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<ul id="toc-History_of_atomic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>In philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dalton's_law_of_multiple_proportions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dalton's_law_of_multiple_proportions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Dalton's law of multiple proportions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dalton's_law_of_multiple_proportions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_the_electron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_the_electron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Discovery of the electron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_the_electron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_the_nucleus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_the_nucleus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Discovery of the nucleus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_the_nucleus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bohr_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bohr_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Bohr model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bohr_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_protons_and_neutrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_protons_and_neutrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Discovery of protons and neutrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_protons_and_neutrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_current_consensus_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_current_consensus_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>The current consensus model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_current_consensus_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subatomic_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subatomic_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Subatomic particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subatomic_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nucleus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nucleus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Nucleus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nucleus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electron_cloud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electron_cloud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Electron cloud</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electron_cloud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nuclear properties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shape_and_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shape_and_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Shape and size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shape_and_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radioactive_decay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radioactive_decay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Radioactive decay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radioactive_decay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magnetic_moment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_moment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Magnetic moment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_moment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Energy levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valence_and_bonding_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valence_and_bonding_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Valence and bonding behavior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valence_and_bonding_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Identification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_current_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_current_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Origin and current state</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_and_current_state-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin and current state subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_current_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rare_and_theoretical_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rare_and_theoretical_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Rare and theoretical forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rare_and_theoretical_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Superheavy_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superheavy_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Superheavy elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superheavy_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exotic_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exotic_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Exotic matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exotic_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Atom</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 220 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-220" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">220 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%B6%E1%88%9D" title="አቶም – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አቶም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mot" title="Mot – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Mot" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="ذرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%A7" title="Հիւլէ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հիւլէ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="পৰমাণু – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পৰমাণু" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumingue%27a" title="Tumingue'a – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tumingue'a" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85" title="آتوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آتوم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="পরমাণু – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরমাণু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ch%C3%BA" title="Goân-chú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-chú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Атам – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Атам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Атам – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Атам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tom" title="Àtom – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àtom" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="درة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="درة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoma" title="Atoma – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Atoma" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aatom" title="Aatom – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aatom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF" title="Άτομο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άτομο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tum" title="Àtum – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Àtum" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85" title="اتم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmaanu" title="Parmaanu – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Parmaanu" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamh" title="Adamh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Adamh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breneen" title="Breneen – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Breneen" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atam" title="Atam – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Atam" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%A3%E0%AB%81" title="અણુ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અણુ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngi%C3%A8n-ch%E1%B9%B3%CC%81" title="Ngièn-chṳ́ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngièn-chṳ́" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90" title="원자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwayar_Zarra" title="Kwayar Zarra – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kwayar Zarra" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BB%C4%80toma" title="ʻĀtoma – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="ʻĀtoma" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Ատոմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IChwe" title="IChwe – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IChwe" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumeind" title="Frumeind – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumeind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9D" title="אטום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אטום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisi%C5%8B_t%CA%8B" title="Sisiŋ tʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Sisiŋ tʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81" title="ಪರಮಾಣು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಮಾಣು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ატომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ატომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DB%81%D9%95" title="کنہٕ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کنہٕ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B2m" title="Atòm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Atòm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomm" title="Atomm – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Atomm" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B9" title="ປະລະມານູ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປະລະມານູ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomus" title="Atomus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Atomus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms" title="Atoms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Atoms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomas" title="Atomas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Atomas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoeam" title="Atoeam – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Atoeam" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ratni" title="ratni – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ratni" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atum" title="Atum – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Atum" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4ma" title="Atôma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Atôma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81" title="അണു – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അണു" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82" title="अणू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अणू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ატომი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ატომი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%87" title="ذره – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ذره" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngu%C3%B2ng-c%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Nguòng-cṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Nguòng-cṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Атомсь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Атомсь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="အက်တမ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အက်တမ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantzintetl" title="Nantzintetl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Nantzintetl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Nigerian Pidgin" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="Nigerian Pidgin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Naijá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="अणु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etem" title="Etem – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Etem" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4me" title="Atôme – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Atôme" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B2m" title="Atòm – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Atòm" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%81" title="ପରମାଣୁ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପରମାଣୁ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buxusa" title="Buxusa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Buxusa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%82" title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85" title="ایٹم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایٹم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B2%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="အဲစ်တမ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အဲစ်တမ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%85" title="اټوم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اټوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atam" title="Atam – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Atam" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%BC" title="បរមាណូ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បរមាណូ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tom" title="Àtom – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Àtom" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1uku" title="Iñuku – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Iñuku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%83" title="परमाणुः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="परमाणुः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85" title="ایٹم – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="ایٹم" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tomu" title="Àtomu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Àtomu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tumu" title="Àtumu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Àtumu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94" title="පරමාණු – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරමාණු" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BD%D9%85" title="ائٽم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ائٽم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B3m" title="Atóm – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Atóm" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A" title="Атомъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Атомъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C5%AFm" title="Atům – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Atům" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%95" title="گەردیلە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەردیلە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81" title="அணு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablkim" title="Ablkim – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Ablkim" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelkim" title="Abelkim – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Abelkim" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A3%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81" title="పరమాణువు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరమాణువు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1" title="อะตอม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อะตอม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A3%E1%89%B6%E1%88%9B%E1%89%B5" title="ኣቶማት – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ኣቶማት" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%BB" title="ᎠᏓᎻ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏓᎻ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atong" title="Atong – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="Atong" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%DB%81%D8%B1" title="جوہر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جوہر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85" title="ئاتوم – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئاتوم" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenzswj" title="Yenzswj – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yenzswj" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tomo" title="Àtomo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Àtomo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Nguyên tử – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nguyên tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taum" title="Taum – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Taum" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aadom" title="Aadom – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Aadom" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4me" title="Atôme – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Atôme" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarefulwoon" title="Xarefulwoon – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xarefulwoon" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athomu" title="Athomu – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Athomu" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9D" title="אטאם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אטאם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atuoms" title="Atuoms – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Atuoms" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%E1%BB%8Dm" title="Atọm – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Atọm" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Obolo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%B1%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%BD%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8E" title="ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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style="display:none">Smallest unit of a chemical element</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Atom_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Atom (disambiguation)">Atom (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#B5B5CC;">Atom</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helium_atom_QM.