CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="zh" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>原子 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )zhwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"zh", "wgMonthNames":["","1月","2月","3月","4月","5月","6月","7月","8月","9月","10月","11月","12月"],"wgRequestId":"080218e9-8b2d-459d-8698-b5eaa4531061","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"原子","wgTitle":"原子","wgCurRevisionId":84495560,"wgRevisionId":84495560,"wgArticleId":3817,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1英语来源 (en)","含有过时参数的引用的页面","CS1德语来源 (de)","引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签","含有英語的條目","含有古希臘語的條目","自2015年2月需补充来源的条目","拒绝当选首页新条目推荐栏目的条目","使用小型訊息框的頁面","有未列明来源语句的条目","引文格式1维护：冗余文本","自2015年7月带有失效链接的条目","包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目","包含BNFdata标识符的维基百科条目", "包含GND标识符的维基百科条目","包含J9U标识符的维基百科条目","包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目","包含NDL标识符的维基百科条目","包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目","包含AAT标识符的维基百科条目","包含EMU标识符的维基百科条目","包含TDVİA标识符的维基百科条目","使用ISBN魔术链接的页面","复合粒子","原子物理学","化學術語","日語借詞"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"zh","wgPageContentLanguage":"zh","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"原子","wgRelevantArticleId":3817,"wgUserVariant":"zh","wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":true,"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"zh","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":["zh-hans","zh-hant","zh-cn","zh-tw","zh-hk" ,"zh-sg","zh-mo","zh-my"]},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":true,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q9121","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.gadget.large-font":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready", "ext.math.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.edit0","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.gadget.UnihanTooltips","ext.gadget.Difflink","ext.gadget.pseudonamespace-UI","ext.gadget.SpecialWikitext","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.VariantAlly","ext.gadget.AdvancedSiteNotices","ext.gadget.hideConversionTab","ext.gadget.internalLinkHelper-altcolor","ext.gadget.noteTA","ext.gadget.NavFrame","ext.gadget.collapsibleTables","ext.gadget.scrollUpButton", "ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=zh&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.math.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=zh&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=zh&modules=ext.gadget.large-font&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=zh&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/1200px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1204"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/800px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="802"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/640px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="642"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="原子 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//zh.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="编辑本页" href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (zh)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//zh.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hans" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-hans/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hans-CN" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-cn/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hans-MY" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-my/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hans-SG" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-sg/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hant" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-hant/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hant-HK" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-hk/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hant-MO" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-mo/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="zh-Hant-TW" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.zh"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia的Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E6%9C%80%E8%BF%91%E6%9B%B4%E6%94%B9&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-原子 rootpage-原子 skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">跳转到内容</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="站点"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="主菜单" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 主菜单 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">主菜单</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 导航 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E9%A6%96%E9%A1%B5" title="访问首页[z]" accesskey="z">首页</a></li><li id="n-indexpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95" title="以分类索引搜寻中文维基百科">分类索引</a></li><li id="n-Featured_content" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%89%B9%E8%89%B2%E5%85%A7%E5%AE%B9" title="查看中文维基百科的特色内容">特色内容</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E5%8B%95%E6%85%8B" title="提供当前新闻事件的背景资料">新闻动态</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9C%80%E8%BF%91%E6%9B%B4%E6%94%B9" title="列出维基百科中的最近修改[r]" accesskey="r">最近更改</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%9A%8F%E6%9C%BA%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="随机载入一个页面[x]" accesskey="x">随机条目</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-help" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-help" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 帮助 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:%E7%9B%AE%E5%BD%95" title="寻求帮助">帮助</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%A4%BE%E7%BE%A4%E9%A6%96%E9%A1%B5" title="关于本计划、你可以做什么、应该如何做">维基社群</a></li><li id="n-policy" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E6%96%B9%E9%87%9D%E8%88%87%E6%8C%87%E5%BC%95" title="查看维基百科的方针和指引">方针与指引</a></li><li id="n-villagepump" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E4%BA%92%E5%8A%A9%E5%AE%A2%E6%A0%88" title="参与维基百科社群的讨论">互助客栈</a></li><li id="n-Information_desk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%86%E9%97%AE%E7%AD%94" title="解答任何与维基百科无关的问题的地方">知识问答</a></li><li id="n-conversion" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%AD%97%E8%AF%8D%E8%BD%AC%E6%8D%A2" title="提出字词转换请求">字词转换</a></li><li id="n-IRC" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IRC%E8%81%8A%E5%A4%A9%E9%A2%91%E9%81%93">IRC即时聊天</a></li><li id="n-contact" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E8%81%94%E7%BB%9C%E6%88%91%E4%BB%AC" title="如何联络维基百科">联络我们</a></li><li id="n-about" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E" title="查看维基百科的简介">关于维基百科</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E9%A6%96%E9%A1%B5" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="维基百科" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-zh.svg" style="width: 6.5625em; height: 1.375em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="自由的百科全书" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-zh.svg" width="103" height="14" style="width: 6.4375em; height: 0.875em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%90%9C%E7%B4%A2" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="搜索维基百科[f]" accesskey="f"> 搜索 </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="搜索维基百科" aria-label="搜索维基百科" autocapitalize="sentences" title="搜索维基百科[f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:搜索"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">搜索</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="个人工具"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="外观"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="更改页面字体大小、宽度和颜色的外观" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="外观" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 外观 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=spontaneous&uselang=zh-hans" class="">资助维基百科</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E5%88%9B%E5%BB%BA%E8%B4%A6%E6%88%B7&returnto=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="我们推荐您创建账号并登录，但这不是强制性的" class="">创建账号</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E7%94%A8%E6%88%B7%E7%99%BB%E5%BD%95&returnto=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="建议你登录，尽管并非必须。[o]" accesskey="o" class="">登录</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="更多选项" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="个人工具" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 个人工具 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="用户菜单" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=spontaneous&uselang=zh-hans">资助维基百科</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E5%88%9B%E5%BB%BA%E8%B4%A6%E6%88%B7&returnto=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="我们推荐您创建账号并登录，但这不是强制性的"> 创建账号</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E7%94%A8%E6%88%B7%E7%99%BB%E5%BD%95&returnto=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="建议你登录，尽管并非必须。[o]" accesskey="o"> 登录</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 未登录编辑者的页面 <a href="/wiki/Help:%E6%96%B0%E6%89%8B%E5%85%A5%E9%97%A8" aria-label="了解有关编辑的更多信息">了解详情</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84%E8%B4%A1%E7%8C%AE" title="来自此IP地址的编辑列表[y]" accesskey="y">贡献</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84%E8%AE%A8%E8%AE%BA%E9%A1%B5" title="对于来自此IP地址编辑的讨论[n]" accesskey="n">讨论</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="站点"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="目录" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">目录</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">序言</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-历史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#历史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 历史 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-历史-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关历史子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-历史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-原子論" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#原子論"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 原子論 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-原子論-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-科學理論" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#科學理論"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 科學理論 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-科學理論-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-现代原子理论" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#现代原子理论"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 现代原子理论 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-现代原子理论-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-原子的组成" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#原子的组成"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 原子的组成 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-原子的组成-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关原子的组成子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-原子的组成-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-亚原子粒子" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#亚原子粒子"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 亚原子粒子 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-亚原子粒子-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-原子核" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#原子核"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 原子核 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-原子核-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-电子云" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#电子云"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 电子云 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-电子云-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-性质" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#性质"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 性质 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-性质-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关性质子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-性质-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-核性质" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#核性质"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 核性质 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-核性质-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-质量" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#质量"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 质量 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-质量-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-大小" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#大小"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 大小 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-大小-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-放射性" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#放射性"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 放射性 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-放射性-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-磁矩" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#磁矩"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 磁矩 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-磁矩-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-能-{zh:級;zh-hans:級;zh-hant:級;zh-cn:级;zh-tw:階;zh-hk:級;zh-sg:級;zh-mo:級;}-" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#能-{zh:級;zh-hans:級;zh-hant:級;zh-cn:级;zh-tw:階;zh-hk:級;zh-sg:級;zh-mo:級;}-"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 能級 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-能-{zh:級;zh-hans:級;zh-hant:級;zh-cn:级;zh-tw:階;zh-hk:級;zh-sg:級;zh-mo:級;}--sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-化合价" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#化合价"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 化合价 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-化合价-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-态" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#态"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 态 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-态-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-测定" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#测定"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 测定 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-测定-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-起源和现状" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#起源和现状"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 起源和现状 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-起源和现状-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关起源和现状子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-起源和现状-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-核合成" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#核合成"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 核合成 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-核合成-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-地球" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#地球"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 地球 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-地球-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-罕见和理论形式" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#罕见和理论形式"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 罕见和理论形式 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-罕见和理论形式-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参阅" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参阅"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 参阅 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-参阅-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参考文献" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参考文献"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 参考文献 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关参考文献子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-引用" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#引用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 引用 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-引用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-来源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#来源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 来源 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-来源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部链接" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部链接"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 外部链接 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部链接-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 开关目录 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">原子</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。220种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-220" aria-hidden="true" > 220种语言 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 瑞士德语" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="瑞士德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%B6%E1%88%9D" title="አቶም – 阿姆哈拉语" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አቶም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mot" title="Mot – 古英语" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Mot" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="古英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%E1%BB%8Dm" title="Atọm – 奥博洛语" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Atọm" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="奥博洛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – 昂加语" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="昂加语" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="ذرة – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="درة – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="درة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%87" title="ذره – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ذره" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="পৰমাণু – 阿萨姆语" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পৰমাণু" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿萨姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – 阿瓦德语" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="阿瓦德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85" title="آتوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آتوم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 巴什基尔语" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什基尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 巴厘语" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="巴厘语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atuoms" title="Atuoms – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Atuoms" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Атам – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Атам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Атам – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Атам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B2%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="အဲစ်တမ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အဲစ်တမ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="পরমাণু – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরমাণু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 布列塔尼语" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atong" title="Atong – 布吉语" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="Atong" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="布吉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tom" title="Àtom – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àtom" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngu%C3%B2ng-c%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Nguòng-cṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Nguòng-cṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 车臣语" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="车臣语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 宿务语" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿务语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%BB" title="ᎠᏓᎻ – 切罗基语" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏓᎻ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="切罗基语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%95" title="گەردیلە – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەردیلە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – 科西嘉语" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="科西嘉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A" title="Атомъ – 教会斯拉夫语" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Атомъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="教会斯拉夫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 下索布语" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="下索布语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 中部杜順文" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="中部杜順文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF" title="Άτομο – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άτομο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tum" title="Àtum – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Àtum" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aatom" title="Aatom – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aatom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85" title="اتم – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aadom" title="Aadom – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Aadom" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 法罗语" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – 北弗里西亚语" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="北弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – 西弗里西亚语" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamh" title="Adamh – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Adamh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – 赣语" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="赣语" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomm" title="Atomm – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Atomm" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atam" title="Atam – 苏格兰盖尔语" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Atam" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="苏格兰盖尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumingue%27a" title="Tumingue'a – 瓜拉尼语" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tumingue'a" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 哥伦打洛语" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="哥伦打洛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%A3%E0%AB%81" title="અણુ – 古吉拉特语" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અણુ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="古吉拉特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breneen" title="Breneen – 马恩语" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Breneen" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="马恩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwayar_Zarra" title="Kwayar Zarra – 豪萨语" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kwayar Zarra" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="豪萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngi%C3%A8n-ch%E1%B9%B3%CC%81" title="Ngièn-chṳ́ – 客家语" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngièn-chṳ́" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="客家语" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BB%C4%80toma" title="ʻĀtoma – 夏威夷语" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="ʻĀtoma" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="夏威夷语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9D" title="אטום – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אטום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmaanu" title="Parmaanu – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Parmaanu" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 上索布语" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="上索布语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B2m" title="Atòm – 海地克里奥尔语" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Atòm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地克里奥尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Ատոմ – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%A7" title="Հիւլէ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հիւլէ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 国际文字（E）" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="国际文字（E）" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 伊洛卡诺语" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛卡诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumeind" title="Frumeind – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumeind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atam" title="Atam – 牙買加克里奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Atam" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克里奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ratni" title="ratni – 逻辑语" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ratni" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="逻辑语" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ატომი – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ატომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 卡拉卡尔帕克语" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="卡拉卡尔帕克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelkim" title="Abelkim – 卡拜尔语" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Abelkim" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡拜尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisi%C5%8B_t%CA%8B" title="Sisiŋ tʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Sisiŋ tʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – 吉库尤语" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="吉库尤语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%BC" title="បរមាណូ – 高棉语" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បរមាណូ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="高棉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81" title="ಪರಮಾಣು – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಮಾಣು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90" title="원자 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DB%81%D9%95" title="کنہٕ – 克什米尔语" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کنہٕ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="克什米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 康沃尔语" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康沃尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomus" title="Atomus – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Atomus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 卢森堡语" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="卢森堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 列兹金语" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="列兹金语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoeam" title="Atoeam – 林堡语" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Atoeam" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 利古里亚语" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="利古里亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atum" title="Atum – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Atum" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – 林加拉语" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="林加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B9" title="ປະລະມານູ – 老挝语" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປະລະມານູ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="老挝语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomas" title="Atomas – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Atomas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms" title="Atoms – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Atoms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 马都拉语" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="马都拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – 迈蒂利语" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="迈蒂利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Атомсь – 莫克沙语" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Атомсь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="莫克沙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4ma" title="Atôma – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Atôma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 米南佳保语" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="米南佳保语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81" title="അണു – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അണു" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82" title="अणू – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अणू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – 马耳他语" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="马耳他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – 米兰德斯语" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="米兰德斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="အက်တမ် – 缅甸语" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အက်တမ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="缅甸语" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantzintetl" title="Nantzintetl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Nantzintetl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 那不勒斯语" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="那不勒斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="अणु – 尼瓦尔语" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="尼瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – 諾維亞文" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="諾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4me" title="Atôme – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Atôme" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B2m" title="Atòm – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Atòm" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buxusa" title="Buxusa – 奥罗莫语" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Buxusa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="奥罗莫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%81" title="ପରମାଣୁ – 奥里亚语" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପରମାଣୁ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="奥里亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 奥塞梯语" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="奥塞梯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%82" title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – 邦板牙语" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="邦板牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 尼日利亚皮钦语" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="尼日利亚皮钦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Naijá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etem" title="Etem – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Etem" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tom" title="Àtom – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Àtom" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85" title="ایٹم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایٹم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%85" title="اټوم – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اټوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1uku" title="Iñuku – 克丘亚语" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Iñuku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="克丘亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%83" title="परमाणुः – 梵语" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="परमाणुः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵语" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 萨哈语" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="萨哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tomu" title="Àtomu – 萨丁语" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Àtomu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="萨丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tumu" title="Àtumu – 西西里语" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Àtumu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 苏格兰语" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="苏格兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BD%D9%85" title="ائٽم – 信德语" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ائٽم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoma" title="Atoma – 北方萨米语" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Atoma" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="北方萨米语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablkim" title="Ablkim – 希尔哈语" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Ablkim" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希尔哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94" title="පරමාණු – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරමාණු" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B3m" title="Atóm – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Atóm" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85" title="ایٹم – 色莱基语" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="ایٹم" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="色莱基语" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 索马里语" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="索马里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – 苏里南汤加语" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="苏里南汤加语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 沙特菲士蘭文" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="沙特菲士蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 巽他语" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C5%AFm" title="Atům – 西里西亚语" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Atům" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="西里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81" title="அணு – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A3%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81" title="పరమాణువు – 泰卢固语" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరమాణువు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="泰卢固语" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 塔吉克语" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="塔吉克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1" title="อะตอม – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อะตอม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A3%E1%89%B6%E1%88%9B%E1%89%B5" title="ኣቶማት – 提格利尼亚语" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ኣቶማት" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="提格利尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athomu" title="Athomu – 聪加语" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Athomu" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="聪加语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 图瓦语" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="图瓦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 乌德穆尔特语" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="乌德穆尔特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85" title="ئاتوم – 维吾尔语" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئاتوم" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="维吾尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%DB%81%D8%B1" title="جوہر – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جوہر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tomo" title="Àtomo – 威尼斯语" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Àtomo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 维普森语" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="维普森语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Nguyên tử – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nguyên tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – 西佛蘭德文" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="西佛蘭德文" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taum" title="Taum – 沃拉普克语" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Taum" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="沃拉普克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4me" title="Atôme – 瓦隆语" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Atôme" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="瓦隆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarefulwoon" title="Xarefulwoon – 沃洛夫语" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xarefulwoon" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="沃洛夫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – 卡尔梅克语" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="卡尔梅克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 科萨语" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="科萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ატომი – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ატომი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9D" title="אטאם – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אטאם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – 约鲁巴语" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="约鲁巴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenzswj" title="Yenzswj – 壮语" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yenzswj" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="壮语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%B1%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%BD%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8E" title="ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ – 标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ch%C3%BA" title="Goân-chú – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-chú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IChwe" title="IChwe – 祖鲁语" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IChwe" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="祖鲁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9121#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="编辑跨语言链接" class="wbc-editpage">编辑链接</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="命名空间"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="浏览条目正文[c]" accesskey="c">条目</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" rel="discussion" title="关于此页面的讨论[t]" accesskey="t">讨论</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="更改语言变体" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >不转换 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-varlang-0" class="selected ca-variants-zh mw-list-item"><a href="/zh/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">不转换</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-1" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hans/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hans" hreflang="zh-Hans">简体</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-2" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hant/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hant" hreflang="zh-Hant">繁體</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-3" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-CN mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-cn/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hans-CN" hreflang="zh-Hans-CN">大陆简体</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-4" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-HK mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hk/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hant-HK" hreflang="zh-Hant-HK">香港繁體</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-5" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-MO mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-mo/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hant-MO" hreflang="zh-Hant-MO">澳門繁體</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-6" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-MY mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-my/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hans-MY" hreflang="zh-Hans-MY">大马简体</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-7" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-SG mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-sg/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hans-SG" hreflang="zh-Hans-SG">新加坡简体</a></li><li id="ca-varlang-8" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-TW mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-tw/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" lang="zh-Hant-TW" hreflang="zh-Hant-TW">臺灣正體</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="查看"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90">阅读</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit" title="编辑该页面[e]" accesskey="e">编辑</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=history" title="本页面的早前版本。[h]" accesskey="h">查看历史</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="页面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="工具" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >工具 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">工具</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="更多选项" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 操作 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90">阅读</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit" title="编辑该页面[e]" accesskey="e">编辑</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=history">查看历史</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 常规 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%93%BE%E5%85%A5%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="列出所有与本页相链的页面[j]" accesskey="j">链入页面</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%93%BE%E5%87%BA%E6%9B%B4%E6%94%B9/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" rel="nofollow" title="页面链出所有页面的更改[k]" accesskey="k">相关更改</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Project:%E4%B8%8A%E4%BC%A0" title="上传图像或多媒体文件[u]" accesskey="u">上传文件</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%89%B9%E6%AE%8A%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="全部特殊页面的列表[q]" accesskey="q">特殊页面</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&oldid=84495560" title="此页面该修订版本的固定链接">固定链接</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=info" title="关于此页面的更多信息">页面信息</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E5%BC%95%E7%94%A8%E6%AD%A4%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2&page=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&id=84495560&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="有关如何引用此页面的信息">引用此页</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:URL%E7%BC%A9%E7%9F%AD%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F&url=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E5%258E%259F%25E5%25AD%2590">获取短链接</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E5%258E%259F%25E5%25AD%2590">下载二维码</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-electronpdfservice-sidebar-portlet-heading" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-electronpdfservice-sidebar-portlet-heading" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 打印/导出 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="electron-print_pdf" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=show-download-screen">下载为PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="javascript:print();" rel="alternate" title="本页面的可打印版本[p]" accesskey="p">打印页面</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 在其他项目中 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atom" hreflang="en">维基共享资源</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9121" title="链接到连接的数据仓库项目[g]" accesskey="g">维基数据项目</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="页面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="外观"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">外观</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-noteTA-88fe7cee" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><img alt="本页使用了标题或全文手工转换" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg/35px-Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg/53px-Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg/70px-Zh_conversion_icon_m.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="20" /></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">维基百科，自由的百科全书</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="zh" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84833064">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E6%B6%88%E6%AD%A7%E4%B9%89" title="Wikipedia:消歧义"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/25px-Disambig_gray.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/38px-Disambig_gray.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/50px-Disambig_gray.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="168" /></a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r74069148">body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .ifmobile>.mobile{display:none}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .ifmobile>.nomobile{display:inherit;display:initial}</style>  此條目介紹的是物理学中的原子。关于计算机科学中的原子操作，请见「<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="原子操作">原子操作</a>」。关于昵称为Atom的泰国男歌手，请见「<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E7%BA%B3%E5%9D%8E%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%A1%94%E7%91%99%E6%95%A6" title="查纳坎·拉塔瑙敦">查纳坎·拉塔瑙敦</a>」。关于尊稱為原子的人物、孔子的弟子，请见「<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AE%AA" title="原宪">原宪</a>」。</div> <div id="noteTA-88fe7cee" class="noteTA"><div class="noteTA-group"><div data-noteta-group-source="module" data-noteta-group="Physics"></div></div><div class="noteTA-local"><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:轨道; zh-hant:軌域;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:杂化; zh-hant:混成;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:能级; zh-hant:能階;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-hans:原子序数; zh-hant:原子序;"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-cn:电子云; zh-tw:電子雲"></div><div data-noteta-code="zh-cn:扫描隧道显微镜; zh-hant:掃描式穿隧電子顯微鏡"></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r83732082">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox td div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox td div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox td div.NavHead:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox td div.NavHead:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#B5B5CC;">原子</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Helium_atom_QM.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="氦原子基态"><img alt="氦原子基态" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/300px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/450px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/600px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="667" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A6" title="氦">氦</a>原子（He）結構示意圖。圖中灰階顯示對應<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E4%BA%91" title="电子云">电子云</a>於<a href="/wiki/S%E8%BB%8C%E5%9F%9F" title="S軌域">1s原子軌域</a>之<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E7%8E%87%E5%AF%86%E5%BA%A6%E5%87%BD%E6%95%B8" title="機率密度函數">機率密度函數</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%AF%E5%88%86" title="积分">积分</a>強度。而<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>僅為示意，紅色為<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">質子</a>、紫色為<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">中子</a>。事實上，原子核（與其中之<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%AD%90" title="核子">核子</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%87%BD%E6%95%B0" title="波函数">波函数</a>）也是<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%93%E5%B0%8D%E7%A8%B1#球對稱性" title="圓對稱">球型對稱</a>的（對於更複雜的原子核則非如此）。黑條為1<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E6%9C%97" title="埃斯特朗">Å</a>（6990100000000000000♠10−10 米或100<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E7%B1%B3" title="皮米">pm</a>），小圖白條為1<a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9B%E7%B1%B3" title="飛米">fm</a>（6985100000000000000♠10−15 米或千份一pm）。</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#B5B5CC;;">分類</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="化學元素">化學元素</a>可分割的最小單元</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#B5B5CC;;">性質</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E9%87%8F" title="原子量">质量</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">6973167000000000000♠1.67×10−27至6975452000000000000♠4.52×10−25 kg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷">電荷</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">0（電中性，當原子的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>數與<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">質子</a>數相等時）或<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="离子">离子</a>電荷</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8D%8A%E5%BE%84" title="原子半径">半径</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">25pm（<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A2" title="氢">H</a>）至260pm（<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%AF" title="铯">Cs</a>）（<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E7%9A%84%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8D%8A%E5%BE%91(%E6%95%B8%E6%93%9A%E9%A0%81)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="元素的原子半徑(數據頁)（页面不存在）">數據頁</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_radii_of_the_elements_(data_page)" class="extiw" title="en:Atomic radii of the elements (data page)">Atomic radii of the elements (data page)</a>））</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A1%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="次原子粒子">組分</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>和由質子与中子组成的紧密<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E8%A7%80%E6%B8%AC%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="可觀測宇宙">可觀測宇宙</a>中的原子總數</th><td class="infobox-data" style="">~7080100000000000000♠1080<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> 原子（英語：atom）是构成<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="化學元素">化學元素</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="普通物质（页面不存在）">普通物质</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter#Definition" class="extiw" title="en:Matter">Matter#Definition</a>）<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>的最小单位<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>；原子也是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96" class="mw-redirect" title="化学变化">化学变化</a>中最小的粒子及元素<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E6%80%A7%E8%B4%A8" title="化学性质">化学性质</a>的最小單位。 一粒正原子包含有一粒緻密的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>及若干圍繞在原子核周圍帶負電的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>。而反原子的原子核帶負電，周圍的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="反電子">反電子</a>帶「正電」。正原子的原子核由帶正電的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">質子</a>和電中性的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">中子</a>組成。反原子的原子核中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="反質子">反質子</a>帶負電，從而使反原子的原子核帶負電。當質子數與電子數相同時，這原子就是電中性，称为中性原子<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>（英語：neutral atom）<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>；否則，就是帶有正電荷或者負電荷的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="离子">离子</a>。根據質子和中子數量的不同，原子的類型也不同：質子數決定了該原子屬於哪種元素，而中子數則確定了該原子是此元素的哪種<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%8D%E7%B4%A0" title="同位素">同位素</a>。 原子的英语 atom 是從<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84750655">.mw-parser-output span[lang="grc"],.mw-parser-output .Polytonic{font-family:"SBL BibLit","SBL Greek","New Athena Unicode","EB Garamond","EB Garamond 12","Foulis Greek","Garamond Libre","Noto Sans","Noto Serif","Cardo","Gentium Plus","Gentium Book Plus","Garamond","Palatino Linotype","DejaVu Sans","DejaVu Serif","FreeSerif","FreeSans","Arial Unicode MS","Lucida Sans Unicode","Lucida Grande","Code2000",sans-serif}</style><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="古希臘語">古希臘語</a>：ἄτομος（atomos，“不可切分的”）轉化而來。很早以前，<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="希腊">希腊</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="印度">印度</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="哲學家">哲學家</a>就提出了原子的不可切分的概念。 17和18世紀時，<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" title="化学家">化学家</a>發現了物理學的根據：對於某些物質，不能通過化學手段將其繼續的分解。 19世紀晚期和20世紀早期，<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" title="物理学家">物理学家</a>發現了<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A1%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="次原子粒子">亞原子粒子</a>以及原子的內部結構，由此證明原子並不是不能進一步切分。 <a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="量子力学">量子力学</a>原理能夠為原子提供很好的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="科學模型">科學模型</a>。 <a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> 與日常體驗相比，原子是極小的物體，其質量也很微小，以至於只能以特殊儀器才能觀測到單粒原子，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%AB%E6%8F%8F%E9%9A%A7%E9%81%93%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="扫描隧道显微镜">扫描隧道显微镜</a>。原子的99.9%的重量集中在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>，<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>其中的质子和中子有著相近的質量。每種元素至少有一種不穩定的同位素，可以<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7" title="放射性">放射性</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7%E8%A1%B0%E8%AE%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="放射性衰變">衰變</a>。這直接導致核轉化，即原子核中的中子數或質子數發生變化。<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>原子佔據一組穩定的<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E7%BA%A7" title="能级">能级</a>，或稱為<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BD%A8%E9%81%93" title="原子轨道">轨道</a>。當它們吸收和放出中子的時候，<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">中子</a>也可以在不同能級之間跳躍，此時吸收或放出原子的能量與能級之間的能量差相等。電子決定元素的化學特性，並且對中子的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81" title="磁">磁性</a>有很大的影響。 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="历史">历史</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：历史">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r83732972">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox{border-left-color:#36c!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left-color:#b32424!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{background-color:#300!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left-color:#f28500!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left-color:#fc3!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left-color:#9932cc!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left-color:#a2a9b1!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox{border-left-color:#36c!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left-color:#b32424!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{background-color:#300!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left-color:#f28500!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left-color:#fc3!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left-color:#9932cc!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left-color:#a2a9b1!important}}</style><table class="box-Refimprove plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Tango-nosources.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Tango-nosources.svg/35px-Tango-nosources.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Tango-nosources.svg/53px-Tango-nosources.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Tango-nosources.svg/70px-Tango-nosources.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">此章節需要提供<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">更多來源</a>，否則內容可能<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%8F%AF%E4%BE%9B%E6%9F%A5%E8%AD%89" title="Wikipedia:可供查證">無法查證</a>。 (2015年2月9日)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="原子理論">原子理論</a></div> 大约在两千五百年前，<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="希腊">希腊</a>哲学家对物质的组成问题争论不休。原子派认为物质在无数次分割之后，最终会小到无法分割。原子（atom）一词源自希腊语，意思是“不可分割”。在1803年到1807年之间，英国化学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%81%93%E5%B0%94%E9%A1%BF" title="约翰·道尔顿">道尔顿</a>发展了这些观点并将它用在它的原子学说中。他相信原子既不能创造也不能消灭。任一<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="元素">元素</a>所含的原子都一样。<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r83946278">.mw-parser-output .template-facttext{background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0);color:inherit;margin:-.3em 0;padding:.3em 0}</style><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">[來源請求]</a> 关于<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="物质">物质</a>是由<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E6%95%A3%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="离散量">离散</a>单元组成且能任意分割的概念流传了几<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%83%E5%B9%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="千年">千年</a>，但这些想法只是基于抽象的、<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学">哲学</a>的推理，而非<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E9%AA%8C" title="实验">实验</a>和实证观察。随着<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4" title="时间">时间</a>的推移以及文化及学派的转变，哲学上原子的性质也有着很大的改变而这种改变往往还带有一些<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E" title="精神">精神</a>因素。尽管如此，对于原子的基本概念在数千年后仍然有化学家采用，因为它能够很简洁阐述一些化学界的新发现。<a href="#cite_note-Ponomarev-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="原子論">原子論</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：原子論">编辑</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%BA_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)" class="mw-redirect" title="原子论 (哲学)">原子论</a>（英語：atomism，来自<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古希腊</a>语 ἄτομον，atomos，含义为“不可分割”<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>）是在一些古代传统中发展出的一种自然哲学<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r83946278"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">[來源請求]</a>。原子论者将自然世界理论化为由两基本部分所构成：不可分割的原子和空无的虚空（void）<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r83946278"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">[來源請求]</a>。原子论的创始人是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E4%BA%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="古希腊人">古希腊人</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%95%99%E5%9F%BA%E4%BC%AF" title="留基伯">留基伯</a>，他是<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%B0%9F%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德谟克利特">德谟克利特</a>的老师。古代学者在论及原子论时,通常是把他们俩人的学说混在一起的。留基伯的学说由他的学生德谟克利特发展和完善，因此公认<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%B0%9F%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德谟克利特">德谟克利特</a>为原子论的主要代表<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>。 原子论的主要内容是：<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99" title="宇宙">宇宙</a>的本原是原子和虚空，原子不可构造且永恒不变。原子有两种属性：大小和形状。它们在数量上是无限的。原子按一定的形状、次序和位置，在空无（empty）中通过移动和碰撞，结合和分离，与一粒或以上其他原子相钩结而形成聚簇（cluster）。不同形状、排列和位置的聚簇构成世界上各种宏观物质（substance）。<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%B0%9F%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德谟克利特">德谟克利特</a>认为，运用上述原子论的思想，就可以解释世间万物为什么会有重量、形状、尺寸等客观特性；不仅如此，他还认为，另一些特性，比如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E5%91%B3" title="氣味">气味</a>，只有当物体的原子和人<a href="/wiki/%E9%BC%BB%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="鼻子">鼻</a>互相作用时才显示出来。 对原子概念的记述可以上溯到<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%B2%B3%E6%B5%81%E5%9F%9F%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="印度河流域文明">古印度</a>和古希腊。有人将印度的耆那教的原子论认定为开创者大雄在<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%83%E5%89%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="公元前">公元前</a>6世纪提出，并将与其同时代的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%BC%E6%B5%AE%E9%99%80%E4%BC%BD%E6%97%83%E5%BB%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="彼浮陀伽旃延">彼浮陀伽旃延</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%BA%E4%B8%96%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="顺世派">顺世派</a>先驱<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%A4%B7%E9%99%80%E7%BF%85%E8%88%8D%E6%AC%BD%E5%A9%86%E7%BE%85" class="mw-redirect" title="阿夷陀翅舍欽婆羅">阿夷陀翅舍钦婆罗</a>的元素思想也称为原子论<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r83946278"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">[來源請求]</a>。正理派和胜论派后来发展出了原子如何组合成更复杂物体的理论<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r83946278"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">[來源請求]</a>。在西方，对原子的记述出现在公元前5世纪<a href="/wiki/%E7%95%99%E5%9F%BA%E4%BC%AF" title="留基伯">留基伯</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%B0%9F%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9%E7%89%B9" title="德谟克利特">德谟克利特</a>的著作中。对于印度文化影响<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="希腊">希腊</a>还是反之，亦或二者独立演化是有争议<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r83946278"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">[來源請求]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="科學理論">科學理論</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：科學理論">编辑</a>]</div> 直到<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="化学">化学</a>作为一门科学开始发展的时候，对原子才有更进一步的理解。1661年，<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="自然哲学">自然哲学家</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E6%B3%A2%E4%B9%89%E8%80%B3" title="罗伯特·波义耳">罗伯特·波义耳</a>出版了《<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%80%E7%96%91%E7%9A%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="怀疑的化学家">怀疑的化学家</a>》一书，书中他声称物质是由不同的“微粒”或原子自由组合构成的，而并不是由诸如气、土、火、水等<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E8%AF%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="四元素说">基本元素</a>构成。<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>1789年，既是<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD" title="法国">法国</a>贵族，又是科学研究者的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E6%89%98%E4%B8%87-%E6%B4%9B%E6%9C%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E7%93%A6%E9%94%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="安托万-洛朗·德·拉瓦锡">拉瓦锡</a>定义了<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="元素">元素</a>一词，从此，元素就用来表示化学变化中的最小的单位。<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> 1803年<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%B0%94%E9%A1%BF" class="mw-disambig" title="道尔顿">道尔顿</a>创立科学原子论，并在1803年12月与1804年1月在<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E7%9A%87%E5%AE%B6%E5%AD%A6%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="英国皇家学会">英国皇家学会</a>作关于原子论的演讲，其中全面阐释了他的原子论思想。其要点为：1.化学元素均由不可再分的微粒组成。这种微粒称为原子。原子在一切化学变化中均保持其不可再分性。2.同一元素的所有原子，在质量和性质上都相同；不同元素的原子，在质量和性质上都不相同。3.不同的元素<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88" class="mw-redirect" title="化合">化合</a>时，这些元素的原子按简单整数比结合成化合物。尽管从现在的观点来看，道尔顿的观点非常简洁有力（当然存在着错误）但是由于缺乏实验证据和表述不力，这一观点直到20世纪初才獲广泛接受。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="现代原子理论">现代原子理论</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：现代原子理论">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg/255px-A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg" decoding="async" width="255" height="429" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg/383px-A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg/510px-A_New_System_of_Chemical_Philosophy_fp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="2571" /></a><figcaption>道尔顿《化学哲学新体系》一书中描述的各种原子和分子。1808年</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%81%93%E5%B0%94%E9%A1%BF" title="约翰·道尔顿">道尔顿</a>的理想没有涉及原子内部结构。随后，在1897年，发现了第一粒亚原子粒子──<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>。1911年，新西兰物理学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E7%91%9F%E7%A6%8F" title="欧内斯特·卢瑟福">卢瑟福</a>发现每一粒原子都含有一粒比重很大并且带正电的原子核，他隨後在1919年發現了原子核內部帶正電的質子。1932年英國物理學家<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%9F%A5%E5%85%8C%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="詹姆斯·查兌克">查德威克</a>发现不帶電的中子。现代化学认为原子由原子核及绕核旋转的电子构成。原子核中含有许多<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%A8%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="质子">质子</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">中子</a>。质子和中子要比电子重約1836倍。质子的带电量是一单位正电荷，电子是一单位负电荷，中子不带电。 1803年，英语教师及自然哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%81%93%E7%88%BE%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="約翰·道爾頓">約翰·道爾頓</a>用原子的概念解释了为什么不同元素总是呈<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B4%E6%95%B0" title="整数">整数</a>倍反应，即<a href="/wiki/%E5%80%8D%E6%AF%94%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="倍比定律">倍比定律</a>；也解释了为什么某些气体比另外一些更容易溶于水。他提出每一种元素只包含唯一一种原子，而这些原子相互结合起来就形成了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="化合物">化合物</a>。<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> 1827年，英國<a href="/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="植物学">植物學家</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%97" title="罗伯特·布朗">羅伯特·布朗</a>在使用<a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顯微鏡">显微镜</a>观察水面上花粉的时候，发现它们的运动不规则，进一步证明了微粒学说。后来，这现象称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E6%9C%97%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8" title="布朗运动">布朗运动</a>。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%8D%E5%84%BF%E5%85%8B%E6%80%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="德绍儿克思（页面不存在）">德绍儿克思</a>在1877年提出这种现象是由于水分子的热运动而导致的。1905年，<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦">爱因斯坦</a>提出了第一个数学分析的方法，证明了这猜想。<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> 在关于<a href="/wiki/%E9%99%B0%E6%A5%B5%E5%B0%84%E7%B7%9A" title="陰極射線">阴极射线</a>的工作中，物理学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%91%9F%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E6%B1%A4%E5%A7%86%E5%AD%99" class="mw-redirect" title="约瑟夫·汤姆孙">約瑟夫·汤姆孙</a>发现了电子以及它的亚原子特性，粉碎了一直以来认为原子不可再分的设想。<a href="#cite_note-nobel1096-21">[21]</a>汤姆孙认为电子是平均分布在整粒原子上，就如同散布在均匀的正电荷海洋中，它们的负电荷与那些正电荷相互抵消。这也叫做<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%85%E5%AD%90%E5%B8%83%E4%B8%81%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="梅子布丁模型">梅子布丁模型</a>。 然而，在1909年，在物理学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E7%91%9F%E7%A6%8F" title="欧内斯特·卢瑟福">卢瑟福</a>的指导下，研究者们用氦离子轰击金箔。他们意外的发现有很小一部分离子的偏转角度远远大于使用汤姆孙假设所预测值。