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href="#21st_Century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>21st Century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_Century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemical_warfare_agents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_warfare_agents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Chemical warfare agents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_warfare_agents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persistency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persistency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Persistency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persistency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Designations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Designations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Designations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Designations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delivery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delivery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Delivery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delivery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dispersion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dispersion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Dispersion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dispersion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal_dissemination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_dissemination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Thermal dissemination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_dissemination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerodynamic_dissemination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerodynamic_dissemination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Aerodynamic dissemination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerodynamic_dissemination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection_against_chemical_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection_against_chemical_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Protection against chemical warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection_against_chemical_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decontamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decontamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Decontamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decontamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociopolitical_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociopolitical_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Sociopolitical climate</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociopolitical_climate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sociopolitical climate subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sociopolitical_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Efforts_to_eradicate_chemical_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efforts_to_eradicate_chemical_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Efforts to eradicate chemical weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efforts_to_eradicate_chemical_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_weapon_proliferation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_weapon_proliferation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Chemical weapon proliferation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_weapon_proliferation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_weapons_destruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_weapons_destruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Chemical weapons destruction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chemical_weapons_destruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chemical weapons destruction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chemical_weapons_destruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Iraq</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Anti-agriculture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Anti-agriculture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Anti-agriculture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Anti-agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Herbicidal_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbicidal_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Herbicidal warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbicidal_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-livestock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-livestock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Anti-livestock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-livestock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical warfare</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حرب كيماوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب كيماوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Guerra química – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra química" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Guerra química – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra química" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Guerra química – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra química" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemia_milito" title="Kemia milito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kemia milito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerra_kimiko" title="Gerra kimiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gerra kimiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="جنگ شیمیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ شیمیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coga%C3%ADocht_cheimiceach" title="Cogaíocht cheimiceach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogaíocht cheimiceach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%ED%95%99%EC%A0%84" title="화학전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화학전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="रासायनिक युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रासायनिक युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemijsko_ratovanje" title="Kemijsko ratovanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kemijsko ratovanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_kimia" title="Perang kimia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_chimica" title="Guerra chimica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra chimica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="לוחמה כימית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לוחמה כימית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83" title="Химиялық қару – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Химиялық қару" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="रासायनिक युद्ध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रासायनिक युद्ध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_kimia" title="Perang kimia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjemisk_krigf%C3%B8ring" title="Kjemisk krigføring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjemisk krigføring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Guerra química – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra química" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C4%83zboi_chimic" title="Război chimic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Război chimic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Боевые отравляющие вещества – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Боевые отравляющие вещества" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_kimike" title="Lufta kimike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta kimike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chemical warfare" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb 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searchaux" style="display:none">Using poison gas or other toxins in war</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Chemical warfare (disambiguation)">Chemical warfare (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical agents</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:110%;padding-top:0; display:block;margin:0.4em 0;"> Lethal agents</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Blood_agent" title="Blood agent">Blood</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanogen_chloride" title="Cyanogen chloride">Cyanogen chloride (CK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">Hydrogen cyanide (AC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsine" title="Arsine">Arsine (SA)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Blister_agent" title="Blister agent">Blister</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethyldichloroarsine" title="Ethyldichloroarsine">Ethyldichloroarsine (ED)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyldichloroarsine" title="Methyldichloroarsine">Methyldichloroarsine (MD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenyldichloroarsine" title="Phenyldichloroarsine">Phenyldichloroarsine (PD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite (L)</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">Mustard gas<br /><span class="nowrap">(HD H HT HL HQ)</span></a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_mustard" title="Nitrogen mustard">Nitrogen mustard</a><br /><div class="hlist nowrap"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/HN1_(nitrogen_mustard)" title="HN1 (nitrogen mustard)">HN1</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chlormethine" title="Chlormethine">HN2</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/HN3_(nitrogen_mustard)" title="HN3 (nitrogen mustard)">HN3</a></li></ul></div></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene_oxime" title="Phosgene oxime">Phosgene oxime (CX)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A035" title="C01-A035">C01-A035</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A039" title="C01-A039">C01-A039</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent" title="Nerve agent">Nerve</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent#G-series" title="Nerve agent">G-agents</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.275em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tabun_(nerve_agent)" title="Tabun (nerve agent)">Tabun (GA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">Sarin (GB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorosarin" title="Chlorosarin">Chlorosarin (GC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soman" title="Soman">Soman (GD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylsarin" title="Ethylsarin">Ethylsarin (GE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosarin" title="Cyclosarin">Cyclosarin (GF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GV_(nerve_agent)" title="GV (nerve agent)">GV</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent#V-series" title="Nerve agent">V-agents</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.275em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EA-3148" title="EA-3148">EA-3148</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-sub_x" title="V-sub x">V-sub x/GD-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VE_(nerve_agent)" title="VE (nerve agent)">VE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VG_(nerve_agent)" title="VG (nerve agent)">VG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VM_(nerve_agent)" title="VM (nerve agent)">VM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexyl_3-pyridyl_methylphosphonate" title="3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexyl 3-pyridyl methylphosphonate">VP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)" title="VR (nerve agent)">VR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VS_(nerve_agent)" title="VS (nerve agent)">VS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Novichok" title="Novichok">Novichok agents</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.275em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-230" title="A-230">A-230</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-232" title="A-232">A-232</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-234_(nerve_agent)" title="A-234 (nerve agent)">A-234</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-242" title="A-242">A-242</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-262" title="A-262">A-262</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A035" title="C01-A035">C01-A035</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A039" title="C01-A039">C01-A039</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A042" title="C01-A042">C01-A042</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_agent" title="Pulmonary agent">Pulmonary/choking</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloropicrin" title="Chloropicrin">Chloropicrin (PS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">Phosgene (CG)</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphosgene" title="Diphosgene">Diphosgene (DP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disulfur_decafluoride" title="Disulfur decafluoride">Disulfur decafluoride</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Vomiting_agent" title="Vomiting agent">Vomiting</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamsite" title="Adamsite">Adamsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloropicrin" title="Chloropicrin">Chloropicrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenylchlorarsine" title="Diphenylchlorarsine">Diphenylchlorarsine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenylcyanoarsine" title="Diphenylcyanoarsine">Diphenylcyanoarsine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diphenylarsincyanid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diphenylarsincyanid (page does not exist)">Diphenylamincyanoarsine</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:110%;padding-top:0; display:block;margin:0.4em 0;"> <a href="/wiki/Incapacitating_agent" title="Incapacitating agent">Incapacitating agents</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-Quinuclidinyl_benzilate" title="3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate">Agent 15 (BZ)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylheptylpyran" title="Dimethylheptylpyran">Dimethylheptylpyran (DMHP)</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EA-3167" title="EA-3167">EA-3167</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolokol-1" title="Kolokol-1">Kolokol-1</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PAVA_spray" title="PAVA spray">PAVA spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleeping_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleeping gas">Sleeping gas</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Riot_control#Riot_control_agent_(RCA)" title="Riot control">Riot-control (RCAs)</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xylyl_bromide" title="Xylyl bromide">Xylyl bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_spray" title="Pepper spray">Pepper spray (OC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CS_gas" title="CS gas">CS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacyl_chloride" title="Phenacyl chloride">CN (mace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CR_gas" title="CR gas">CR</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.15em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_warfare_agents" title="List of chemical warfare agents">List of chemical warfare agents</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chemical_agents_sidebar" title="Template:Chemical agents sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chemical_agents_sidebar" title="Template talk:Chemical agents sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical_agents_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chemical agents sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:WMD_world_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/220px-WMD_world_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/330px-WMD_world_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/WMD_world_map.svg/440px-WMD_world_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="601" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> By type</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_by_country" title="List of weapons of mass destruction by country">By country</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Albania and weapons of mass destruction">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Algeria and weapons of mass destruction">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentina_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Argentina and weapons of mass destruction">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Australia and weapons of mass destruction">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Brazil and weapons of mass destruction">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Bulgaria and weapons of mass destruction">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Canada and weapons of mass destruction">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="China and weapons of mass destruction">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Egypt and weapons of mass destruction">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Germany and weapons of mass destruction">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="India and weapons of mass destruction">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iran and weapons of mass destruction">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Israel and weapons of mass destruction">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nuclear_weapons_program" title="Italian nuclear weapons program">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Japan and weapons of mass destruction">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Kazakhstan and weapons of mass destruction">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Libya and weapons of mass destruction">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Mexico and weapons of mass destruction">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Myanmar and weapons of mass destruction">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Netherlands and weapons of mass destruction">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="North Korea and weapons of mass destruction">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Philippines and weapons of mass destruction">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Poland and weapons of mass destruction">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Romania and weapons of mass destruction">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Russia and weapons of mass destruction">Russia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_biological_weapons_program" title="Soviet biological weapons program">Soviet Union</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Saudi Arabia and weapons of mass destruction">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korea_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Korea and weapons of mass destruction">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Islero" title="Project Islero">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Sweden and weapons of mass destruction">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switzerland_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Switzerland and weapons of mass destruction">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Ukraine and weapons of mass destruction">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Yugoslavia and weapons of mass destruction">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> Proliferation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon_proliferation" title="Chemical weapon proliferation">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles_by_country" title="List of missiles by country">Missiles</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lightsteelblue;"> Treaties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">List of treaties</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parties_to_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of parties to weapons of mass destruction treaties">treaty parties</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:2px solid lightsteelblue;padding:0.2em 0.1em 0.35em;border-bottom:2px solid lightsteelblue;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Category:Weapons of mass destruction">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Template:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Template talk:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons of mass destruction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Chemical warfare</b> (<b>CW</b>) involves using the <a href="/wiki/Toxic_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic properties">toxic properties</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substances</a> as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">weapons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of warfare is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">radiological warfare</a>, which together make up <a href="/wiki/CBRN_defense" title="CBRN defense">CBRN</a>, the military acronym for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (warfare or weapons), all of which are considered "<a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a>" (WMDs), a term that contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Conventional_weapon" title="Conventional weapon">conventional weapons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of chemical weapons in international armed conflicts is prohibited under <a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">international humanitarian law</a> by the 1925 <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1993 <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a> prohibits signatories from acquiring, stockpiling, developing, and using chemical weapons in all circumstances except for very limited purposes (research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical warfare is different from the use of <a href="/wiki/Conventional_weapon" title="Conventional weapon">conventional weapons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> because the destructive effects of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">chemical weapons</a> are not primarily due to any <a href="/wiki/Explosive_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive force">explosive force</a>. The offensive use of living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Anthrax_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthrax disease">anthrax</a>) is considered <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a> rather than chemical warfare;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">botulinum toxin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">ricin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">saxitoxin</a>) <i>is</i> considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a> (CWC). Under this convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition known as the <a href="/wiki/General_Purpose_Criterion" class="mw-redirect" title="General Purpose Criterion">General Purpose Criterion</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 70 different chemicals have been used or were <a href="/wiki/Stockpile_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockpile (military)">stockpiled</a> as chemical warfare agents during the 20th century. The entire class, known as <a href="/wiki/Lethal_Unitary_Chemical_Agents_and_Munitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Lethal Unitary Chemical Agents and Munitions">Lethal Unitary Chemical Agents and Munitions</a>, has been scheduled for elimination by the CWC.