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Helium atom ground state"><img alt="Helium atom ground state" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/300px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/450px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/600px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="667" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">An illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> atom, depicting the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> (pink) and the <a href="/wiki/Electron_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cloud">electron cloud</a> distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is one <a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a> (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6990100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>−10</sup> m</span> or <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6990100000000000000♠"></span>100 <a href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">pm</a></span>).</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#B5B5CC;">Classification</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Smallest recognized division of a chemical element</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#B5B5CC;">Properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">Mass range</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6973167000000000000♠"></span>1.67<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6975452000000000000♠"></span>4.52<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−25</sup> kg</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></th><td class="infobox-data">zero (neutral), or <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> charge</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Diameter" title="Diameter">Diameter</a> range</th><td class="infobox-data">62 pm (<a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a>) to 520 pm (<a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Atomic_radii_of_the_elements_(data_page)" title="Atomic radii of the elements (data page)">data page</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Components</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electrons</a> and a compact <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Atoms</b> are the basic particles of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>. An atom consists of a <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and generally <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, surrounded by an electromagnetically bound swarm of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>. The chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms. For example, any atom that contains 11 protons is <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, and any atom that contains 29 protons is <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> of the same element. </p><p>Atoms are extremely small, typically around 100 <a href="/wiki/Picometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Picometer">picometers</a> across. A human hair is about a million carbon atoms wide. Atoms are smaller than the shortest wavelength of visible light, which means humans cannot see atoms with conventional microscopes. They are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a> is not possible due to <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum effects</a>. </p><p>More than 99.9994%<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of an atom's <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> is in the nucleus. Protons have a positive <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> and neutrons have no charge, so the nucleus is positively charged. The electrons are negatively charged, and this opposing charge is what binds them to the nucleus. If the numbers of <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and electrons are equal, as they normally are, then the atom is electrically neutral as a whole. If an atom has more electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative charge, and is called a negative <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> (or anion). Conversely, if it has more protons than electrons, it has a positive charge, and is called a positive ion (or cation). </p><p>The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic force</a>. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a>. This force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">splits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">leaves behind different elements</a>. This is a form of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear decay">nuclear decay</a>. </p><p>Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonds</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemical compounds</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>. The ability of atoms to attach and detach from each other is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature. <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a> is the science that studies these changes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_atomic_theory">History of atomic theory</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">History of atomic theory</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_philosophy">In philosophy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></div> <p>The basic idea that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles is an old idea that appeared in many ancient cultures. The word <i>atom</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> word <i>atomos</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which means "uncuttable". But this ancient idea was based in philosophical reasoning rather than scientific reasoning. Modern atomic theory is not based on these old concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 19th century, the scientist <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> found evidence that matter really is composed of discrete units, and so applied the word <i>atom</i> to those units.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dalton's_law_of_multiple_proportions"><span id="Dalton.27s_law_of_multiple_proportions"></span>Dalton's law of multiple proportions</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daltons_symbols.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/220px-Daltons_symbols.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/330px-Daltons_symbols.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/440px-Daltons_symbols.gif 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption>Various atoms and molecules from <i>A New System of Chemical Philosophy</i> (John Dalton 1808).</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 1800s, John Dalton compiled experimental data gathered by him and other scientists and discovered a pattern now known as the "<a href="/wiki/Law_of_multiple_proportions" title="Law of multiple proportions">law of multiple proportions</a>". He noticed that in any group of chemical compounds which all contain two particular chemical elements, the amount of Element A per measure of Element B will differ across these compounds by ratios of small whole numbers. This pattern suggested that each element combines with other elements in multiples of a basic unit of weight, with each element having a unit of unique weight. Dalton decided to call these units "atoms".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, there are two types of <a href="/wiki/Tin_oxide_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin oxide (disambiguation)">tin oxide</a>: one is a grey powder that is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen, and the other is a white powder that is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the grey powder there is about 13.5 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin, and in the white powder there is about 27 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton concluded that in the grey oxide there is one atom of oxygen for every atom of tin, and in the white oxide there are two atoms of oxygen for every atom of tin (<a href="/wiki/Tin(II)_oxide" title="Tin(II) oxide">SnO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tin_dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin dioxide">SnO<sub>2</sub></a>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dalton also analyzed <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxides</a>. There is one type of iron oxide that is a black powder which is 78.1% iron and 21.9% oxygen; and there is another iron oxide that is a red powder which is 70.4% iron and 29.6% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the black powder there is about 28 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron, and in the red powder there is about 42 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron. 28 and 42 form a ratio of 2:3. Dalton concluded that in these oxides, for every two atoms of iron, there are two or three atoms of oxygen respectively (<a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_oxide" title="Iron(II) oxide">Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub></a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide" title="Iron(III) oxide">Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a final example: <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> is 63.3% nitrogen and 36.7% oxygen, <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> is 44.05% nitrogen and 55.95% oxygen, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> is 29.5% nitrogen and 70.5% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in nitrous oxide there is 80 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen, in nitric oxide there is about 160 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen, and in nitrogen dioxide there is 320 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. 