卢瑟福根据这<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%95%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84%E5%AE%9E%E9%AA%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="阿尔法粒子散射实验">金箔实验</a>的结果提出原子中大部分质量和正电荷都集中在位于原子中心的原子核当中，电子则像行星围绕太阳一样围绕着原子核。带正电的氦离子在穿越原子核附近时，就会大角度被反射。<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> 1913年，<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="放射化学">放射化学家</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E8%BF%AA" title="弗雷德里克·索迪">弗雷德里克·索迪</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7" title="放射性">放射性</a>衰变产物的实验中发现元素周期表中各位置不只有一种原子。<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%9B%E6%A0%BC%E4%B8%BD%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E9%82%A3%E7%93%A6%E5%B0%94" class="mw-redirect" title="玛格丽特·德·那瓦尔">玛格丽特·陶德</a>创造了<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%8D%E7%B4%A0" title="同位素">同位素</a>一词来表示同一种元素不同种类的原子。在研究离子气体的过程中，汤姆孙发明了一种新技术，可以用来分离不同同位素，最终导致了稳定同位素的发现。<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bohr_Model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Bohr_Model.svg/200px-Bohr_Model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Bohr_Model.svg/300px-Bohr_Model.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Bohr_Model.svg/400px-Bohr_Model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>氢原子的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E5%B0%94%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="玻尔模型">玻尔模型</a>，展示了一粒电子在两條固定轨道之间跃迁并释放出一粒特定频率的光子。</figcaption></figure> 与此同时，物理学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E5%B0%94" title="尼尔斯·玻尔">玻尔</a>重新审视了卢瑟福的模型，他认为电子应该位于确定的轨道之中，并且能够在不同轨道之间跳跃，而不是像先前认为那样可以自由的向内或向外移动。电子在这些固定轨道间跳跃时，必须吸收或者释放特定的能量。<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>当热源产生的一束<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89" title="光">光</a>穿过<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%9C%E9%8F%A1" title="稜鏡">棱镜</a>时，能够产生多彩的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8%E9%A0%BB%E8%AD%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="光學頻譜">光谱</a>。应用轨道跃迁的理论就能够很好的解释光谱中存在的位置不变的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%9C%E7%B7%9A" title="譜線">线条</a>。<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> 1916年，<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E7%88%BE%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF" title="吉爾伯特·路易斯">吉爾伯特·路易斯</a>发现<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E9%94%AE" title="化学键">化学键</a>的本质就是两粒原子间电子的相互作用。<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>众所周之，元素的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E6%80%A7%E8%B4%A8" title="化学性质">化学性质</a>按照<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E5%91%A8%E6%9C%9F%E8%A1%A8" title="元素周期表">周期律</a>反复的循环。<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>1919年，美国化学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%96%87%C2%B7%E6%9C%97%E7%B9%86%E7%88%BE" title="歐文·朗繆爾">歐文·朗繆爾</a>提出原子中的电子以某种性质相互连接或者说相互聚集。一组电子占有一層特定的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E5%B1%A4" title="電子層">电子层</a>。<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> 1926年，<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%B0%94%E6%B8%A9%C2%B7%E8%96%9B%E5%AE%9A%E8%B0%94" title="埃尔温·薛定谔">薛定谔</a>用<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E5%B8%83%E7%BD%97%E6%84%8F" title="路易·德布罗意">路易·德布罗意</a>于1924年提出的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%B2%92%E4%BA%8C%E8%B1%A1%E6%80%A7" title="波粒二象性">波粒二象性</a>假说，建立了原子的数学模型，用来将电子描述为三维<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%BD%A2" title="波形">波形</a>。使用波形来描述电子的一个直接后果就是在数学上不能够同时得到<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%8D%E7%BD%AE%E5%90%91%E9%87%8F" title="位置向量">位置</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E9%87%8F" title="动量">动量</a>的精确值，1926年，<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%B3%C2%B7%E6%B5%B7%E6%A3%AE%E5%A0%A1" title="维尔纳·海森堡">海森堡</a>建立了相关的方程，这也就是后来著名的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E7%A1%AE%E5%AE%9A%E6%80%A7%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="不确定性原理">不确定性原理</a>。这概念描述的是，对于测量的某个位置，只能得到一个不确定的动量范围，反之亦然。尽管这模型很难想象，但它能够解释一些以前观测到却不能解释的原子的性质，例如比氢更大的原子的谱线。因此，人们不再使用原子的行星模型，而更倾向于将<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BD%A8%E9%81%93" title="原子轨道">原子轨道</a>视为电子存在概率的区域。<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mass_Spectrometer_Schematic_zh-cn.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mass_Spectrometer_Schematic_zh-cn.svg/280px-Mass_Spectrometer_Schematic_zh-cn.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mass_Spectrometer_Schematic_zh-cn.svg/420px-Mass_Spectrometer_Schematic_zh-cn.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mass_Spectrometer_Schematic_zh-cn.svg/560px-Mass_Spectrometer_Schematic_zh-cn.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption>质谱仪简易原理图</figcaption></figure> 发明<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%A8%E8%B0%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="质谱">质谱</a>使得科学家可以直接测量原子的准确质量。该设备使用磁体弯曲一束离子，而偏转量取决于原子的质荷比。<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E6%9C%97%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E6%96%AF%E9%A1%BF" title="弗朗西斯·阿斯顿">弗朗西斯·阿斯顿</a>使用质谱证实了同位素有着不同的质量，并且同位素间的质量差都为整数，称为<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B4%E9%99%A4%E8%A7%84%E5%88%99" title="整除规则">整数规则</a>。<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>1932年，<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%9F%A5%E5%BE%B7%E5%A8%81%E5%85%8B" title="詹姆斯·查德威克">詹姆斯·查德威克</a>发现了中子，解释了这问题。中子是中性的粒子，质量与质子相仿。同位素则重新定义为质子数相同而中子数不同的元素。<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> 1950年代，随着<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%99%A8" title="粒子加速器">粒子加速器</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E6%8E%A2%E6%B5%8B%E5%99%A8" title="粒子探测器">粒子探测器</a>的发展，科学家们可以研究高能粒子间的碰撞。<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>他们发现中子和质子是<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%BA%E5%AD%90" title="强子">强子</a>的一种，由更小的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="夸克">夸克</a>微粒构成。核物理的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="标准模型理论">标准模型</a>也随之发展，能够成功的在亚原子水平解释整粒原子核以及亚原子粒子之间的相互作用。<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> 1985年左右，<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%B1%E6%A3%A3%E6%96%87" title="朱棣文">朱棣文</a>及其同事在<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%94%E5%AE%9E%E9%AA%8C%E5%AE%A4" title="贝尔实验室">贝尔实验室</a>开发了一种新技术，能够使用<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%85%89" title="激光">激光</a>来冷却原子。<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E4%B8%B9%E5%B0%BC%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%8F%B2%E5%88%A9%E6%99%AE%E6%96%AF" title="威廉·丹尼尔·菲利普斯">威廉·丹尼尔·菲利普斯</a>团队设法将钠原子置于一个<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A3%81%E9%98%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="磁阱（页面不存在）">磁阱</a>中。这两个技术加上由<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E6%B4%9B%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%A7%91%E6%98%82-%E5%94%90%E5%8A%AA%E5%BE%B7%E6%97%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="克洛德·科昂-唐努德日">克洛德·科昂-唐努德日</a>团队基于<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E6%99%AE%E5%8B%92%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" title="多普勒效应">多普勒效应</a>开发的一种方法，可以将少量的原子冷却至<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6%E6%B8%A9%E6%A0%87" title="热力学温标">微开尔文</a>的温度范围，这样就可以很高精度研究原子，这也直接导致<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%87%9D%E8%81%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚">玻斯－爱因斯坦凝聚</a>的发现。<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> 历史上认为单一原子过于微小，不能以科学研究。最近，科学家已经成功用单一金属原子与一粒有机<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E9%AB%94" title="配體">配体</a>连接形成<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%95%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93%E7%AE%A1" title="单电子晶体管">单电子晶体管</a>。<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>一些实验用<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%B7%E5%B0%84%E5%86%B7%E5%8D%BB" title="雷射冷卻">激光冷却</a>的方法将原子减速并捕获，这些实验能够提升對物质的認知。<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="原子的组成">原子的组成</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：原子的组成">编辑</a>]</div> 原子是由带<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E7%94%B5%E8%8D%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="正电荷">正电荷</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>和带<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%A0%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="負電荷">负电荷</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>构成。原子核所带的正电荷数（即<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A0%B8%E7%94%B5%E8%8D%B7%E6%95%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="核电荷数（页面不存在）">核电荷数</a>）与原子核外电子所带的负电子数相等，故原子呈<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E4%B8%AD%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="电中性">电中性</a>。原子可以构成<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a>，也可以形成<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="离子">离子</a>，也可以直接构成<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="物质">物质</a>。 构成原子的三种粒子（质子、中子、电子）的基本数据： <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:small;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">原子的组成 </th> <th colspan="2">原子核 </th> <th rowspan="2">电子 </th></tr> <tr> <th>质子</th> <th>中子 </th></tr> <tr> <td>电性和电量 </td> <td>1粒质子带1单位正电荷 </td> <td>电中性 </td> <td>1粒电子带1单位负电荷 </td></tr> <tr> <td>质量（kg） </td> <td><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.6726\times 10^{-27}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.6726</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>27</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.6726\times 10^{-27}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c8a0e39575bd50d889d9ac31191ccb659cd79e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.779ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.6726\times 10^{-27}}"> </td> <td><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.6749\times 10^{-27}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.6749</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>27</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.6749\times 10^{-27}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/56aa78daeb1df086f90f2ea3c6ead5e4b317ead0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.779ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.6749\times 10^{-27}}"> </td> <td><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 9.109\times 10^{-31}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>9.109</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>31</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 9.109\times 10^{-31}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/92f55061485284f8d18237026180053456087729" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:13.617ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 9.109\times 10^{-31}}"> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="相对原子质量">相对原子质量</a> </td> <td>1.007 </td> <td>1.008 </td> <td><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{1836}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>1836</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{1836}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9eae678ca554a26b88fdf7653c5e2a6efd7a14d6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:5.486ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{1836}}}"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="亚原子粒子">亚原子粒子</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：亚原子粒子">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="亚原子粒子">亚原子粒子</a></div> 尽管原子的英文名称（atom）本意是不能繼續分割的最小粒子，但是在现代科学领域，原子实际上包含了很多不同的亚原子粒子：<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>，<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">质子</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">中子</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AB-1" class="mw-redirect" title="氫-1">氢-1</a>原子和带一粒正电荷的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A2%E6%AD%A3%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="氢正离子">氢正离子</a>例外，前者没有中子，后者沒有电子。 质子有一粒正电荷，质量是电子质量的1836倍，为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.6726\times 10^{-27}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.6726</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>27</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.6726\times 10^{-27}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c8a0e39575bd50d889d9ac31191ccb659cd79e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.779ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.6726\times 10^{-27}}">公斤，然而部分质量可以转化为原子<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E5%90%88%E8%83%BD" title="结合能">结合能</a>。中子不带电荷，自由中子的质量是电子质量的1839倍，为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.6929\times 10^{-27}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.6929</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>27</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.6929\times 10^{-27}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f0926a0f336ebbde74c92029bb945b9bb7ec5bd2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:14.779ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.6929\times 10^{-27}}">公斤。<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>中子和质子的尺寸相仿，均在<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2.5\times 10^{-15}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2.5</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>15</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2.5\times 10^{-15}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4f7c9a124dcd608beeb7e3781fd04226544ce506" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.292ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2.5\times 10^{-15}}">m这一数量级，但它们的表面并没能精确定义。<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> 在物理学<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="标准模型理论">标准模型理论</a>中，质子和中子都由名叫<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="夸克">夸克</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="基本粒子">基本粒子</a>构成。夸克是<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="费米子">费米子</a>的一种，也是构成物质的两種基本组分之一。另一基本组份称<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%95%E5%AD%90" title="輕子">轻子</a>，电子就是轻子的一种。夸克共有六种，每一种都带有分数的电荷，不是<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle +{\frac {2}{3}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>2</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle +{\frac {2}{3}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d0b4758973c35e3304b1d5d826fde8c077c829b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:3.466ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\textstyle +{\frac {2}{3}}}">就是<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle -{\frac {1}{3}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle -{\frac {1}{3}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d70def1351375878dbed3e58e789193c219f2347" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:3.466ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\textstyle -{\frac {1}{3}}}">。质子就是由两粒<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="上夸克">上夸克</a>和一粒下夸克组成，而中子则是由一粒上夸克和两粒下夸克组成。这区别就解释了为什么中子和质子电荷和质量均有差别。夸克由<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%BA%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="强相互作用">强相互作用</a>结合在一起的，由<a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A0%E5%AD%90" title="膠子">胶子</a>作中介。胶子是<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="规范玻色子">规范玻色子</a>的一员，是一种用来传递<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9B" title="力">力</a>的基本粒子。<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="原子核">原子核</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：原子核">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/langzh-400px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/langzh-600px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/langzh-800px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>不同同位素将核子连在一起所需的能量。</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>是原子中所有的质子和中子构成的，结合起来很小，它们一起也可以称为<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%AD%90" title="核子">核子</a>。质子带正电荷，中子不显电性，故原子核的正电荷由质子数决定。原子核的半径约等于<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.07\cdot {\sqrt[{3}]{A}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.07</mn> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mroot> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </mroot> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.07\cdot {\sqrt[{3}]{A}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d5c4693ed96684d0bfaa35b5760855169e171ed4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.492ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.07\cdot {\sqrt[{3}]{A}}}"><a href="/wiki/%E9%A3%9B%E7%B1%B3" title="飛米">fm</a>其中<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}">是核子的总数。<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>原子半径的数量级大约是105fm，因此原子核半径远远小于原子半径。能在短距离上起作用的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8A%9B" title="核力">残留强力</a>將核子束缚在一起。当距离小于2.5fm的时候，强力远远大于<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E4%BB%91%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="库仑定律">静电力</a>，因此它能够克服带正电的质子间的相互排斥。<a href="#cite_note-pfeffer-44">[44]</a> 同种元素的原子带有相同数量的质子，这数也称<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%BA%8F%E6%95%B0" title="原子序数">原子序数</a>。而对于某种特定的元素，中子数是可以变化的，这也就决定了该原子是这种元素的哪一种同位素。质子数量和中子数量决定了该原子是这种元素的哪一种<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%B4%A0" title="核素">核素</a>。中子数决定了该原子的稳定程度，一些同位素能自发<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7" title="放射性">放射性</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%B0%E5%8F%98%E6%A8%A1%E5%BC%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="衰变模式">衰变</a>。<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> 中子和质子都是<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="费米子">费米子</a>的一种，根据<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="量子力学">量子力学</a>中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A1%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%8D%E7%9B%B8%E5%AE%B9%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="泡利不相容原理">泡利不相容原理</a>，不可能有完全相同的两粒费米子同时拥有一样量子物理态。因此，原子核每粒质子都占用不同的能级，中子的情况也与此相同。不过泡利不相容原理并没有禁止质子和中子有相同量子态。<a href="#cite_note-raymond-46">[46]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/228px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="228" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/342px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/455px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="484" /></a><figcaption>核聚变示意图，两粒质子聚变生成有一粒质子和一粒中子的氘原子核，并放出<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="正電子">正电子</a>（电子的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="反物质">反物质</a>）以及一粒电子<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="中微子">中微子</a>。</figcaption></figure> 如果原子核的质子数和中子数不相同，该原子核很易放射性衰变到更低的能级，拉近质子数和中子数。因此，质子数和中子数相同或很相近的原子更加不易衰变。然而，当原子序数逐渐增加时，质子间排斥力增强，需要更多中子來稳定原子核，所以对上述趋势有所影响。原子序数大于20时，就找不到质子数与中子数相等而又稳定的原子核了。随着Z增加，中子和质子的比例逐渐趋于1.5。<a href="#cite_note-raymond-46">[46]</a> 原子核中的质子数和中子数也是可以变化的，不过因为它们之间的力很强，所以需要很高的能量，当多粒粒子聚集形成更重的原子核时，就会发生<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E8%81%9A%E5%8F%98" title="核聚变">核聚变</a>，例如两粒核之间的高能碰撞。在太阳的核心，质子需要3-10KeV的能量才能够克服它们之间的相互排斥，也就是<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%AB%E4%BE%96%E9%9A%9C%E5%A3%81" title="庫侖障壁">库仑障壁</a>，进而融合起来形成新的核。<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>与此相反的过程是核裂变，在<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E8%A3%82%E5%8F%98" title="核裂变">核裂变</a>中，一个核通常是经过放射性衰变，分裂成为两粒更小的核。使用高能的亚原子粒子或光子轰击也能够改变原子核。如果在过程中，原子核的质子数变了，此原子就变成另一种元素的原子。<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> 如果核聚变后产生的原子核质量小于聚变前原子质量的总和，那么根据爱因斯坦的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E8%83%BD%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="質能方程">质能方程</a>，质量的差就以能量形式释放出來。这差别实际是原子核之间的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E5%90%88%E8%83%BD" title="结合能">结合能</a>。<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> 对于两粒原子序数在<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%81" title="铁">铁</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%8D" title="镍">镍</a>之前的原子核来说，它们之间的核聚变是<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E7%83%AD%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B" title="放热过程">放热过程</a>，也就是说过程释放的能量大于将它们连在一起的能量。<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>正是因为如此，才确保了恒星中的核聚变能够自我维持。对于更重一些的原子来说，结合能开始减少，也就是说它们的核聚变会是<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B8%E7%83%AD%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B" title="吸热过程">吸热过程</a>。因此，这些更重的原子不能以核聚变产能，也就不能够维持恒星的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E4%BD%93%E9%9D%99%E5%8A%9B%E5%B9%B3%E8%A1%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="流体静力平衡">流体静力平衡</a>。<a href="#cite_note-raymond-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="电子云">电子云</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：电子云">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E4%BA%91" title="电子云">电子云</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BD%A8%E9%81%93" title="原子轨道">原子轨道</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potential_energy_well.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/220px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/330px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/440px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>势阱显示了要到每一个位置x所需要的最低能量<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V(x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>V</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V(x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4ab3e825c2bf9c80d11d12e070a4626d48e03c61" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.926ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V(x)}">。如果粒子的能量为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}">，它就限制在<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{1}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{1}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a8788bf85d532fa88d1fb25eff6ae382a601c308" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{1}}">和<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>x</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d7af1b928f06e4c7e3e8ebfd60704656719bd766" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.384ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{2}}">间。</figcaption></figure> 在原子中，电子和质子以<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E5%8A%9B" title="電磁力">电磁力</a>相互吸引，也正是这道力将电子束缚在环绕着原子核的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9C%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%B8" title="靜電學">静电</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%83%E5%B0%8D%E7%A8%B1%E4%BD%8D%E5%8B%A2" title="球對稱位勢">位势阱</a>中，要从这<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%BF%E9%98%B1" title="势阱">势阱</a>中逃逸则需要外部能量。电子离原子核越近，吸引力则越大。因此，与外层电子相比，离核近的电子需要更多能量才能够逃逸。<a href="#cite_note-歐風烈2018-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%BD%A8%E9%81%93" title="原子轨道">原子轨道</a>则是描述电子在核内的概率分布的数学方程。在实际中，只有一组离散的（或量子化的）轨道存在，其他可能的形式会很快的坍塌成更稳定的形式。<a href="#cite_note-Brucat-53">[53]</a>这些轨道可以有一个或以上的环或节点，并且它们的大小，形状和空间方向都有不同。<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S-p-Orbitals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/250px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/375px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/500px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1813" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>前五條原子轨道的波函数。三條<a href="/wiki/P%E8%BB%8C%E5%9F%9F" title="P軌域">2p轨道</a>中的每條都有一粒角节点，因此有特定的朝向。它们都有一个最小值点在中心。</figcaption></figure> 每條原子轨道都对应一粒电子的<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E7%BA%A7" title="能级">能级</a>。电子可以吸收一粒有足够能量的光子而跃迁到更高的能级。同样，通过<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E5%8F%91%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84" title="自发辐射">自发辐射</a>，在高能级态的电子也可以跃迁回低能级态，放出光子。这些典型的能量，也就是不同量子态之间的能量差，可以用来解释原子<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%9C%E7%B7%9A" title="譜線">谱线</a>。<a href="#cite_note-Brucat-53">[53]</a> 在原子核中除去或增加一粒电子所需要的能量远远小于核子的结合能，这些能量称为<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E4%BA%B2%E5%90%88%E8%83%BD" title="电子亲合能">电子结合能</a>。例如：夺去氢原子中<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%80%81" title="基态">基态</a>电子只需要13.6eV。<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>当电子数与质子数相等时，原子是<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E4%B8%AD%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="电中性">电中性</a>的。如果电子数大于或小于质子数时，该原子就会称为<a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="离子">离子</a>。原子最外层电子可以移动至相邻的原子，也可以由两粒原子所共有。正是由于有了这种机理，原子才能够键合形成<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a>或其他种类的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9" title="化合物">化合物</a>，例如离子或共价的网状<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93" title="晶体">晶体</a>。<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="性质">性质</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：性质">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="核性质">核性质</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节：核性质">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%8D%E7%B4%A0" title="同位素">同位素</a></div> 根据定义，有相同质子数的原子即属同一元素，质子数相同而中子数不同的则是同一元素的不同同位素。例如，所有的氢原子都只有一粒质子，但氢原子的同位素有几种，分别含有零粒中子（氢-1，目前最常见的类型，有时也称为<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AB%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="氫原子">氕</a>），一粒中子（<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%98" title="氘">氘</a>），两粒中子（<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%9A" title="氚">氚</a>）以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AB%E7%9A%84%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%8D%E7%B4%A0" title="氫的同位素">更多中子</a>。<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>原子序数从1（氢）到118（<a href="/wiki/Og" class="mw-redirect" title="Og">Og</a>）均为已知元素。<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>对于所有<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%BA%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="原子序">原子序</a>数大于<a href="/wiki/82" title="82">82</a>的同位素都有放射性。<a href="#cite_note-sills-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-dume-60">[60]</a> 地球上自然存在约<a href="/wiki/339" class="mw-redirect" title="339">339</a>种<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%B4%A0" title="核素">核素</a>，其中<a href="/wiki/255" title="255">255</a>种是稳定的，约占总数79%。<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>80种元素有一種或以上的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%B3%E5%AE%9A%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%8D%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="稳定同位素">稳定同位素</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E9%94%9D" title="锝">第43号元素</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%B7" title="钷">第61号元素</a>及所有原子序数大于等于<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%8B" title="铋">83</a>的元素没有稳定的同位素。有十六种元素只含有一个稳定的同位素，而拥有同位素最多的元素，<a href="/wiki/%E9%94%A1" title="锡">锡</a>，则有十个同位素。<a href="#cite_note-CRC-62">[62]</a> 同位素的稳定性不只受到质子数与中子数之比的影响，也受到所谓幻数的影响，实际上幻数就代表了全满的量子层。这些量子层对应于原子核层模型中一组能级。在已知的269种稳定核素中，只有四種同时有奇数粒质子和奇数粒中子。它们是<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A2" title="氢">2H</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E9%94%82" title="锂">6Li</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%BC" title="硼">10B</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AE" title="氮">14N</a>；对于放射性核素来说，也只有5种奇－奇核素的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E8%A1%B0%E6%9C%9F" title="半衰期">半衰期</a>超过一亿年：<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%BE" title="钾">40K</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E9%92%92" title="钒">50V</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E9%95%A7" title="镧">138La</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%A5" title="镥">176Lu</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%BD" title="钽">180mTa</a>。这是因为对于大多数奇－奇核素来说，很易会<a href="/wiki/%CE%92%E8%A1%B0%E5%8F%98" title="Β衰变">β衰变</a>，产生更稳定的偶－偶核素。<a href="#cite_note-CRC-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="质量">质量</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节：质量">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="原子質量">原子质量</a></div> 因为原子质量的绝大部分是质子和中子的质量，所以质子和中子数量的总和叫做<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F%E6%95%B8" title="質量數">质量数</a>。原子的静止质量通常用<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8F%E5%8D%95%E4%BD%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="原子质量单位">统一原子质量单位</a>（u）来表示，也称作道尔顿（Da）。这单位定义为电中性的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3-12" title="碳-12">碳12</a>质量的十二分之一，约为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.660\ 556\ 5\times 10^{-27}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.660</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>556</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mn>5</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>27</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.660\ 556\ 5\times 10^{-27}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3f901ed6809b7c1f1e019c7762c883784de8edf6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:19.428ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.660\ 556\ 5\times 10^{-27}}">公斤。<a href="#cite_note-iupac-63">[63]</a>氢最轻的同位素氕是最轻的原子，重约1.007825u。<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a>原子质量约是质量数与原子质量单位的乘积。<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>最重的稳定原子是铅-208，<a href="#cite_note-sills-59">[59]</a>质量为207.9766521u。<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>就算是最重的原子，化学家也很难直接操作之，所以它们通常使用另一单位，<a href="/wiki/%E6%91%A9%E5%B0%94_(%E5%8D%95%E4%BD%8D)" title="摩尔 (单位)">摩尔</a>，簡稱摩。摩的定义是对于任何元素，一摩总是有同样数量的原子，约<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 6.022\times 10^{23}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>6.022</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>23</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 6.022\times 10^{23}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7663925aca3d0b1b798d07f3fa7934c68bba2129" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:12.338ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 6.022\times 10^{23}}">。如果元素的原子质量为1u，一摩该原子的质量就为0.001kg，也就是1克。例如，碳的原子质量是12u，一摩碳的质量则是0.012kg。<a href="#cite_note-iupac-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="大小">大小</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节：大小">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8D%8A%E5%BE%84" title="原子半径">原子半径</a></div> 原子并没有精确定义的最外层，只有当两粒原子形成<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E9%94%AE" title="化学键">化学键</a>后，测量两粒原子核间的距离，才能得到原子半径的近似值。影响原子半径的因素很多，包括在<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E5%91%A8%E6%9C%9F%E8%A1%A8" title="元素周期表">元素周期表</a>的位置，化学键的类型，周围的原子数（配位数）以及<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B" title="自旋">自旋</a>。<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>在元素周期表中，原子的半径变化的大体趋势是自上而下增加，而从左至右减少。<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>因此，最小的原子是<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A6" title="氦">氦</a>，半径32pm；最大的原子是<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%AF" title="铯">铯</a>，半径为225pm。<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>因为这样的尺寸远远小于可见光的波长（约400-700nm），所以不能够通过<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="光学显微镜">光学显微镜</a>来观测它们。然而，使用<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%AB%E6%8F%8F%E9%9A%A7%E9%81%93%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="扫描隧道显微镜">扫描隧道显微镜</a>我们能够观察到单粒原子。 可以看到：原子的体积很小。一根人的<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%AD%E9%AB%AE" title="頭髮">头发</a>的直径大约是一百万粒原子。<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a>一滴水则大约有二十<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97" class="mw-redirect" title="中文数字">垓</a>（<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {2\times 10^{21}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>×</mo> <mn>10</mn> <msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>21</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {2\times 10^{21}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e31986152ecba50a73729dd9cc92da13a93c692d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.978ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {2\times 10^{21}}}}">）粒氧原子以及两倍的氢原子。<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>一<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E6%8B%89" title="克拉">克拉</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%92%BB%E7%9F%B3" title="钻石">钻石</a>重量为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2\times 10^{-4}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2\times 10^{-4}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b97aa9d75dd4460b58a81ec83563ee036ac3d938" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.661ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2\times 10^{-4}}">kg，含有约100垓粒碳原子。