accommodate up to 5,500 people, has been a museum since 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mhcb070401_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Air-raid Shelter 307 (Refugi 307) in Barcelona, was built during Spanish Civil War"><img alt="Air-raid Shelter 307 (Refugi 307) in Barcelona, was built during Spanish Civil War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mhcb070401_008.jpg/180px-Mhcb070401_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mhcb070401_008.jpg/270px-Mhcb070401_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Mhcb070401_008.jpg/360px-Mhcb070401_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2040" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Air-raid Shelter 307 (<span title="Catalan-language text"><i lang="ca">Refugi 307</i></span>) in Barcelona, was built during <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Refugi_antiaeri_de_Carcaixent_a_l%27Asil_Mare_de_D%C3%A9u_dels_Desemparats,_2_(Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Air raid shelter in Carcaixent (Valencian Community) built by republicans during the Spanish Civil War"><img alt="Air raid shelter in Carcaixent (Valencian Community) built by republicans during the Spanish Civil War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Refugi_antiaeri_de_Carcaixent_a_l%27Asil_Mare_de_D%C3%A9u_dels_Desemparats%2C_2_%28Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0%29.jpg/109px-Refugi_antiaeri_de_Carcaixent_a_l%27Asil_Mare_de_D%C3%A9u_dels_Desemparats%2C_2_%28Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Refugi_antiaeri_de_Carcaixent_a_l%27Asil_Mare_de_D%C3%A9u_dels_Desemparats%2C_2_%28Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0%29.jpg/163px-Refugi_antiaeri_de_Carcaixent_a_l%27Asil_Mare_de_D%C3%A9u_dels_Desemparats%2C_2_%28Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Refugi_antiaeri_de_Carcaixent_a_l%27Asil_Mare_de_D%C3%A9u_dels_Desemparats%2C_2_%28Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0%29.jpg/217px-Refugi_antiaeri_de_Carcaixent_a_l%27Asil_Mare_de_D%C3%A9u_dels_Desemparats%2C_2_%28Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1768" data-file-height="2924" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Air raid shelter in <a href="/wiki/Carcaixent" title="Carcaixent">Carcaixent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Valencian_Community" title="Valencian Community">Valencian Community</a>) built by republicans during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel_2">Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israelis_Hiding_in_a_Bomb_Shelter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israelis_Hiding_in_a_Bomb_Shelter.jpg/250px-Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israelis_Hiding_in_a_Bomb_Shelter.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israelis_Hiding_in_a_Bomb_Shelter.jpg/375px-Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israelis_Hiding_in_a_Bomb_Shelter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israelis_Hiding_in_a_Bomb_Shelter.jpg/500px-Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_Israelis_Hiding_in_a_Bomb_Shelter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1094" data-file-height="729" /></a><figcaption>The inside of an Israeli bomb shelter in 2012</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">State of Israel</a> required all buildings to have access to air-raid shelters from 1951, and all new flats possess access to <a href="/wiki/Merkhav_Mugan" title="Merkhav Mugan">Merkhav Mugan</a>. All medical and educational facilities are prepared for chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CRBN) attacks as of 2010<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> – for example, each surgery room is built to withstand a direct missile hit – some are built with closed-cycle air systems and are capable of being resistant to chemical agents for short periods of time; in addition all must include chemical air filtering systems. The public air-raid shelters are commonly employed as game rooms in peacetime so that the children will be comfortable to enter them at a time of need, and will not be frightened.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oref_special_considurations_for_medical_facilities_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oref_special_considurations_for_medical_facilities-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-knesset_law_securing_schools_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knesset_law_securing_schools-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finland">Finland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Finland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:V%C3%A4est%C3%B6nsuojan_ovi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/V%C3%A4est%C3%B6nsuojan_ovi.jpg/220px-V%C3%A4est%C3%B6nsuojan_ovi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/V%C3%A4est%C3%B6nsuojan_ovi.jpg/330px-V%C3%A4est%C3%B6nsuojan_ovi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/V%C3%A4est%C3%B6nsuojan_ovi.jpg/440px-V%C3%A4est%C3%B6nsuojan_ovi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A normal Finnish S1-shelter steel door; 'S' is short for <i>suoja</i> (protection, shelter)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ministry of Interior, responsible for <a href="/wiki/Civil_defence_in_Finland" title="Civil defence in Finland">civil defence in Finland</a>, maintains hard shelters, capable of accommodating 3.6<span class="nowrap"> </span>million persons, in cities and in other densely populated areas where two-thirds of the country's population live. They are built to withstand the detonation of a 100-kilotonne-of-TNT (420 TJ) nuclear bomb at ground zero.<sup id="cite_ref-LOC_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LOC-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In total Finland has over 45,000 civil defence shelters which can house 3.6<span class="nowrap"> </span>million people<sup id="cite_ref-Ministry_of_the_Interior_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ministry_of_the_Interior-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (65% of the population). A shelter is designed to protect the population in the event of a threat of a possible gas or poison leak, armed attack such as war, radioactive fallout, or the like. Private homes rarely have them, but houses over 1,200 square metres (13,000 sq ft) are obliged to build them.