80, 160, and 320 form a ratio of 1:2:4. The respective formulas for these oxides are <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">N<sub>2</sub>O</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">NO</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">NO<sub>2</sub></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_the_electron">Discovery of the electron</h3></div> <p>In 1897, <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> discovered that <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode rays</a> are not a form of light but made of negatively charged particles because they can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He measured these particles to be at least a thousand times lighter than <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (the lightest atom).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He called these new particles <i>corpuscles</i> but they were later renamed <i><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a></i> since these are the particles that carry electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson also showed that electrons were identical to particles given off by <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric</a> and radioactive materials.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomson_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomson-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson explained that an electric current is the passing of electrons from one atom to the next, and when there was no current the electrons embedded themselves in the atoms. This in turn meant that atoms were not indivisible as scientists thought. The atom was composed of electrons whose negative charge was balanced out by some source of positive charge to create an electrically neutral atom. Ions, Thomson explained, must be atoms which have an excess or shortage of electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_the_nucleus">Discovery of the nucleus</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg/220px-Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg/330px-Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg/440px-Geiger-Marsden_experiment_expectation_and_result.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="1033" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_scattering_experiments" title="Rutherford scattering experiments">Rutherford scattering experiments</a>: The extreme scattering of some alpha particles suggested the existence of a nucleus of concentrated charge.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_scattering_experiments" title="Rutherford scattering experiments">Rutherford scattering experiments</a></div> <p>The electrons in the atom logically had to be balanced out by a commensurate amount of positive charge, but Thomson had no idea where this positive charge came from, so he tentatively proposed that it was everywhere in the atom, the atom being in the shape of a sphere. This was the mathematically simplest hypothesis to fit the available evidence, or lack thereof. Following from this, Thomson imagined that the balance of electrostatic forces would distribute the electrons throughout the sphere in a more or less even manner.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson's model is popularly known as the <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a>, though neither Thomson nor his colleagues used this analogy.<sup id="cite_ref-HonGoldstein2013_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HonGoldstein2013-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson's model was incomplete, it was unable to predict any other properties of the elements such as <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectra" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission spectra">emission spectra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valency_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valency (chemistry)">valencies</a>. It was soon rendered obsolete by the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>. </p><p>Between 1908 and 1913, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> and his colleagues <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a> performed a series of experiments in which they bombarded thin foils of metal with a beam of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha particles">alpha particles</a>. They did this to measure the scattering patterns of the alpha particles. They spotted a small number of alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90°. This shouldn't have been possible according to the Thomson model of the atom, whose charges were too diffuse to produce a sufficiently strong electric field. The deflections should have all been negligible. Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny volume at the center of the atom and that the electrons surround this nucleus in a diffuse cloud. This nucleus carried almost all of the atom's mass, the electrons being so very light. Only such an intense concentration of charge, anchored by its high mass, could produce an electric field that could deflect the alpha particles so strongly.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron2003p64-68_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron2003p64-68-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bohr_model">Bohr model</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif/220px-Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>The Bohr model of the atom, with an electron making instantaneous "quantum leaps" from one orbit to another with gain or loss of energy. This model of electrons in orbits is obsolete.</figcaption></figure> <p>A problem in classical mechanics is that an accelerating charged particle radiates electromagnetic radiation, causing the particle to lose kinetic energy. Circular motion counts as acceleration, which means that an electron orbiting a central charge should spiral down into that nucleus as it loses speed. In 1913, the physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> proposed a new model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon.<sup id="cite_ref-stern20050516_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stern20050516-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This quantization was used to explain why the electrons' orbits are stable and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra.<sup id="cite_ref-bohr19221211_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bohr19221211-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bohr's model could only predict the emission spectra of hydrogen, not atoms with more than one electron. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_protons_and_neutrons">Discovery of protons and neutrons</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Discovery of the neutron</a></div> <p>Back in 1815, <a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> observed that the atomic weights of many elements were multiples of hydrogen's atomic weight, which is in fact true for all of them if one takes <a href="/wiki/Isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotopes">isotopes</a> into account. In 1898, <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> found that the positive charge of a hydrogen ion is equal to the negative charge of an electron, and these were then the smallest known charged particles.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson later found that the positive charge in an atom is a positive multiple of an electron's negative charge.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1913, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a> discovered that the frequencies of X-ray emissions from an <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited</a> atom were a mathematical function of its <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> and hydrogen's nuclear charge. In 1919 <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a> bombarded <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> gas with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a> and detected <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> ions being emitted from the gas, and concluded that they were produced by alpha particles hitting and splitting the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These observations led Rutherford to conclude that the hydrogen nucleus is a singular particle with a positive charge equal to the electron's negative charge.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He named this particle "<a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>" in 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of protons in an atom (which Rutherford called the "<a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was found to be equal to the element's ordinal number on the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> and therefore provided a simple and clear-cut way of distinguishing the elements from each other. The atomic weight of each element is higher than its proton number, so Rutherford hypothesized that the surplus weight was carried by unknown particles with no electric charge and a mass equal to that of the proton. </p><p>In 1928, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bothe" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Bothe">Walter Bothe</a> observed that <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">paraffin wax</a>. Initially it was thought to be high-energy <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma radiation</a>, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> found that the <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford's neutrons.