<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a>如果<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B9%E6%9E%9C" title="苹果">苹果</a>放大到<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83" title="地球">地球</a>的大小，苹果中的原子就大约有原来苹果那么大。<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="放射性">放射性</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节：放射性">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7" title="放射性">放射性</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isotopes_and_half-life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/280px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/420px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/560px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>这个图表展示了含有Z粒质子和N粒中子的同位素的半衰期（T½），单位是秒</figcaption></figure> 每种元素都有一个或以上同位素有不稳定的原子核，从而能放射性衰变，在这个过程中，原子核可释放出粒子或电磁辐射。原子核半径大于强力的作用半径时就可能會放射性衰变，而强力的作用半径仅为几飞米。<a href="#cite_note-splung-74">[74]</a> 最常见的放射性衰变如下：<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%91%E8%A1%B0%E5%8F%98" title="Α衰变">α衰变</a>：原子核释放一粒α粒子，即含有两粒质子和两粒中子的氦原子核。衰变产生<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%BA%8F%E6%95%B0" title="原子序数">原子序数</a>低一些的新元素。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%92%E8%A1%B0%E5%8F%98" title="Β衰变">β衰变</a>：弱相互作用的现象，过程中中子转变成质子或者质子转变成中子。前者亦释放一粒电子和一粒反中微子，后者则释放一粒正电子和一粒中微子。所释放的电子或正电子叫β粒子。因此，β衰变能够使得该原子的原子序数增加或减少一。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93%E8%A1%B0%E5%8F%98" class="mw-redirect" title="Γ衰变">γ衰变</a>：原子核的能级降低，释放出电磁波辐射，通常在释放了α粒子或β粒子后发生。</li></ul> 其它比较罕见的放射性衰变还包括：释放中子或质子，释放<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%AD%90" title="核子">核子</a>团或电子团，通过<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%86%85%E8%BD%AC%E6%8D%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="内转换（页面不存在）">内转换</a>产生高速的电子而非<a href="/wiki/%CE%92%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Β粒子">β射线</a>以及高能的光子而非伽马射线。 每一个放射性同位素都有一个特征衰变期间，即半衰期。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E8%A1%B0%E6%9C%9F" title="半衰期">半衰期</a>就是一半样品发生衰变所需要的时间。这是一种<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E8%A1%B0%E5%87%8F" title="指数衰减">指数衰减</a>，即样品在每一个半衰期内恒定的衰变50%，换句话说，当两次半衰期之后，就只剩下25%的起始同位素了。<a href="#cite_note-splung-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="磁矩">磁矩</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节：磁矩">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E5%81%B6%E6%9E%81%E7%9F%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="电磁偶极矩（页面不存在）">电磁偶极矩</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A0%B8%E7%A3%81%E7%9F%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="核磁矩（页面不存在）">核磁矩</a></div> 基本微粒都有一个固有性质，就像在宏观物理中围绕<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%A8%E5%BF%83" class="mw-redirect" title="质心">质心</a>旋转的物体都有<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E5%8A%A8%E9%87%8F" title="角动量">角动量</a>一样，在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="量子力学">量子力学</a>叫<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B" title="自旋">自旋</a>。但是严格来说，这些微粒仅仅是一些点，不能够旋转。自旋的单位是<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B%E5%B8%B8%E6%95%B0" title="普朗克常数">约化普朗克常数</a>（<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \hbar }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \hbar }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/de68de3a92517953436c93b5a76461d49160cc41" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.306ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \hbar }">），电子、质子和中子的自旋都是½<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \hbar }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \hbar }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/de68de3a92517953436c93b5a76461d49160cc41" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.306ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \hbar }">。在原子里，电子围绕原子核运动，所以除了自旋，它们还有<a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%8C%E8%A7%92%E5%8B%95%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="軌角動量">轨道角动量</a>。而对于原子核来说，轨道角动量是起源于自身的自旋。<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> 正如旋转的带电物体能够产生<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%A0%B4" title="磁場">磁场</a>一样，原子所产生的磁场，即它的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E7%9F%A9" title="磁矩">磁矩</a>，就是由这些不同的角动量决定的。然后，自旋对它的影响应该是最大的。因为电子的一个性质就是要符合<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A1%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%8D%E7%9B%B8%E5%AE%B9%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="泡利不相容原理">泡利不相容原理</a>，即不能有两粒位于同样量子态的电子，所以当电子成对时，总是一个自旋朝上而另外一个自旋朝下。这样，它们产生的磁场相互抵消。对于某些带有偶数电子的原子，总的磁偶极矩会减少至零。<a href="#cite_note-schroeder-78">[78]</a> 对于<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%81%E7%A3%81%E6%80%A7" title="铁磁性">铁磁</a>元素，例如铁，电子总数为奇数，会产生净磁矩。同时，因为相邻原子轨道重叠等原因，当未成对电子都朝向同一个方向时，体系的总能量最低，这个过程称为<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="交换相互作用（页面不存在）">交换相互作用</a>。当这些铁磁性元素的磁动量都统一朝向后，整个材料就会拥有一个宏观可以测量的磁场。<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%86%E7%A3%81%E6%80%A7" title="順磁性">顺磁性</a>材料中，在没有外部磁场的情况下，原子磁矩都是随机分布的；施加了外部磁场以后，所有原子都会统一朝向，产生磁场。<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-schroeder-78">[78]</a> 原子核也可以存在净自旋。由于<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%AD%E5%B9%B3%E8%A1%A1%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="热平衡定律">热平衡</a>，这些原子核通常都随机朝向。但一些元素，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%99" title="氙">氙</a>-129，一部分核自旋也可能<a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%81%E5%8C%96" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="极化">极化</a>，这状态叫做<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E6%9E%81%E5%8C%96_(%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超极化 (物理学)（页面不存在）">超极化</a>，在<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%A3%81%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E6%88%90%E5%83%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="核磁共振成像">核磁共振成像</a>中有很重要的用途。<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="能-{zh:級;zh-hans:級;zh-hant:級;zh-cn:级;zh-tw:階;zh-hk:級;zh-sg:級;zh-mo:級;}-">能級</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节：能級">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E7%B4%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="能級">能級</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%B0%B1%E7%BA%BF" title="原子谱线">原子谱线</a></div> 原子中，电子的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%BF%E8%83%BD" title="势能">势能</a>与它离原子核的距离成反比。测量电子的势能，通常的测量将让该电子脱离原子所需要的能量，单位是<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E4%BC%8F%E7%89%B9" title="電子伏特">电子伏特</a>（eV）。在量子力学模型中，电子只能占据一组以原子核为中心的状态，每一个状态就对应于一个能级。最低的能级就叫做基态，而更高的能级就叫做激发态。<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> 电子要在两个能级之间跃迁的前提是它要吸收或者释放能量，该能量还必须要和这两个能级之间的能量差一致。因为释放的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89" title="光">光</a>子能量只与光子的频率有关，并且能级是不连续的，所以在<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E6%B3%A2%E8%AD%9C" title="電磁波譜">电磁波谱</a>中就会出现一些不连续的带。<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>每種元素都有特征波谱，特征波谱取决于核电荷的多少，电子的填充情况，电子间的电磁相互作用以及一些其他的因素。<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fraunhofer_lines.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/300px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/450px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/600px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>吸收谱线的例子：太陽的夫朗和斐譜線</figcaption></figure> 当一束全谱的光经过一团气体或者一团等离子体后，原子会吸收一些光子，使得这些原子内的电子跃迁。而在激发态的电子则会自发的返回低能态，能量差作为光子释放至随机方向。前者就使那些原子有了类似于滤镜的功能，观测者在最后接收到的光谱中会发现一些黑色的<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B8%E6%94%B6%E9%A2%91%E5%B8%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="吸收频带">吸收能带</a>。而后者能够使那些与光线不在同一条直线上的观察者观察到一些不连续的谱线，实际就是那些原子的<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E5%B0%84%E8%AD%9C%E7%B7%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="發射譜線">发射谱线</a>。用光谱学测量这些谱线就可知该物质的组成以及物理性质。<a href="#cite_note-">[85]</a> 仔细分析谱线后，科学家发现一些谱线有着<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E7%B4%B0%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="精細結構">精细结构</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A3%82%E5%88%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="裂分（页面不存在）">裂分</a>。这是因为自旋与最外层电子运动间的相互作用，也称作<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B-%E8%BB%8C%E9%81%93%E8%80%A6%E5%90%88" class="mw-redirect" title="自旋-軌道耦合">自旋-轨道耦合</a>。<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a>当原子位于外部磁场中时，谱线能够裂分成三个或多个部分，这现象叫<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E6%9B%BC%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" title="塞曼效应">塞曼效应</a>，其原因是原子的磁矩及其电子与外部磁场的相互作用。一些原子拥有许多相同能级电子排布，因而只产生一条谱线。当这些原子安置在外部<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%A0%B4" title="磁場">磁场</a>中时，这几种电子排布的能级就有了一些细小区别，这样就出现了裂分。<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a>外部电场也能导致类似的现象发生，成为<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A1%94%E5%85%8B%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" title="斯塔克效应">斯塔克效应</a>。<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> 如果一粒电子在激发态，一粒有恰当能量的光子能够使得该电子<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%97%E6%BF%80%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84" class="mw-redirect" title="受激辐射">受激辐射</a>，释放出一粒拥有相同能量的光子，其前提就是电子返回低能级所释放出来的能量必须要与之作用的光子的能量一致。此时，受激释放的光子与原光子向同一个方向运动，也就是说这两粒光子的波是同步的。利用这个原理，人们设计出了<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%85%89" title="激光">激光</a>，用来产生一束拥有很窄频率<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%B9%B2%E6%80%A7" title="相干性">相干</a>光源。<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="化合价">化合价</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节：化合价">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%90%88%E4%BB%B7" title="化合价">化合价</a></div> 单粒原子的电子层最外层一般称为价层，其中的电子称为<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%B7%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="价电子">价电子</a>。价电子粒数决定了这原子与其他原子成<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E9%94%AE" title="化学键">键</a>的性质。原子能发生化学反应的一个统一趋势是使其价层全满或者全空。<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="元素">化学元素</a>通常写在化学周期表中，用来表明它们有周期重复的一些化学性质。通常，拥有相同数量价电子的元素形成一组，在元素周期表中占相同的一列。而元素周期表中的横排则与量子层的电子填充情况相对应。周期表最右边的元素价层都全满，它们在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%8D%E5%BA%94" title="化学反应">化学反应</a>中表现出一定的惰性，称为<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%80%E6%9C%89%E6%B0%94%E4%BD%93" title="稀有气体">惰性气体</a>。<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="态">态</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=17" title="编辑章节：态">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BD%A2%E6%80%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="形态（页面不存在）">形态</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E6%80%81" class="mw-redirect" title="相态">相态</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/250px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/375px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/500px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>能够阐明<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%87%9D%E8%81%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚">玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚态</a>形成的截图。</figcaption></figure> 物质很多不同的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8_(%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8)" title="相 (物质)">相态</a>之中都存在原子，这些相态都由一定的物理条件所决定，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%A9%E5%BA%A6" title="温度">温度</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%8B%E5%BC%BA" title="压强">压强</a>。通过改变这些条件，物质可以在<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E4%BD%93" title="固体">固体</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B6%B2%E4%BD%93" title="液体">液体</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%94%E4%BD%93" title="气体">气体</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E7%AD%89%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%93" title="等离子体">等离子体</a>之间转换。<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a>在同一种相态中，物质也可以有不同的形态，例如固态的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3" title="碳">碳</a>就有<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E5%A2%A8" title="石墨">石墨</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%BB%E7%9F%B3" title="钻石">金刚石</a>两种形态。<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> 当温度很靠近<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%9D%E5%AF%B9%E9%9B%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="绝对零度">绝对零度</a>时，原子可以形成<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%87%9D%E8%81%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚">玻斯－爱因斯坦凝聚态</a>。<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>这些超冷的原子可视为<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="超原子">超原子</a>，使得科学家可以研究量子力学的一些基本原理。<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="测定">测定</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=18" title="编辑章节：测定">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/250px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/375px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>扫描隧道显微镜图片，显示了组成<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91" title="金">Au</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%86%E5%8B%92%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0" title="密勒指数">100</a>）的单粒金原子。</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/%E6%89%AB%E6%8F%8F%E9%9A%A7%E9%81%93%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="扫描隧道显微镜">扫描隧道显微镜</a>是用来在原子級數观测物体表面的仪器。它利用了<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E7%A9%BF%E9%9A%A7%E6%95%88%E6%87%89" title="量子穿隧效應">量子穿隧效应</a>，使电子能穿越平时不能克服的障碍。在操作中，电子能够隧穿介于两塊平面金属电极间的真空。每塊电极表面吸附有一粒原子，使得穿隧电流密度大到可以测量。扫描時保持电流恒定，可以得到探针末端上下位移与横向位移间关系的图。计算证明扫描隧道显微镜所得到的显微图像能够分辨出单粒原子。在低偏差的情况下，显微图像显示的是对相近能级的电子轨道的一种空间平均后的尺寸，这些相近的能级也就是<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3%E8%83%BD" title="费米能">费米能</a>中的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8%E6%80%81%E5%AF%86%E5%BA%A6" title="局部态密度">局部态密度</a>。<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> 原子失去电子时就<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A6%BB" title="电离">电离</a>了。这多余的电荷會偏折它在磁场运行的轨迹。这偏转角度由原子质量决定。<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%A8%E8%B0%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="质谱">质谱仪</a>就用这原理测定离子的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%B7%E8%B4%A8%E6%AF%94" title="荷质比">质荷比</a>。如果样品里有多种同位素，质谱可以通过测量不同离子束的强度来推导同位素的比例。使原子气化的技术包括<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E6%84%9F%E8%80%A6%E5%90%88%E7%AD%89%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%93%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%91%E5%B0%84%E5%85%89%E8%B0%B1" title="电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱">电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E6%84%9F%E8%80%A6%E5%90%88%E7%AD%89%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%93%E8%B4%A8%E8%B0%B1%E6%B3%95" title="电感耦合等离子体质谱法">电感耦合等离子体质谱法</a>。这两种技术都使用了气态或等离子态的样品。<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> 另一有侷限的方法是<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F%E6%8D%9F%E5%A4%B1%E8%B0%B1" title="电子能量损失谱">电子能量损失谱</a>，它是通过测量透射电子显微镜中电子束穿越一个样品后所损失的能量。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%8E%A2%E9%92%88&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="原子探针（页面不存在）">原子探针显像</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_probe" class="extiw" title="en:Atom probe">Atom probe</a>）具有三维亚纳米级的分辨率，也可以通过<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%A3%9E%E8%A1%8C%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E8%B4%A8%E8%B0%B1%E4%BB%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="飞行时间质谱仪（页面不存在）">飞行时间质谱仪</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-of-flight_mass_spectrometry" class="extiw" title="en:Time-of-flight mass spectrometry">Time-of-flight mass spectrometry</a>）来鉴定单粒的原子。<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%8F%91%E6%80%81" title="激发态">激发态</a>光谱可以用来研究远距离<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%92%E6%98%9F" title="恒星">恒星</a>的元素组成。观测来自恒星的光谱中特殊的波长，可以得到气体状态下原子的量子转变。使用同种元素的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A3%E9%AB%94%E6%94%BE%E9%9B%BB%E7%87%88" title="氣體放電燈">气体放电灯</a>，可以得到相同的颜色。<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A6" title="氦">氦</a>元素就是以这种手段在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%98%B3" title="太阳">太阳</a>的光谱中发现，比在地球上发现早了23年。<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="起源和现状">起源和现状</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=19" title="编辑章节：起源和现状">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="核合成">核合成</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=20" title="编辑章节：核合成">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%90%88%E6%88%90" title="核合成">核合成</a></div> 稳定的质子和电子在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%88%86%E7%82%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="大爆炸理论">大爆炸</a>后的一秒钟内出现。在接下来的三分钟之内，<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E5%88%9D%E6%A0%B8%E5%90%88%E6%88%90" title="太初核合成">太初核合成</a>产生了宇宙中大部分的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A6" title="氦">氦</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%94%82" title="锂">锂</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%98" title="氘">氘</a>，有可能也产生了一些<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%8D" title="铍">铍</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%A1%BC" title="硼">硼</a>。<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a>在理论上，最初的原子（有束缚的电子）是在大爆炸后大约38万年产生的，这个时代称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E8%A1%A8" title="宇宙时间表">重新结合</a>，在这时宇宙已经冷却到足以使电子与原子核结合了。<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>自从那时候开始，原子核就开始在<a href="/wiki/%E6%81%92%E6%98%9F" title="恒星">恒星</a>中通过<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E8%81%9A%E5%8F%98" title="核聚变">核聚变</a>的过程结合，产生直到铁的元素。<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> 像锂-6那样的同位素是在太空中通过<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%B0%84%E7%B7%9A%E6%95%A3%E8%A3%82" title="宇宙射線散裂">宇宙射线散裂</a>产生的。<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>这种现象在高能量的质子撞击原子核时会发生，射出大量核子。比铁重的元素在<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%96%B0%E6%98%9F" title="超新星">超新星</a>中通过<a href="/wiki/R-%E9%81%8E%E7%A8%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="R-過程">r-过程</a>产生，或在<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%B8%E8%BF%91%E5%B7%A8%E6%98%9F%E5%88%86%E6%94%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="漸近巨星分支">AGB星</a>中通过<a href="/wiki/S-%E9%81%8E%E7%A8%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="S-過程">s-过程</a>产生，两种过程中原子核都會捕获中子。<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>像<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%85" title="铅">铅</a>那样的元素，大都是从更重的元素通过<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7%E8%A1%B0%E8%AE%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="放射性衰變">核衰变</a>产生的。<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="地球">地球</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=21" title="编辑章节：地球">编辑</a>]</div> 大部分组成地球及其居民的原子，都是在太阳系刚形成的时候就已经存在了。还有一部分的原子是核衰变的结果，它们的相对比例可以用来通过<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E6%80%A7%E5%AE%9A%E5%B9%B4%E6%B3%95" title="放射性定年法">放射性定年法</a>决定<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E7%9A%84%E5%B9%B4%E9%BD%A1" title="地球的年齡">地球的年龄</a>。<a href="#cite_note-Manuel_2001-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>大部分地壳中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A6" title="氦">氦</a>都是<a href="/wiki/%CE%91%E8%A1%B0%E5%8F%98" title="Α衰变">α衰变</a>的产物。<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> 地球上有很少的原子既不是在一开始就存在的，也不是放射性衰变的结果。<a href="/wiki/%E7%A2%B3-14" title="碳-14">碳-14</a>是大气中的宇宙射线所产生的。<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a>有些地球上的原子是核反应堆或核爆炸的产物，要么是特意制造的，要么是副产物。<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a>在所有<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E9%93%80%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="超铀元素">超铀元素</a>──原子序数大于92的元素中，只有<a href="/wiki/%E9%92%9A" title="钚">钚</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%8E" title="镎">镎</a>在地球中自然出现。<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a>超铀元素的寿命比地球现在的年龄短<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a>，因此许多这类的元素都早已衰变了，只有微量的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%92%9A-244&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="钚-244（页面不存在）">钚-244</a>例外<a href="#cite_note-Manuel_2001-112">[112]</a>。钚和镎的自然矿藏是在铀矿中通过<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90%E4%BF%98%E8%8E%B7" title="中子俘获">中子俘获</a>产生的。<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> 地球有约<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.33\times 10^{50}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.33</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>50</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.33\times 10^{50}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e6767795a9decb46aa335bbaa49c9c6735b10c40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:11.176ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.33\times 10^{50}}">粒原子。<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a>地球大气层有少量<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%80%E6%9C%89%E6%B0%94%E4%BD%93" title="稀有气体">惰性气体</a>原子，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A9" title="氩">氩</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%96" title="氖">氖</a>。大气层剩下的99%的部分，是以分子的形式束缚的，包括<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%A2%B3" title="二氧化碳">二氧化碳</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="双原子分子">双原子</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A7%E6%B0%94" title="氧气">氧气</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AE" title="氮">氮气</a>。在地球表面，原子结合并形成了各种各样的化合物，包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B4" title="水">水</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%90_(%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6)" title="盐 (化学)">盐</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%BD%E9%85%B8%E9%B9%BD" title="矽酸鹽">硅酸盐</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A7%E5%8C%96%E7%89%A9" title="氧化物">氧化物</a>。原子也可以结合起来组成不含独立分子的物质，包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93" title="晶体">晶体</a>和液态或固态<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%B1%9E" title="金属">金属</a>。<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="罕见和理论形式">罕见和理论形式</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=22" title="编辑章节：罕见和理论形式">编辑</a>]</div> 虽然原子序数大于82（<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%85" title="铅">铅</a>）的元素已知有放射性，但是对于原子序数大于103的元素，提出了“<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%B3%E5%AE%9A%E5%B2%9B" title="稳定岛">稳定岛</a>”的概念。这些<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E9%87%8D%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" title="超重元素">超重元素</a>中可能有原子核相对来说比其它原子核稳定。<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a>最有可能的稳定超重元素是<a href="/wiki/Ubh" title="Ubh">Ubh</a>，它有126粒质子和184粒中子。<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> 各種粒子都有对应的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="反物质">反物质</a>粒子，电荷相反；<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="正電子">正电子</a>就是带有正电荷的反电子，反质子就是与质子对等，但带有负电荷的粒子。不知道什么原因，宇宙中反物质非常稀少，在自然界没有发现任何反原子。<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>然而，1996年，在<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E5%86%85%E7%93%A6" title="日内瓦">日内瓦</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2%E6%A0%B8%E5%AD%90%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94" title="歐洲核子研究組織">欧洲核子研究中心</a>，首次合成了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E6%B0%AB" title="反氫">反氢</a>──氢的反物质。<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> 把原子中的质子、中子或电子用相等电荷的其它粒子代替，可以形成<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="奇異原子">奇异原子</a>。例如，可以把电子用质量更大的<a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E5%AD%90" title="Μ子">緲子</a>代替，形成<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B7%B2%E5%AD%90%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="緲子原子（页面不存在）">緲子原子</a>。这些类型的原子可以用来测试物理学的基本预言。<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参阅">参阅</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=23" title="编辑章节：参阅">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82553231">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tr>td,.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important;padding:0!important}}.mw-parser-output table.multicol{border:0;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:transparent;color:inherit;padding:0}.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tr>td,.mw-parser-output table.multicol>tbody>tr>td{vertical-align:top!important}</style> <div> <table class="multicol" role="presentation" style="width:100%;"><tbody><tr> <td style="width: 33.33%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="元素">元素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E7%B4%A0%E5%91%A8%E6%9C%9F%E8%A1%A8" title="元素周期表">元素周期表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="原子物理学">原子物理學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E6%8E%92%E5%B8%83" title="电子排布">电子排布</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="width: 33.33%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">電子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">中子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">質子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="夸克">夸克</a></li></ul> </td> <td style="width: 33.33%;text-align: left;vertical-align: top;"> <div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal plainlist tright" style="margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px"> <ul style="display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:var(--background-color-base,#f9f9f9);font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-weight:bold"> <li style="display:table-row"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:科学">科学主题</a></li> <li style="display:table-row"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/25px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/37px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/49px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:物理学">物理学主题</a></li> <li style="display:table-row"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/28px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/42px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/56px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:化学">化学主题</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="离子">离子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E4%BA%91" title="电子云">电子云</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E6%9C%97" class="mw-redirect" title="埃格斯特朗">埃格斯特朗</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献">参考文献</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=24" title="编辑章节：参考文献">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="引用">引用</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=25" title="编辑章节：引用">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Champion, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000620041650/https://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/oct98/905633072.As.r.html">Re: How many atoms make up the universe?</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=MadSci_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MadSci Network（页面不存在）">MadSci Network</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MadSci_Network" class="extiw" title="en:MadSci Network">MadSci Network</a>）. 1998-09-11 [2024-07-09]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/oct98/905633072.As.r.html">原始内容</a>存档于2000-06-20） （英语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Re%3A+How+many+atoms+make+up+the+universe%3F&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.aulast=Champion&rft.date=1998-09-11&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-all+%22+data-orig-title%3D%22MadSci+Network%22+data-lang-code%3D%22en%22+data-lang-name%3D%22%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD%22+data-foreign-title%3D%22MadSci+Network%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-page%22%3EMadSci+Network%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22noprint+ilh-comment%22%3E%EF%BC%88%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-lang%22%3E%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-colon%22%3E%EF%BC%9A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22ilh-link%22%3E-%7B%3Cspan+lang%3D%22en%22+dir%3D%22auto%22%3EMadSci+Network%3C%2Fspan%3E%7D-%3C%2Fspan%3E%EF%BC%89%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.madsci.org%2Fposts%2Farchives%2Foct98%2F905633072.As.r.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <cite class="citation web">吴岳良. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200524144829/http://www.itp.cas.cn/xshd/xshy/201003/W020100319655766305624.pdf">“两暗一新”暗物质、暗能量、新理论</a> (PDF). 中国科学院理论物理研究所. 2010-03-18 [2022-05-18]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itp.cas.cn/xshd/xshy/201003/W020100319655766305624.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2020-05-24） （中文（简体））. <q>可见宇宙有普通物质（ORDINARY MATTER）和普通能量（ORDINARY ENERGY），黑暗宇宙有暗物质（DARK MATTER）和暗能量（DARK ENERGY）</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=%E5%90%B4%E5%B2%B3%E8%89%AF&rft.btitle=%E2%80%9C%E4%B8%A4%E6%9A%97%E4%B8%80%E6%96%B0%E2%80%9D%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8%E3%80%81%E6%9A%97%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F%E3%80%81%E6%96%B0%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&rft.date=2010-03-18&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%80&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itp.cas.cn%2Fxshd%2Fxshy%2F201003%2FW020100319655766305624.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <cite class="citation web">時時. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dq.yam.com/post/9073">「這應該是不可能的」科學家發現不含暗物質的神秘星系</a>. 地球圖輯隊. 2018-04-02 [2022-05-18] （中文（繁體））. <q>銀河系的暗物質比肉眼看得到的普通物質（ordinary matter）在整體的質量上多了 30倍。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=%E6%99%82%E6%99%82&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8C%E9%80%99%E6%87%89%E8%A9%B2%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%AF%E8%83%BD%E7%9A%84%E3%80%8D%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6%E7%99%BC%E7%8F%BE%E4%B8%8D%E5%90%AB%E6%9A%97%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA%E7%9A%84%E7%A5%9E%E7%A7%98%E6%98%9F%E7%B3%BB&rft.date=2018-04-02&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E5%9C%96%E8%BC%AF%E9%9A%8A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdq.yam.com%2Fpost%2F9073&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> McSween Jr H, Huss G. Cosmochemistry[M]. Cambridge University Press, 2021. p. 419 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/1ae22905038ee57da8b6e89c62ceb484/?seq=1">存档副本</a>. [2023-08-04]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230804013209/https://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/1ae22905038ee57da8b6e89c62ceb484/?seq=1">存档</a>于2023-08-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=%E5%AD%98%E6%A1%A3%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fterms.naer.edu.tw%2Fdetail%2F1ae22905038ee57da8b6e89c62ceb484%2F%3Fseq%3D1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Scientific American. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificameric00scie_0">Scientific American Science Desk Reference</a>. Wiley. 1999: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificameric00scie_0/page/62">62</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780471356752" title="Special:网络书源/9780471356752">ISBN 9780471356752</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Scientific+American&rft.btitle=Scientific+American+Science+Desk+Reference&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9780471356752&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Wiley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificameric00scie_0&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Haubold, Hans; Mathai, AM. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081001172401/http://www.columbia.edu/~ah297/unesa/universe/universe-chapter3.html">Microcosmos: From Leucippus to Yukawa</a>. Structure of the Universe. Common Sense Science. 1998 [2008-01-17]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~ah297/unesa/universe/universe-chapter3.html">原始内容</a>存档于2008-10-01）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Microcosmos%3A+From+Leucippus+to+Yukawa&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft.aulast=Haubold&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Structure+of+the+Universe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2F~ah297%2Funesa%2Funiverse%2Funiverse-chapter3.