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the convention, chemicals that are toxic enough to be used as chemical weapons, or that may be used to manufacture such chemicals, are divided into three groups according to their purpose and treatment: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)" title="List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC)">Schedule 1</a> – Have few, if any, legitimate uses. These may only be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes (i.e. testing of chemical weapons sensors and protective clothing). Examples include <a href="/wiki/Nerve_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve agents">nerve agents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">ricin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">lewisite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a>. Any production over 100 grams (3.5 oz) must be reported to the <a href="/wiki/OPCW" class="mw-redirect" title="OPCW">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a> (OPCW) and a country can have a stockpile of no more than one tonne of these chemicals.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)" title="List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)">Schedule 2</a> – Have no large-scale industrial uses, but may have legitimate small-scale uses. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_methylphosphonate" title="Dimethyl methylphosphonate">dimethyl methylphosphonate</a>, a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/precursor" class="extiw" title="wikt:precursor">precursor</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">sarin</a> also used as a <a href="/wiki/Flame_retardant" title="Flame retardant">flame retardant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thiodiglycol" title="Thiodiglycol">thiodiglycol</a>, a precursor chemical used in the manufacture of mustard gas but also widely used as a solvent in <a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">inks</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)" title="List of Schedule 3 substances (CWC)">Schedule 3</a> – Have legitimate large-scale industrial uses. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">phosgene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chloropicrin" title="Chloropicrin">chloropicrin</a>. Both have been used as chemical weapons but phosgene is an important precursor in the manufacture of plastics, and chloropicrin is used as a fumigant. The OPCW must be notified of, and may inspect, any plant producing more than 30 tons per year.</li></ul> <p>Chemical weapons are divided into three categories:<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Category 1 – based on Schedule 1 substances</li> <li>Category 2 – based on non-Schedule 1 substances</li> <li>Category 3 – devices and equipment designed to use chemical weapons, without the substances themselves</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemical_warfare" title="History of chemical warfare">History of chemical warfare</a></div><p> Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gasses.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sargent,_John_Singer_(RA)_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Men walk in a line with hands on each other's backs" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sargent%2C_John_Singer_%28RA%29_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Sargent%2C_John_Singer_%28RA%29_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sargent%2C_John_Singer_%28RA%29_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Sargent%2C_John_Singer_%28RA%29_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sargent%2C_John_Singer_%28RA%29_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Sargent%2C_John_Singer_%28RA%29_-_Gassed_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="13549" data-file-height="5075" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Singer_Sargent" title="John Singer Sargent">John Singer Sargent</a>'s iconic World War I painting: <a href="/wiki/Gassed_(painting)" title="Gassed (painting)"><i>Gassed</i></a>, showing blind casualties on a battlefield after a mustard gas attack</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fritz_Haber.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fritz_Haber.png/250px-Fritz_Haber.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fritz_Haber.png/255px-Fritz_Haber.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Fritz_Haber.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> is considered the "father of chemical warfare" for his years of pioneering work developing and weaponizing chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I.</figcaption></figure> <p>Multiple international treaties were passed banning chemical weapons based upon the alarm of nations and scientists. This however did not prevent the extensive <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">use of chemical weapons in World War I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine gas</a>, among others chemicals, was used by both the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central</a> powers to try to break the stalemate of <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a>. Though largely ineffective over the long run, it decidedly changed the nature of the war. In many cases the gasses used did not kill, but instead horribly maimed, injured, or disfigured. Some 1.3 million gas casualties were recorded, which may have included up to 260,000 civilian casualties.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gross_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Interwar_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Interwar years">interwar years</a> saw the occasional use of chemical weapons, mainly to put down rebellions.<sup id="cite_ref-EthiopiaHistorical_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EthiopiaHistorical-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/250px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/330px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg/500px-Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces_in_Battle_of_Shanghai_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="955" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces">Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces</a> with gas masks and rubber gloves during a chemical attack near <a href="/wiki/Zhabei_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhabei District">Zhabei</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although significant effort went into the development and stockpiling of chemical weapons in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, they saw little battlefield use in the <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">European Theatre</a>. Nazi Germany dedicated much research to the development of potent <a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent" title="Nerve agent">nerve agents</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but used them very sparingly, likely due to fears that the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> would retaliate with their own chemical weapons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These fears were not unfounded: the Allies made comprehensive plans for defensive and retaliatory use of chemical weapons, and stockpiled large quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-PandH132135_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PandH132135-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Borchers_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borchers-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese forces</a>, as part of the Axis, used chemical weapons more widely in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific Theatre</a> against Asian Allied enemies, as they also feared that using it on Western powers would result in retaliation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Chemical weapons were frequently used against both the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> and <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a> troops in China.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Nazi Germany extensively used poison gas against civilians, particularly Jews, in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. Vast quantities of <a href="/wiki/Zyklon_B" title="Zyklon B">Zyklon B</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> gas were used in the <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp#Gassings" title="Extermination camp">systematic extermination</a> of some three million victims. This remains the deadliest use of poison gas in history.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Coffey_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coffey-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wirtz_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wirtz-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-War">Post-War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Post-War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>, some 100,000 Iranian troops were casualties of Iraqi chemical weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iraq also used <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> and nerve agents against the kurdish population killing more than 5000 people and injuring many in the 1988 <a href="/wiki/Halabja_chemical_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Halabja chemical attack">Halabja chemical attack</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBCHalabja_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBCHalabja-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cuban_intervention_in_Angola" title="Cuban intervention in Angola">Cuban intervention in Angola</a> saw limited use of <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Angola_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Angola-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chemical_terrorism" title="Chemical terrorism">Terrorist groups have also used chemical weapons</a>, notably in the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_subway_sarin_attack" title="Tokyo subway sarin attack">Tokyo subway sarin attack</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Matsumoto_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Matsumoto incident">Matsumoto incident</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_Century">21st Century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 21st Century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist regime</a> in Syria has used <a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">sarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> in numerous deadly chemical attacks against civilian populations in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, Russia has been reported to deploy <a href="/wiki/CS_gas" title="CS gas">CS gas</a> through K-51 grenades dropped by <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned drones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 13 December 2024, the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Ukraine" title="Armed Forces of Ukraine">Ukrainian military</a> stated that over 4,800 incidents involving chemical weapons against Ukrainian forces have been record since the war began, which resulted in over 2,000 Ukrainian soldiers having been hospitalized, and 3 deaths. The use of gas was often hidden by heavy Russian "intense artillery, rocket, and bomb attacks”, forcing Ukrainian soldiers out of their positions. They saw less use of chemical gas in cold weather, as it reduced the effectiveness of the K-51 gas grenades.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine">US aid package to Ukraine</a> included “nuclear, chemical and radiological protective equipment”.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical weapon</a></div> <table style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; border:1px solid #aaa; background:#edf3fe; text-align:center; font-size:90%; margin:auto;" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0"> <caption><b>Chemical warfare technology timeline</b> </caption> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccf; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <th style="border-right:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:2px solid #aaa;">Year </th> <th style="border-right:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:2px solid #aaa;"><i><b>Agents</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:2px solid #aaa;"><i><b>Dissemination</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:2px solid #aaa;"><i><b>Protection</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right:1px solid #aaaaa; border-bottom:2px solid #aaa;"><i><b>Detection</b></i> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1914</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Chloropicrin" title="Chloropicrin">Chloropicrin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">Phosgene</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mustard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur mustard">Sulfur mustard</a> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Wind dispersal </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Gas masks, urine-soaked gauze </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Smell </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE"> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1918</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite</a> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Chemical shells </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Gas mask<br />Rosin oil clothing </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Smell of geraniums </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1920s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Projectiles with central bursters </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">CC-2 clothing </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE"> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1930s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent#G-series" title="Nerve agent">G-series nerve agents</a> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Aircraft bombs </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Blister agent detectors<br />Color change paper </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1940s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Missile warheads<br />Spray tanks </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Protective ointment (mustard)<br />Collective protection<br />Gas mask w/ whetlerite </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE"> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1950s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1960s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Tammelin%27s_esters" class="mw-redirect" title="Tammelin's esters">V-series nerve agents</a> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Aerodynamic </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Gas mask w/ water supply </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Nerve gas alarm </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE"> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1970s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1980s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Binary munitions </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Improved gas masks<br />(protection, fit, comfort) </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">Laser detection </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE"> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><b>1990s</b> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;"><a href="/wiki/Novichok_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Novichok agent">Novichok nerve agents</a> </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa;">  </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemical_agent_protection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Chemical_agent_protection.jpg/250px-Chemical_agent_protection.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Chemical_agent_protection.jpg/330px-Chemical_agent_protection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Chemical_agent_protection.jpg/500px-Chemical_agent_protection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Army" title="Swedish Army">Swedish Army</a> soldier wearing a chemical agent <a href="/wiki/Protective_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Protective suit">protective suit</a> (<i>C-vätskeskydd</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Gas_mask" title="Gas mask">protection mask</a> (<i>skyddsmask 90</i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Although crude chemical warfare has been employed in many parts of the world for thousands of years,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "modern" chemical warfare began during World War I – see <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical weapons in World War I</a>. </p><p>Initially, only well-known commercially available chemicals and their variants were used. These included chlorine and phosgene gas. The methods used to disperse these agents during battle were relatively unrefined and inefficient. Even so, casualties could be heavy, due to the mainly static troop positions which were characteristic features of <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a>. </p><p>Germany, the first side to employ chemical warfare on the battlefield,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> simply opened canisters of chlorine upwind of the opposing side and let the <a href="/wiki/Prevailing_winds" title="Prevailing winds">prevailing winds</a> do the dissemination. Soon after, the French modified <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> <a href="/wiki/Munition" class="mw-redirect" title="Munition">munitions</a> to contain phosgene – a much more effective method that became the principal means of delivery.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the development of modern chemical warfare in World War I, nations have pursued <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> on chemical weapons that falls into four major categories: new and more deadly agents; more efficient methods of delivering agents to the target (dissemination); more reliable means of defense against chemical weapons; and more sensitive and accurate means of detecting chemical agents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_warfare_agents">Chemical warfare agents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chemical warfare agents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_warfare_agents" title="List of chemical warfare agents">List of chemical warfare agents</a></div> <p>The chemical used in warfare is called a <i>chemical warfare agent</i> (<i>CWA</i>). About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th and 21st centuries. These agents may be in liquid, gas or solid form. Liquid agents that evaporate quickly are said to be <i>volatile</i> or have a <i>high <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a></i>. Many chemical agents are <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</a> so they can be dispersed over a large region quickly.