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_current_consensus_model">The current consensus model</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S-p-Orbitals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/220px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/330px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/440px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1813" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The modern model of atomic orbitals draws zones where an electron is most likely to be found at any moment.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> published the first consistent mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics (<a href="/wiki/Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">matrix mechanics</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Pais_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pais-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One year earlier, <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> had proposed that all particles behave like waves to some extent,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1926 <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schroedinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Erwin Schroedinger">Erwin Schroedinger</a> used this idea to develop the <a href="/wiki/Schroedinger_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Schroedinger equation">Schroedinger equation</a>, which describes electrons as three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Waveform" title="Waveform">waveforms</a> rather than points in space.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the <a href="/wiki/Point_(geometry)" title="Point (geometry)">position</a> and <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> of a particle at a given point in time. This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a>, formulated by <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> in 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-Pais_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pais-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">atomic orbital</a> zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be found.<sup id="cite_ref-brown2007_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown2007-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harrison2000_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison2000-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">spectral</a> patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subatomic_particles">Subatomic particles</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Subatomic particle</a></div> <p>Though the word <i>atom</i> originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>. The constituent particles of an atom are the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a>. </p><p>The electron is the least massive of these particles by four orders of magnitude at <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6969911000000000000♠"></span>9.11<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−31</sup> kg</span>, with a negative <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electrical charge</a> and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured, until the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> mass. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to <a href="/wiki/J.J._Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="J.J. Thomson">J.J. Thomson</a>; see <a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">history of subatomic physics</a> for details. </p><p>Protons have a positive charge and a mass of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6973167260000000000♠"></span>1.6726<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup> kg</span>. The number of protons in an atom is called its <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>. </p><p>Neutrons have no electrical charge and have a mass of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6973167490000000000♠"></span>1.6749<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup> kg</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2014_CODATA_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2014_CODATA-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neutrons are the heaviest of the three constituent particles, but their mass can be reduced by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">nuclear binding energy</a>. Neutrons and protons (collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>) have comparable dimensions—on the order of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6985250000000000000♠"></span>2.5<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−15</sup> m</span>—although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure, whereas protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> called <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two <a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up quarks</a> (each with charge +<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">2</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span>) and one <a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down quark</a> (with a charge of −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">3</span></span>⁠</span>). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.<sup id="cite_ref-pdg2002_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pdg2002-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schombert2006_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schombert2006-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The quarks are held together by the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a> (or strong force), which is mediated by <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a>. The protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a>, which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see the article on the nuclear force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of <a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">gauge bosons</a>, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.<sup id="cite_ref-pdg2002_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pdg2002-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schombert2006_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schombert2006-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nucleus">Nucleus</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/220px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/330px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/440px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> needed for a nucleon to escape the nucleus, for various isotopes</figcaption></figure> <p>All the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>, and are collectively called <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1.07{\sqrt[{3}]{A}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1.07</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mroot> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </mroot> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1.07{\sqrt[{3}]{A}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a74a6ca6998768195969eef75ca046e8431c29d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.813ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1.07{\sqrt[{3}]{A}}}"></span> <a href="/wiki/Femtometre" title="Femtometre">femtometres</a>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span> is the total number of nucleons.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 10<sup>5</sup> fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the <a href="/wiki/Residual_strong_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Residual strong force">residual strong force</a>. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic force">electrostatic force</a> that causes positively charged protons to repel each other.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atoms of the same <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> have the same number of protons, called the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotope</a> of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the <a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">nuclide</a>. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wenner2007_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wenner2007-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>. Fermions obey the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a> which prohibits <i><a href="/wiki/Identical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Identical particles">identical</a></i> fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum state at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud.<sup id="cite_ref-raymond_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raymond-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match. As a result, atoms with matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay, but with increasing atomic number, the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-raymond_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raymond-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/170px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/255px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/340px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="484" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a nuclear fusion process that forms a deuterium nucleus, consisting of a proton and a neutron, from two protons. A <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> (e<sup>+</sup>)—an <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> electron—is emitted along with an electron <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a> occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3 to 10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">coulomb barrier</a>—and fuse together into a single nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-mihos2002_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mihos2002-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a> is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.<sup id="cite_ref-lbnl20070330_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lbnl20070330-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-makhijani_saleska2001_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-makhijani_saleska2001-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a>, or the kinetic energy of a <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particle</a>), as described by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a> formula, <i>E=mc<sup>2</sup></i>, where <i>m</i> is the mass loss and <i>c</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. This deficit is part of the <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an <a href="/wiki/Exothermic_reaction" title="Exothermic reaction">exothermic process</a> that releases more energy than is required to bring them together.<sup id="cite_ref-ajp63_7_653_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ajp63_7_653-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a> begins to decrease. That means that a fusion process producing a nucleus that has an atomic number higher than about 26, and a <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a> higher than about 60, is an <a href="/wiki/Endothermic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic reaction">endothermic process</a>. Thus, more massive nuclei cannot undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium" title="Hydrostatic equilibrium">hydrostatic equilibrium</a> of a star.<sup id="cite_ref-raymond_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raymond-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electron_cloud">Electron cloud</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">Electron configuration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_shell" title="Electron shell">Electron shell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">Atomic orbital</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potential_energy_well.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/220px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/330px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/440px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>A potential well, showing, according to <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, the minimum energy <i>V</i>(<i>x</i>) needed to reach each position <i>x</i>. Classically, a particle with energy <i>E</i> is constrained to a range of positions between <i>x</i><sub>1</sub> and <i>x</i><sub>2</sub>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic force</a>. This force binds the electrons inside an <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic">electrostatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Potential_well" title="Potential well">potential well</a> surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations. </p><p>Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">particle and a wave</a>. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">standing wave</a>—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">atomic orbital</a>, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured.<sup id="cite_ref-science157_3784_13_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science157_3784_13-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a discrete (or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quantize" class="extiw" title="wikt:quantize">quantized</a>) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form.<sup id="cite_ref-Brucat2008_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brucat2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-manthey2001_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manthey2001-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png/330px-Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png/495px-Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png/660px-Atomic-orbital-clouds_spdf_m0.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>3D views of some <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-like_atom" title="Hydrogen-like atom">hydrogen-like</a> atomic orbitals showing probability density and phase (<b>g</b> orbitals and higher are not shown)</figcaption></figure> <p>Each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular <a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">energy level</a> of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_emission" title="Spontaneous emission">spontaneous emission</a>, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spectral_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic spectral line">atomic spectral lines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brucat2008_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brucat2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the <a href="/wiki/Electron_binding_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron binding energy">electron binding energy</a>—is far less than the <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy of nucleons</a>. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a <a href="/wiki/Stationary_state" title="Stationary state">ground-state</a> electron from a hydrogen atom,<sup id="cite_ref-herter_8_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herter_8-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compared to 2.23 <i>million</i> eV for splitting a <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-pr79_2_282_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pr79_2_282-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atoms are <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electrically</a> neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">bond</a> into <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> and other types of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemical compounds</a> like <a href="/wiki/Ionic_crystal" title="Ionic crystal">ionic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent</a> network <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_properties">Nuclear properties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotope</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable isotope</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclides" title="List of nuclides">List of nuclides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_elements_by_stability_of_isotopes" title="List of elements by stability of isotopes">List of elements by stability of isotopes</a></div> <p>By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of <i>protons</i> in their nuclei belong to the same <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a>. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of <i>neutrons</i> are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-1">hydrogen-1</a>, by far the most common form,<sup id="cite_ref-matis2000_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matis2000-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also called protium), one neutron (<a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>), two neutrons (<a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_hydrogen" title="Isotopes of hydrogen">more than two neutrons</a>. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single-proton element <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> up to the 118-proton element <a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">oganesson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-weiss20061017_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiss20061017-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (<a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>) is so slight as to be practically negligible.<sup id="cite_ref-s131_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s131-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dume20030423_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dume20030423-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 339 nuclides occur naturally on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-lidsay20000730_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lidsay20000730-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which 251 (about 74%) have not been observed to decay, and are referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">stable isotopes</a>". Only 90 nuclides are stable <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclides" title="List of nuclides">theoretically</a>, while another 161 (bringing the total to 251) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically possible. These are also formally classified as "stable". An additional 35 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 100 million years, and are long-lived enough to have been present since the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. This collection of 286 nuclides are known as <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclides</a>. Finally, an additional 53 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> from <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>), or as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14).