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Harrison (2003:123–139 ). </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> 大部分同位素中核子（原子核内质子与中子之和）比電子多。以氫-1為例，只有一個電子和核子（质子），則質子重量是總質量的<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{smallmatrix}{\frac {1836}{1837}}\approx 0.9995\end{smallmatrix}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle scriptlevel="1"> <mtable rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="0.333em" displaystyle="false"> <mtr> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1836</mn> <mn>1837</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>≈</mo> <mn>0.9995</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{smallmatrix}{\frac {1836}{1837}}\approx 0.9995\end{smallmatrix}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2c1a4c895841fe48e2af860087e76da15fba7346" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:10.103ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{smallmatrix}{\frac {1836}{1837}}\approx 0.9995\end{smallmatrix}}}">或99.95 % </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/nuclearstability.html">Radioactive Decays</a>. Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford University. 2007-08-01 [2007-01-02]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090607115741/http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/nuclearstability.html">存档</a>于2009-06-07）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Staff&rft.btitle=Radioactive+Decays&rft.date=2007-08-01&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Stanford+Linear+Accelerator+Center%2C+Stanford+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.slac.stanford.edu%2Fvvc%2Ftheory%2Fnuclearstability.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Ponomarev-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Ponomarev_11-0">^</a> Ponomarev (1993:14–15). </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=atom&allowed_in_frame=0">atom</a>. <a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a>. [2015-02-09]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320010327/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=atom&allowed_in_frame=0">存档</a>于2015-03-20）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=atom&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Datom%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-245-292909.html">古希腊原子论的科学意义：由基本的物质微粒解释宏观经验现象</a>. 静思--<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2" title="中国科学院">中科院</a>研究生院教授，博士生导师. [2010-02-05]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210614021516/http://blog.sciencenet.cn/blog-245-292909.html">存档</a>于2021-06-14）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%BA%E7%9A%84%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%84%8F%E4%B9%89%EF%BC%9A%E7%94%B1%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%9A%84%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8%E5%BE%AE%E7%B2%92%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8A%E5%AE%8F%E8%A7%82%E7%BB%8F%E9%AA%8C%E7%8E%B0%E8%B1%A1&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=%E9%9D%99%E6%80%9D--%E4%B8%AD%E7%A7%91%E9%99%A2%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E7%94%9F%E9%99%A2%E6%95%99%E6%8E%88%EF%BC%8C%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E7%94%9F%E5%AF%BC%E5%B8%88&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.sciencenet.cn%2Fblog-245-292909.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Siegfried (2002:42–55). </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/EA/LAVPREFann.HTML">Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry</a>. Elements and Atoms. Le Moyne College, Department of Chemistry. [2007-12-18]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070501102647/http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/EA/LAVPREFann.HTML">存档</a>于2007-05-01）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Lavoisier%27s+Elements+of+Chemistry&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Elements+and+Atoms&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.lemoyne.edu%2F~GIUNTA%2FEA%2FLAVPREFann.HTML&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Wurtz (1881:1–2). </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Dalton (1808). </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Einstein, Albert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060318060724/http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/papers/1905_17_549-560.pdf">Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen</a> (PDF). Annalen der Physik. 1905年5月, 322 (8): 549–560 [2007-02-04]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..549E">Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220806">doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806</a>. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/annalen/history/papers/1905_17_549-560.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2006-03-18） （德语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+von+der+molekularkinetischen+Theorie+der+W%C3%A4rme+geforderte+Bewegung+von+in+ruhenden+Fl%C3%BCssigkeiten+suspendierten+Teilchen&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.date=1905-05&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=8&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.pages=549-560&rft.volume=322&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physik.uni-augsburg.de%2Fannalen%2Fhistory%2Fpapers%2F1905_17_549-560.pdf&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1905AnP...322..549E&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19053220806&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Mazo (2002:1–7). </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Lee, Y. K.; Hoon, Kelvin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218061408/http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html">Brownian Motion</a>. Imperial College, London. 1995 [2007-12-18]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html">原始内容</a>存档于2007-12-18）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Y.+K.&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.btitle=Brownian+Motion&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Imperial+College%2C+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doc.ic.ac.uk%2F~nd%2Fsurprise_95%2Fjournal%2Fvol4%2Fykl%2Freport.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel1096-21"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel1096_21-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web">The Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html">J.J. Thomson</a>. Nobelprize.org. 1906 [2007-12-20]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/6GYgrNSic?url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html">存档</a>于2013-05-12）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft.btitle=J.J.+Thomson&rft.date=1906&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Nobelprize.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1906%2Fthomson-bio.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Rutherford, E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205100120/http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911.html">The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom</a>. Philosophical Magazine. 1911, 21: 669–88 [2008-01-18]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911.html">原始内容</a>存档于2007-02-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Scattering+of+%CE%B1+and+%CE%B2+Particles+by+Matter+and+the+Structure+of+the+Atom&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.date=1911&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.pages=669-88&rft.volume=21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us%2Fwebdocs%2FChem-History%2FRutherford-1911%2FRutherford-1911.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy-bio.html">Frederick Soddy, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921</a>. Nobel Foundation. [2008-01-18]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409210519/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy-bio.html">存档</a>于2008-04-09）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Frederick+Soddy%2C+The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1921&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1921%2Fsoddy-bio.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Thomson, Joseph John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/canal.html">Rays of positive electricity</a>. Proceedings of the Royal Society. 1913, A 89: 1–20 [2007-01-18]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190308014919/http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/canal.html">存档</a>于2019-03-08）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Rays+of+positive+electricity&rft.aufirst=Joseph+John&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.date=1913&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.pages=1-20&rft.volume=A+89&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.lemoyne.edu%2F~giunta%2Fcanal.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Stern, David P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Q5.htm">The Atomic Nucleus and Bohr's Early Model of the Atom</a>. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 2005-05-16 [2007-12-20]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070820084047/http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Q5.htm">存档</a>于2007-08-20）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Nucleus+and+Bohr%27s+Early+Model+of+the+Atom&rft.date=2005-05-16&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=NASA+Goddard+Space+Flight+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fstargaze%2FQ5.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Bohr, Niels. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1922/bohr-lecture.html">Niels Bohr, The Nobel Prize in Physics 1922, Nobel Lecture</a>. The Nobel Foundation. 1922-12-11 [2008-02-16]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415183736/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1922/bohr-lecture.html">存档</a>于2008-04-15）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Niels&rft.aulast=Bohr&rft.btitle=Niels+Bohr%2C+The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1922%2C+Nobel+Lecture&rft.date=1922-12-11&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1922%2Fbohr-lecture.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Lewis, Gilbert N. The Atom and the Molecule. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1916年4月, 38 (4): 762–786. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja02261a002">doi:10.1021/ja02261a002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Atom+and+the+Molecule&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+N.&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.date=1916-04&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.pages=762-786&rft.volume=38&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja02261a002&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Scerri, Eric R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/periodictableits00scer">The Periodic Table</a>. Oxford University Press US. 2007: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/periodictableits00scer/page/n227">205</a>–226. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0195305736" title="Special:网络书源/0195305736">ISBN 0195305736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Eric+R.&rft.aulast=Scerri&rft.btitle=The+Periodic+Table&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0195305736&rft.pages=205-226&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fperiodictableits00scer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Langmuir, Irving. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081210082018/http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Langmuir-1919b.html">The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules</a>. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1919, 41 (6): 868–934 [2008-09-01]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Langmuir-1919b.html">原始内容</a>存档于2008-12-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Arrangement+of+Electrons+in+Atoms+and+Molecules&rft.aufirst=Irving&rft.aulast=Langmuir&rft.date=1919&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.pages=868-934&rft.volume=41&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us%2Fwebdocs%2FChem-History%2FLangmuir-1919b.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Brown, Kevin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath538/kmath538.htm">The Hydrogen Atom</a>. MathPages. 2007 [2007-12-21]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513082947/http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath538/kmath538.htm">存档</a>于2008-05-13）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.btitle=The+Hydrogen+Atom&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=MathPages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mathpages.com%2Fhome%2Fkmath538%2Fkmath538.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Harrison, David M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/DevelQM/DevelQM.html">The Development of Quantum Mechanics</a>. University of Toronto. 2000年3月 [2007-12-21]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071225095938/http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/DevelQM/DevelQM.html">存档</a>于2007-12-25）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Quantum+Mechanics&rft.date=2000-03&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upscale.utoronto.ca%2FGeneralInterest%2FHarrison%2FDevelQM%2FDevelQM.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Aston, Francis W. The constitution of atmospheric neon. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_Magazine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical Magazine（页面不存在）">Philosophical Magazine</a>. 1920, 39 (6): 449–55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+constitution+of+atmospheric+neon&rft.aufirst=Francis+W.&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.date=1920&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.pages=449-55&rft.volume=39&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Chadwick, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1935/chadwick-lecture.html">Nobel Lecture: The Neutron and Its Properties</a>. Nobel Foundation. 1935-12-12 [2007-12-21]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012100351/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1935/chadwick-lecture.html">存档</a>于2007-10-12）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=James&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.btitle=Nobel+Lecture%3A+The+Neutron+and+Its+Properties&rft.date=1935-12-12&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1935%2Fchadwick-lecture.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Kullander, Sven. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/kullander/">Accelerators and Nobel Laureates</a>. The Nobel Foundation. 2001-08-28 [2008-01-31]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080413064924/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/kullander/">存档</a>于2008-04-13）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Sven&rft.aulast=Kullander&rft.btitle=Accelerators+and+Nobel+Laureates&rft.date=2001-08-28&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Farticles%2Fkullander%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1990/press.html">The Nobel Prize in Physics 1990</a>. The Nobel Foundation. 1990-10-17 [2008-01-31]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514100040/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1990/press.html">存档</a>于2008-05-14）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Staff&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1990&rft.date=1990-10-17&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1990%2Fpress.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1997/">The Nobel Prize in Physics 1997</a>. Nobel Foundation. 1997-10-15 [2008-02-10]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409211854/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1997/">存档</a>于2008-04-09）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Staff&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1997&rft.date=1997-10-15&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1997%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Park, Jiwoong; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.417..722P">Coulomb blockade and the Kondo effect in single-atom transistors</a>. Nature. 2002, 417 (6890): 722–25 [2008-01-03]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.417..722P">Bibcode:2002Natur.417..722P</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature00791">doi:10.1038/nature00791</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080112041123/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.417..722P">存档</a>于2008-01-12）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Coulomb+blockade+and+the+Kondo+effect+in+single-atom+transistors&rft.au=Park%2C+Jiwoong&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=6890&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=722-25&rft.volume=417&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F2002Natur.417..722P&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.417..722P&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature00791&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E6%98%BE%E5%BC%8F%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E7%AD%89%E6%A0%87%E7%AD%BE" title="Category:引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Domokos, P.; Janszky, J.; Adam, P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhRvA..50.3340D">Single-atom interference method for generating Fock states</a>. Physical Review a. 1994, 50: 3340–44 [2008-01-03]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhRvA..50.3340D">Bibcode:1994PhRvA..50.3340D</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevA.50.3340">doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.50.3340</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005050018/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhRvA..50.3340D">存档</a>于2018-10-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Single-atom+interference+method+for+generating+Fock+states&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.aulast=Domokos&rft.date=1994&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+a&rft.pages=3340-44&rft.volume=50&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1994PhRvA..50.3340D&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994PhRvA..50.3340D&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevA.50.3340&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Woan (2000:8). </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> MacGregor (1992:33–37). </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Particle Data Group. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.particleadventure.org/">The Particle Adventure</a>. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. 2002 [2007-01-03]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070104075936/http://www.particleadventure.org/">存档</a>于2007-01-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Particle+Data+Group&rft.btitle=The+Particle+Adventure&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Lawrence+Berkeley+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.particleadventure.org%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Schombert, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html">Elementary Particles</a>. University of Oregon. 2006-04-18 [2007-01-03]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/616PzI2QM?url=http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html">存档</a>于2011-08-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=James&rft.aulast=Schombert&rft.btitle=Elementary+Particles&rft.date=2006-04-18&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Oregon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabyss.uoregon.edu%2F~js%2Fast123%2Flectures%2Flec07.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Jevremovic (2005:63). </li> <li id="cite_note-pfeffer-44"><a href="#cite_ref-pfeffer_44-0">^</a> Pfeffer (2000:330–336). </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Wenner, Jennifer M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://serc.carleton.edu/quantskills/methods/quantlit/RadDecay.html">How Does Radioactive Decay Work?</a>. Carleton College. 2007-10-10 [2008-01-09]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511173156/http://serc.carleton.edu/quantskills/methods/quantlit/RadDecay.html">存档</a>于2008-05-11）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+M.&rft.aulast=Wenner&rft.btitle=How+Does+Radioactive+Decay+Work%3F&rft.date=2007-10-10&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Carleton+College&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fserc.carleton.edu%2Fquantskills%2Fmethods%2Fquantlit%2FRadDecay.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-raymond-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-raymond_46-0">46.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raymond_46-1">46.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raymond_46-2">46.2</a> <cite class="citation web">Raymond, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021201030437/http://physics.nmt.edu/~raymond/classes/ph13xbook/node216.html">Nuclear Binding Energies</a>. New Mexico Tech. 2006-04-07 [2007-01-03]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nmt.edu/~raymond/classes/ph13xbook/node216.html">原始内容</a>存档于2002-12-01）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Binding+Energies&rft.date=2006-04-07&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=New+Mexico+Tech&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nmt.edu%2F~raymond%2Fclasses%2Fph13xbook%2Fnode216.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Mihos, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://burro.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr221/StarPhys/coulomb.html">Overcoming the Coulomb Barrier</a>. Case Western Reserve University. 2002-07-23 [2008-02-13]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060912013620/http://burro.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr221/StarPhys/coulomb.html">存档</a>于2006-09-12）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft.aulast=Mihos&rft.btitle=Overcoming+the+Coulomb+Barrier&rft.date=2002-07-23&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fburro.cwru.edu%2FAcademics%2FAstr221%2FStarPhys%2Fcoulomb.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html">ABC's of Nuclear Science</a>. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2007-03-30 [2007-01-03]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061205215708/http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html">存档</a>于2006-12-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Staff&rft.btitle=ABC%27s+of+Nuclear+Science&rft.date=2007-03-30&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Lawrence+Berkeley+National+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lbl.gov%2Fabc%2FBasic.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Makhijani, Arjun; Saleska, Scott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieer.org/reports/n-basics.html">Basics of Nuclear Physics and Fission</a>. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. 2001-03-02 [2007-01-03]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070116045217/http://www.ieer.org/reports/n-basics.html">存档</a>于2007-01-16）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Arjun&rft.aulast=Makhijani&rft.btitle=Basics+of+Nuclear+Physics+and+Fission&rft.date=2001-03-02&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Institute+for+Energy+and+Environmental+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieer.org%2Freports%2Fn-basics.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Shultis et al (2002:72–6). </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Fewell, M. P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AmJPh..63..653F">The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=American_Journal_of_Physics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="American Journal of Physics（页面不存在）">American Journal of Physics</a>. 1995, 63 (7): 653–58 [2007-02-01]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AmJPh..63..653F">Bibcode:1995AmJPh..63..653F</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.17828">doi:10.1119/1.17828</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5xNHry2gq?url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AmJPh..63..653F">存档</a>于2011-03-22）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+atomic+nuclide+with+the+highest+mean+binding+energy&rft.aufirst=M.+P.&rft.aulast=Fewell&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=7&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.pages=653-58&rft.volume=63&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1995AmJPh..63..653F&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995AmJPh..63..653F&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.17828&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-歐風烈2018-52"><a href="#cite_ref-歐風烈2018_52-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">歐風烈. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-bR9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA407">陽陰宇宙: 重新思考我們對宇宙的想法</a>. Fong Lieh Ou（Showwe Information Co Ltd）. 1 December 2018: 407– [2019-04-11]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-957-43-6142-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-957-43-6142-7">ISBN 978-957-43-6142-7</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220404040823/https://books.google.com/books?id=-bR9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA407">存档</a>于2022-04-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=%E6%AD%90%E9%A2%A8%E7%83%88&rft.btitle=%E9%99%BD%E9%99%B0%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%3A+%E9%87%8D%E6%96%B0%E6%80%9D%E8%80%83%E6%88%91%E5%80%91%E5%B0%8D%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E7%9A%84%E6%83%B3%E6%B3%95&rft.date=2018-12-01&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-957-43-6142-7&rft.pages=407-&rft.pub=Fong+Lieh+Ou%EF%BC%88Showwe+Information+Co+Ltd%EF%BC%89&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-bR9DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA407&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Brucat-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brucat_53-0">53.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brucat_53-1">53.1</a> <cite class="citation web">Brucat, Philip J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061207032136/http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_10.html">The Quantum Atom</a>. University of Florida. 2008 [2007-01-04]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2045/lectures/lec_10.html">原始内容</a>存档于2006-12-07）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&rft.aulast=Brucat&rft.btitle=The+Quantum+Atom&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Florida&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chem.ufl.edu%2F~itl%2F2045%2Flectures%2Flec_10.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Manthey, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orbitals.com/orb/">Atomic Orbitals</a>. Orbital Central. 2001 [2008-01-21]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080110102801/http://www.orbitals.com/orb/">存档</a>于2008-01-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Manthey&rft.btitle=Atomic+Orbitals&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Orbital+Central&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orbitals.com%2Forb%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Herter, Terry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415114913/http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/Courses/astro101/lectures/lec08.htm">Lecture 8: The Hydrogen Atom</a>. Cornell University. 2006 [2008-02-14]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/astro101/lectures/lec08.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2008-04-15）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft.aulast=Herter&rft.btitle=Lecture+8%3A+The+Hydrogen+Atom&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Cornell+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finstruct1.cit.cornell.edu%2Fcourses%2Fastro101%2Flectures%2Flec08.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Smirnov (2003:249–72). </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Matis, Howard S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/02/3.html">The Isotopes of Hydrogen</a>. Guide to the Nuclear Wall Chart. Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. 2000-08-09 [2007-12-21]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218153548/http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/02/3.html">存档</a>于2007-12-18）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Isotopes+of+Hydrogen&rft.aufirst=Howard+S.&rft.aulast=Matis&rft.date=2000-08-09&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Guide+to+the+Nuclear+Wall+Chart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lbl.gov%2Fabc%2Fwallchart%2Fchapters%2F02%2F3.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Weiss, Rick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/16/AR2006101601083.html">Scientists Announce Creation of Atomic Element, the Heaviest Yet</a>. Washington Post. 2006-10-17 [2007-12-21]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/616Q0bWla?url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/16/AR2006101601083.html">存档</a>于2011-08-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Scientists+Announce+Creation+of+Atomic+Element%2C+the+Heaviest+Yet&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.date=2006-10-17&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F10%2F16%2FAR2006101601083.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-sills-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sills_59-0">59.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sills_59-1">59.1</a> Sills (2003:131–134). </li> <li id="cite_note-dume-60"><a href="#cite_ref-dume_60-0">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Dumé, Belle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/17319">Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay</a>. Physics World. 2003-04-23 [2007-12-21]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071214151450/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/17319">存档</a>于2007-12-14）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Bismuth+breaks+half-life+record+for+alpha+decay&rft.aufirst=Belle&rft.aulast=Dum%C3%A9&rft.date=2003-04-23&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fnews%2F17319&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Lindsay, Don. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.don-lindsay-archive.org/creation/isotope_list.html">Radioactives Missing From The Earth</a>. Don Lindsay Archive. 2000-07-30 [2007-05-23]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070428225550/http://www.don-lindsay-archive.org/creation/isotope_list.html">存档</a>于2007-04-28）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.btitle=Radioactives+Missing+From+The+Earth&rft.date=2000-07-30&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Don+Lindsay+Archive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.don-lindsay-archive.org%2Fcreation%2Fisotope_list.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-CRC-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_62-0">62.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_62-1">62.1</a> CRC Handbook (2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-iupac-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iupac_63-0">63.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-iupac_63-1">63.1</a> Mills et al (1993). </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Chieh, Chung. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070830110015/http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/nuclideunstable.html">Nuclide Stability</a>. University of Waterloo. 2001-01-22 [2007-01-04]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/nuclideunstable.html">原始内容</a>存档于2007-08-30）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Chung&rft.aulast=Chieh&rft.btitle=Nuclide+Stability&rft.date=2001-01-22&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Waterloo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.uwaterloo.ca%2F~cchieh%2Fcact%2Fnuctek%2Fnuclideunstable.