<sup id="cite_ref-Ministry_of_the_Interior_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ministry_of_the_Interior-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fire inspectors check the shelters every ten years and flaws have to be repaired or corrected as soon as possible. Shelters are often used as storage spaces but the law requires that inhabitants of apartment blocks must be able to clear the shelters and put them into action in less than 72 hours. Half of the air-raid shelter has to be ready to use in two hours. The types of shelters are: </p> <ul><li>K, a small shelter for a small apartment house.</li> <li>S1, a usual shelter for apartment house.</li> <li>S3, lightweight shelter in solid rock or heavyweight shelter of ferroconcrete.</li> <li>S6, large shelters in solid rock that must be able to withstand a 6-bar (600 kPa) pressure wave.</li></ul> <p>All shelters must have:<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>an electric and hand-operated air-conditioning system, which can protect from biological and chemical weapons and radioactive particles.</li> <li>a radiometer</li> <li>dry toilets</li> <li>a fixed-line telephone interface</li> <li>a spare exit</li> <li>water tanks</li> <li>a first aid kit</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Singapore">Singapore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Singapore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 1998, Singapore has required all new houses and flats to have a shelter built to certain specifications. The <a href="/wiki/Singapore_Civil_Defence_Force" title="Singapore Civil Defence Force">Singapore Civil Defence Force</a> rationalizes building such shelters in high-rise buildings by noting that weapon effects tend to be localized, and are unlikely to cause an entire building to collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Taiwan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are currently 117,669 air raid shelters in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. The first air raid shelters were constructed in the Japanese colonial period and construction expanded during WWII as allied bombers began hitting Taiwan.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece">Greece</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the pre-WW2 period the <a href="/wiki/4th_of_August_Regime" title="4th of August Regime">Metaxas regime</a> initiated an extensive Civil Defence system designed to protect civilians in the event of enemy bombing.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system included extensive training of civilians as well as the construction of more than 12,000 air raid shelters in <a href="/wiki/Attica_(region)" title="Attica (region)">Attica</a>, equipped with German made blast doors and air filtering systems. From 1939 forward virtually all new apartment buildings contained built-in hardened basements and cellars that functioned as (unofficial) bunkers, although these lacked the more sophisticated equipment of the state built shelters.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the war, most of these shelters were either abandoned or demolished along with the apartment buildings they were built in. Public shelters were covered to make way for the modern street network. The last public inspection of the remaining shelters was performed in the 70s. Nowadays very few state built shelters remain intact, although hardened cellars still remain in the basements of most buildings in the older districts of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable surviving shelters include the Likavitos shelter, built inside the mountain of the same name, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(Greece)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Finance (Greece)">Ministry of Finance</a> bunker and the <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a> bunkers in Athens, and the nuclear bunker under the Military Hospital no 414 in Thessaloniki.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ukraine">Ukraine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Ukraine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:People_on_a_metro_station_during_Russian_invasion,_Kyiv,_2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/People_on_a_metro_station_during_Russian_invasion%2C_Kyiv%2C_2022.jpg/220px-People_on_a_metro_station_during_Russian_invasion%2C_Kyiv%2C_2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/People_on_a_metro_station_during_Russian_invasion%2C_Kyiv%2C_2022.jpg/330px-People_on_a_metro_station_during_Russian_invasion%2C_Kyiv%2C_2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/People_on_a_metro_station_during_Russian_invasion%2C_Kyiv%2C_2022.jpg/440px-People_on_a_metro_station_during_Russian_invasion%2C_Kyiv%2C_2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1292" data-file-height="654" /></a><figcaption>Residents sheltering in a <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_Metro" title="Kyiv Metro">Kyiv Metro</a> station during the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_Metro" title="Kyiv Metro">Kyiv Metro</a> was built in the wake of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, the metro stations doubled as bomb shelters, as residents took shelter from Russian bombs.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like other former Soviet metro systems, the Kyiv metro was designed with this purpose in mind, and 47 of the city's 52 stations were designated for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the invasion, on 24 February 2022, regular service on the metro was suspended.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A reduced schedule was adopted with limited services running between 8<span class="nowrap"> </span>am and 7<span class="nowrap"> </span>pm. All underground stations remain open 24 hours a day to provide shelter.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_Kyiv" title="Mayor of Kyiv">mayor</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitali_Klitschko" title="Vitali Klitschko">Vitali Klitschko</a>, on 2 March 2022, as many as 150,000 residents of Kyiv sought shelter in the Metro.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stations in the <a href="/wiki/Kharkiv_Metro" title="Kharkiv Metro">Kharkiv Metro</a> were also used as shelters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_HU36196.