<sup id="cite_ref-tuli2005_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuli2005-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For 80 of the chemical elements, at least one <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">stable isotope</a> exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.1 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six "<a href="/wiki/Monoisotopic_element" title="Monoisotopic element">monoisotopic elements</a>" have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>. Elements <a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">43</a>, <a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">61</a>, and all elements numbered <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">83</a> or higher have no stable isotopes.<sup id="cite_ref-CRC_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRC-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1–12">: 1–12 </span></sup> </p><p>Stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain "magic numbers" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">shell model</a> of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 251 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons <i>and</i> odd number of neutrons: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen-2">hydrogen-2</a> (<a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>), <a href="/wiki/Lithium-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-6">lithium-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boron-10" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron-10">boron-10</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14">nitrogen-14</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Tantalum-180m" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantalum-180m">Tantalum-180m</a> is odd-odd and observationally stable, but is predicted to decay with a very long half-life.) Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd-odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: <a href="/wiki/Potassium-40" title="Potassium-40">potassium-40</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium-50" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium-50">vanadium-50</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum-138" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanum-138">lanthanum-138</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lutetium-176" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutetium-176">lutetium-176</a>. Most odd-odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to <a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula#Pairing_term" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">nuclear pairing effects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass">Mass</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">Atomic mass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a></div> <p>The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total number of these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a>. It is a positive integer and dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a count. An example of use of a mass number is "carbon-12," which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons). </p><p>The actual <a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">mass of an atom at rest</a> is often expressed in <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">daltons</a> (Da), also called the unified atomic mass unit (u). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of <a href="/wiki/Carbon-12" title="Carbon-12">carbon-12</a>, which is approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6973166000000000000♠"></span>1.66<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup> kg</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-iupac_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iupac-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_atom" title="Hydrogen atom">Hydrogen-1</a> (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 Da.<sup id="cite_ref-chieh2001_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chieh2001-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The value of this number is called the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atomic mass</a>. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1%) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 Da), but this number will not be exactly an integer except (by definition) in the case of carbon-12.<sup id="cite_ref-nist_wc_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_wc-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heaviest <a href="/wiki/Stable_atom" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable atom">stable atom</a> is lead-208,<sup id="cite_ref-s131_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s131-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a mass of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002207976652100000♠"></span>207.976<span style="margin-left:.25em;">6521</span> Da</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-audi2003_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-audi2003-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">moles</a>. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about <a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7023602200000000000♠"></span>6.022<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>23</sup></span></a>). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">unified atomic mass unit</a>, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 Da, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.<sup id="cite_ref-iupac_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iupac-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shape_and_size">Shape and size</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">Atomic radius</a></div> <p>Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">atomic radius</a>. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-Ghosh02_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghosh02-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bond</a>. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (<a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination number</a>) and a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanical</a> property known as <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aca32_5_751_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aca32_5_751-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right).<sup id="cite_ref-dong1998_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dong1998-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 <a href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">pm</a>, while one of the largest is <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> at 225 pm.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When subjected to external forces, like <a href="/wiki/Electrical_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical field">electrical fields</a>, the shape of an atom may deviate from <a href="/wiki/Spherical_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Spherical symmetry">spherical symmetry</a>. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as shown by <a href="/wiki/Group_theory" title="Group theory">group-theoretical</a> considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at <a href="/wiki/Crystal_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal symmetry">low-symmetry</a> lattice sites.<sup id="cite_ref-Bethe1929_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bethe1929-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ZPB1995a_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ZPB1995a-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant <a href="/wiki/Ellipsoid" title="Ellipsoid">ellipsoidal</a> deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions<sup id="cite_ref-pssb2008_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pssb2008-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">chalcogen</a> ions<sup id="cite_ref-mdpi2014_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mdpi2014-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a>-type compounds. </p><p>Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> (400–700 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a>) so they cannot be viewed using an <a href="/wiki/Optical_microscope" title="Optical microscope">optical microscope</a>, although individual atoms can be observed using a <a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">scanning tunneling microscope</a>. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width.