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some">Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. [2007-01-04]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061231212733/http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some">存档</a>于2006-12-31）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Atomic+Weights+and+Isotopic+Compositions+for+All+Elements&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2FCompositions%2Fstand_alone.pl%3Fele%3D%26ascii%3Dhtml%26isotype%3Dsome&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Audi, G.; Wapstra, A. H.; Thibault C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080916155656/http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/web/masseval.html">The Ame2003 atomic mass evaluation（II）</a>. Nuclear Physics. 2003, A729: 337–676 [2008-02-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/web/masseval.html">原始内容</a>存档于2008-09-16）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Ame2003+atomic+mass+evaluation%EF%BC%88II%EF%BC%89&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.aulast=Audi&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics&rft.pages=337-676&rft.volume=A729&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nndc.bnl.gov%2Famdc%2Fweb%2Fmasseval.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Shannon, R. D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.iucr.org/a/issues/1976/05/00/issconts.html">Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acta_Crystallographica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acta Crystallographica（页面不存在）">Acta Crystallographica</a>, Section a. 1976, 32: 751 [2007-01-03]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976AcCrA..32..751S">Bibcode:1976AcCrA..32..751S</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0567739476001551">doi:10.1107/S0567739476001551</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930224738/http://journals.iucr.org/a/issues/1976/05/00/issconts.html">存档</a>于2007-09-30）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Revised+effective+ionic+radii+and+systematic+studies+of+interatomic+distances+in+halides+and+chalcogenides&rft.aufirst=R.+D.&rft.aulast=Shannon&rft.date=1976&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Crystallographica%2C+Section+a&rft.pages=751&rft.volume=32&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.iucr.org%2Fa%2Fissues%2F1976%2F05%2F00%2Fissconts.html&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976AcCrA..32..751S&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1107%2FS0567739476001551&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Dong, Judy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml">Diameter of an Atom</a>. The Physics Factbook. 1998 [2007-11-19]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071104160920/http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml">存档</a>于2007-11-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft.aulast=Dong&rft.btitle=Diameter+of+an+Atom&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=The+Physics+Factbook&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhypertextbook.com%2Ffacts%2FMichaelPhillip.shtml&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Zumdahl (2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071204164837/http://oregonstate.edu/terra/2007winter/features/nanotech.php">Small Miracles: Harnessing nanotechnology</a>. Oregon State University. 2007 [2007-01-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/terra/2007winter/features/nanotech.php">原始内容</a>存档于2007-12-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Staff&rft.btitle=Small+Miracles%3A+Harnessing+nanotechnology&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Oregon+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foregonstate.edu%2Fterra%2F2007winter%2Ffeatures%2Fnanotech.php&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> —describes the width of a human hair as 105 nm and 10 carbon atoms as spanning 1 nm. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Padilla et al（2002:32）—"There are 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (that's 2 sextillion) atoms of oxygen in one drop of water—and twice as many atoms of hydrogen." </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> A carat is 200 milligrams. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atomic_mass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atomic mass（页面不存在）">By definition</a>, Carbon-12 has 0.012 kg per mole. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Avogadro_constant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avogadro constant（页面不存在）">Avogadro constant</a> defines 6 × 1023 atoms per mole. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Feynman (1995). </li> <li id="cite_note-splung-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-splung_74-0">74.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-splung_74-1">74.1</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.splung.com/content/sid/5/page/radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>. Splung.com. [2007-12-19]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071204135150/http://www.splung.com/content/sid/5/page/radioactivity">存档</a>于2007-12-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Radioactivity&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Splung.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.splung.com%2Fcontent%2Fsid%2F5%2Fpage%2Fradioactivity&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> L'Annunziata (2003:3–56). </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Firestone, Richard B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060929111801/http://isotopes.lbl.gov/education/decmode.html">Radioactive Decay Modes</a>. Berkeley Laboratory. 2000-05-22 [2007-01-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isotopes.lbl.gov/education/decmode.html">原始内容</a>存档于2006-09-29）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft.aulast=Firestone&rft.btitle=Radioactive+Decay+Modes&rft.date=2000-05-22&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Berkeley+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisotopes.lbl.gov%2Feducation%2Fdecmode.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Hornak, J. P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070526190509/http://astro.rit.edu/htbooks/nmr/bnmr.htm">Chapter 3: Spin Physics</a>. The Basics of NMR. Rochester Institute of Technology. 2006 [2007-01-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astro.rit.edu/htbooks/nmr/bnmr.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2007-05-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Spin+Physics&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft.aulast=Hornak&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Basics+of+NMR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fastro.rit.edu%2Fhtbooks%2Fnmr%2Fbnmr.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-schroeder-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder_78-0">78.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder_78-1">78.1</a> <cite class="citation web">Schroeder, Paul A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070429150216/http://www.gly.uga.edu/schroeder/geol3010/magnetics.html">Magnetic Properties</a>. University of Georgia. 2000-02-25 [2007-01-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gly.uga.edu/schroeder/geol3010/magnetics.html">原始内容</a>存档于2007-04-29）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.btitle=Magnetic+Properties&rft.date=2000-02-25&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gly.uga.edu%2Fschroeder%2Fgeol3010%2Fmagnetics.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Goebel, Greg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/616Q7pLdl?url=http://www.vectorsite.net/tpqm_04.html">[4.3] Magnetic Properties of the Atom</a>. Elementary Quantum Physics. In The Public Domain website. 2007-09-01 [2007-01-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vectorsite.net/tpqm_04.html">原始内容</a>存档于2011-08-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=%5B4.3%5D+Magnetic+Properties+of+the+Atom&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft.aulast=Goebel&rft.date=2007-09-01&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Elementary+Quantum+Physics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vectorsite.net%2Ftpqm_04.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Yarris, Lynn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1997/story1.html">Talking Pictures</a>. Berkeley Lab Research Review. 1997 [2008-01-09]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080113104939/http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1997/story1.html">存档</a>于2008-01-13）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Talking+Pictures&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft.aulast=Yarris&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berkeley+Lab+Research+Review&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lbl.gov%2FScience-Articles%2FResearch-Review%2FMagazine%2F1997%2Fstory1.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Liang and Haacke (1999:412–26). </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Zeghbroeck, Bart J. Van. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050115030639/http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/308/semicon_book/eband2.htm">Energy levels</a>. Shippensburg University. 1998 [2007-12-23]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/308/semicon_book/eband2.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2005-01-15）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Bart+J.+Van&rft.aulast=Zeghbroeck&rft.btitle=Energy+levels&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Shippensburg+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.ship.edu%2F~mrc%2Fpfs%2F308%2Fsemicon_book%2Feband2.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Fowles (1989:227–233). </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Martin, W. C.; Wiese, W. L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/AtSpec/">Atomic Spectroscopy: A Compendium of Basic Ideas, Notation, Data, and Formulas</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2007年5月 [2007-01-08]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208113156/http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/AtSpec/">存档</a>于2007-02-08）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=W.+C.&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.btitle=Atomic+Spectroscopy%3A+A+Compendium+of+Basic+Ideas%2C+Notation%2C+Data%2C+and+Formulas&rft.date=2007-05&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2FPubs%2FAtSpec%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-72-85"><a href="#cite_ref-72_85-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060228231025/http://www.avogadro.co.uk/light/bohr/spectra.htm">Atomic Emission Spectra—Origin of Spectral Lines</a>. Avogadro Web Site. [2006-08-10]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avogadro.co.uk/light/bohr/spectra.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2006-02-28）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Atomic+Emission+Spectra%E2%80%94Origin+of+Spectral+Lines&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Avogadro+Web+Site&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avogadro.co.uk%2Flight%2Fbohr%2Fspectra.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Fitzpatrick, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node55.html">Fine structure</a>. University of Texas at Austin. 2007-02-16 [2008-02-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/616Q9bw2M?url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node55.html">存档</a>于2011-08-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.btitle=Fine+structure&rft.date=2007-02-16&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffarside.ph.utexas.edu%2Fteaching%2Fqm%2Flectures%2Fnode55.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Weiss, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html">The Zeeman Effect</a>. University of California-Riverside. 2001 [2008-02-06]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080202143147/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html">存档</a>于2008-02-02）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.btitle=The+Zeeman+Effect&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+California-Riverside&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmath.ucr.edu%2Fhome%2Fbaez%2Fspin%2Fnode8.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Beyer (2003:232–236). </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Watkins, Thayer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm">Coherence in Stimulated Emission</a>. San José State University. [2007-12-23]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080112234014/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm">存档</a>于2008-01-12）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Thayer&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.btitle=Coherence+in+Stimulated+Emission&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=San+Jos%C3%A9+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sjsu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fwatkins%2Fstimem.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Reusch, William. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071029211245/http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm">Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry</a>. Michigan State University. 2007-07-16 [2008-01-11]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2007-10-29）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=William&rft.aulast=Reusch&rft.btitle=Virtual+Textbook+of+Organic+Chemistry&rft.date=2007-07-16&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cem.msu.edu%2F~reusch%2FVirtualText%2Fintro1.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Husted, Robert; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm">Periodic Table of the Elements</a>. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2003-12-11 [2008-01-11]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080110103232/http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm">存档</a>于2008-01-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Husted%2C+Robert&rft.btitle=Periodic+Table+of+the+Elements&rft.date=2003-12-11&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodic.lanl.gov%2Fdefault.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E6%98%BE%E5%BC%8F%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E7%AD%89%E6%A0%87%E7%AD%BE" title="Category:引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Baum, Rudy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html">It's Elemental: The Periodic Table</a>. Chemical & Engineering News. 2003 [2008-01-11]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/616QCRYK8?url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html">存档</a>于2011-08-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Rudy&rft.aulast=Baum&rft.btitle=It%27s+Elemental%3A+The+Periodic+Table&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fcen%2F80th%2Felements.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Goodstein (2002:436–438). </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Brazhkin, Vadim V. Metastable phases, phase transformations, and phase diagrams in physics and chemistry. Physics-Uspekhi. 2006, 49: 719–24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhyU...49..719B">Bibcode:2006PhyU...49..719B</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1070%2FPU2006v049n07ABEH006013">doi:10.1070/PU2006v049n07ABEH006013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Metastable+phases%2C+phase+transformations%2C+and+phase+diagrams+in+physics+and+chemistry&rft.aufirst=Vadim+V.&rft.aulast=Brazhkin&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics-Uspekhi&rft.pages=719-24&rft.volume=49&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhyU...49..719B&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1070%2FPU2006v049n07ABEH006013&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Myers (2003:85). </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080103192918/http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/BEC_background.htm">Bose-Einstein Condensate: A New Form of Matter</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2001-10-09 [2008-01-16]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/BEC_background.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2008-01-03）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Bose-Einstein+Condensate%3A+A+New+Form+of+Matter&rft.au=Staff&rft.date=2001-10-09&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpublic_affairs%2Freleases%2FBEC_background.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Colton, Imogen; Fyffe, Jeanette. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070829200820/http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html">Super Atoms from Bose-Einstein Condensation</a>. The University of Melbourne. 1999-02-03 [2008-02-06]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html">原始内容</a>存档于2007-08-29）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Imogen&rft.aulast=Colton&rft.btitle=Super+Atoms+from+Bose-Einstein+Condensation&rft.date=1999-02-03&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=The+University+of+Melbourne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.unimelb.edu.au%2F~ywong%2Fposter%2Farticles%2Fbec.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Jacox, Marilyn; Gadzuk, J. William. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html">Scanning Tunneling Microscope</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 1997年11月 [2008-01-11]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080107133132/http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html">存档</a>于2008-01-07）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rft.aulast=Jacox&rft.btitle=Scanning+Tunneling+Microscope&rft.date=1997-11&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2FGenInt%2FSTM%2Fstm.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/index.html">The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986</a>. The Nobel Foundation. [2008-01-11]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080917103215/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/index.html">存档</a>于2008-09-17）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1986&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1986%2Findex.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> —in particular, see the Nobel lecture by G. Binnig and H. Rohrer. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Jakubowski, N.; Moens, L.; Vanhaecke, F. Sector field mass spectrometers in ICP-MS. Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy. 1998, 53 (13): 1739–63. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998AcSpe..53.1739J">Bibcode:1998AcSpe..53.1739J</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0584-8547%2898%2900222-5">doi:10.1016/S0584-8547(98)00222-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Sector+field+mass+spectrometers+in+ICP-MS&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.aulast=Jakubowski&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=13&rft.jtitle=Spectrochimica+Acta+Part+B%3A+Atomic+Spectroscopy&rft.pages=1739-63&rft.volume=53&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998AcSpe..53.1739J&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0584-8547%2898%2900222-5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <cite class="citation journal"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erwin_M%C3%BCller&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erwin Müller（页面不存在）">Müller, Erwin W.</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=J._A._Panitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. A. Panitz（页面不存在）">Panitz, John A.</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=S._Brooks_McLane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="S. Brooks McLane（页面不存在）">McLane, S. Brooks</a>. The Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Review_of_Scientific_Instruments&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Review of Scientific Instruments（页面不存在）">Review of Scientific Instruments</a>. 1968, 39 (1): 83–86. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968RScI...39...83M">Bibcode:1968RScI...39...83M</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6748">ISSN 0034-6748</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1683116">doi:10.1063/1.1683116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Atom-Probe+Field+Ion+Microscope&rft.aufirst=Erwin+W.&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.date=1968&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0034-6748&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Scientific+Instruments&rft.pages=83-86&rft.volume=39&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1968RScI...39...83M&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1683116&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Lochner, Jim; Gibb, Meredith; Newman, Phil. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/how_l1/spectral_what.html">What Do Spectra Tell Us?</a>. NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. 2007-04-30 [2008-01-03]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080116035542/http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/how_l1/spectral_what.html">存档</a>于2008-01-16）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft.aulast=Lochner&rft.btitle=What+Do+Spectra+Tell+Us%3F&rft.date=2007-04-30&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=NASA%2FGoddard+Space+Flight+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimagine.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fdocs%2Fscience%2Fhow_l1%2Fspectral_what.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Winter, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/hist.html">Helium</a>. WebElements. 2007 [2008-01-03]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230182148/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/hist.html">存档</a>于2007-12-30）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.btitle=Helium&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=WebElements&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webelements.com%2Fwebelements%2Felements%2Ftext%2FHe%2Fhist.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Croswell, Ken. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080207065342/http://space.newscientist.com/article/mg13217944.700-boron-bumps-and-the-big-bang-was-matter-spread-evenly-whenthe-universe-began-perhaps-not-the-clues-lie-in-the-creation-of-thelighter-elements-such-as-boron-and-beryllium.html">Boron, bumps and the Big Bang: Was matter spread evenly when the Universe began? Perhaps not; the clues lie in the creation of the lighter elements such as boron and beryllium</a>. New Scientist. 1991, (1794): 42 [2008-01-14]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://space.newscientist.com/article/mg13217944.700-boron-bumps-and-the-big-bang-was-matter-spread-evenly-whenthe-universe-began-perhaps-not-the-clues-lie-in-the-creation-of-thelighter-elements-such-as-boron-and-beryllium.html">原始内容</a>存档于2008-02-07）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Boron%2C+bumps+and+the+Big+Bang%3A+Was+matter+spread+evenly+when+the+Universe+began%3F+Perhaps+not%3B+the+clues+lie+in+the+creation+of+the+lighter+elements+such+as+boron+and+beryllium&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft.aulast=Croswell&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1794&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.pages=42&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspace.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg13217944.700-boron-bumps-and-the-big-bang-was-matter-spread-evenly-whenthe-universe-began-perhaps-not-the-clues-lie-in-the-creation-of-thelighter-elements-such-as-boron-and-beryllium.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Copi, Craig J.; Schramm, David N.; Turner, Michael S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/267/5195/192.pdf">Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis and the Baryon Density of the Universe</a> (PDF). Science. 1995, 267: 192–99 [2008-01-13]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Sci...267..192C">Bibcode:1995Sci...267..192C</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7809624">PMID 7809624</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9407006">arXiv:astro-ph/9407006</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7809624">doi:10.1126/science.7809624</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080227082508/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/267/5195/192.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2008-02-27）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Big-Bang+Nucleosynthesis+and+the+Baryon+Density+of+the+Universe&rft.aufirst=Craig+J.&rft.aulast=Copi&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=192-99&rft.volume=267&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F267%2F5195%2F192.pdf&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F9407006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995Sci...267..192C&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.7809624&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7809624&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Hinshaw, Gary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101bbtest2.html">Tests of the Big Bang: The Light Elements</a>. NASA/WMAP. 2005-12-15 [2008-01-13]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080117021252/http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101bbtest2.html">存档</a>于2008-01-17）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.aulast=Hinshaw&rft.btitle=Tests+of+the+Big+Bang%3A+The+Light+Elements&rft.date=2005-12-15&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=NASA%2FWMAP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmap.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fm_uni%2Funi_101bbtest2.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Abbott, Brian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130213023246/http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/universe/duguide/exgg_wmap.php">Microwave (WMAP) All-Sky Survey</a>. Hayden Planetarium. 2007-05-30 [2008-01-13]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/universe/duguide/exgg_wmap.php">原始内容</a>存档于2013-02-13）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.btitle=Microwave+%28WMAP%29+All-Sky+Survey&rft.date=2007-05-30&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Hayden+Planetarium&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haydenplanetarium.org%2Funiverse%2Fduguide%2Fexgg_wmap.php&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">F. Hoyle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946MNRAS.106..343H">The synthesis of the elements from hydrogen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>. 1946, 106: 343–83 [2008-01-13]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946MNRAS.106..343H">Bibcode:1946MNRAS.106..343H</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080305013326/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946MNRAS.106..343H">存档</a>于2008-03-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+synthesis+of+the+elements+from+hydrogen&rft.au=F.+Hoyle&rft.date=1946&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.pages=343-83&rft.volume=106&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F1946MNRAS.106..343H&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1946MNRAS.106..343H&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Knauth, D. C.; Federman, S. R.; Lambert, David L.; Crane, P. Newly synthesized lithium in the interstellar medium. <a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6" title="自然">Nature</a>. 2000, 405: 656–58. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35015028">doi:10.1038/35015028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Newly+synthesized+lithium+in+the+interstellar+medium&rft.aufirst=D.+C.&rft.aulast=Knauth&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=656-58&rft.volume=405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35015028&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Mashnik, Stepan G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0008382">On Solar System and Cosmic Rays Nucleosynthesis and Spallation Processes</a>. Cornell University. 2000年8月 [2008-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319085109/http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0008382">存档</a>于2015-03-19）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Stepan+G.&rft.aulast=Mashnik&rft.btitle=On+Solar+System+and+Cosmic+Rays+Nucleosynthesis+and+Spallation+Processes&rft.date=2000-08&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Cornell+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farxiv.org%2Fabs%2Fastro-ph%2F0008382&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Kansas Geological Survey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080705052359/http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/geotopics/earth_age.html">Age of the Earth</a>. University of Kansas. 2005-05-04 [2008-01-14]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/geotopics/earth_age.html">原始内容</a>存档于2008-07-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Kansas+Geological+Survey&rft.btitle=Age+of+the+Earth&rft.date=2005-05-04&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Kansas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kgs.ku.edu%2FExtension%2Fgeotopics%2Fearth_age.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Manuel_2001-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manuel_2001_112-0">112.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manuel_2001_112-1">112.1</a> Manuel (2001:407–430,511–519). </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Dalrymple, G. Brent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205">The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved</a>. Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 2001, 190: 205–21 [2008-01-14]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GSLSP.190..205D">Bibcode:2001GSLSP.190..205D</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2FGSL.SP.2001.190.01.14">doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071111141237/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205">存档</a>于2007-11-11）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+age+of+the+Earth+in+the+twentieth+century%3A+a+problem+%28mostly%29+solved&rft.aufirst=G.+Brent&rft.aulast=Dalrymple&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Society%2C+London%2C+Special+Publications&rft.pages=205-21&rft.volume=190&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsp.lyellcollection.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F190%2F1%2F205&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001GSLSP.190..205D&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2FGSL.SP.2001.190.01.14&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Don_L._Anderson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Don L. Anderson（页面不存在）">Anderson, Don L.</a>; Foulger, G. R.; Meibom, Anders. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html">Helium: Fundamental models</a>. MantlePlumes.org. 2006-09-02 [2007-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208194933/http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html">存档</a>于2007-02-08）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Don+L.&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.btitle=Helium%3A+Fundamental+models&rft.date=2006-09-02&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=MantlePlumes.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mantleplumes.org%2FHeliumFundamentals.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Pennicott, Katie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2676">Carbon clock could show the wrong time</a>. PhysicsWeb. 2001-05-10 [2008-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071215103132/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2676">存档</a>于2007-12-15）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Carbon+clock+could+show+the+wrong+time&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.aulast=Pennicott&rft.date=2001-05-10&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fnews%2F2676&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Yarris, Lynn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080109103538/http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/elements-116-118.html">New Superheavy Elements 118 and 116 Discovered at Berkeley Lab</a>. Berkeley Lab. 2001-07-27 [2008-01-14]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/elements-116-118.html">原始内容</a>存档于2008-01-09）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=New+Superheavy+Elements+118+and+116+Discovered+at+Berkeley+Lab&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rft.aulast=Yarris&rft.date=2001-07-27&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenews.lbl.gov%2FScience-Articles%2FArchive%2Felements-116-118.