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Three Anderson shelters that survived the destruction of the houses adjacent to them following a bombing raid in Norwich"><img alt="Three Anderson shelters that survived the destruction of the houses adjacent to them following a bombing raid in Norwich" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_HU36196.jpg/267px-The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_HU36196.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_HU36196.jpg/401px-The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_HU36196.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_HU36196.jpg/534px-The_Home_Front_in_Britain_during_the_Second_World_War_HU36196.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5249" data-file-height="4005" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Three Anderson shelters that survived the destruction of the houses adjacent to them following a bombing raid in <a href="/wiki/Norwich" title="Norwich">Norwich</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Morrison_Shelter_on_Trial-_Testing_the_New_Indoor_Shelter,_1941_D2294.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Morrison shelter containing a dummy, after the house it was in had been destroyed as a test"><img alt="A Morrison shelter containing a dummy, after the house it was in had been destroyed as a test" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Morrison_Shelter_on_Trial-_Testing_the_New_Indoor_Shelter%2C_1941_D2294.jpg/267px-Morrison_Shelter_on_Trial-_Testing_the_New_Indoor_Shelter%2C_1941_D2294.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Morrison_Shelter_on_Trial-_Testing_the_New_Indoor_Shelter%2C_1941_D2294.jpg/401px-Morrison_Shelter_on_Trial-_Testing_the_New_Indoor_Shelter%2C_1941_D2294.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Morrison_Shelter_on_Trial-_Testing_the_New_Indoor_Shelter%2C_1941_D2294.jpg/534px-Morrison_Shelter_on_Trial-_Testing_the_New_Indoor_Shelter%2C_1941_D2294.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="610" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A Morrison shelter containing a dummy, after the house it was in had been destroyed as a test</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ValenciaRefugio.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Air-raid shelter built during the Spanish Civil War in Valencia"><img alt="Air-raid shelter built during the Spanish Civil War in Valencia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/ValenciaRefugio.JPG/267px-ValenciaRefugio.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/ValenciaRefugio.JPG/401px-ValenciaRefugio.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/ValenciaRefugio.JPG/534px-ValenciaRefugio.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Air-raid shelter built during the Spanish Civil War in Valencia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Children_outside_air_raid_shelter,_Gresford_(4365436432).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Children outside air raid shelter in Gresford, 1939"><img alt="Children outside air raid shelter in Gresford, 1939" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Children_outside_air_raid_shelter%2C_Gresford_%284365436432%29.jpg/267px-Children_outside_air_raid_shelter%2C_Gresford_%284365436432%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Children_outside_air_raid_shelter%2C_Gresford_%284365436432%29.jpg/401px-Children_outside_air_raid_shelter%2C_Gresford_%284365436432%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Children_outside_air_raid_shelter%2C_Gresford_%284365436432%29.jpg/534px-Children_outside_air_raid_shelter%2C_Gresford_%284365436432%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="406" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Children outside air raid shelter in <a href="/wiki/Gresford" title="Gresford">Gresford</a>, 1939</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Finnish_civilians_enter_a_bomb_shelter_in_Helsinki_as_air-raid_sirens_start,_with_Soviet_bombers_inbound._(48870778027).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Finnish civilians enter a bomb shelter in Helsinki during the Winter War, 1939"><img alt="Finnish civilians enter a bomb shelter in Helsinki during the Winter War, 1939" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Finnish_civilians_enter_a_bomb_shelter_in_Helsinki_as_air-raid_sirens_start%2C_with_Soviet_bombers_inbound._%2848870778027%29.jpg/267px-Finnish_civilians_enter_a_bomb_shelter_in_Helsinki_as_air-raid_sirens_start%2C_with_Soviet_bombers_inbound._%2848870778027%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Finnish_civilians_enter_a_bomb_shelter_in_Helsinki_as_air-raid_sirens_start%2C_with_Soviet_bombers_inbound._%2848870778027%29.jpg/401px-Finnish_civilians_enter_a_bomb_shelter_in_Helsinki_as_air-raid_sirens_start%2C_with_Soviet_bombers_inbound._%2848870778027%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Finnish_civilians_enter_a_bomb_shelter_in_Helsinki_as_air-raid_sirens_start%2C_with_Soviet_bombers_inbound._%2848870778027%29.jpg/534px-Finnish_civilians_enter_a_bomb_shelter_in_Helsinki_as_air-raid_sirens_start%2C_with_Soviet_bombers_inbound._%2848870778027%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4675" data-file-height="4697" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Finnish civilians enter a bomb shelter in <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a>, 1939</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tateyama_air-raid_shelter.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Air-raid shelter in Tateyama, Nagasaki"><img alt="Air-raid shelter in Tateyama, Nagasaki" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tateyama_air-raid_shelter.JPG/267px-Tateyama_air-raid_shelter.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tateyama_air-raid_shelter.JPG/401px-Tateyama_air-raid_shelter.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tateyama_air-raid_shelter.JPG/534px-Tateyama_air-raid_shelter.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3520" data-file-height="2352" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Air-raid shelter in Tateyama, <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beth-El_Industries_Blast_Valves_installed_in_bomb_shelter.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Blast protection valves installed in a bomb shelter"><img alt="Blast protection valves installed in a bomb shelter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Beth-El_Industries_Blast_Valves_installed_in_bomb_shelter.jpg/267px-Beth-El_Industries_Blast_Valves_installed_in_bomb_shelter.