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest target of chemical warfare agent research was not toxicity, but development of agents that can affect a target through the skin and clothing, rendering protective <a href="/wiki/WWI_gas_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="WWI gas mask">gas masks</a> useless. In July 1917, the Germans employed <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mustard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur mustard">sulfur mustard</a>. Mustard agents easily penetrate leather and fabric to inflict painful burns on the skin. </p><p>Chemical warfare agents are divided into <i>lethal</i> and <i>incapacitating</i> categories. A substance is classified as incapacitating if less than 1/100 of the <a href="/wiki/Lethal_dose" title="Lethal dose">lethal dose</a> causes incapacitation, e.g., through nausea or visual problems. The distinction between lethal and incapacitating substances is not fixed, but relies on a statistical average called the <a href="/wiki/Median_lethal_dose" title="Median lethal dose">LD<sub style="font-size:-1">50</sub></a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persistency">Persistency</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Persistency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical warfare agents can be classified according to their <i>persistency</i>, a measure of the length of time that a chemical agent remains effective after dissemination. Chemical agents are classified as <i>persistent</i> or <i>nonpersistent</i>. </p><p>Agents classified as <i>nonpersistent</i> lose effectiveness after only a few minutes or hours or even only a few seconds. Purely gaseous agents such as chlorine are nonpersistent, as are highly volatile agents such as sarin. Tactically, nonpersistent agents are very useful against targets that are to be taken over and controlled very quickly. </p><p>Apart from the agent used, the delivery mode is very important. To achieve a nonpersistent deployment, the agent is dispersed into very small droplets comparable with the mist produced by an aerosol can. In this form not only the gaseous part of the agent (around 50%) but also the fine aerosol can be inhaled or absorbed through pores in the skin. </p><p>Modern doctrine requires very high concentrations almost instantly in order to be effective (one breath should contain a lethal dose of the agent). To achieve this, the primary weapons used would be rocket artillery or bombs and large ballistic missiles with cluster warheads. The contamination in the target area is only low or not existent and after four hours sarin or similar agents are not detectable anymore. </p><p>By contrast, <i>persistent</i> agents tend to remain in the environment for as long as several weeks, complicating decontamination. Defense against persistent agents requires shielding for extended periods of time. Nonvolatile liquid agents, such as <a href="/wiki/Blister_agent" title="Blister agent">blister agents</a> and the oily <a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a> nerve agent, do not easily evaporate into a gas, and therefore present primarily a contact hazard. </p><p>The droplet size used for persistent delivery goes up to 1 mm increasing the falling speed and therefore about 80% of the deployed agent reaches the ground, resulting in heavy contamination. Deployment of persistent agents is intended to constrain enemy operations by denying access to contaminated areas. </p><p>Possible targets include enemy flank positions (averting possible counterattacks), artillery regiments, command posts or supply lines. Because it is not necessary to deliver large quantities of the agent in a short period of time, a wide variety of weapons systems can be used. </p><p>A special form of persistent agents are thickened agents. These comprise a common agent mixed with thickeners to provide gelatinous, sticky agents. Primary targets for this kind of use include airfields, due to the increased persistency and difficulty of decontaminating affected areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classes">Classes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chemical weapons are agents that come in four categories: <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_agent" title="Pulmonary agent">choking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vesicant" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicant">blister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_agent" title="Blood agent">blood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent" title="Nerve agent">nerve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agents are organized into several categories according to the manner in which they affect the human body. The names and number of categories varies slightly from source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents are as follows: </p><p><br /> </p> <table style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; background:#edf3fe; text-align:left; font-size: 85%" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> <caption><b>Classes of chemical weapon agents</b> </caption> <tbody><tr style="background:#ccccff; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"> <th style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa"><i><b>Class of agent</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa"><i><b>Agent Names</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa"><i><b>Mode of Action</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa"><i><b>Signs and Symptoms</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa"><i><b>Rate of action</b></i> </th> <th style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa"><i><b>Persistency</b></i> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"><b><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent" title="Nerve agent">Nerve</a></b> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosarin" title="Cyclosarin">Cyclosarin</a> (GF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">Sarin</a> (GB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soman" title="Soman">Soman</a> (GD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabun_(nerve_agent)" title="Tabun (nerve agent)">Tabun</a> (GA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)" title="VR (nerve agent)">VR</a></li> <li>Some <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novichok" title="Novichok">Novichok</a> agents</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Inactivates enzyme <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase" title="Acetylcholinesterase">acetylcholinesterase</a>, preventing the breakdown of the <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> in the victim's <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a> and causing both <a href="/wiki/Muscarinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscarinic">muscarinic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicotinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicotinic">nicotinic</a> effects </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miosis" title="Miosis">Miosis</a> (pinpoint <a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">pupils</a>)</li> <li>Blurred/dim vision</li> <li>Headache</li> <li>Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea</li> <li>Copious secretions/sweating</li> <li>Muscle twitching/fasciculations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspnea">Dyspnea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">Seizures</a></li> <li>Loss of consciousness</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>Vapors: seconds to minutes;</li> <li>Skin: 2 to 18 hours</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">VX is persistent and a contact hazard; other agents are non-persistent and present mostly inhalation hazards. </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE; border-right:1px solid red"> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"><b><a href="/wiki/Blood_agent" title="Blood agent">Asphyxiant/Blood</a></b> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>Most <a href="/wiki/Arsine" title="Arsine">Arsines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanogen_chloride" title="Cyanogen chloride">Cyanogen chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">Hydrogen cyanide</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><b>Arsine</b>: Causes intravascular <a href="/wiki/Hemolysis" title="Hemolysis">hemolysis</a> that may lead to <a href="/wiki/Renal_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal failure">renal failure</a>.</li> <li><b>Cyanogen chloride/hydrogen cyanide</b>: <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">Cyanide</a> directly prevents cells from using <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. The cells then use <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_respiration" title="Anaerobic respiration">anaerobic respiration</a>, creating excess <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis" title="Metabolic acidosis">metabolic acidosis</a>.</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>Possible cherry-red skin</li> <li>Possible <a href="/wiki/Cyanosis" title="Cyanosis">cyanosis</a></li> <li>Confusion</li> <li>Nausea</li> <li>Patients may gasp for air</li> <li>Seizures prior to death</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis" title="Metabolic acidosis">Metabolic acidosis</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Immediate onset </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"><b><a href="/wiki/Vesicant" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicant">Vesicant/Blister</a></b> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mustard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur mustard">Sulfur mustard</a> (HD, H)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_mustard" title="Nitrogen mustard">Nitrogen mustard</a> (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite</a> (L)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene_oxime" title="Phosgene oxime">Phosgene oxime</a> (CX)</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Agents are <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a>-forming compounds that damages skin and <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>, resulting burns and respiratory problems. </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>Severe skin, eye and mucosal pain and irritation</li> <li>Skin <a href="/wiki/Erythema" title="Erythema">erythema</a> with large fluid <a href="/wiki/Blister" title="Blister">blisters</a> that heal slowly and may become infected</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tears" title="Tears">Tearing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">conjunctivitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">corneal</a> damage</li> <li>Mild <a href="/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Acute respiratory distress syndrome">respiratory distress</a> to marked airway damage</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><b>Mustards</b>: Vapors: 4 to 6 hours, eyes and lungs affected more rapidly; Skin: 2 to 48 hours</li> <li><b>Lewisite</b>: Immediate</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Persistent and a contact hazard. </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE"> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"><b><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_agent" title="Pulmonary agent">Choking/Pulmonary</a></b> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">Hydrogen chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">Nitrogen oxides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">Phosgene</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Similar mechanism to <i>blister agents</i> in that the compounds are <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a> or acid-forming, but action is more pronounced in <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>, flooding it and resulting in <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">suffocation</a>; survivors often suffer chronic breathing problems. </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>Airway irritation</li> <li>Eye and skin irritation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspnea">Dyspnea</a>, cough</li> <li>Sore throat</li> <li>Chest tightness</li> <li>Wheezing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchospasm" title="Bronchospasm">Bronchospasm</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Immediate to 3 hours </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"><b><a href="/wiki/Lachrymatory_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachrymatory agent">Lachrymatory agent</a></b> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">Tear gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_spray" title="Pepper spray">Pepper spray</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Causes severe stinging of the eyes and temporary blindness. </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Powerful eye irritation </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Immediate </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard. </td></tr> <tr style="background:#DCDFFE"> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"><b><a href="/wiki/Incapacitating_agent" title="Incapacitating agent">Incapacitating</a></b> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_15" class="mw-redirect" title="Agent 15">Agent 15</a> (BZ)</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Causes <a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">atropine</a>-like inhibition of <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> in subject. Causes <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> effects that are the opposite of those seen in nerve agent poisoning. </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>May appear as mass <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">drug</a> <a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">intoxication</a> with erratic behaviors, shared realistic and distinct <a href="/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a>, disrobing and <a href="/wiki/Mental_confusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental confusion">confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">Hyperthermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ataxia" title="Ataxia">Ataxia</a> (lack of coordination)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mydriasis" title="Mydriasis">Mydriasis</a> (dilated pupils)</li> <li>Dry mouth and skin</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>Inhaled: 30 minutes to 20 hours;</li> <li>Skin: Up to 36 hours after skin exposure to BZ. Duration is typically 72 to 96 hours.</li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Extremely persistent in soil and water and on most surfaces; contact hazard. </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"><b><a href="/wiki/Cytotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytotoxin">Cytotoxic proteins</a></b> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <p>Non-living biological proteins, such as:<br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">Ricin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrin" title="Abrin">Abrin</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Inhibit <a href="/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis" title="Protein biosynthesis">protein synthesis</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa"> <ul><li>Latent period of 4-8 hours, followed by <a href="/wiki/Flu" class="mw-redirect" title="Flu">flu</a>-like signs and symptoms</li> <li>Progress within 18-24 hours to: <ul><li>Inhalation: <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cough" title="Cough">cough</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dyspnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyspnea">dyspnea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_edema" title="Pulmonary edema">pulmonary edema</a></li> <li>Ingestion: <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal hemorrhage">Gastrointestinal hemorrhage</a> with <a href="/wiki/Emesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesis">emesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bloody" title="Bloody">bloody</a> diarrhea; eventual <a href="/wiki/Liver_failure" title="Liver failure">liver</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>.</li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">4–24 hours; see <i>symptoms</i>. Exposure by <a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">inhalation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)" title="Injection (medicine)">injection</a> causes more pronounced signs and symptoms than exposure by <a href="/wiki/Ingestion" title="Ingestion">ingestion</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa">Slight; agents degrade quickly in environment </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by the CWC, and thus are not controlled under the CWC treaties. These include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defoliant" title="Defoliant">Defoliants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a> that destroy vegetation, but are not immediately toxic or poisonous to human beings. Their use is classified as <a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">herbicidal warfare</a>. Some batches of <a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>, for instance, used by the British during the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a> and the United States during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, contained <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">dioxins</a> as manufacturing impurities. <a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">Dioxins</a>, rather than Agent Orange itself, have long-term cancer effects and for causing genetic damage leading to serious <a href="/wiki/Birth_defects" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth defects">birth defects</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiary</a> or <a href="/wiki/Explosive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Explosive material">explosive</a> chemicals (such as <a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">napalm</a>, extensively used by the United States during the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> and the Vietnam War, or <a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">dynamite</a>) because their destructive effects are primarily due to fire or explosive force, and not direct chemical action. Their use is classified as <a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">conventional warfare</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, or other organisms. Their use is classified as <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">biological warfare</a>. <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a> produced by living organisms are considered chemical weapons, although the boundary is blurry. Toxins are covered by the <a href="/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Designations">Designations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Designations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon_designation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapon designation">chemical weapon designation</a></div> <p>Most chemical weapons are assigned a one- to three-letter "<a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> weapon designation" in addition to, or in place of, a common name. <a href="/wiki/Binary_chemical_weapon" title="Binary chemical weapon">Binary munitions</a>, in which precursors for chemical warfare agents are automatically mixed in shell to produce the agent just prior to its use, are indicated by a "-2" following the agent's designation (for example, GB-2 and VX-2). </p><p>Some examples are given below: </p> <table style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; border:1px solid #aaa; background:#edf3fe;" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#ccf; border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0 5px;"><i><b>Blood agents:</b></i> </th> <th style="background:#ccf; border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0 5px;"><i><b>Vesicants:</b></i> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanogen_chloride" title="Cyanogen chloride">Cyanogen chloride</a>: CK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">Hydrogen cyanide</a>: AC</li></ul> </td> <td style="border:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite</a>: L</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mustard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur mustard">Sulfur mustard</a>: H, HD, HS, HT</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#ccf; border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0 5px;"><i><b>Pulmonary agents:</b></i> </th> <th style="background:#ccf; border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0 5px;"><i><b>Incapacitating agents:</b></i> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">Phosgene</a>: CG</li></ul> </td> <td style="border:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-quinuclidinyl_benzilate" class="mw-redirect" title="3-quinuclidinyl benzilate">Quinuclidinyl benzilate</a>: BZ</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#ccf; border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0 5px;"><i><b>Lachrymatory agents:</b></i> </th> <th style="background:#ccf; border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0 5px;"><i><b>Nerve agents:</b></i> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="border:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_spray" title="Pepper spray">Pepper spray</a>: OC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">Tear gas</a>: CN, CS, CR</li></ul> </td> <td style="border:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">Sarin</a>: GB</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VE_(nerve_agent)" title="VE (nerve agent)">VE</a>, <a href="/wiki/VG_(nerve_agent)" title="VG (nerve agent)">VG</a>, <a href="/wiki/VM_(nerve_agent)" title="VM (nerve agent)">VM</a>, <a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delivery">Delivery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Delivery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most important factor in the effectiveness of chemical weapons is the efficiency of its delivery, or dissemination, to a target. The most common techniques include munitions (such as bombs, projectiles, warheads) that allow dissemination at a distance and spray tanks which disseminate from low-flying aircraft. Developments in the techniques of filling and storage of munitions have also been important. </p><p>Although there have been many advances in chemical weapon delivery since World War I, it is still difficult to achieve effective dispersion. The dissemination is highly dependent on atmospheric conditions because many chemical agents act in gaseous form. Thus, weather observations and forecasting are essential to optimize weapon delivery and reduce the risk of injuring friendly forces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dispersion">Dispersion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Dispersion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poison_gas_attack.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Poison_gas_attack.jpg/330px-Poison_gas_attack.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Poison_gas_attack.jpg/500px-Poison_gas_attack.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Poison_gas_attack.jpg/600px-Poison_gas_attack.jpg 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="262" /></a><figcaption>Dispersion of <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Dispersion is placing the chemical agent upon or adjacent to a target immediately before dissemination, so that the material is most efficiently used. Dispersion is the simplest technique of delivering an agent to its target. The most common techniques are munitions, bombs, projectiles, spray tanks and warheads. </p><p>World War I saw the earliest implementation of this technique. The actual first chemical ammunition was the French 26 mm cartouche suffocante <a href="/wiki/Rifle_grenade" title="Rifle grenade">rifle grenade</a>, fired from a <a href="/wiki/Flare_gun" title="Flare gun">flare carbine</a>. It contained 35 g (1.2 oz) of the <a href="/wiki/Lachrymatory_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachrymatory agent">tear-producer</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_bromoacetate" title="Ethyl bromoacetate">ethyl bromoacetate</a>, and was used in autumn 1914 – with little effect on the Germans. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">German military</a> contrarily tried to increase the effect of 10.5 cm (4.1 in) <a href="/wiki/Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">shrapnel shells</a> by adding an irritant – <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dianisidine_chlorosulfonate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dianisidine chlorosulfonate (page does not exist)">dianisidine chlorosulfonate</a>. Its use against the British at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle" title="Battle of Neuve Chapelle">Neuve Chapelle</a> in October 1914 went unnoticed by them. Hans Tappen, a chemist in the Heavy Artillery Department of the War Ministry, suggested to his brother, the Chief of the Operations Branch at German General Headquarters, the use of the tear-gases <a href="/wiki/Benzyl_bromide" title="Benzyl bromide">benzyl bromide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Xylyl_bromide" title="Xylyl bromide">xylyl bromide</a>. </p><p>Shells were tested successfully at the Wahn artillery range near Cologne on January 9, 1915, and an order was placed for 15 cm (5.9 in) <a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">howitzer</a> shells, designated 'T-shells' after Tappen. A shortage of shells limited the first use against the Russians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bolim%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Bolimów">Battle of Bolimów</a> on January 31, 1915; the liquid failed to vaporize in the cold weather, and again the experiment went unnoticed by the Allies. </p><p>The first effective use were when the German forces at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a> simply opened cylinders of chlorine and allowed the wind to carry the gas across enemy lines. While simple, this technique had numerous disadvantages. Moving large numbers of heavy gas cylinders to the front-line positions from where the gas would be released was a lengthy and difficult logistical task. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poison_Gas_Attack_Germany_and_Russia_1916.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Poison_Gas_Attack_Germany_and_Russia_1916.JPG/220px-Poison_Gas_Attack_Germany_and_Russia_1916.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Poison_Gas_Attack_Germany_and_Russia_1916.JPG/330px-Poison_Gas_Attack_Germany_and_Russia_1916.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Poison_Gas_Attack_Germany_and_Russia_1916.JPG/440px-Poison_Gas_Attack_Germany_and_Russia_1916.JPG 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>Aerial photograph of a German gas attack on <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> forces <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1916</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Stockpiles of cylinders had to be stored at the front line, posing a great risk if hit by artillery shells. Gas delivery depended greatly on wind speed and direction. If the wind was fickle, as at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Loos" title="Battle of Loos">Battle of Loos</a>, the gas could blow back, causing <a href="/wiki/Friendly_fire" title="Friendly fire">friendly casualties</a>. </p><p>Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing the enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. This made the gas doubly effective, as, in addition to damaging the enemy physically, it also had a psychological effect on the intended victims. </p><p>Another disadvantage was that gas clouds had limited penetration, capable only of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. Although it produced limited results in World War I, this technique shows how simple chemical weapon dissemination <i>can</i> be. </p><p>Shortly after this "open canister" dissemination, French forces developed a technique for delivery of phosgene in a non-explosive artillery shell. This technique overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. First, gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas, making any target within reach of guns vulnerable. Second, gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odorless phosgene—there are numerous accounts of gas shells, landing with a "plop" rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud high explosive or shrapnel shells, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions. </p><p>The major drawback of artillery delivery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to <a href="/wiki/Saturation_bombardment" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation bombardment">saturation bombardment</a> to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. A British solution to the problem was the <a href="/wiki/Livens_Projector" title="Livens Projector">Livens Projector</a>. This was effectively a large-bore mortar, dug into the ground that used the gas cylinders themselves as projectiles – firing a 14 kg (31 lb) cylinder up to 1,500 m (5,000 ft). This combined the gas volume of cylinders with the range of artillery. </p><p>Over the years, there were some refinements in this technique. In the 1950s and early 1960s, chemical artillery rockets and cluster bombs contained a multitude of submunitions, so that a large number of small clouds of the chemical agent would form directly on the target. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thermal_dissemination">Thermal dissemination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Thermal dissemination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mc-1_gas_bomb.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Mc-1_gas_bomb.png/250px-Mc-1_gas_bomb.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Mc-1_gas_bomb.png/330px-Mc-1_gas_bomb.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Mc-1_gas_bomb.png 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="327" /></a><figcaption>An American-made <a href="/wiki/MC-1" class="mw-redirect" title="MC-1">MC-1</a> gas bomb</figcaption></figure> <p>Thermal dissemination is the use of explosives or <a href="/wiki/Pyrotechnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrotechnic">pyrotechnics</a> to deliver chemical agents. This technique, developed in the 1920s, was a major improvement over earlier dispersal techniques, in that it allowed significant quantities of an agent to be disseminated over a considerable distance. Thermal dissemination remains the principal method of disseminating chemical agents today. </p><p>Most thermal dissemination devices consist of a bomb or projectile shell that contains a chemical agent and a central "burster" charge; when the burster detonates, the agent is expelled laterally. </p><p>Thermal dissemination devices, though common, are not particularly efficient. First, a percentage of the agent is lost by incineration in the initial blast and by being forced onto the ground. Second, the sizes of the particles vary greatly because explosive dissemination produces a mixture of liquid droplets of variable and difficult to control sizes. </p><p>The efficacy of thermal detonation is greatly limited by the flammability of some agents. For flammable aerosols, the cloud is sometimes totally or partially ignited by the disseminating explosion in a phenomenon called <i>flashing</i>. Explosively disseminated VX will ignite roughly one third of the time. Despite a great deal of study, flashing is still not fully understood, and a solution to the problem would be a major technological advance. </p><p>Despite the limitations of central bursters, most nations use this method in the early stages of chemical weapon development, in part because standard munitions can be adapted to carry the agents. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soviet_chemical_weapons_canisters_from_a_stockpile_in_Albania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Soviet_chemical_weapons_canisters_from_a_stockpile_in_Albania.jpg/250px-Soviet_chemical_weapons_canisters_from_a_stockpile_in_Albania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Soviet_chemical_weapons_canisters_from_a_stockpile_in_Albania.jpg/330px-Soviet_chemical_weapons_canisters_from_a_stockpile_in_Albania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Soviet_chemical_weapons_canisters_from_a_stockpile_in_Albania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>Soviet chemical weapons canisters from a stockpile in Albania</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aerodynamic_dissemination">Aerodynamic dissemination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aerodynamic dissemination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aerodynamic dissemination is the non-explosive delivery of a chemical agent from an aircraft, allowing aerodynamic stress to disseminate the agent. This technique is the most recent major development in chemical agent dissemination, originating in the mid-1960s. </p><p>This technique eliminates many of the limitations of thermal dissemination by eliminating the flashing effect and theoretically allowing precise control of particle size. In actuality, the altitude of dissemination, wind direction and velocity, and the direction and velocity of the aircraft greatly influence particle size. There are other drawbacks as well; ideal deployment requires precise knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamics" title="Aerodynamics">aerodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, and because the agent must usually be dispersed within the <a href="/wiki/Boundary_layer" title="Boundary layer">boundary layer</a> (less than 60–90 m or 200–300 ft above the ground), it puts pilots at risk. </p><p>Significant research is still being applied toward this technique. For example, by modifying the properties of the liquid, its breakup when subjected to aerodynamic stress can be controlled and an idealized particle distribution achieved, even at <a href="/wiki/Supersonic_speed" title="Supersonic speed">supersonic speed</a>. Additionally, advances in <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer model">computer modeling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">weather forecasting</a> allow an ideal direction, speed, and altitude to be calculated, such that warfare agent of a predetermined particle size can predictably and reliably hit a target. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protection_against_chemical_warfare">Protection against chemical warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Protection against chemical warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_%22Yanshuf%22_Battalion_Soldiers_at_ABC_Warfare_Exercise,_Nov_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_%22Yanshuf%22_Battalion_Soldiers_at_ABC_Warfare_Exercise%2C_Nov_2010.jpg/250px-Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_%22Yanshuf%22_Battalion_Soldiers_at_ABC_Warfare_Exercise%2C_Nov_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_%22Yanshuf%22_Battalion_Soldiers_at_ABC_Warfare_Exercise%2C_Nov_2010.jpg/330px-Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_%22Yanshuf%22_Battalion_Soldiers_at_ABC_Warfare_Exercise%2C_Nov_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_%22Yanshuf%22_Battalion_Soldiers_at_ABC_Warfare_Exercise%2C_Nov_2010.jpg/500px-Flickr_-_Israel_Defense_Forces_-_%22Yanshuf%22_Battalion_Soldiers_at_ABC_Warfare_Exercise%2C_Nov_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Israel Defense Forces "Yanshuf" battalion soldiers at chemical warfare defense exercise</figcaption></figure> <p>Ideal protection begins with nonproliferation treaties such as the CWC, and detecting, very early, the <i>signatures</i> of someone building a chemical weapons capability. These include a wide range of intelligence disciplines, such as economic analysis of exports of <a href="/wiki/Dual-use" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual-use">dual-use</a> chemicals and equipment, human intelligence (<a href="/wiki/HUMINT" class="mw-redirect" title="HUMINT">HUMINT</a>) such as diplomatic, refugee, and agent reports; photography from satellites, aircraft and drones (<a href="/wiki/IMINT" class="mw-redirect" title="IMINT">IMINT</a>); examination of captured equipment (<a href="/wiki/TECHINT" class="mw-redirect" title="TECHINT">TECHINT</a>); communications intercepts (<a href="/wiki/COMINT" class="mw-redirect" title="COMINT">COMINT</a>); and detection of chemical manufacturing and chemical agents themselves (<a href="/wiki/Materials_MASINT#Chemical_Warfare_and_Improvised_Chemical_Devices" title="Materials MASINT">MASINT</a>). </p><p>If all the preventive measures fail and there is a clear and present danger, then there is a need for detection of chemical attacks,<sup id="cite_ref-Davis2006_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davis2006-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> collective protection,<sup id="cite_ref-FM3-11-4_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM3-11-4-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CDC-MMWR-2002-09-12_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC-MMWR-2002-09-12-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FM3-11-34_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM3-11-34-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and decontamination. Since industrial accidents can cause dangerous chemical releases (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Bhopal_disaster" title="Bhopal disaster">Bhopal disaster</a>), these activities are things that civilian, as well as military, organizations must be prepared to carry out. In civilian situations in <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>, these are duties of <a href="/wiki/HAZMAT" class="mw-redirect" title="HAZMAT">HAZMAT</a> organizations, which most commonly are part of fire departments. </p><p>Detection has been referred to above, as a technical MASINT discipline; specific military procedures, which are usually the model for civilian procedures, depend on the equipment, expertise, and personnel available. When chemical agents are detected, an alarm needs to sound, with specific warnings over emergency broadcasts and the like. There may be a warning to expect an attack. </p><p>If, for example, the captain of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">US Navy</a> ship believes there is a serious threat of chemical, biological, or radiological attack, the crew may be ordered to set Circle William, which means closing all openings to outside air, running breathing air through filters, and possibly starting a system that continually washes down the exterior surfaces. Civilian authorities dealing with an attack or a toxic chemical accident will invoke the <a href="/wiki/Incident_Command_System" title="Incident Command System">Incident Command System</a>, or local equivalent, to coordinate defensive measures.<sup id="cite_ref-FM3-11-34_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM3-11-34-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Individual protection starts with a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_gas_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict gas mask">gas mask</a> and, depending on the nature of the threat, through various levels of protective clothing up to a complete chemical-resistant suit with a self-contained air supply. The US military defines various levels of <a href="/wiki/MOPP_(protective_gear)" title="MOPP (protective gear)">MOPP</a> (mission-oriented protective posture) from mask to full chemical resistant suits; <a href="/wiki/Hazmat_suit" title="Hazmat suit">Hazmat suits</a> are the civilian equivalent, but go farther to include a fully independent air supply, rather than the filters of a gas mask. </p><p>Collective protection allows continued functioning of groups of people in buildings or shelters, the latter which may be fixed, mobile, or improvised. With ordinary buildings, this may be as basic as plastic sheeting and tape, although if the protection needs to be continued for any appreciable length of time, there will need to be an air supply, typically an enhanced gas mask.<sup id="cite_ref-CDC-MMWR-2002-09-12_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC-MMWR-2002-09-12-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FM3-11-34_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM3-11-34-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Members_of_the_Ukrainian_Army%E2%80%99s_19th_CBRN-Battalion_maintaining_decontamination_skills_in_Support_of_Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_at_Camp_Arifjan,_in_KUWAIT_on_August_3rd_2003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Members_of_the_Ukrainian_Army%E2%80%99s_19th_CBRN-Battalion_maintaining_decontamination_skills_in_Support_of_Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_at_Camp_Arifjan%2C_in_KUWAIT_on_August_3rd_2003.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Members_of_the_Ukrainian_Army%E2%80%99s_19th_CBRN-Battalion_maintaining_decontamination_skills_in_Support_of_Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_at_Camp_Arifjan%2C_in_KUWAIT_on_August_3rd_2003.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Members_of_the_Ukrainian_Army%E2%80%99s_19th_CBRN-Battalion_maintaining_decontamination_skills_in_Support_of_Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_at_Camp_Arifjan%2C_in_KUWAIT_on_August_3rd_2003.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption>Members of the Ukrainian Army's 19th Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Battalion practice decontamination drill, at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Arifjan" title="Camp Arifjan">Camp Arifjan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decontamination">Decontamination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Decontamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/250px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/500px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-exhaust_emissions" title="Non-exhaust emissions">Non-exhaust emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_blight" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban blight">Urban blight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/20px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/40px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/20px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/40px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Decontamination varies with the particular chemical agent used. Some <i>nonpersistent</i> agents, including most pulmonary agents (chlorine, phosgene, and so on), <a href="/wiki/Blood_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood gases">blood gases</a>, and nonpersistent nerve gases (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">GB</a>), will dissipate from open areas, although powerful exhaust fans may be needed to clear out buildings where they have accumulated. </p><p>In some cases, it might be necessary to neutralize them chemically, as with <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> as a neutralizer for hydrogen cyanide or chlorine. Riot control agents such as <a href="/wiki/CS_gas" title="CS gas">CS</a> will dissipate in an open area, but things contaminated with CS powder need to be aired out, washed by people wearing protective gear, or safely discarded. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mass_decontamination" title="Mass decontamination">Mass decontamination</a> is a less common requirement for people than equipment, since people may be immediately affected and treatment is the action required. It is a requirement when people have been contaminated with persistent agents. Treatment and decontamination may need to be simultaneous, with the medical personnel protecting themselves so they can function.<sup id="cite_ref-Ciottone2007_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ciottone2007-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There may need to be immediate intervention to prevent death, such as injection of <a href="/wiki/Atropine" title="Atropine">atropine</a> for nerve agents. Decontamination is especially important for people contaminated with persistent agents; many of the fatalities after the <a href="/wiki/Air_Raid_on_Bari" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Raid on Bari">explosion of a WWII US ammunition ship carrying sulfur mustard</a>, in the harbor of Bari, Italy, after a German bombing on December 2, 1943, came when rescue workers, not knowing of the contamination, bundled cold, wet seamen in tight-fitting blankets. </p><p>For decontaminating equipment and buildings exposed to persistent agents, such as blister agents, VX or other agents made persistent by mixing with a thickener, special equipment and materials might be needed. Some type of neutralizing agent will be needed; e.g. in the form of a spraying device with neutralizing agents such as Chlorine, Fichlor, strong alkaline solutions or enzymes. In other cases, a specific chemical decontaminant will be required.<sup id="cite_ref-FM3-11-34_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FM3-11-34-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociopolitical_climate">Sociopolitical climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sociopolitical climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many instances of the use of chemical weapons in battles documented in Greek and Roman historical texts; the earliest example was the deliberate poisoning of Kirrha's water supply with <a href="/wiki/Hellebore" title="Hellebore">hellebore</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_Sacred_War" title="First Sacred War">First Sacred War</a>, Greece, about 590 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the earliest reactions to the use of chemical agents was from <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of the Roman Empire">Rome</a>. Struggling to defend themselves from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> tribes poisoned the wells of their enemies, with Roman jurists having been recorded as declaring "armis bella non venenis geri", meaning "war is fought with <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a>, not with <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a>." Yet the Romans themselves resorted to poisoning wells of besieged cities in Anatolia in the 2nd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Mayor_2003_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayor_2003-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before 1915 the use of poisonous chemicals in battle was typically the result of local initiative, and not the result of an active government chemical weapons program. There are many reports of the isolated use of chemical agents in individual battles or <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">sieges</a>, but there was no true tradition of their use outside of <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiaries</a> and smoke. Despite this tendency, there have been several attempts to initiate large-scale implementation of poison gas in several wars, but with the notable exception of World War I, the responsible authorities generally rejected the proposals for ethical reasons or fears of retaliation. </p><p>For example, in 1854 <a href="/wiki/Lyon_Playfair,_1st_Baron_Playfair" title="Lyon Playfair, 1st Baron Playfair">Lyon Playfair</a> (later 1st Baron Playfair, GCB, PC, FRS (1818–1898), a <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> chemist, proposed using a <a href="/wiki/Cacodyl_cyanide" title="Cacodyl cyanide">cacodyl cyanide</a>-filled <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> shell against enemy ships during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. The British Ordnance Department rejected the proposal as "as bad a mode of warfare as poisoning the wells of the enemy." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efforts_to_eradicate_chemical_weapons">Efforts to eradicate chemical weapons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Efforts to eradicate chemical weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_arms_control_agreements" title="List of chemical arms control agreements">List of chemical arms control agreements</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"> <caption>Countries with known or possible chemical weapons, as of 2021 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Nation </th> <th>CW Possession<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </th> <th>Signed CWC </th> <th>Ratified CWC </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> </td> <td>Eliminated, 2007 </td> <td>January 14, 1993<sup id="cite_ref-Status2013_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Status2013-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>May 11, 1994<sup id="cite_ref-Status2013_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Status2013-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> </td> <td>Probable </td> <td>January 13, 1993 </td> <td>April 4, 1997 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> </td> <td>Probable </td> <td>No </td> <td>No </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> </td> <td>Eliminated, 2009 </td> <td>January 14, 1993 </td> <td>September 3, 1996 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> </td> <td>Possible </td> <td>January 13, 1993 </td> <td>November 3, 1997 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> </td> <td>Eliminated, 2018 </td> <td>January 13, 2009 </td> <td>February 12, 2009 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> </td> <td>Probable </td> <td>January 13, 1993<sup id="cite_ref-signStates_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-signStates-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>No </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> </td> <td>Probable </td> <td>January 13, 1993 </td> <td>September 15, 1995 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> </td> <td>Eliminated, 2014 </td> <td>No </td> <td>January 6, 2004 <br />(acceded) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> (Burma) </td> <td>Possible </td> <td>January 14, 1993<sup id="cite_ref-signStates_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-signStates-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>July 8, 2015<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> </td> <td>Known </td> <td>No </td> <td>No </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> </td> <td>Probable </td> <td>January 13, 1993 </td> <td>November 27, 1997 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td> <td>Eliminated, 2017 </td> <td>January 13, 1993 </td> <td>November 5, 1997 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Serbia_and_Montenegro" title="Serbia and Montenegro">Serbia <br />and Montenegro</a> </td> <td>Probable </td> <td>No </td> <td>April 20, 2000 <br />(acceded) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> </td> <td>Possible </td> <td>No </td> <td>May 24, 1999 <br />(acceded) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> </td> <td>Known </td> <td>No </td> <td>September 14, 2013 <br />(acceded) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> </td> <td>Possible </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>n/a </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td> <td>Eliminated, 2023<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>January 13, 1993 </td> <td>April 25, 1997 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> </td> <td>Possible </td> <td>January 13, 1993 </td> <td>September 30, 1998 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li>August 27, 1874: The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brussels_Declaration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brussels Declaration (page does not exist)">Brussels Declaration</a> Concerning the Laws and Customs of War is signed, specifically forbidding the "employment of poison or poisoned weapons", although the treaty was not adopted by any nation whatsoever and it never went into effect.</li> <li>September 4, 1900: The <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1899" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1899">First Hague Convention</a>, which includes a declaration banning the "use of projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases," enters into force.</li> <li>January 26, 1910: The <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_of_1907" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague Convention of 1907">Second Hague Convention</a> enters into force, prohibiting the use of "poison or poisoned weapons" in warfare.</li> <li>February 6, 1922: After World War I, the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Arms_Conference_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Arms Conference Treaty">Washington Arms Conference Treaty</a> prohibited the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases. It was signed by the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy, but France objected to other provisions in the treaty and it never went into effect.</li> <li>February 8, 1928: The <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> enters into force, prohibiting the use of "asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices" and "bacteriological methods of warfare".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_weapon_proliferation">Chemical weapon proliferation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Chemical weapon proliferation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon_proliferation" title="Chemical weapon proliferation">Chemical weapon proliferation</a></div> <p>Despite numerous efforts to reduce or eliminate them, some nations continue to research and/or stockpile chemical warfare agents. </p><p>In 1997, future <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">US Vice President</a> <a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a> opposed the signing ratification of a treaty banning the use of chemical weapons, a recently unearthed letter shows. In a letter dated April 8, 1997, then <a href="/wiki/Halliburton" title="Halliburton">Halliburton</a>-CEO Cheney told Sen. <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Helms" title="Jesse Helms">Jesse Helms</a>, the chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Senate_Foreign_Relations_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Foreign Relations Committee">Senate Foreign Relations Committee</a>, that it would be a mistake for America to join the convention. "Those nations most likely to comply with the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a> are not likely to ever constitute a military threat to the United States. The governments we should be concerned about are likely to cheat on the CWC, even if they do participate," reads the letter,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> published by the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a>. </p><p>The CWC was ratified by the Senate that same month. In the following years, Albania, Libya, Russia, the United States, and India declared over 71,000 metric tons of chemical weapon stockpiles, and destroyed a third of them. Under the terms of the agreement, the United States and Russia agreed to eliminate the rest of their supplies of chemical weapons by 2012, but ended up taking far longer to do so as shown in the previous and following section of this article. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_weapons_destruction">Chemical weapons destruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Chemical weapons destruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In June 1997, India declared that it had a stockpile of 1044 tons of sulphur mustard in its possession. India's declaration of its stockpile came after its entry into the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a>, that created the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a>, and on January 14, 1993, India became one of the original signatories to the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a>. By 2005, from among six nations that had declared their possession of chemical weapons, India was the only country to meet its deadline for chemical weapons destruction and for inspection of its facilities by the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons and material stockpile and was granted an extension to complete a 100 percent destruction of its stocks by April 2009. On May 14, 2009, India informed the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> that it has completely destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraq">Iraq</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Iraq"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_chemical_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi chemical warfare">Iraqi chemical warfare</a></div> <p>The Director-General of the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a>, Ambassador Rogelio Pfirter, welcomed Iraq's decision to join the OPCW as a significant step to strengthening global and regional efforts to prevent the spread and use of chemical weapons. The OPCW announced "The government of Iraq has deposited its instrument of accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention with the Secretary General of the United Nations and within 30 days, on 12 February 2009, will become the 186th State Party to the Convention". Iraq has also declared stockpiles of chemical weapons, and because of their recent accession is the only State Party exempted from the destruction time-line.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937–1945) Japan stored chemical weapons on the territory of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a>. The weapon stock mostly containing sulfur mustard-lewisite mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The weapons are classified as abandoned chemical weapons under the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a>, and from September 2010 Japan has started their destruction in Nanjing using mobile destruction facilities in order to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russia signed into the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a> on January 13, 1993, and ratified it on November 5, 1995. Declaring an arsenal of 39,967 tons of chemical weapons in 1997, by far the largest arsenal, consisting of blister agents: <a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mustard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur mustard">Sulfur mustard</a>, Lewisite-mustard mix, and nerve agents: <a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">Sarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soman" title="Soman">Soman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a>. Russia met its treaty obligations by destroying 1 percent of its chemical agents by the 2002 deadline set out by the Chemical Weapons Convention, but requested an extension on the deadlines of 2004 and 2007 due to technical, financial, and environmental challenges of chemical disposal. Since, Russia has received help from other countries such as Canada which donated C$100,000, plus a further C$100,000 already donated, to the Russian Chemical Weapons Destruction Program. This money will be used to complete work at Shchuch'ye and support the construction of a chemical weapons destruction facility at Kizner (Russia), where the destruction of nearly 5,700 tons of nerve agent, stored in approximately 2 million artillery shells and munitions, will be undertaken. Canadian funds are also being used for the operation of a Green Cross Public Outreach Office, to keep the civilian population informed on the progress made in chemical weapons destruction activities.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of July 2011, Russia has destroyed 48 percent (18,241 tons) of its stockpile at destruction facilities located in Gorny (Saratov Oblast) and Kambarka (Udmurt Republic) – where operations have finished – and Schuch'ye (Kurgan Oblast), Maradykovsky (Kirov Oblast), Leonidovka (Penza Oblast) whilst installations are under construction in Pochep (Bryansk Oblast) and Kizner (Udmurt Republic).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As August 2013, 76 percent (30,500 tons) were destroyed,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Russia leaves the <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Threat_Reduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative Threat Reduction">Cooperative Threat Reduction</a> (CTR) Program, which partially funded chemical weapons destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 2017, OPCW announced that Russia had destroyed its entire chemical weapons stockpile.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Chemical_weapons" title="United States and weapons of mass destruction">United States and weapons of mass destruction § Chemical weapons</a></div> <p>On November 25, 1969, President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> <a href="/wiki/Statement_on_Chemical_and_Biological_Defense_Policies_and_Programs" title="Statement on Chemical and Biological Defense Policies and Programs">unilaterally renounced the offensive use of biological and toxic weapons</a>, but the U.S. continued to maintain an offensive chemical weapons program.<sup id="cite_ref-CaseStudy1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CaseStudy1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From May 1964 to the early 1970s the U.S. participated in <a href="/wiki/Operation_CHASE" title="Operation CHASE">Operation CHASE</a>, a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> program that aimed to dispose of chemical weapons by sinking ships laden with the weapons in the deep Atlantic. After the <a href="/wiki/Marine_Protection,_Research,_and_Sanctuaries_Act_of_1972" title="Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972">Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972</a>, Operation Chase was scrapped and safer disposal methods for chemical weapons were researched, with the U.S. destroying several thousand tons of sulfur mustard by incineration at the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Arsenal" title="Rocky Mountain Arsenal">Rocky Mountain Arsenal</a>, and nearly 4,200 tons of nerve agent by chemical neutralisation at <a href="/wiki/Tooele_Army_Depot" title="Tooele Army Depot">Tooele Army Depot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The U.S. began stockpile reductions in the 1980s with the removal of outdated munitions and destroying its entire stock of <a href="/wiki/3-Quinuclidinyl_benzilate" title="3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate">3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate</a> (BZ or Agent 15) at the beginning of 1988. In June 1990 the <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll_Chemical_Agent_Disposal_System" title="Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System">Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System</a> began destruction of chemical agents stored on the <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll" title="Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a> in the Pacific, seven years before the Chemical Weapons Treaty came into effect. In 1986 President Ronald Reagan made an agreement with <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">German Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Helmut Kohl</a> to remove the U.S. stockpile of chemical weapons from Germany. In 1990, as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Steel_Box" title="Operation Steel Box">Operation Steel Box</a>, two ships were loaded with over 100,000 shells containing <a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">Sarin</a> and <a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a> were taken from the U.S. Army weapons storage depots such as Miesau and then-classified FSTS (Forward Storage / Transportation Sites) and transported from Bremerhaven, Germany to Johnston Atoll in the Pacific, a 46-day nonstop journey.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1980s, Congress, at the urging of the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan administration">Reagan administration</a>, Congress provided funding for the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Binary_chemical_weapon" title="Binary chemical weapon">binary chemical weapons</a> (sarin artillery shells) from 1987 until 1990, but this was halted after the U.S. and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> entered into a <a href="/wiki/1990_Chemical_Weapons_Accord" title="1990 Chemical Weapons Accord">bilateral agreement in June 1990</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CaseStudy1_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CaseStudy1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990 agreement, the U.S. and Soviet Union agreed to begin destroying their chemical weapons stockpiles before 1993 and to reduce them to no more than 5,000 agent tons each by the end of 2002. The agreement also provided for exchanges of data and inspections of sites to verify destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-Glass_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glass-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Collapse of the Soviet Union">collapse of the Soviet Union</a>, the U.S.'s <a href="/wiki/Nunn%E2%80%93Lugar_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction" title="Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction">Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction</a> program helped eliminate some of the chemical, biological and nuclear stockpiles of the <a href="/wiki/Former_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Former Soviet Union">former Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Glass_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glass-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/Conference_on_Disarmament" title="Conference on Disarmament">Conference on Disarmament</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> in 1980 led to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Weapons_Convention" title="Chemical Weapons Convention">Chemical Weapons Convention</a> (CWC), a <a href="/wiki/Multilateral_treaty" title="Multilateral treaty">multilateral treaty</a> that prohibited the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons, and required the elimination of existing stockpiles.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty expressly prohibited state parties from making <a href="/wiki/Reservation_(law)" title="Reservation (law)">reservations</a> (unilateral caveats).<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Reagan administration and the George H. W. Bush administration, the U.S. participated in the negotiations toward the CWC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CWC was concluded on September 3, 1992, and opened for signature on January 13, 1993. The U.S. became one of 87 original state parties to the CWC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> submitted it to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Senate">U.S. Senate</a> for ratification on November 23, 1993. Ratification was blocked in the Senate for years, largely as a result of opposition from Senator <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Helms" title="Jesse Helms">Jesse Helms</a>, the chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Senate_Foreign_Relations_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Foreign Relations Committee">Senate Foreign Relations Committee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_71-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On April 24, 1997, the Senate gave its consent to ratification of the CWC by a 74–26 vote (satisfying the required two-thirds majority). The U.S. deposited its instrument of ratification at the United Nations on April 25, 1997, a few days before the CWC entered into force. The U.S. ratification allowed the U.S. to participate in the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a>, the organization based in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> that oversees implementation of the CWC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_71-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon U.S. ratification of the CWC, the U.S. declared a total of 29,918 tons of chemical weapons, and committed to destroying all of the U.S.'s chemical weapons and bulk agent.<sup id="cite_ref-LeGrone_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeGrone-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. was one of eight states to declare a stockpile of chemical weapons and to commit to their safe elimination.<sup id="cite_ref-ProgressUpdate_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ProgressUpdate-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. committed in the CWC to destroy its entire chemical arsenal within 10 years of the entry into force (<i>i.e.</i>, by April 29, 2007),<sup id="cite_ref-LeGrone_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeGrone-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, at a 2012 conference,<sup id="cite_ref-CDCCWElimination_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDCCWElimination-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the parties to the CWC parties agreed to extend the U.S. deadline to 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-LeGrone_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeGrone-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CDCCWElimination_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDCCWElimination-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2012, stockpiles had been eliminated at seven of the U.S.'s nine chemical weapons depots and 89.75% of the 1997 stockpile was destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-Complete_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Complete-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The depots were the <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen_Chemical_Agent_Disposal_Facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Aberdeen Chemical Agent Disposal Facility">Aberdeen Chemical Agent Disposal Facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anniston_Chemical_Activity" title="Anniston Chemical Activity">Anniston Chemical Disposal Facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll" title="Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newport_Chemical_Agent_Disposal_Facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Newport Chemical Agent Disposal Facility">Newport Chemical Agent Disposal Facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pine_Bluff_Chemical_Activity" title="Pine Bluff Chemical Activity">Pine Bluff Chemical Disposal Facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tooele_Chemical_Agent_Disposal_Facility" title="Tooele Chemical Agent Disposal Facility">Tooele Chemical Disposal Facility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umatilla_Chemical_Depot" title="Umatilla Chemical Depot">Umatilla Chemical Disposal Facility</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CDCCWElimination_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDCCWElimination-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Deseret_Chemical_Depot" title="Deseret Chemical Depot">Deseret Chemical Depot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Complete_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Complete-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. closed each site after the completion of stockpile destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-CDCCWElimination_74-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDCCWElimination-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, the U.S. began to eliminate its chemical-weapon stockpile at the last of the nine U.S. chemical weapons storage facilities: the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Grass_Army_Depot" title="Blue Grass Army Depot">Blue Grass Army Depot</a> in Kentucky.