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Diamond, H.; et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v119/i6/p2000_1">Heavy Isotope Abundances in Mike Thermonuclear Device</a> (subscription required). Physical Review. 1960, 119: 2000–04 [2008-01-14]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1960PhRv..119.2000D">Bibcode:1960PhRv..119.2000D</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.119.2000">doi:10.1103/PhysRev.119.2000</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111112043731/http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v119/i6/p2000_1">存档</a>于2011-11-12）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Heavy+Isotope+Abundances+in+Mike+Thermonuclear+Device&rft.au=Diamond%2C+H.&rft.date=1960&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.pages=2000-04&rft.volume=119&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprola.aps.org%2Fabstract%2FPR%2Fv119%2Fi6%2Fp2000_1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1960PhRv..119.2000D&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.119.2000&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E6%98%BE%E5%BC%8F%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E7%AD%89%E6%A0%87%E7%AD%BE" title="Category:引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Poston Sr., John W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081001205737/http://www.sciam.com/chemistry/article/id/do-transuranic-elements-s/topicID/4/catID/3">Do transuranic elements such as plutonium ever occur naturally?</a>. Scientific American. 1998-03-23 [2008-01-15]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/chemistry/article/id/do-transuranic-elements-s/topicID/4/catID/3">原始内容</a>存档于2008-10-01）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Poston+Sr.%2C+John+W.&rft.btitle=Do+transuranic+elements+such+as+plutonium+ever+occur+naturally%3F&rft.date=1998-03-23&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Scientific+American&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciam.com%2Fchemistry%2Farticle%2Fid%2Fdo-transuranic-elements-s%2FtopicID%2F4%2FcatID%2F3&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Keller, C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4353086">Natural occurrence of lanthanides, actinides, and superheavy elements</a>. Chemiker Zeitung. 1973, 97 (10): 522–30 [2008-01-15]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081001171525/http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=4353086">存档</a>于2008-10-01）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Natural+occurrence+of+lanthanides%2C+actinides%2C+and+superheavy+elements&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.date=1973&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=10&rft.jtitle=Chemiker+Zeitung&rft.pages=522-30&rft.volume=97&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fenergycitations%2Fproduct.biblio.jsp%3Fosti_id%3D4353086&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Marco (2001:17). </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218194159/http://www.oklo.curtin.edu.au/index.cfm">Oklo Fossil Reactors</a>. Curtin University of Technology. [2008-01-15]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oklo.curtin.edu.au/index.cfm">原始内容</a>存档于2007-12-18）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Oklo+Fossil+Reactors&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Curtin+University+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oklo.curtin.edu.au%2Findex.cfm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Weisenberger, Drew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_05.html">How many atoms are there in the world?</a>. Jefferson Lab. [2008-01-16]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071022185850/http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_05.html">存档</a>于2007-10-22）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Drew&rft.aulast=Weisenberger&rft.btitle=How+many+atoms+are+there+in+the+world%3F&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Jefferson+Lab&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feducation.jlab.org%2Fqa%2Fmathatom_05.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Pidwirny, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html">Fundamentals of Physical Geography</a>. University of British Columbia Okanagan. [2008-01-16]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080121080709/http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html">存档</a>于2008-01-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.aulast=Pidwirny&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Physical+Geography&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Okanagan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2Fcontents.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Anderson, Don L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=137819">The inner inner core of Earth</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 2002, 99 (22): 13966–68 [2008-01-16]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PNAS...9913966A">Bibcode:2002PNAS...9913966A</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12391308">PMID 12391308</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.232565899">doi:10.1073/pnas.232565899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+inner+inner+core+of+Earth&rft.aufirst=Don+L.&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=22&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.pages=13966-68&rft.volume=99&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Fartid%3D137819&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PNAS...9913966A&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.232565899&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12391308&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Anonymous. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509">Second postcard from the island of stability</a>. CERN Courier. 2001-10-02 [2008-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080203031237/http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509">存档</a>于2008-02-03）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Second+postcard+from+the+island+of+stability&rft.au=Anonymous&rft.date=2001-10-02&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CERN+Courier&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcerncourier.com%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fcern%2F28509&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Jacoby, Mitch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/84/i10/8410notw9.html">As-yet-unsynthesized superheavy atom should form a stable diatomic molecule with fluorine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chemical_%26_Engineering_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical & Engineering News">Chemical & Engineering News</a>. 2006, 84 (10): 19 [2008-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120715094148/http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/84/i10/8410notw9.html">存档</a>于2012-07-15）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=As-yet-unsynthesized+superheavy+atom+should+form+a+stable+diatomic+molecule+with+fluorine&rft.aufirst=Mitch&rft.aulast=Jacoby&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=10&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.pages=19&rft.volume=84&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fcen%2Fnews%2F84%2Fi10%2F8410notw9.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Koppes, Steve. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/99/990301.ktev.shtml">Fermilab Physicists Find New Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry</a>. University of Chicago. 1999-03-01 [2008-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080719211849/http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/99/990301.ktev.shtml">存档</a>于2008-07-19）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Fermilab+Physicists+Find+New+Matter-Antimatter+Asymmetry&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft.aulast=Koppes&rft.date=1999-03-01&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-news.uchicago.edu%2Freleases%2F99%2F990301.ktev.shtml&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Cromie, William J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/08.16/antimatter.html">A lifetime of trillionths of a second: Scientists explore antimatter</a>. Harvard University Gazette. 2001-08-16 [2008-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060903172020/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/08.16/antimatter.html">存档</a>于2006-09-03）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=A+lifetime+of+trillionths+of+a+second%3A+Scientists+explore+antimatter&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft.aulast=Cromie&rft.date=2001-08-16&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2F2001%2F08.16%2Fantimatter.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Hijmans, Tom W. Particle physics: Cold antihydrogen. Nature. 2002, 419: 439–40. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F419439a">doi:10.1038/419439a</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Particle+physics%3A+Cold+antihydrogen&rft.aufirst=Tom+W.&rft.aulast=Hijmans&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.pages=439-40&rft.volume=419&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F419439a&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <cite class="citation news">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2375717.stm">Researchers 'look inside' antimatter</a>. BBC News. 2002-10-30 [2008-01-14]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070222204339/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2375717.stm">存档</a>于2007-02-22）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Researchers+%27look+inside%27+antimatter&rft.au=Staff&rft.date=2002-10-30&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F2375717.stm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Barrett, Roger; Jackson, Daphne; Mweene, Habatwa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071221164440/http://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html">The Strange World of the Exotic Atom</a>. New Scientist. 1990, (1728): 77–115 [2008-01-04]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html">原始内容</a>存档于2007-12-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Strange+World+of+the+Exotic+Atom&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1728&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.pages=77-115&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Indelicato, Paul. Exotic Atoms. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Physica_Scripta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Physica Scripta（页面不存在）">Physica Scripta</a>. 2004, T112: 20–26. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhST..112...20I">Bibcode:2004PhST..112...20I</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/physics/0409058">arXiv:physics/0409058</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" />. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1238%2FPhysica.Topical.112a00020">doi:10.1238/Physica.Topical.112a00020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Exotic+Atoms&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.aulast=Indelicato&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+Scripta&rft.pages=20-26&rft.volume=T112&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0409058&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PhST..112...20I&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1238%2FPhysica.Topical.112a00020&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Ripin, Barrett H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm">Recent Experiments on Exotic Atoms</a>. American Physical Society. 1998年7月 [2008-02-15]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081002015756/http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm">存档</a>于2008-10-02）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Barrett+H.&rft.aulast=Ripin&rft.btitle=Recent+Experiments+on+Exotic+Atoms&rft.date=1998-07&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F199807%2Fexperiment.cfm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="来源">来源</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=26" title="编辑章节：来源">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r80540462">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>书籍</dt></dl> <ul><li><cite class="citation book">L'Annunziata, Michael F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofradioa0000unse_n3o4">Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis</a>. Academic Press. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-12-436603-9" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-12-436603-9">ISBN 978-0-12-436603-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&rft.aulast=L%27Annunziata&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Radioactivity+Analysis&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-12-436603-9&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookofradioa0000unse_n3o4&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Beyer, H. F.; Shevelko, V. P. Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions. CRC Press. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7503-0481-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7503-0481-8">ISBN 978-0-7503-0481-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Shevelko%2C+V.+P.&rft.aufirst=H.+F.&rft.aulast=Beyer&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Physics+of+Highly+Charged+Ions&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0481-8&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Choppin, Gregory R.; Liljenzin, Jan-Olov; Rydberg, Jan. Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry. Elsevier. 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7506-7463-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7506-7463-8">ISBN 978-0-7506-7463-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Gregory+R.&rft.aulast=Choppin&rft.btitle=Radiochemistry+and+Nuclear+Chemistry&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-7463-8&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%81%93%E7%88%BE%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="約翰·道爾頓">Dalton, J.</a> A New System of Chemical Philosophy, Part 1. London and Manchester: S. Russell. 1808.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=Dalton&rft.btitle=A+New+System+of+Chemical+Philosophy%2C+Part+1&rft.date=1808&rft.genre=book&rft.place=London+and+Manchester&rft.pub=S.+Russell&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Demtröder, Wolfgang. Atoms, Molecules and Photons: An Introduction to Atomic- Molecular- and Quantum Physics 1st Edition. Springer. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-3-540-20631-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-3-540-20631-6">ISBN 978-3-540-20631-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft.aulast=Demtr%C3%B6der&rft.btitle=Atoms%2C+Molecules+and+Photons%3A+An+Introduction+to+Atomic-+Molecular-+and+Quantum+Physics&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=1st+Edition&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20631-6&rft.pub=Springer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E5%AF%9F%C2%B7%E8%B2%BB%E6%9B%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="理察·費曼">Feynman, Richard</a>. Six Easy Pieces. The Penguin Group. 1995. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-14-027666-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-14-027666-4">ISBN 978-0-14-027666-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.btitle=Six+Easy+Pieces&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-14-027666-4&rft.pub=The+Penguin+Group&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Fowles, Grant R. Introduction to Modern Optics. Courier Dover Publications. 1989. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-486-65957-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-486-65957-2">ISBN 978-0-486-65957-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Grant+R.&rft.aulast=Fowles&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Modern+Optics&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65957-2&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti. Indian Atomism: History and Sources. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press. 1981. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-391-02177-X" title="Special:网络书源/0-391-02177-X">ISBN 0-391-02177-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Mrinalkanti&rft.aulast=Gangopadhyaya&rft.btitle=Indian+Atomism%3A+History+and+Sources&rft.date=1981&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-391-02177-X&rft.place=Atlantic+Highlands%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Humanities+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Goodstein, David L. States of Matter. Courier Dover Publications. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-486-49506-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-486-49506-4">ISBN 978-0-486-49506-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft.aulast=Goodstein&rft.btitle=States+of+Matter&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-486-49506-4&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Harrison, Edward Robert. Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos. Cambridge University Press. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-77351-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-77351-5">ISBN 978-0-521-77351-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Edward+Robert&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.btitle=Masks+of+the+Universe%3A+Changing+Ideas+on+the+Nature+of+the+Cosmos&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77351-5&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Jevremovic, Tatjana. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nuclearprinciple0000jevr">Nuclear Principles in Engineering</a>. Springer. 2005. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-387-23284-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-387-23284-3">ISBN 978-0-387-23284-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Tatjana&rft.aulast=Jevremovic&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Principles+in+Engineering&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-387-23284-3&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnuclearprinciple0000jevr&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Lequeux, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/interstellarmedi0000lequ">The Interstellar Medium</a>. Springer. 2005. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-3-540-21326-0" title="Special:网络书源/978-3-540-21326-0">ISBN 978-3-540-21326-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=James&rft.aulast=Lequeux&rft.btitle=The+Interstellar+Medium&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-3-540-21326-0&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finterstellarmedi0000lequ&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Liang, Z.-P.; Haacke, E. M. Webster, J. G. , 编. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/8734/27658/01233976.pdf?arnumber=1233976">Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering: Magnetic Resonance Imaging</a> (PDF) vol. 2. John Wiley & Sons. 1999: 412–26 [2008-01-09]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780471139461" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-471-13946-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Z.-P.&rft.aulast=Liang&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineering%3A+Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=412-26&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fiel5%2F8734%2F27658%2F01233976.pdf%3Farnumber%3D1233976&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%A4%B1%E6%95%88%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5" title="Wikipedia:失效链接">失效連結</a>]</li> <li><cite class="citation book">MacGregor, Malcolm H. The Enigmatic Electron. Oxford University Press. 1992. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-521833-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-19-521833-6">ISBN 978-0-19-521833-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+H.&rft.aulast=MacGregor&rft.btitle=The+Enigmatic+Electron&rft.date=1992&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521833-6&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Manuel, Oliver. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780306465628">Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations</a>. Springer. 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-306-46562-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-306-46562-8">ISBN 978-0-306-46562-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.aulast=Manuel&rft.btitle=Origin+of+Elements+in+the+Solar+System%3A+Implications+of+Post-1957+Observations&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-306-46562-8&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780306465628&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Mazo, Robert M. Brownian Motion: Fluctuations, Dynamics, and Applications. Oxford University Press. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-851567-8" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-19-851567-8">ISBN 978-0-19-851567-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft.aulast=Mazo&rft.btitle=Brownian+Motion%3A+Fluctuations%2C+Dynamics%2C+and+Applications&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-19-851567-8&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Mills, Ian; Cvitaš, Tomislav; Homann, Klaus; Kallay, Nikola; Kuchitsu, Kozo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quantitiesunitss0000unse">Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry</a> 2nd edition. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E7%B4%94%E7%B2%B9%E8%88%87%E6%87%89%E7%94%A8%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E8%81%AF%E5%90%88%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="國際純粹與應用化學聯合會">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a>, Commission on Physiochemical Symbols Terminology and Units, Blackwell Scientific Publications. 1993. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-632-03583-0" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-632-03583-0">ISBN 978-0-632-03583-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.btitle=Quantities%2C+Units+and+Symbols+in+Physical+Chemistry&rft.date=1993&rft.edition=2nd+edition&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-632-03583-0&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=International+Union+of+Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry%2C+Commission+on+Physiochemical+Symbols+Terminology+and+Units%2C+Blackwell+Scientific+Publications&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquantitiesunitss0000unse&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Myers, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicsofchemistr0000myer">The Basics of Chemistry</a>. Greenwood Press. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-313-31664-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-313-31664-7">ISBN 978-0-313-31664-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.btitle=The+Basics+of+Chemistry&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31664-7&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasicsofchemistr0000myer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Padilla, Michael J.; Miaoulis, Ioannis; Cyr, Martha. Prentice Hall Science Explorer: Chemical Building Blocks. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-13-054091-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-13-054091-1">ISBN 978-0-13-054091-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft.aulast=Padilla&rft.btitle=Prentice+Hall+Science+Explorer%3A+Chemical+Building+Blocks&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-13-054091-1&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey+USA&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall%2C+Inc.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Pauling, Linus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00paul">The Nature of the Chemical Bond</a>. Cornell University Press. 1960. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-8014-0333-0" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-8014-0333-0">ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond&rft.date=1960&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureofchemical00paul&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Pfeffer, Jeremy I.; Nir, Shlomo. Modern Physics: An Introductory Text. Imperial College Press. 2000. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-86094-250-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-86094-250-1">ISBN 978-1-86094-250-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+I.&rft.aulast=Pfeffer&rft.btitle=Modern+Physics%3A+An+Introductory+Text&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-86094-250-1&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthor</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Ponomarev, Leonid Ivanovich. The Quantum Dice. CRC Press. 1993. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7503-0251-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7503-0251-7">ISBN 978-0-7503-0251-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Leonid+Ivanovich&rft.aulast=Ponomarev&rft.btitle=The+Quantum+Dice&rft.date=1993&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0251-7&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Shultis, J. Kenneth; Faw, Richard E. Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering. CRC Press. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-8247-0834-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-8247-0834-4">ISBN 978-0-8247-0834-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=J.+Kenneth&rft.aulast=Shultis&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Nuclear+Science+and+Engineering&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-0834-4&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Siegfried, Robert. From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition. DIANE. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-87169-924-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-87169-924-4">ISBN 978-0-87169-924-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.aulast=Siegfried&rft.btitle=From+Elements+to+Atoms%3A+A+History+of+Chemical+Composition&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-924-4&rft.pub=DIANE&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Sills, Alan D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earthscienceeasy00alan">Earth Science the Easy Way</a>. Barron's Educational Series. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-7641-2146-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-7641-2146-3">ISBN 978-0-7641-2146-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Alan+D.&rft.aulast=Sills&rft.btitle=Earth+Science+the+Easy+Way&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7641-2146-3&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational+Series&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearthscienceeasy00alan&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Smirnov, Boris M. Physics of Atoms and Ions. Springer. 2003. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-387-95550-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-387-95550-6">ISBN 978-0-387-95550-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Boris+M.&rft.aulast=Smirnov&rft.btitle=Physics+of+Atoms+and+Ions&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95550-6&rft.pub=Springer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Teresi, Dick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C&dq">Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science</a>. Simon & Schuster. 2003: 213–214 [2008-09-16]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/074324379X" title="Special:网络书源/074324379X">ISBN 074324379X</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200713103039/https://books.google.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C&dq">存档</a>于2020-07-13）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Dick&rft.aulast=Teresi&rft.btitle=Lost+Discoveries%3A+The+Ancient+Roots+of+Modern+Science&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=074324379X&rft.pages=213-214&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpheL_ubbXD0C%26dq&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Various. Lide, David R. , 编. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/">Handbook of Chemistry & Physics</a> 88th edition. CRC. 2002 [2008-05-23]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0849304865" title="Special:网络书源/0849304865">ISBN 0849304865</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180430060419/http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/">存档</a>于2018-04-30）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Various&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Chemistry+%26+Physics&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=88th+edition&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0849304865&rft.pub=CRC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hbcpnetbase.com%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Woan, Graham. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehandboo0000woan">The Cambridge Handbook of Physics</a>. Cambridge University Press. 2000. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-57507-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-57507-2">ISBN 978-0-521-57507-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft.aulast=Woan&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Physics&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57507-2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgehandboo0000woan&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Wurtz, Charles Adolphe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atomictheory00wurtgoog">The Atomic Theory</a>. New York: D. Appleton and company. 1881.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Charles+Adolphe&rft.aulast=Wurtz&rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Theory&rft.date=1881&rft.genre=book&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatomictheory00wurtgoog&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li><cite class="citation book">Zaider, Marco; Rossi, Harald H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/radiationscience0000zaid">Radiation Science for Physicians and Public Health Workers</a>. Springer. 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-306-46403-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-306-46403-4">ISBN 978-0-306-46403-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Marco&rft.aulast=Zaider&rft.btitle=Radiation+Science+for+Physicians+and+Public+Health+Workers&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-306-46403-4&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fradiationscience0000zaid&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</li> <li><cite class="citation book">Zumdahl, Steven S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html">Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation</a> 5th edition. Houghton Mifflin. 2002 [2008-02-05]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-618-34342-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-618-34342-3">ISBN 978-0-618-34342-3</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080304155935/http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html">存档</a>于2008-03-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Steven+S.&rft.aulast=Zumdahl&rft.btitle=Introductory+Chemistry%3A+A+Foundation&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=5th+edition&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-618-34342-3&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcollege.hmco.com%2Fchemistry%2Fintro%2Fzumdahl%2Fintro_chemistry%2F5e%2Fstudents%2Fprotected%2Fperiodictables%2Fpt%2Fpt%2Fpt_ar5.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部链接">外部链接</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=27" title="编辑章节：外部链接">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655521">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="font-size:small;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655520">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%AB%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90" title="维基共享资源">维基共享资源</a>中相关的多媒体资源：<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Atoms?uselang=zh">原子</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li>（简体中文）<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kepu.net.