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Beth-El_Industries_Blast_Valves_installed_in_bomb_shelter.jpg/401px-Beth-El_Industries_Blast_Valves_installed_in_bomb_shelter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Beth-El_Industries_Blast_Valves_installed_in_bomb_shelter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="435" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Blast_valve" title="Blast valve">Blast protection valves</a> installed in a bomb shelter</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AirRaidShelterHolon01.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A communal air raid shelter located in a public garden in Holon, Israel"><img alt="A communal air raid shelter located in a public garden in Holon, Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/AirRaidShelterHolon01.JPG/267px-AirRaidShelterHolon01.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/AirRaidShelterHolon01.JPG/401px-AirRaidShelterHolon01.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/AirRaidShelterHolon01.JPG/534px-AirRaidShelterHolon01.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A communal air raid shelter located in a public garden in <a href="/wiki/Holon" title="Holon">Holon</a>, Israel</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sderot_Shelter.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Entrance to a public bomb shelter in Sderot, Israel"><img alt="Entrance to a public bomb shelter in Sderot, Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sderot_Shelter.JPG/267px-Sderot_Shelter.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sderot_Shelter.JPG/401px-Sderot_Shelter.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sderot_Shelter.JPG/534px-Sderot_Shelter.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Entrance to a public bomb shelter in <a href="/wiki/Sderot" title="Sderot">Sderot</a>, Israel</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_29533_Israel_Defense_Forces.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="An example of a bomb shelter at a playground in Israel"><img alt="An example of a bomb shelter at a playground in Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/PikiWiki_Israel_29533_Israel_Defense_Forces.JPG/267px-PikiWiki_Israel_29533_Israel_Defense_Forces.JPG" decoding="async" width="267" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/PikiWiki_Israel_29533_Israel_Defense_Forces.JPG/401px-PikiWiki_Israel_29533_Israel_Defense_Forces.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/PikiWiki_Israel_29533_Israel_Defense_Forces.JPG/534px-PikiWiki_Israel_29533_Israel_Defense_Forces.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An example of a bomb shelter at a playground in Israel</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 302px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 297px; height: 305px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_Century_Old_Bomb_Shelter_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Japanese colonial period air raid shelter in Taiwan"><img alt="Japanese colonial period air raid shelter in Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_Century_Old_Bomb_Shelter_-_panoramio.jpg/267px-%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_Century_Old_Bomb_Shelter_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_Century_Old_Bomb_Shelter_-_panoramio.jpg/401px-%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_Century_Old_Bomb_Shelter_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_Century_Old_Bomb_Shelter_-_panoramio.jpg/534px-%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E9%98%B2%E7%A9%BA%E6%B4%9E_Century_Old_Bomb_Shelter_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5664" data-file-height="3776" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Japanese colonial period air raid shelter in Taiwan</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Raid Precautions in the United Kingdom">Air Raid Precautions in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_living" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-VTunnelNewc-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VTunnelNewc_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHudson2013" class="citation web cs1">Hudson, Jules (22 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01n3kv4">"Victoria Tunnel"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FAQ+on+CD+Shelters&rft.pub=Scdf.gov.sg&rft.au=Singapore+Civil+Defence+Force&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scdf.gov.sg%2Fbuilding_professionals%2FFAQ%2Fcd_shelter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverington2020" class="citation news cs1">Everington, Keoni (4 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/4045348">"Taiwan to create site listing 117,000 air raid shelters in case of Chinese attack"</a>. Taiwan News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Taiwan+to+create+site+listing+117%2C000+air+raid+shelters+in+case+of+Chinese+attack&rft.date=2020-11-04&rft.aulast=Everington&rft.aufirst=Keoni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taiwannews.com.tw%2Fen%2Fnews%2F4045348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.athenssocialatlas.gr/en/article/athens-air-raid-shelters-1936-40/">"Athens' air-raid shelters 1936-40"</a>. <i>athenssocialatlas.gr</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220928023425/https://www.athenssocialatlas.gr/en/article/athens-air-raid-shelters-1936-40/#top">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=athenssocialatlas.gr&rft.atitle=Athens%27+air-raid+shelters+1936-40&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.athenssocialatlas.gr%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fathens-air-raid-shelters-1936-40%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakoula2019" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dakoula, Elena (23 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.athensvoice.gr/life/life-in-athens/512823/mia-poli-kato-apo-tin-poli/">"Shelters of Athens: A city under the city"</a> (in Greek). <a href="/wiki/Lifo_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifo (magazine)">LiFO</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shelters+of+Athens%3A+A+city+under+the+city&rft.pub=LiFO&rft.date=2019-01-23&rft.aulast=Dakoula&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.athensvoice.gr%2Flife%2Flife-in-athens%2F512823%2Fmia-poli-kato-apo-tin-poli%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.enimerotiko.gr/ellada/ta-katafygia-tis-attikis-taxidi-sti-mystiki-kai-ypogeia-poli-kato-apo-tin-athina/">"The shelters of Attica: A journey to the secret and underground city under Athens"</a> (in Greek). 