<sup id="cite_ref-LeGrone_72-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeGrone-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By May 2021, the U.S. destroyed all of its Category 2 and Category 3 chemical weapons and 96.52% of its Category 1 chemical weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-ProgressUpdate_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ProgressUpdate-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. is scheduled to complete the elimination of all its chemical weapons by the September 2023 deadline.<sup id="cite_ref-LeGrone_72-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeGrone-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2023 OPCW confirmed the last chemical munition of the U.S., and that the last chemical weapon from the stockpiles declared by all States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention was verified as destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The U.S. has maintained a "<a href="/wiki/Strategic_ambiguity" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic ambiguity">calculated ambiguity</a>" policy that warns potential adversaries that a chemical or biological attack against the U.S. or its allies will prompt a "overwhelming and devastating" response. The policy deliberately leaves open the question of whether the U.S. would respond to a chemical attempt with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Massive_retaliation" title="Massive retaliation">retaliation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commentators have noted that this policy gives policymakers more flexibility, at the possible cost of decreased strategic unpreparedness.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anti-agriculture">Anti-agriculture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Anti-agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herbicidal_warfare">Herbicidal warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Herbicidal warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_vietnamese_Professor_is_pictured_with_a_group_of_handicapped_children.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/A_vietnamese_Professor_is_pictured_with_a_group_of_handicapped_children.jpg/220px-A_vietnamese_Professor_is_pictured_with_a_group_of_handicapped_children.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/A_vietnamese_Professor_is_pictured_with_a_group_of_handicapped_children.jpg/330px-A_vietnamese_Professor_is_pictured_with_a_group_of_handicapped_children.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/A_vietnamese_Professor_is_pictured_with_a_group_of_handicapped_children.jpg/440px-A_vietnamese_Professor_is_pictured_with_a_group_of_handicapped_children.jpg 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="391" /></a><figcaption>Disabled children in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, most of them impacted by <a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>, 2004</figcaption></figure> <p>Although herbicidal warfare use <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substances</a>, its main purpose is to disrupt agricultural food production and/or to destroy plants which provide cover or concealment to the enemy. </p><p>The use of <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">U.S. military</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> has left tangible, long-term <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_Agent_Orange_on_the_Vietnamese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of Agent Orange on the Vietnamese people">impacts upon the Vietnamese people</a> and U.S. veterans of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government of Vietnam says that around 24% of the forests of Southern Vietnam were defoliated and up to four million people in Vietnam were exposed to Agent Orange. They state that as many as three million people have developed illness because of Agent Orange while the Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems associated with Agent Orange. The United States government has described these figures as unreliable.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Washington_Post_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Washington_Post-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jessica_King_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jessica_King-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war, the U.S. fought the North Vietnamese and their allies in <a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodia</a>, dropping large quantities of Agent Orange in each of those countries. According on one estimate, the U.S. dropped 475,500 US gallons (1,800,000 L) of Agent Orange in Laos and 40,900 US gallons (155,000 L) in Cambodia.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-theatlantic.com_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theatlantic.com-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Laos and Cambodia were officially neutral during the Vietnam War, the U.S. attempted to keep secret its military involvement in these countries. The U.S. has stated that Agent Orange was not widely used and therefore hasn't offered assistance to affected Cambodians or Laotians, and limits benefits American veterans and CIA personnel who were stationed there.<sup id="cite_ref-theatlantic.com_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theatlantic.com-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-livestock">Anti-livestock</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Anti-livestock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Mau Mau Uprising">Mau Mau Uprising</a> in 1952, the poisonous <a href="/wiki/Latex" title="Latex">latex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Euphorbia_grantii" title="Euphorbia grantii">African milk bush</a> was used to kill cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-Biological_warfare_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biological_warfare-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1990_Chemical_Weapons_Accord" title="1990 Chemical Weapons Accord">1990 Chemical Weapons Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid">Ali Hassan al-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Area denial weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon_designation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapon designation">Chemical weapon designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_and_the_United_Kingdom" title="Chemical weapons and the United Kingdom">Chemical weapons and the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_CBRN_warfare_forces" title="List of CBRN warfare forces">List of CBRN warfare forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_warfare_agents" title="List of chemical warfare agents">List of chemical warfare agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases" title="List of highly toxic gases">List of highly toxic gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_psychoactive_drugs_used_by_militaries" title="List of psychoactive drugs used by militaries">List of psychoactive drugs used by militaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Maddison" title="Ronald Maddison">Ronald Maddison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychochemical_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychochemical weapon">Psychochemical weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Julien_Memorial" title="Saint Julien Memorial">Saint Julien Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardasht,_West_Azerbaijan#1987_attacks_on_Sardasht_with_chemical_weapons" title="Sardasht, West Azerbaijan">Sardasht, West Azerbaijan</a>, a town attacked with chemical weapons during the Iran–Iraq War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stink_bomb" title="Stink bomb">Stink bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Medical_Research_Institute_of_Chemical_Defense" title="United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense">United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFétrangères" class="citation web cs1">étrangères, Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/french-foreign-policy/security-disarmament-and-non-proliferation/disarmament-and-non-proliferation/fighting-chemical-weapons/article/chemical-disarmament">"Fighting Chemical Weapons"</a>. <i>France Diplomacy - Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=France+Diplomacy+-+Ministry+for+Europe+and+Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Fighting+Chemical+Weapons&rft.aulast=%C3%A9trang%C3%A8res&rft.aufirst=Minist%C3%A8re+de+l%27Europe+et+des+Affaires&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diplomatie.gouv.fr%2Fen%2Ffrench-foreign-policy%2Fsecurity-disarmament-and-non-proliferation%2Fdisarmament-and-non-proliferation%2Ffighting-chemical-weapons%2Farticle%2Fchemical-disarmament&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFP._Lee" class="citation journal cs1">P. Lee, Steven. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 5,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Agent+Orange%27s+Legacy&rft.date=2004-03-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambodiadaily.com%2Farchives%2Fagent-oranges-legacy-884%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/asia/us-moves-to-address-agent-orange-contamination-in-vietnam.html">"4 Decades on, U.S. Starts Cleanup of Agent Orange in Vietnam"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. New York. August 9, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 5,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=4+Decades+on%2C+U.S.+Starts+Cleanup+of+Agent+Orange+in+Vietnam&rft.date=2012-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F08%2F10%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Fus-moves-to-address-agent-orange-contamination-in-vietnam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biological_warfare-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Biological_warfare_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVerdcourtTrump1969" class="citation book cs1">Verdcourt, B.; Trump, E.C. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SWY_AAAAYAAJ"><i>Common Poisonous Plants of East Africa</i></a>. Collins. p. 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-211120-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-00-211120-1"><bdi>978-0-00-211120-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Common+Poisonous+Plants+of+East+Africa&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-00-211120-1&rft.aulast=Verdcourt&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Trump%2C+E.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSWY_AAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>CBWInfo.com (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041205051646/http://www.cbwinfo.com/History/History.html">A Brief History of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Ancient Times to the 19th Century</a>. Retrieved November 24, 2004.</li> <li>Chomsky, Noam (March 4, 2001). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050103232821/http://www.countercurrents.org/chomsky1.htm">Prospects for Peace in the Middle East</a></i>, page 2. Lecture.</li> <li>Cordette, Jessica, MPH(c) (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050416035052/http://www.want2race.net/hper/Chemical_Weapons_of_Mass_Destruction.ppt">Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction</a>. Retrieved November 29, 2004.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCroddy,_Eric2001" class="citation cs2">Croddy, Eric (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chemicalbiologic00crod"><i>Chemical and Biological Warfare</i></a>, Copernicus, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95076-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95076-1"><bdi>978-0-387-95076-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+and+Biological+Warfare&rft.pub=Copernicus&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95076-1&rft.au=Croddy%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchemicalbiologic00crod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Smart, Jeffery K., M.A. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041015013158/http://usuhs.mil/cbw/history.htm">History of Biological and Chemical Warfare</a>. Retrieved November 24, 2004.</li> <li>United States Senate, <a href="/wiki/103rd_United_States_Congress" title="103rd United States Congress">103d Congress</a>, 2d Session. (May 25, 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120706121855/http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/report/riegle1.html">The Riegle Report</a>. Retrieved November 6, 2004.</li> <li>Gerard J Fitzgerald. American Journal of Public Health. Washington: Apr 2008. Vol. 98, Iss. 4; p. 611</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFГречко,_А.А.1976" class="citation book cs1">Гречко, А.А. (1976). <i>Годы Войны</i>. Военное Издательство Министерства Оборонны СССР.Москва.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B+%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B&rft.pub=%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0+%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0.%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.date=1976&rft.au=%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE%2C+%D0%90.%D0%90.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Leo P. Brophy and George J. B. Fisher; <i>The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for War</i> <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Chief_of_Military_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of the Chief of Military History">Office of the Chief of Military History</a>, 1959; L. P. Brophy, W. D. Miles and C. C. Cochrane, <i>The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field</i> (1959); and B. E. Kleber and D. Birdsell, <i>The Chemical Warfare Service in Combat</i> (1966). official US history;</li> <li>Glenn Cross, <i>Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975–1980</i>, Helion & Company, 2017</li> <li>Gordon M. Burck and Charles C. Flowerree; <i>International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation</i> 1991</li> <li>L. F. Haber. <i>The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War</i> Oxford University Press: 1986</li> <li>James W. Hammond Jr; <i>Poison Gas: The Myths Versus Reality</i> Greenwood Press, 1999</li> <li>Jiri Janata, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-anchem-060908-155242">Role of Analytical Chemistry in Defense Strategies Against Chemical and Biological Attack</a>, <i>Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry,</i> 2009</li> <li>Ishmael Jones, <i>The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture</i>, Encounter Books, New York 2008, revised 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-382-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-382-7">978-1-59403-382-7</a>. WMD espionage.</li> <li>Benoit Morel and Kyle Olson; <i>Shadows and Substance: The Chemical Weapons Convention</i> Westview Press, 1993</li> <li>Adrienne Mayor, "Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World" Overlook-Duckworth, 2003, rev ed with new Introduction 2008</li> <li>Geoff Plunkett, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bookdepository.co.uk/Chemical-Warfare-Australia-Geoff-Plunkett/9780987427908">Chemical Warfare in Australia: Australia's Involvement In Chemical Warfare 1914 – Today, (2nd Edition), 2013.</a></i>. Leech Cup Books. A volume in the Army Military History Series published in association with the Army History Unit.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_B._Tucker" title="Jonathan B. Tucker">Jonathan B. Tucker</a>. <i>Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Qaeda</i> (2006)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_warfare&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chemical_warfare" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opcw.org/">Official website</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a> (OPCW)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule74">Rule 74. 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class="hlist"><ul><li>Agents used in <a class="mw-selflink selflink">chemical warfare</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitating_agent" title="Incapacitating agent">incapacitation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Riot_control" title="Riot control">riot control</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blood_agent" title="Blood agent">Blood agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanogen" title="Cyanogen">Cyanogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanogen_bromide" title="Cyanogen bromide">Cyanogen bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanogen_chloride" title="Cyanogen chloride">Cyanogen chloride</a> (CK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">Hydrogen cyanide</a> (AC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsine" title="Arsine">Arsine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacodyl_cyanide" title="Cacodyl cyanide">Cacodyl cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacodyl_oxide" title="Cacodyl oxide">Cacodyl oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">Phosphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">Carbon monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_trifluoride" title="Phosphorus trifluoride">Phosphorus trifluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_cyanoformate" title="Methyl cyanoformate">Methyl cyanoformate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_pentacarbonyl" title="Iron pentacarbonyl">Iron pentacarbonyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_tetracarbonyl" title="Nickel tetracarbonyl">Nickel tetracarbonyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin" title="2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin">2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycolonitrile" title="Glycolonitrile">Glycolonitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactonitrile" title="Lactonitrile">Lactonitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetone_cyanohydrin" title="Acetone cyanohydrin">Acetone cyanohydrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stibine" title="Stibine">Stibine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloral_cyanohydrin" title="Chloral cyanohydrin">Chloral cyanohydrin</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blister_agent" title="Blister agent">Blister agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arsenical" title="Arsenical">Arsenicals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyldichloroarsine" title="Ethyldichloroarsine">Ethyldichloroarsine</a> (ED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyldichloroarsine" title="Methyldichloroarsine">Methyldichloroarsine</a> (MD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenyldichloroarsine" title="Phenyldichloroarsine">Phenyldichloroarsine</a> (PD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite</a> (L)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewisite_2" title="Lewisite 2">Lewisite 2</a> (L2)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewisite_3" title="Lewisite 3">Lewisite 3</a> (L3)</li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_mustard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfur mustard">Sulfur mustards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">Levinstein mustard</a> (EA-229)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-Mustard" class="mw-redirect" title="O-Mustard">T</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquimustard" title="Sesquimustard">Q</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Chloroethyl_ethyl_sulfide" title="2-Chloroethyl ethyl sulfide">CEES</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_mustard" title="Nitrogen mustard">Nitrogen mustards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HN1_(nitrogen_mustard)" title="HN1 (nitrogen mustard)">HN1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlormethine" title="Chlormethine">HN2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HN3_(nitrogen_mustard)" title="HN3 (nitrogen mustard)">HN3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TL-301" title="TL-301">TL-301</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nettle_agent" title="Nettle agent">Nettle agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene_oxime" title="Phosgene oxime">Phosgene oxime</a> (CX)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/KB-16" title="KB-16">KB-16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibutylchloromethyltin_chloride" title="Dibutylchloromethyltin chloride">Dibutylchloromethyltin chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium_oxychloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Selenium oxychloride">Selenium oxychloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacyl_bromide" title="Phenacyl bromide">Phenacyl bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_acetylenedicarboxylate" title="Dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate">Dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_fumarate" title="Dimethyl fumarate">Dimethyl fumarate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcone" title="Chalcone">Chalcone hydrazone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylnitronitrosoguanidine" title="Methylnitronitrosoguanidine">Methylnitronitrosoguanidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norcantharidin" title="Norcantharidin">Norcantharidin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantharidin" title="Cantharidin">Cantharidin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-2_mycotoxin" title="T-2 mycotoxin">T-2 mycotoxin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent" title="Nerve agent">Nerve agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent#G-Series" title="Nerve agent">G-agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tabun_(nerve_agent)" title="Tabun (nerve agent)">Tabun</a> (GA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">Sarin (GB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorosarin" title="Chlorosarin">Chlorosarin</a> (ClGB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiosarin" title="Thiosarin">Thiosarin</a> (SGB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soman" title="Soman">Soman</a> (GD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorosoman" title="Chlorosoman">Chlorosoman</a> (ClGD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylsarin" title="Ethylsarin">Ethylsarin</a> (GE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GH_(nerve_agent)" title="GH (nerve agent)">GH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosarin" title="Cyclosarin">Cyclosarin</a> (GF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GP_(nerve_agent)" title="GP (nerve agent)">GP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorotabun" title="Fluorotabun">Fluorotabun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-1356" title="EA-1356">EA-1356</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-4352" title="EA-4352">EA-4352</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotylsarin" title="Crotylsarin">Crotylsarin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent#V-Series" title="Nerve agent">V-agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EA-2192" title="EA-2192">EA-2192</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3148" title="EA-3148">EA-3148</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VE_(nerve_agent)" title="VE (nerve agent)">VE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VG_(nerve_agent)" title="VG (nerve agent)">VG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VM_(nerve_agent)" title="VM (nerve agent)">VM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexyl_3-pyridyl_methylphosphonate" title="3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexyl 3-pyridyl methylphosphonate">VP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)" title="VR (nerve agent)">VR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VS_(nerve_agent)" title="VS (nerve agent)">VS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-1763" title="EA-1763">EA-1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_VX" title="Chinese VX">Chinese VX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-sub_x" title="V-sub x">V-sub x (GD-7)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GV agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GV_(nerve_agent)" title="GV (nerve agent)">GV (EA-5365)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Novichok_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Novichok agent">Novichok agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)" title="VR (nerve agent)">A-208</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-232" title="A-232">A-232</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-234_(nerve_agent)" title="A-234 (nerve agent)">A-234</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-242" title="A-242">A-242</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-262" title="A-262">A-262</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A035" title="C01-A035">C01-A035</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A039" title="C01-A039">C01-A039</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C01-A042" title="C01-A042">C01-A042</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">Carbamates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylcarbamoyl_fluoride" title="Dimethylcarbamoyl fluoride">Dimethylcarbamoyl fluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3887" title="EA-3887">EA-3887</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3887A" class="mw-redirect" title="EA-3887A">EA-3887A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3966" title="EA-3966">EA-3966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3990" title="EA-3990">EA-3990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-4056" title="EA-4056">EA-4056</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-1123" title="T-1123">T-1123</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-1152" title="T-1152">T-1152</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-1194" title="T-1194">T-1194</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium_bromide)" title="Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium bromide)">Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium bromide)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TL-599" title="TL-599">TL-599</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TL-1238" title="TL-1238">TL-1238</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TL-1299" class="mw-redirect" title="TL-1299">TL-1299</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TL-1317" class="mw-redirect" title="TL-1317">TL-1317</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miotine" title="Miotine">Miotine (AR-28/T-1843)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3152_CT" title="3152 CT">3152 CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-686-293-01" title="4-686-293-01">4-686-293-01 (Agent 1-10)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diisopropyl_fluorophosphate" title="Diisopropyl fluorophosphate">Diisopropyl fluorophosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyclohexyl_phosphorofluoridate" title="Dicyclohexyl phosphorofluoridate">Dicyclohexyl phosphorofluoridate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-2012" title="EA-2012">EA-2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-2054" title="EA-2054">EA-2054</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-2098" title="EA-2098">EA-2098</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-2613" title="EA-2613">EA-2613</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Ethoxycarbonyl-1-methylvinyl_cyclohexyl_methylphosphonate" title="2-Ethoxycarbonyl-1-methylvinyl cyclohexyl methylphosphonate">2-Ethoxycarbonyl-1-methylvinyl cyclohexyl methylphosphonate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopentylene_fluorophosphate" title="Neopentylene fluorophosphate">Neopentylene fluorophosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenophos" title="Selenophos">Selenophos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phospholine" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholine">Phospholine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-16661" title="R-16661">R-16661</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro_3-0422" title="Ro 3-0422">Ro 3-0422</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanesulfonyl_fluoride" title="Methanesulfonyl fluoride">Methanesulfonyl fluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimefox" title="Dimefox">Dimefox (TL-792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSPI_(nerve_agent)" title="MSPI (nerve agent)">MSPI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetonitrile" title="Acetonitrile">Acetonitrile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_trichloride" title="Arsenic trichloride">AT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_trioxide" title="Arsenic trioxide">ATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_phosphide" title="Aluminium phosphide">AlP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinnear%E2%80%93Perren_reaction" title="Kinnear–Perren reaction">A.P.C. complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorosarin" title="Chlorosarin">Chlorosarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorosoman" title="Chlorosoman">Chlorosoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclohexanol" title="Cyclohexanol">Cyclohexanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1,8-Dibromooctane" title="1,8-Dibromooctane">1,8-Dibromooctane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N,N-Diisopropylaminoethanol" title="N,N-Diisopropylaminoethanol">N,N-Diisopropylaminoethanol</a> (KB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisopropyl_methylphosphonate" title="Diisopropyl methylphosphonate">EA-1250</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diisopropylphosphite" title="Diisopropylphosphite">DIHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ZS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylphosphite" title="Diethylphosphite">DEHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_methylphosphonate" title="Dimethyl methylphosphonate">EA-1224</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylamidophosphoric_dichloride" title="Dimethylamidophosphoric dichloride">Dimethylamidophosphoric dichloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylamidophosphoric_dicyanide" title="Dimethylamidophosphoric dicyanide">Dimethylamidophosphoric dicyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylphosphite" title="Dimethylphosphite">DMHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylphosphonoselenoic_dichloride" title="Ethylphosphonoselenoic dichloride">Ethylphosphonoselenoic dichloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formaldoxime" title="Formaldoxime">Formaldoxime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulminic_acid" title="Fulminic acid">Nital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-Hydroxycoumarin" title="4-Hydroxycoumarin">4-Hydroxycoumarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isopropyl_alcohol" title="Isopropyl alcohol">Isopropyl alcohol</a> (TB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyldichlorophosphine" title="Methyldichlorophosphine">Methyldichlorophosphine</a> (SW)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphosphonyl_difluoride" title="Methylphosphonyl difluoride">Methylphosphonyl difluoride (difluoro)</a> (DF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphosphonyl_dichloride" title="Methylphosphonyl dichloride">Methylphosphonyl dichloride (dichloro)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitromethane" title="Nitromethane">Nitromethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPA_mixture" title="OPA mixture">OPA mixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphoryl_chloride" title="Phosphoryl chloride">Phosphoryl chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_pentachloride" title="Phosphorus pentachloride">Phosphorus pentachloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_trichloride" title="Phosphorus trichloride">Phosphorus trichloride</a> (TH)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinacolone" title="Pinacolone">Pinacolone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinacolyl_alcohol" title="Pinacolyl alcohol">Pinacolyl alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacyl_chloride" title="Phenacyl chloride">Phenacyl chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QL_(chemical)" title="QL (chemical)">QL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2,4,5-Trichlorophenol" title="2,4,5-Trichlorophenol">2,4,5-Trichlorophenol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexanol" title="3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexanol">3,3,5-Trimethylcyclohexanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triethyl_phosphite" title="Triethyl phosphite">Triethyl phosphite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethyl_phosphite" title="Trimethyl phosphite">Trimethyl phosphite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thionyl_chloride" title="Thionyl chloride">TC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiodiglycol" title="Thiodiglycol">TG</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatoxin-a" title="Anatoxin-a">Anatoxin-a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a> (TZ)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coniine" title="Coniine">Coniine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungarotoxin" title="Bungarotoxin">Bungarotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botulinum toxin</a> (BTX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetanospasmin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanospasmin">Tetanospasmin</a> (TeNT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryanodine" title="Ryanodine">Ryanodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatoxin" title="Ciguatoxin">Ciguatoxin</a> (CTX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanitoxin" title="Guanitoxin">Guanitoxin</a> (GTX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophenylsilatrane" title="Chlorophenylsilatrane">Chlorophenylsilatrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palytoxin" title="Palytoxin">Palytoxin</a> (PTX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitotoxin" title="Maitotoxin">Maitotoxin</a> (MTX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tetrodotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veratridine" title="Veratridine">Veratridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aconitine" title="Aconitine">Aconitine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brevetoxin" title="Brevetoxin">Brevetoxin</a> (PbTX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">Strychnine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antillatoxin" title="Antillatoxin">Antillatoxin</a> (ATX)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">Tetraethyllead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylmercury" title="Dimethylmercury">Dimethylmercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HN1_(nitrogen_mustard)" title="HN1 (nitrogen mustard)">HN1 hydrochloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HN2" class="mw-redirect" title="HN2">HN2 hydrochloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine" class="mw-redirect" title="Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine">HN3 hydrochloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDPN_(chemical)" title="IDPN (chemical)">A-8564</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picrotoxin" title="Picrotoxin">Picrotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelsemine" title="Gelsemine">Gelsemine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfuryl_fluoride" title="Sulfuryl fluoride">Sulfuryl fluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremorine" title="Tremorine">Tremorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxotremorine" title="Oxotremorine">Oxotremorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine" title="Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine">Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine (TETS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicyclic_phosphate" title="Bicyclic phosphate">Bicyclic phosphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPTBO" title="IPTBO">IPTBO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TBPO" title="TBPO">TBPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TBPS" title="TBPS">TBPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloflubicyne" title="Cloflubicyne">Cloflubicyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethylolpropane_phosphite" title="Trimethylolpropane phosphite">Trimethylolpropane phosphite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_agent" title="Pulmonary agent">Pulmonary/<br />choking agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">Phosgene</a> (CG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfluoroisobutene" title="Perfluoroisobutene">Perfluoroisobutene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloropicrin" title="Chloropicrin">Chloropicrin</a> (PS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethyl(trifluoromethylthio)arsine" title="Dimethyl(trifluoromethylthio)arsine">Dimethyl(trifluoromethylthio)arsine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphosgene" title="Diphosgene">Diphosgene</a> (DP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disulfur_decafluoride" title="Disulfur decafluoride">Disulfur decafluoride</a> (Z)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrolein" title="Acrolein">Acrolein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_bromoacetate" title="Ethyl bromoacetate">Ethyl bromoacetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perchloromethyl_mercaptan" class="mw-redirect" title="Perchloromethyl mercaptan">Perchloromethyl mercaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylcarbylamine_chloride" title="Phenylcarbylamine chloride">Phenylcarbylamine chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetranitromethane" title="Tetranitromethane">Tetranitromethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrachlorodinitroethane" title="Tetrachlorodinitroethane">Tetrachlorodinitroethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine_trifluoride" title="Chlorine trifluoride">Chlorine trifluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perchloryl_fluoride" title="Perchloryl fluoride">Perchloryl fluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_oxide" title="Cadmium oxide">Cadmium oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_chloride" title="Cadmium chloride">Cadmium chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury(II)_chloride" title="Mercury(II) chloride">Mercuric chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium_dioxide" title="Selenium dioxide">Selenium dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenoyl_fluoride" title="Selenoyl fluoride">Selenoyl fluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trifluoronitrosomethane" title="Trifluoronitrosomethane">Trifluoronitrosomethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichloronitrosomethane" title="Trichloronitrosomethane">Trichloronitrosomethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">Nitrogen dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinitrogen_tetroxide" title="Dinitrogen tetroxide">Dinitrogen tetroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_trichloride" title="Phosphorus trichloride">Phosphorus trichloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_isocyanate" title="Methyl isocyanate">Methyl isocyanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethenone" title="Ethenone">Ethenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_vinyl_ketone" title="Methyl vinyl ketone">Methyl vinyl ketone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trifluoroacetyl_chloride" title="Trifluoroacetyl chloride">Trifluoroacetyl chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salcomine" title="Salcomine">Salcomine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluomine" title="Fluomine">Fluomine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_hexafluoride" title="Uranium hexafluoride">Uranium hexafluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diborane" title="Diborane">Diborane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Cross_(chemical_warfare)" title="Green Cross (chemical warfare)">Green Cross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vomiting_agent" title="Vomiting agent">Vomiting agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamsite" title="Adamsite">Adamsite</a> (DM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloropicrin" title="Chloropicrin">Chloropicrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litharge" title="Litharge">Litharge</a>-<a href="/wiki/Glycerine" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycerine">glycerine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenylchlorarsine" title="Diphenylchlorarsine">Diphenylchlorarsine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenylcyanoarsine" title="Diphenylcyanoarsine">Diphenylcyanoarsine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacodyl_cyanide" title="Cacodyl cyanide">Cacodyl cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-Dianisidine" title="O-Dianisidine">o-Dianisidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimony_potassium_tartrate" title="Antimony potassium tartrate">Antimony potassium tartrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobeline" title="Lobeline">Lobeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Incapacitating_agent" title="Incapacitating agent">Incapacitating<br />agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-Quinuclidinyl_benzilate" title="3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate">BZ</a> (CS-4030)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apomorphine" title="Apomorphine">Apomorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butyrophenone" title="Butyrophenone">Butyrophenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etonitazene" title="Etonitazene">EA-4941</a> (CS-4640)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etorphine" title="Etorphine">Etorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benactyzine" title="Benactyzine">EA-2092</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditran" title="Ditran">CS-4297</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etoxadrol" title="Etoxadrol">Etoxadrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylheptylpyran" title="Dimethylheptylpyran">Dimethylheptylpyran</a> (DMHP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canbisol" title="Canbisol">Canbisol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">EA-2148</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3167" title="EA-3167">EA-3167</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3443" title="EA-3443">EA-3443</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methaqualone" title="Methaqualone">Methaqualone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pethidine" title="Pethidine">Pethidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3580" title="EA-3580">EA-3580</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3834" title="EA-3834">EA-3834</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolokol-1" title="Kolokol-1">Kolokol-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD-25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PAVA_spray" title="PAVA spray">PAVA spray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psilocybin" title="Psilocybin">Psilocybin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitating_agent#Sleeping_gas" title="Incapacitating agent">Sleeping gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carfentanil" title="Carfentanil">Carfentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Ethyl-3-piperidyl_benzilate" title="N-Ethyl-3-piperidyl benzilate">JB-318</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methyl-3-piperidyl_benzilate" title="N-Methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate">JB-336</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CS-27349" title="CS-27349">CS-27349</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAR-226,086" title="CAR-226,086">CAR-226,086</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAR-301,060" title="CAR-301,060">CAR-301,060</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAR-302,196" title="CAR-302,196">CAR-302,196</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAR-302,282" title="CAR-302,282">CAR-302,282</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAR-302,668" title="CAR-302,668">CAR-302,668</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benperidol" title="Benperidol">Benperidol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desflurane" title="Desflurane">Desflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentazocine" title="Pentazocine">Pentazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procarbazine" title="Procarbazine">Procarbazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluphenazine" title="Fluphenazine">Fluphenazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">Lachrymatory<br />agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xylyl_bromide" title="Xylyl bromide">Xylyl bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_spray" title="Pepper spray">Pepper spray</a> (OC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mace_(spray)" title="Mace (spray)">Mace (spray)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phorbol_esters" title="Phorbol esters">Phorbol esters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingenol_mebutate" title="Ingenol mebutate">Ingenol mebutate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resiniferatoxin" title="Resiniferatoxin">RTX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacyl_chloride" title="Phenacyl chloride">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CS_gas" title="CS gas">CS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CR_gas" title="CR gas">CR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNS_(chemical_weapon)" title="CNS (chemical weapon)">CNS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl_chloride" title="Benzyl chloride">Benzyl chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl_bromide" title="Benzyl bromide">Benzyl bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzyl_iodide" title="Benzyl iodide">Benzyl iodide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromobenzyl_cyanide" title="Bromobenzyl cyanide">Bromobenzyl cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiophosgene" title="Thiophosgene">Thiophosgene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroacetone" title="Chloroacetone">Chloroacetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromoacetone" title="Bromoacetone">Bromoacetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromomethyl_ethyl_ketone" title="Bromomethyl ethyl ketone">Bromomethyl ethyl ketone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrolein" title="Acrolein">Acrolein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacyl_bromide" title="Phenacyl bromide">Phenacyl bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroacetophenone_oxime" title="Chloroacetophenone oxime">Chloroacetophenone oxime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_bromoacetate" title="Ethyl bromoacetate">Ethyl bromoacetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_iodoacetate" title="Ethyl iodoacetate">Ethyl iodoacetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodoacetone" title="Iodoacetone">Iodoacetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allyl_isothiocyanate" title="Allyl isothiocyanate">Allyl isothiocyanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexamethylene_diisocyanate" title="Hexamethylene diisocyanate">Hexamethylene diisocyanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotonaldehyde" title="Crotonaldehyde">Crotonaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croton_oil" title="Croton oil">Croton oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DRC-5593" title="DRC-5593">DRC-5593</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Malodorant" title="Malodorant">Malodorant</a> agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thioacetone" title="Thioacetone">Thioacetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allicin" title="Allicin">Allicin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skatole" title="Skatole">Skatole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadaverine" title="Cadaverine">Cadaverine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putrescine" title="Putrescine">Putrescine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cornea-clouding agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">Lewisite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosgene_oxime" title="Phosgene oxime">CX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KB-16" title="KB-16">KB-16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_cyanoacrylate" title="Methyl cyanoacrylate">Methyl cyanoacrylate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methylmorpholine" title="N-Methylmorpholine">N-Methylmorpholine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allyl_alcohol" title="Allyl alcohol">Allyl alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmium_tetroxide" title="Osmium tetroxide">Osmium tetroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrolein" title="Acrolein">Acrolein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacodyl_cyanide" title="Cacodyl cyanide">Cacodyl cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diglycolic_acid" title="Diglycolic acid">Diglycolic acid esters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrin" title="Abrin">Abrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aconitine" title="Aconitine">Aconitine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopiazonic_acid" title="Cyclopiazonic acid">Cyclopiazonic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histrionicotoxins" title="Histrionicotoxins">Histrionicotoxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aflatoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Aflatoxins">Aflatoxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoxin-a" title="Anatoxin-a">Anatoxin-a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botulinum toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brevetoxin" title="Brevetoxin">Brevetoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatoxin" title="Ciguatoxin">Ciguatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterotoxin_type_B" title="Enterotoxin type B">Enterotoxin type B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grayanotoxin" title="Grayanotoxin">Grayanotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanitoxin" title="Guanitoxin">Guanitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitotoxin" title="Maitotoxin">Maitotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeccin" title="Modeccin">Modeccin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palytoxin" title="Palytoxin">Palytoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">Ricin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiga_toxin" title="Shiga toxin">Shiga toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-2_mycotoxin" title="T-2 mycotoxin">T-2 mycotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetanospasmin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanospasmin">Tetanospasmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tetrodotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkensin" title="Volkensin">Volkensin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veratridine" title="Veratridine">Veratridine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tumor promoting agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phorbol_esters" title="Phorbol esters">Phorbol esters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate" title="12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate">12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croton_oil" title="Croton oil">Croton oil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methyl_fluoroacetate" title="Methyl fluoroacetate">Methyl fluoroacetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">Napalm</a> (variants and mixtures)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoroethyl_fluoroacetate" title="Fluoroethyl fluoroacetate">Fluoroethyl fluoroacetate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a> <ul><li>post-combustion <a href="/wiki/Uranium_oxide" title="Uranium oxide">uranium oxides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_compounds" title="Plutonium compounds">its compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_phosphorus_munitions" class="mw-redirect" title="White phosphorus munitions">White phosphorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_warfare_agents" title="List of chemical warfare agents">List of chemical warfare agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CB_military_symbol" title="CB military symbol">CB military symbol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Global_catastrophic_risks820" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Template talk:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Global_catastrophic_risks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Global catastrophic risks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Global_catastrophic_risks820" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risks</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_an_expanding_universe" title="Future of an expanding universe">Future of an expanding universe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe" title="Ultimate fate of the universe">Ultimate fate of the universe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction#Risk_estimates" title="Human extinction">Human extinction risk estimates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattack" title="Cyberattack">Cyberattack</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberterrorism" title="Cyberterrorism">Cyberterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybergeddon" title="Cybergeddon">Cybergeddon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_goo" title="Gray goo">Gray goo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology#Weapons" title="Industrial applications of nanotechnology">Nanoweapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy_weapon" title="Kinetic energy weapon">Kinetic energy weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Hand" title="Dead Hand">Dead Hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_Clock" title="Doomsday Clock">Doomsday Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_device" title="Doomsday device">Doomsday device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_weapon" title="Antimatter weapon">Antimatter weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_of_high-energy_particle_collision_experiments" title="Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments">Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_intelligence" title="Synthetic intelligence">Synthetic intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_takeover" title="AI takeover">AI takeover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">Existential risk from artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic hazard">Anthropogenic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsology" title="Collapsology">Collapsology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomsday_argument" title="Doomsday argument">Doomsday argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-indication_assumption_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-indication assumption doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-referencing_doomsday_argument_rebuttal" title="Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal">Self-referencing doomsday argument rebuttal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_collapse" title="Economic collapse">Economic collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order (conspiracy theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_bomb" title="Cobalt bomb">cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_collapse" title="Societal collapse">Societal collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_collapse" title="State collapse">State collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_apocalypse" title="Climate apocalypse">Ecological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate change</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_pole_shift_hypothesis" title="Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis">Cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Plant or animal species extinctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_terrestrial_stilling" title="Global terrestrial stilling">Global terrestrial stilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Global warming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercane" title="Hypercane">Hypercane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">Ice age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verneshot" title="Verneshot">Verneshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinction_events" title="List of extinction events">List of extinction events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_risk" title="Biotechnology risk">Biotechnology risk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Bioterrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_collapse_disorder" title="Colony collapse disorder">Colony collapse disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">Interplanetary contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator_decline" title="Pollinator decline">Pollinator decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Crunch" title="Big Crunch">Big Crunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Rip" title="Big Rip">Big Rip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_phase_transition" title="Cosmological phase transition">Cosmological phase transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm" title="Geomagnetic storm">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="False vacuum decay">False vacuum decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe" title="Heat death of the universe">Heat death of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_decay" title="Proton decay">Proton decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Asteroid impact avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Asteroid impact prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_object" title="Near-Earth object">Near-Earth object</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_winter" title="Impact winter">winter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_star" title="Intergalactic star">Rogue star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision" title="Stellar collision">Stellar collision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Three Ages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_eschatology" title="Hindu eschatology">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalki" title="Kalki">Kalki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_Yuga" title="Kali Yuga">Kali Yuga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">1 Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abomination_of_desolation" title="Abomination of desolation">Abomination of desolation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy_of_Seventy_Weeks" title="Prophecy of Seventy Weeks">Prophecy of Seventy Weeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futurism_(Christianity)" title="Futurism (Christianity)">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)" title="Historicism (Christianity)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicist_interpretations_of_the_Book_of_Revelation" title="Historicist interpretations of the Book of Revelation">Interpretations of Revelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)"> Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterism" title="Preterism">Preterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man_of_sin" title="Man of sin">Man of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antichrist" title="Antichrist">Antichrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Events_of_Revelation" title="Events of Revelation">Events</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Horsemen_of_the_Apocalypse" title="Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse">Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_of_fire" title="Lake of fire">Lake of fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_of_the_beast" title="Number of the beast">Number of the Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_bowls" title="Seven bowls">Seven bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_seals" title="Seven seals">Seven seals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(Revelation)" title="The Beast (Revelation)">The Beast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_witnesses" title="Two witnesses">Two witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Heaven" title="War in Heaven">War in Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whore_of_Babylon" title="Whore of Babylon">Whore of Babylon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apostasy" title="Great Apostasy">Great Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_(Christianity)" title="New Earth (Christianity)">New Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem" title="New Jerusalem">New Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivet_Discourse" title="Olivet Discourse">Olivet Discourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">Great Tribulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_perdition" title="Son of perdition">Son of perdition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sheep_and_the_Goats" title="The Sheep and the Goats">Sheep and Goats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27im_Al_Muhammad" title="Qa'im Al Muhammad">Al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beast_of_the_Earth" title="Beast of the Earth">Beast of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Qarnayn" title="Dhu al-Qarnayn">Dhu al-Qarnayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhul-Suwayqatayn" title="Dhul-Suwayqatayn">Dhul-Suwayqatayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masih_ad-Dajjal" title="Al-Masih ad-Dajjal">Dajjal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israfil" title="Israfil">Israfil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufyani" title="Sufyani">Sufyani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">War of Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">Third Temple</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar%C3%B6k" title="Ragnarök">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frashokereti" title="Frashokereti">Zoroastrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saoshyant" title="Saoshyant">Saoshyant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_end_times_prediction" title="2011 end times prediction">2011 end times prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse" title="Apocalypse">Apocalypse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">Armageddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_moon_prophecy" title="Blood moon prophecy">Blood moon prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Changes" title="Earth Changes">Earth Changes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">End time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dates_predicted_for_apocalyptic_events" title="List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events">List of dates predicted for apocalyptic events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messianism" title="Messianism">Messianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">Millenarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennialism" title="Millennialism">Millennialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amillennialism" title="Amillennialism">Amillennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">Postmillennialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemesis_(hypothetical_star)" title="Nemesis (hypothetical star)">Nemesis (hypothetical star)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapture" title="Rapture">Rapture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rapture#Prewrath_premillennialism" title="Rapture">Prewrath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posttribulation_rapture" title="Posttribulation rapture">Posttribulation rapture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">Resurrection of the dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">World to come</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_invasion" title="Alien invasion">Alien invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction" title="List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction">List of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">List of apocalyptic films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">Climate fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster films</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_disaster_films" title="List of disaster films">List of disaster films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">Zombie apocalypse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zombie" title="Zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk" title="Centre for the Study of Existential Risk">Centre for the Study of Existential Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Humanity_Institute" title="Future of Humanity Institute">Future of Humanity Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Life_Institute" title="Future of Life Institute">Future of Life Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Threat_Initiative" title="Nuclear Threat Initiative">Nuclear Threat Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_crisis" title="Social crisis">Social crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivalism" title="Survivalism">Survivalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/15px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/23px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/30px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> Categories <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Apocalypticism" title="Category:Apocalypticism">Apocalypticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Future_problems" title="Category:Future problems">Future problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hazards" title="Category:Hazards">Hazards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Risk_analysis" title="Category:Risk analysis">Risk analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Doomsday_scenarios" title="Category:Doomsday scenarios">Doomsday scenarios</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pollution1274" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution" title="Template:Pollution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution" title="Template talk:Pollution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pollution1274" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_measurement" title="Air pollution measurement">Air pollution measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">Metal working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">Oil refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood dust">Wood dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Digital</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological light pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a> <ul><li>Land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Industrial</li> <li>Military</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Misc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution-related_lists" title="Category:Pollution-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM<sub>2.5</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_air_pollution" title="List of countries by air pollution">Most polluted countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" 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