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/index.html">中国科普博览──核能博物馆</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20200802192100/http://www.kepu.net.cn/gb/technology/nuclear/index.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>），<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2" title="中国科学院">中国科学院</a>主编。</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150722021630/http://live-counter.com/cn/others/number-of-atoms-in-a-drop-of-water/">一滴水中的原子</a></li> <li>（英文） <cite class="citation web">Francis, Eden. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205181204/http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm">Atomic Size</a>. Clackamas Community College. 2002 [2008-09-16]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2009-02-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Eden&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.btitle=Atomic+Size&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Clackamas+Community+College&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.clackamas.cc.or.us%2Fch104-07%2Fatomic_size.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>（英文） <cite class="citation web">Freudenrich, Craig C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205181204/http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm">How Atoms Work</a>. How Stuff Works. [2008-09-16]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-07/atomic_size.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2009-02-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Craig+C&rft.aulast=Freudenrich&rft.btitle=How+Atoms+Work&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=How+Stuff+Works&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.clackamas.cc.or.us%2Fch104-07%2Fatomic_size.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>（英文） <cite class="citation web">Anonymous. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/616QF5Lhp?url=http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/basics/theatom.html">The atom</a>. Science aid+. 2007 [2007-01-09]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/basics/theatom.html">原始内容</a>存档于2011-08-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Anonymous&rft.btitle=The+atom&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Science+aid%2B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceaid.co.uk%2Fchemistry%2Fbasics%2Ftheatom.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>（英文） <cite class="citation web">Anonymous. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6672963">Atoms and Atomic Structure</a>. BBC. 2006-01-03 [2008-09-16]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070102114833/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6672963">存档</a>于2007-01-02）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Anonymous&rft.btitle=Atoms+and+Atomic+Structure&rft.date=2006-01-03&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=BBC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fdna%2Fh2g2%2FA6672963&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>（英文） <cite class="citation web">Various. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080114002007/http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC">Physics 2000, Table of Contents</a>. University of Colorado. 2006-01-03 [2008-09-16]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC">原始内容</a>存档于2008-01-14）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Various&rft.btitle=Physics+2000%2C+Table+of+Contents&rft.date=2006-01-03&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Colorado&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2Fphysics%2F2000%2Findex.pl%3FType%3DTOC&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li> <li>（英文） <cite class="citation web">Various. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html">What does an atom look like?</a>. University of Karlsruhe. 2006-02-03 [2008-09-16]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100417023635/http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html">存档</a>于2010-04-17）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Various&rft.btitle=What+does+an+atom+look+like%3F&rft.date=2006-02-03&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=University+of+Karlsruhe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hydrogenlab.de%2Felektronium%2FHTML%2Feinleitung_hauptseite_uk.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:" :"}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist-pipe dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist-pipe li::after{content:" | ";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist-hyphen dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist-hyphen li::after{content:" - ";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist-comma dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist-comma li::after{content:"、";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:"（"counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output ul.cslist,.mw-parser-output ul.sslist{margin:0;padding:0;display:inline-block;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .cslist li,.mw-parser-output .sslist li{margin:0;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .cslist li::after{content:"，"}.mw-parser-output .sslist li::after{content:"；"}.mw-parser-output .cslist li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .sslist li:last-child::after{content:none}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84261037">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{text-align:center;padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf;position:relative}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em;width:auto;padding-left:0.2em;position:absolute;left:1em}.mw-parser-output .navbox .mw-collapsible-toggle{margin-left:0.5em;position:absolute;right:1em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="生物界物质层级" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84244141">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:110%;margin:0 8em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:110%;margin:0 5em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA%E9%9A%8E%E5%B1%A4" title="Template:物質階層"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA%E9%9A%8E%E5%B1%A4" title="Template talk:物質階層"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA%E9%9A%8E%E5%B1%A4" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:物質階層"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="生物界物质层级" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8" title="物质">生物界物质层级</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">个体层次</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%9C%88" title="生物圈">生物圈</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="生态系统">生态系统</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A4%E8%90%BD" title="群落">群落</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%8D%E7%BE%A4" title="种群">种群</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9" title="生物">生物</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AA%E4%BD%93" title="个体">个体</a>）</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">多细胞层次</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%99%A8%E5%AE%98%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="器官系統">器官系統</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E5%99%A8%E5%AE%98" title="器官">器官</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6)" title="组织 (生物学)">組織</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="细胞生物学">细胞层次</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E" title="细胞">细胞</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E5%99%A8" title="細胞器">細胞器</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="分子生物学">分子层次</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a>：<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="生物大分子">生物大分子</a>：<a href="/wiki/%E8%9B%8B%E7%99%BD%E8%B4%A8%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84" title="蛋白质结构">蛋白质结构</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">亚分子层次</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">原子</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A1%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="次原子粒子">亚原子粒子</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%8D%E5%90%88%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="复合粒子">复合粒子</a> > <a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="基本粒子">基本粒子</a>）</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="粒子物理學" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Template:粒子"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Template talk:粒子"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:粒子"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="粒子物理學" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="粒子物理學">粒子物理學</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="基本粒子">基本粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="费米子">费米子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="夸克" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="夸克">夸克</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="上夸克">u</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="上夸克">u</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="下夸克">d</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="下夸克">d</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="C夸克">c</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="C夸克">c</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="奇夸克">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="奇夸克">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%82%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="頂夸克">t</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%82%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="頂夸克">t</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%95%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="底夸克">b</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%95%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="底夸克">b</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%95%E5%AD%90" title="輕子">輕子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">e-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="正電子">e+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E5%AD%90" title="Μ子">μ-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E5%AD%90" title="Μ子">μ+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A4%E5%AD%90" title="Τ子">τ-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%CF%84%E5%AD%90" title="反τ子">τ+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="电中微子">νe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E9%9B%BB%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="反電中微子">ve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Μ中微子">νμ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Μ中微子">vμ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A4%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Τ中微子">ντ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A4%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Τ中微子">vτ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="玻色子">玻色子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="标量玻色子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E9%87%8F%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="标量玻色子">标量玻色子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="希格斯玻色子">H</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="规范玻色子">规范玻色子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90" title="光子">γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A0%E5%AD%90" title="膠子">g</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E5%8F%8AZ%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="W及Z玻色子">W±</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E5%8F%8AZ%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="W及Z玻色子">Z0</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%8D%E5%90%88%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="复合粒子">复合粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%BA%E5%AD%90" title="强子">强子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="重子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="重子">重子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%94%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Δ粒子">Δ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%AD%90" title="核子">核子</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="反質子">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">n</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="反中子">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%AD%90" title="超子">超子</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9B%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Λ粒子">Λ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A3%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Σ粒子">Σ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9E%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Ξ粒子">Ξ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A9%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Ω粒子">Ω</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="介子">介子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A0%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Π介子">π</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="K介子">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A1%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Ρ介子">ρ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A9%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Ω介子">ω</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/%CF%88%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="J/ψ介子">J/ψ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A5%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Υ介子">ϒ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="D介子">D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="B介子">B</a></li> <li>未发现介子 <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%98%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Θ介子（页面不存在）">θ</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=T%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T介子（页面不存在）">T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="夸克偶素">夸克偶素</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其它</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">原子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="超原子">超原子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="奇異原子">奇異原子</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="电子偶素">电子偶素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B7%B2%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="緲子偶素">緲子偶素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%B7%B2%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="真緲子偶素">真緲子偶素</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="介子偶素（页面不存在）">介子偶素</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium" class="extiw" title="en:Onium">Onium</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="K介子原子">介子原子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E5%AD%90%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超子原子（页面不存在）">超子原子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E6%B0%AB" title="反氫">反氫</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="介子核（页面不存在）">介子核</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%A0%B8" title="超核">超核</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8D%E5%91%B3%E8%B6%85%E6%A0%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="重味超核（页面不存在）">重味超核</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="离子">离子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E6%83%B3%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="假想粒子">假想的基本粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%B0%8D%E7%A8%B1%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="超對稱粒子">超對稱粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="超規範子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E5%AD%90" title="超規範子">超規範子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%86%A0%E5%AD%90" title="超膠子">超膠子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%8A%9B%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="重力微子">超引力子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超光子（页面不存在）">超光子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E8%8D%B7%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超荷子（页面不存在）">超荷子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%80%A7%E5%AD%90" title="超中性子">超中性子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E5%B8%8C%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超希格斯粒子（页面不存在）">超希格斯粒子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%B2%BB%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="超費米子">超費米子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%BB%B8%E5%AD%90" title="超軸子">超軸子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E8%83%80%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超胀子（页面不存在）">超胀子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其它</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%BB%E6%84%8F%E5%AD%90" title="任意子">任意子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%80%E5%AD%90" title="胀子">胀子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%AD%90" title="加速子">加速子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%AB%E5%AD%90" title="快子">快子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%B8%E5%AD%90" title="軸子">A0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%90" title="引力子">G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%8D%95%E6%9E%81%E5%AD%90" title="磁单极子">m</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%E5%8F%8AY%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="X及Y玻色子">X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%E5%8F%8AY%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="X及Y玻色子">Y</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=W%27&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W'（页面不存在）">W'</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" class="extiw" title="en:W′ and Z′ bosons">W′_and_Z′_bosons</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Z%27&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Z'（页面不存在）">Z'</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" class="extiw" title="en:W′ and Z′ bosons">W′_and_Z′_bosons</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="普朗克粒子">普朗克粒子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E7%BA%A6%E6%8B%89%E7%BA%B3%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="马约拉纳费米子">马约拉纳粒子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E6%8D%B7%E8%80%B6%E5%A4%AB-%E6%B3%A2%E6%B3%A2%E5%A4%AB%E9%AC%BC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="法捷耶夫-波波夫鬼粒子">鬼</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E6%A0%BC%E6%98%8E%E5%AD%90" title="斯格明子">斯格明子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%83%B0%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="惰性中微子">惰性中微子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8F%E5%BC%B1%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="大质量弱相互作用粒子">大质量弱相互作用粒子（WIMP）</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E6%83%B3%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="假想粒子">假想的复合粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E5%BC%B7%E5%AD%90" title="奇異強子">奇異強子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="奇異重子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="奇異重子">奇異重子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%85%8B" title="五夸克態">五夸克態</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%83%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%80%81" title="七夸克态">七夸克态</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="R-重子">R-重子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="奇異介子">奇異介子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%80%81" title="四夸克态">四夸克态</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AD%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%80%81" title="六夸克态">六夸克态</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90%E6%85%8B" title="雙重子態">雙重子態</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A0%E7%90%83" title="膠球">膠球</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B7%B7%E6%9D%82%E6%80%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="混杂态（页面不存在）">混杂态</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其它</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="介子分子（页面不存在）">介子分子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" class="extiw" title="en:Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9D%A1%E5%AF%86%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="坡密子（页面不存在）">坡密子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A5%87%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="奇数子（页面不存在）">奇数子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/odderon" class="extiw" title="en:odderon">odderon</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8C%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="双夸克（页面不存在）">双夸克</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diquark" class="extiw" title="en:Diquark">Diquark</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%96%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="準粒子">準粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%81%94%E7%B6%AD%E5%A4%9A%E5%A4%AB%E5%AD%A4%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="達維多夫孤子（页面不存在）">達維多夫孤子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davydov_soliton" class="extiw" title="en:Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E6%BB%B4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="量子滴（页面不存在）">量子滴</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropleton" class="extiw" title="en:Dropleton">Dropleton</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%AD%90" title="激子">激子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E7%A9%B4" title="空穴">空穴</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E6%8C%AF%E5%AD%90" title="磁振子">磁振子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%B0%E5%AD%90" title="声子">聲子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%8D%95%E6%9E%81%E5%AD%90" title="磁单极子">磁单极子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%BC%BF%E5%AD%90" title="電漿子">電漿子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E6%A5%B5%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%90" title="電磁極化子">電磁極化子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%B5%E5%AD%90" title="極子">極子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%97%8B%E5%AD%90_(%E5%87%86%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="旋子 (准粒子)（页面不存在）">旋子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roton" class="extiw" title="en:Roton">Roton</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">列表</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="粒子列表">粒子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="奇異原子">奇异原子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%87%86%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="准粒子列表">准粒子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="介子列表">介子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="重子列表">重子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%91%E7%8E%B0%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8" title="粒子发现年表">粒子发现年表</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="主题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:物理学">物理学主题</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79005747">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="-&#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&#125;--&#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&#125;-_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9121#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="-&#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&#125;--&#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&#125;-_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9121#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/Help:%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6" title="Help:规范控制">规范控制数据库</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9121#identifiers" title="編輯維基數據鏈接"><img alt="編輯維基數據鏈接" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各地</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11930986h">法国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11930986h">BnF data</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4003412-4">德国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007295878505171">以色列</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85009333">美国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562368">日本</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph170602&CON_LNG=ENG">捷克</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">学术</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vocab.getty.edu/page/aat/300264242">AAT</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=44603">现代乌克兰百科全书</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/zerre">伊斯兰百科全书</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">检索自“<a dir="ltr" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=原子&oldid=84495560">https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=原子&oldid=84495560</a>”</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="Special:页面分类">分类</a>：<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%A4%8D%E5%90%88%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Category:复合粒子">复合粒子</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:原子物理学">原子物理学</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E8%A1%93%E8%AA%9E" title="Category:化學術語">化學術語</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%97%A5%E8%AA%9E%E5%80%9F%E8%A9%9E" title="Category:日語借詞">日語借詞</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">隐藏分类：<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90_(en)" title="Category:CS1英语来源 (en)">CS1英语来源 (en)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E8%BF%87%E6%97%B6%E5%8F%82%E6%95%B0%E7%9A%84%E5%BC%95%E7%94%A8%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有过时参数的引用的页面">含有过时参数的引用的页面</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1%E5%BE%B7%E8%AF%AD%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90_(de)" title="Category:CS1德语来源 (de)">CS1德语来源 (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E6%98%BE%E5%BC%8F%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E7%AD%89%E6%A0%87%E7%AD%BE" title="Category:引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签">引文格式1维护：显式使用等标签</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E6%A2%9D%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:含有英語的條目">含有英語的條目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E6%A2%9D%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:含有古希臘語的條目">含有古希臘語的條目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%87%AA2015%E5%B9%B42%E6%9C%88%E9%9C%80%E8%A1%A5%E5%85%85%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90%E7%9A%84%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:自2015年2月需补充来源的条目">自2015年2月需补充来源的条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%8B%92%E7%BB%9D%E5%BD%93%E9%80%89%E9%A6%96%E9%A1%B5%E6%96%B0%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE%E6%8E%A8%E8%8D%90%E6%A0%8F%E7%9B%AE%E7%9A%84%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:拒绝当选首页新条目推荐栏目的条目">拒绝当选首页新条目推荐栏目的条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E5%B0%8F%E5%9E%8B%E8%A8%8A%E6%81%AF%E6%A1%86%E7%9A%84%E9%A0%81%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:使用小型訊息框的頁面">使用小型訊息框的頁面</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%9C%89%E6%9C%AA%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90%E8%AF%AD%E5%8F%A5%E7%9A%84%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:有未列明来源语句的条目">有未列明来源语句的条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">引文格式1维护：冗余文本</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%87%AA2015%E5%B9%B47%E6%9C%88%E5%B8%A6%E6%9C%89%E5%A4%B1%E6%95%88%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E7%9A%84%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:自2015年7月带有失效链接的条目">自2015年7月带有失效链接的条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABBNF%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目">包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABBNFdata%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含BNFdata标识符的维基百科条目">包含BNFdata标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABGND%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含GND标识符的维基百科条目">包含GND标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABJ9U%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含J9U标识符的维基百科条目">包含J9U标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABLCCN%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目">包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABNDL%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含NDL标识符的维基百科条目">包含NDL标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABNKC%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目">包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABAAT%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含AAT标识符的维基百科条目">包含AAT标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABEMU%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含EMU标识符的维基百科条目">包含EMU标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%8C%85%E5%90%ABTDV%C4%B0A%E6%A0%87%E8%AF%86%E7%AC%A6%E7%9A%84%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:包含TDVİA标识符的维基百科条目">包含TDVİA标识符的维基百科条目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8ISBN%E9%AD%94%E6%9C%AF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:使用ISBN魔术链接的页面">使用ISBN魔术链接的页面</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> 本页面最后修订于2024年10月7日 (星期一) 09:40。</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">本站的全部文字在<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.zh">知识共享署名-相同方式共享 4.0协议</a>之条款下提供，附加条款亦可能应用。（请参阅<a class="external text" href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use">使用条款</a>） Wikipedia®和维基百科标志是<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/zh">维基媒体基金会</a>的注册商标；维基™是维基媒体基金会的商标。 维基媒体基金会是按美国国內稅收法501(c)(3)登记的<a class="external text" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Tax_deductibility">非营利慈善机构</a>。 </li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">隐私政策</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E">关于维基百科</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%85%8D%E8%B4%A3%E5%A3%B0%E6%98%8E">免责声明</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">行为准则</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">开发者</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/zh.wikipedia.org">统计</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie声明</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//zh.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">手机版视图</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-tc56n","wgBackendResponseTime":217,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.387","walltime":"2.739","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9405,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":430342,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2213,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":28,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":28,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":201500,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2187.281 1 -total"," 37.59% 822.218 1 Template:Reflist"," 22.05% 482.301 71 Template:Cite_web"," 9.73% 212.802 35 Template:Cite_book"," 8.84% 193.327 28 Template:Cite_journal"," 8.07% 176.584 2 Template:Navbox"," 7.00% 153.202 3 Template:Lang-en"," 6.06% 132.558 1 Template:Infobox"," 5.04% 110.307 1 Template:Authority_control"," 4.46% 97.464 1 Template:物質階層"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.448","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19208195,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","240","17.1"],["?","240","17.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","14.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","8.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","8.6"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","7.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","4.3"],["select_one \u003CModule:Citation/CS1/Error:213\u003E","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::setTTL","40","2.9"],["[others]","200","14.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-6f8kn","timestamp":"20241124090918","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"\u539f\u5b50","url":"https:\/\/zh.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9121","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9121","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"\u7ef4\u57fa\u5a92\u4f53\u9879\u76ee\u8d21\u732e\u8005"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-08-16T11:27:20Z","dateModified":"2024-10-07T09:40:33Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/23\/Helium_atom_QM.svg","headline":"\u5316\u5b78\u6027\u8cea\u7684\u6700\u5c0f\u55ae\u4f4d"}</script> </body> </html>