1 March 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220815125232/https://www.enimerotiko.gr/ellada/ta-katafygia-tis-attikis-taxidi-sti-mystiki-kai-ypogeia-poli-kato-apo-tin-athina/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+shelters+of+Attica%3A+A+journey+to+the+secret+and+underground+city+under+Athens&rft.date=2020-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.enimerotiko.gr%2Fellada%2Fta-katafygia-tis-attikis-taxidi-sti-mystiki-kai-ypogeia-poli-kato-apo-tin-athina%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaitsopoulou2017" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vaitsopoulou, Anastasia (31 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://popaganda.gr/citylife/konstantinos-kirimis-katafygia-athina/">"Konstantinos Kyrimis infiltrated the secret shelters of the city and introduces us to underground Athens"</a> (in Greek). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220518125547/https://popaganda.gr/citylife/konstantinos-kirimis-katafygia-athina/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Konstantinos+Kyrimis+infiltrated+the+secret+shelters+of+the+city+and+introduces+us+to+underground+Athens&rft.date=2017-08-31&rft.aulast=Vaitsopoulou&rft.aufirst=Anastasia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpopaganda.gr%2Fcitylife%2Fkonstantinos-kirimis-katafygia-athina%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimitrakopoulou2024" class="citation web cs1">Dimitrakopoulou, Valia (17 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.greece-is.com/hidden-city-discover-athens-arcades/">"Hidden City: Discover Athens's Arcades"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240621061620/https://www.greece-is.com/hidden-city-discover-athens-arcades/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hidden+City%3A+Discover+Athens%E2%80%99s+Arcades&rft.date=2024-06-17&rft.aulast=Dimitrakopoulou&rft.aufirst=Valia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.greece-is.com%2Fhidden-city-discover-athens-arcades%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.news247.gr/sunday-edition/echoyme-katafygia-stin-ellada-alla-einai-san-na-min-echoyme.9549946.html">"We have shelters in Greece, but it's as if we don't have"</a>. <i>news247.gr</i> (in Greek). 4 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=news247.gr&rft.atitle=We+have+shelters+in+Greece%2C+but+it%27s+as+if+we+don%27t+have&rft.date=2022-03-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.news247.gr%2Fsunday-edition%2Fechoyme-katafygia-stin-ellada-alla-einai-san-na-min-echoyme.9549946.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKyrimis2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kyrimis, Konstantinos (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kozlib.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=80292&shelfbrowse_itemnumber=105969"><i>The Shelters of Attica, 1936-1956</i></a> (in Greek). Vol. A. Supervised by George Nikas. <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-960-7897-76-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-960-7897-76-3"><bdi>978-960-7897-76-3</bdi></a> – via Koventareios Municipal Library of Kozani. <q>It has also published <i>The Shelters of Attica, 1936-1956</i> (2017), Volume B</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shelters+of+Attica%2C+1936-1956&rft.place=Athens&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-960-7897-76-3&rft.aulast=Kyrimis&rft.aufirst=Konstantinos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopac.kozlib.gr%2Fcgi-bin%2Fkoha%2Fopac-detail.pl%3Fbiblionumber%3D80292%26shelfbrowse_itemnumber%3D105969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKyrimis" class="citation interview cs1">Kyrimis, Konstantinos. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ekathimerini.com/society/1233364/the-forgotten-invisible-safe-spaces-under-athens/">"The forgotten, invisible safe spaces under Athens"</a> (Interview). Interviewed by Dimitris Karaiskos. <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kathimerini" title="Kathimerini">Kathimerini</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+forgotten%2C+invisible+safe+spaces+under+Athens&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=Kathimerini&rft.aulast=Kyrimis&rft.aufirst=Konstantinos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ekathimerini.com%2Fsociety%2F1233364%2Fthe-forgotten-invisible-safe-spaces-under-athens%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKyrimis2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kyrimis, Konstantinos (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elinis.gr/ypogeies-oxyrvseis/"><i>Underground Naval Fortifications in Attica (1936-44)</i></a> (in Greek). Hellenic Institute of Naval History. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-618-84878-1-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-618-84878-1-9"><bdi>978-618-84878-1-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Underground+Naval+Fortifications+in+Attica+%281936-44%29&rft.pub=Hellenic+Institute+of+Naval+History&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-618-84878-1-9&rft.aulast=Kyrimis&rft.aufirst=Konstantinos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felinis.gr%2Fypogeies-oxyrvseis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPapadakis2022" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Papadakis, Panagiotis (24 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.f-news.gr/katafygia-athina-periptosi-polemou/">"Where are the shelters in Athens in case of war"</a>. <i>f-news.gr</i> (in Greek). FNews<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=f-news.gr&rft.atitle=Where+are+the+shelters+in+Athens+in+case+of+war&rft.date=2022-02-24&rft.aulast=Papadakis&rft.aufirst=Panagiotis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.f-news.gr%2Fkatafygia-athina-periptosi-polemou%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaligianni2022" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Paligianni, Dimitra (13 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.makthes.gr/h-khartoghrafisi-ton-katafighion-tis-thessalonikis-529189">"The mapping of the shelters of Thessaloniki"</a>. <i>makthes.gr</i> (in Greek). <a href="/wiki/Makedonia_(newspaper)" title="Makedonia (newspaper)">Makedonia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220708085204/https://www.makthes.gr/h-khartoghrafisi-ton-katafighion-tis-thessalonikis-529189">Archived</a> from the original on 8 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=makthes.gr&rft.atitle=The+mapping+of+the+shelters+of+Thessaloniki&rft.date=2022-03-13&rft.aulast=Paligianni&rft.aufirst=Dimitra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.makthes.gr%2Fh-khartoghrafisi-ton-katafighion-tis-thessalonikis-529189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalaitzi2024" class="citation web cs1">Kalaitzi, Alexia (22 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ekathimerini.com/leisure/destinations/1242206/tourism-in-the-tunnels-of-war-on-greeces-northern-border/">"Tourism in the tunnels of war on Greece's northern border"</a>. Kathimerini. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240623072315/https://www.ekathimerini.com/leisure/destinations/1242206/tourism-in-the-tunnels-of-war-on-greeces-northern-border/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tourism+in+the+tunnels+of+war+on+Greece%E2%80%99s+northern+border&rft.pub=Kathimerini&rft.date=2024-06-22&rft.aulast=Kalaitzi&rft.aufirst=Alexia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ekathimerini.com%2Fleisure%2Fdestinations%2F1242206%2Ftourism-in-the-tunnels-of-war-on-greeces-northern-border%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.msn.com/en-xl/news/other/built-in-wake-of-wwii-kyiv-metro-offers-shelter-from-russian-shells/ar-AAUvGze">"Built in wake of WWII, Kyiv metro offers shelter from Russian shells"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MSN" title="MSN">MSN</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Built+in+wake+of+WWII%2C+Kyiv+metro+offers+shelter+from+Russian+shells&rft.pub=MSN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.msn.com%2Fen-xl%2Fnews%2Fother%2Fbuilt-in-wake-of-wwii-kyiv-metro-offers-shelter-from-russian-shells%2Far-AAUvGze&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indiatoday.in/world/russia-ukraine-war/story/ukraine-kyiv-underground-metro-stations-double-as-bomb-shelters-amid-russian-invasion-1917180-2022-02-24">"Ukraine's underground metro stations double as bomb shelters amid Russian invasion"</a>. <i>India Today</i>. 24 February 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220224072418/https://www.indiatoday.in/world/russia-ukraine-war/story/ukraine-kyiv-underground-metro-stations-double-as-bomb-shelters-amid-russian-invasion-1917180-2022-02-24">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=India+Today&rft.atitle=Ukraine%27s+underground+metro+stations+double+as+bomb+shelters+amid+Russian+invasion&rft.date=2022-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiatoday.in%2Fworld%2Frussia-ukraine-war%2Fstory%2Fukraine-kyiv-underground-metro-stations-double-as-bomb-shelters-amid-russian-invasion-1917180-2022-02-24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquires2022" class="citation web cs1">Squires, Camille (24 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qz.com/2133054/kyivs-subway-stations-were-built-to-be-bomb-shelters/">"Kyiv's subway stations were built for an invasion"</a>. <i>Quartz</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220226084748/https://qz.com/2133054/kyivs-subway-stations-were-built-to-be-bomb-shelters/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Quartz&rft.atitle=Kyiv%27s+subway+stations+were+built+for+an+invasion&rft.date=2022-02-24&rft.aulast=Squires&rft.aufirst=Camille&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fqz.com%2F2133054%2Fkyivs-subway-stations-were-built-to-be-bomb-shelters%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsvetkova2022" class="citation news cs1">Tsvetkova, Maria (24 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-capital-some-people-stock-up-supplies-others-try-flee-2022-02-24/">"Kyiv residents defiant as curfew imposed after Russian invasion"</a>. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220226043443/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraines-capital-some-people-stock-up-supplies-others-try-flee-2022-02-24/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Kyiv+residents+defiant+as+curfew+imposed+after+Russian+invasion&rft.date=2022-02-24&rft.aulast=Tsvetkova&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fukraines-capital-some-people-stock-up-supplies-others-try-flee-2022-02-24%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metro.kyiv.ua/node/7133">"Про роботу громадського транспорту | Київський метрополітен"</a>. <i>metro.kyiv.ua</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=metro.kyiv.ua&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE+%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%83+%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83+%7C+%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%97%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metro.kyiv.ua%2Fnode%2F7133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kramer, Andrew E., and Lynsey Addario. "15,000 Are Sheltering in Kyiv's Subway". The New York Times. The New York Times, March 2, 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/02/world/europe/russia-ukraine-war-shelters.html">Link</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220303025150/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/02/world/europe/russia-ukraine-war-shelters.html">Archived</a> 2022-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Baker,_Baron_Baker" title="John Baker, Baron Baker">Baker, John</a> (1978). <i>Enterprise vs Bureaucracy – The Development of Structural Air Raid Precautions during the 2nd World War</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enterprise+vs+Bureaucracy+%E2%80%93+The+Development+of+Structural+Air+Raid+Precautions+during+the+2nd+World+War&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Ladd, Brian (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MY0udx6aJroC&pg=PA393"><i>The companion guide to Berlin</i></a> (illustrated ed.). <a href="/wiki/Boydell_%26_Brewer" title="Boydell & Brewer">Boydell & Brewer</a>. p. 393. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-900639-28-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-900639-28-6"><bdi>978-1-900639-28-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+companion+guide+to+Berlin&rft.pages=393&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-900639-28-6&rft.aulast=Ladd&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMY0udx6aJroC%26pg%3DPA393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAir+raid+shelter" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Air_raid_shelter&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Air_raid_shelters" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Air raid shelters"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Air raid shelters</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thetimechamber.co.uk/sites/Deepshelter/Index.php">Photographs from English WW2 Public Shelters</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.undergroundbombshelter.com/">Underground Bomb Shelter Website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180318185138/http://www.cliffordroadshelter.org.uk/">Clifford Road Air Raid Shelter Museum, Ipswich, UK</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.superborg.de/ldv750.htm">Archives of the German military manuals</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luftschutz-bunker.de/">German WW2 Airraid Shelters</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://beyondthemargins.com/2010/12/interview-with-jessica-f-kane-the-report/">Interview with writer/researcher of Bethnal Green Tube shelter tragedy, largest civilian losses in WW2 London</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110912234056/http://beyondthemargins.com/2010/12/interview-with-jessica-f-kane-the-report/">Archived</a> 2011-09-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.andersonshelters.org.uk/">A short history of Anderson shelters, plus information about shelters still in existence</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US9151577B2/en">Pyamid-sphere bunker system</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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title="Cardiff Blitz">Cardiff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clydebank_Blitz" title="Clydebank Blitz">Clydebank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coventry_Blitz" title="Coventry Blitz">Coventry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenock_Blitz" title="Greenock Blitz">Greenock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_Blitz" title="Hull Blitz">Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leeds_Blitz" title="Leeds Blitz">Leeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liverpool_Blitz" title="Liverpool Blitz">Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Blitz" title="Manchester Blitz">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newcastle_Blitz" title="Newcastle Blitz">Newcastle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwich_Blitz" title="Norwich Blitz">Norwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nottingham_Blitz" title="Nottingham Blitz">Nottingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuneaton#Second_World_War" title="Nuneaton">Nuneaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Blitz" title="Plymouth Blitz">Plymouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheffield_Blitz" title="Sheffield Blitz">Sheffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunderland_Blitz" title="Sunderland Blitz">Sunderland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southampton_Blitz" title="Southampton Blitz">Southampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swansea_Blitz" title="Swansea Blitz">Swansea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air raid shelter</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Anderson_shelter">Anderson shelter</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Morrison_shelter">Morrison shelter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Beams" title="Battle of the Beams">Battle of the Beams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackout_(wartime)" title="Blackout (wartime)">Blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baedeker_Blitz" title="Baedeker Blitz">Baedeker Blitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuations_of_civilians_in_Britain_during_World_War_II" title="Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II">Evacuation of civilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starfish_site" title="Starfish site">Starfish (decoy) sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trekking_during_the_Blitz" title="Trekking during the Blitz">Trekking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_Raid_Precautions" title="Air Raid Precautions">Air Raid Precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Aircraft_Command" title="Anti-Aircraft Command">Anti-Aircraft Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Ambulance_Great_Britain" title="American Ambulance Great Britain">American Ambulance Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_Fire_Service" title="Auxiliary Fire Service">Auxiliary Fire Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Defence_Service" title="Civil Defence Service">Civil Defence Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Fire_Service" title="National Fire Service">National Fire Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Damage_Commission" title="War Damage Commission">War Damage Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Voluntary_Service" title="Royal Voluntary Service">Women's Voluntary Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" title="Template:Man-made and man-related subterranea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" title="Template talk:Man-made and man-related subterranea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Man-made and man-related subterranea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Man-made_and_man-related_subterranea" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Man-made and man-related <a href="/wiki/Subterranea_(geography)" title="Subterranea (geography)">subterranea</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grotto" title="Grotto">Grotto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">Basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burial_vault_(tomb)" title="Burial vault (tomb)">Burial vault (tomb)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">Borehole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs" title="Catacombs">Catacombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout (shelter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_well" title="Dry well">Dry well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_shelter" title="Earth shelter">Earth shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdstall" title="Erdstall">Erdstall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fogou" title="Fogou">Fogou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">Hypogeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhole" title="Manhole">Manhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">Rapid transit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_tomb" title="Rock-cut tomb">Rock-cut tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_cellar" title="Root cellar">Root cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_vault" title="Utility vault">Utility vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_city" title="Underground city">Underground city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cave" title="Wine cave">Wine cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_passage" title="Secret passage">Secret passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-basement" title="Semi-basement">Semi-basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">Stepwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_cellar" title="Storm cellar">Storm cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling_tunnel" title="Smuggling tunnel">Smuggling tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shaft" title="Ventilation shaft">Ventilation shaft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a> (silo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scallywag_bunker" title="Scallywag bunker">Scallywag bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_base" title="Underground base">Underground base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quarrying" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarrying">quarrying</a>, and<br /><a href="/wiki/Underground_construction" title="Underground construction">underground construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_architecture" title="Rock-cut architecture">Rock-cut architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_utility_engineering" title="Subsurface utility engineering">Subsurface utility engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_construction" title="Tunnel construction">Tunnel construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mine_ventilation" title="Underground mine ventilation">Underground mine ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">Underground mining (hard rock)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">Underground mining (soft rock)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_dweller" title="Cave dweller">Cave dweller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caves_of_Maastricht" title="Caves of Maastricht">Caves of Maastricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coober_Pedy" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_tunnel_system" title="Houston tunnel system">Houston tunnel system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%91b%C3%A1nya_cellar_system" title="Kőbánya cellar system">Kőbánya cellar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">Tunnel network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_living" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City_(Beijing)" title="Underground City (Beijing)">Underground City (Beijing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City,_Montreal" title="Underground City, Montreal">Underground City, Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_exploration" title="Mine exploration">Mine exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mines_of_Paris" title="Mines of Paris">Mines of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mole_people" title="Mole people">Mole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples_underground_geothermal_zone" title="Naples underground geothermal zone">Naples underground geothermal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapping" title="Sapping">Sapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_London" title="Subterranean London">Subterranean London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_Toledo" title="Subterranean Toledo">Subterranean Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fiction" title="Subterranean fiction">Subterranean fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth shelters US</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates%27_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Gates' house">Bill Gates' house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestiere_Underground_Gardens" title="Forestiere Underground Gardens">Forestiere Underground Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_House_Colorado" title="Underground House Colorado">Underground House Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_House_Las_Vegas" title="Underground House Las Vegas">Underground House Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_World_Home" title="Underground World Home">Underground World Home</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth shelters UK</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underhill,_Holme" title="Underhill, Holme">Underhill, Holme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hockerton_Housing_Project" title="Hockerton Housing Project">Hockerton Housing Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malator" title="Malator">Malator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth shelters Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coober_Pedy" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightning Ridge">Lightning Ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q389959#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q389959#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q389959#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85002692">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Abris antiaériens"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11973128p">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Abris antiaériens"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11973128p">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="protiletadlové kryty"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph349440&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007294603205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10637403">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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