<sup id="cite_ref-osu2007_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osu2007-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single drop of water contains about 2 <a href="/wiki/Sextillion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextillion">sextillion</a> (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7021200000000000000♠"></span>2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>21</sup></span>) atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single <a href="/wiki/Carat_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carat (unit)">carat</a> <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> with a mass of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996200000000000000♠"></span>2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−4</sup> kg</span> contains about 10 sextillion (10<sup>22</sup>) atoms of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radioactive_decay">Radioactive decay</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isotopes_and_half-life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/220px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/330px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/440px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>This diagram shows the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> (T<sub><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></sub>) of various isotopes with Z protons and N neutrons.</figcaption></figure> <p>Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm.<sup id="cite_ref-splung_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-splung-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common forms of radioactive decay are:<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-firestone20000522_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-firestone20000522-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha decay</a>: this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of the emission is a new element with a lower <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta decay</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a>): these processes are regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Weak_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak force">weak force</a>, and result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an <a href="/wiki/Antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineutrino">antineutrino</a>, while proton to neutron transition (except in electron capture) causes the emission of a <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a>. The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one. Electron capture is more common than positron emission, because it requires less energy. In this type of decay, an electron is absorbed by the nucleus, rather than a positron emitted from the nucleus. A neutrino is still emitted in this process, and a proton changes to a neutron.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma decay">Gamma decay</a>: this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The excited state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle. Thus, gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay.</li></ul> <p>Other more rare types of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a> from a nucleus, or more than one <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particle</a>. An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way, is <a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">internal conversion</a>—a process that produces high-speed electrons that are not beta rays, followed by production of high-energy photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous nuclear fission</a>. </p><p>Each <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive isotope">radioactive isotope</a> has a characteristic decay time period—the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a>—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">exponential decay</a> process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.<sup id="cite_ref-splung_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-splung-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_moment">Magnetic moment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electron_magnetic_moment" title="Electron magnetic moment">Electron magnetic moment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_moment" title="Nuclear magnetic moment">Nuclear magnetic moment</a></div> <p>Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>. This is analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> of an object that is spinning around its <a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass" title="Center of mass">center of mass</a>, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a> (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> ħ, or "spin-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>". In an atom, electrons in motion around the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> possess orbital <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.<sup id="cite_ref-hornak2006_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornak2006-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> produced by an atom—its <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a>—is determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field, but the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>, in which no two electrons may be found in the same <a href="/wiki/Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">quantum state</a>, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder2_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetic</a> elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a spontaneous process known as an <a href="/wiki/Exchange_interaction" title="Exchange interaction">exchange interaction</a>. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">Paramagnetic materials</a> have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder2_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder2-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-goebel20070901_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goebel20070901-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons, but for other cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium" title="Thermal equilibrium">thermal equilibrium</a>, but for certain elements (such as <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon-129</a>) it is possible to <a href="/wiki/Spin_polarization" title="Spin polarization">polarize</a> a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction—a condition called <a href="/wiki/Hyperpolarization_(physics)" title="Hyperpolarization (physics)">hyperpolarization</a>. This has important applications in <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-yarris1997_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yarris1997-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_levels">Energy levels</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg/220px-Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg/330px-Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg/440px-Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="304" /></a><figcaption>These electron's energy levels (not to scale) are sufficient for ground states of atoms up to <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a> (5s<sup>2</sup> 4d<sup>10</sup>) inclusively. Do not forget that even the top of the diagram is lower than an unbound electron state.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> of an electron in an atom is <a href="/wiki/Negative_number" title="Negative number">negative</a> relative to when the <a href="/wiki/Distance" title="Distance">distance</a> from the nucleus <a href="/wiki/Limit_at_infinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Limit at infinity">goes to infinity</a>; its dependence on the electron's <a href="/wiki/Position_(vector)" class="mw-redirect" title="Position (vector)">position</a> reaches the <a href="/wiki/Minimum" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum">minimum</a> inside the nucleus, roughly in <a href="/wiki/Inverse_proportion" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverse proportion">inverse proportion</a> to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can occupy only a set of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">states</a> centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific <a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">energy level</a>; see <a href="/wiki/Time-independent_Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-independent Schrödinger equation">time-independent Schrödinger equation</a> for a theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the <a href="/wiki/Ionization_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionization potential">amount of energy needed to unbind</a> the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolts</a> (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Stationary_state" title="Stationary state">stationary state</a>, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state.<sup id="cite_ref-zeghbroeck1998_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeghbroeck1998-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The electron's energy increases along with <a href="/wiki/Principal_quantum_number" title="Principal quantum number"><i>n</i></a> because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on <a href="/wiki/Azimuthal_quantum_number" title="Azimuthal quantum number">ℓ</a> is caused not by the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic potential">electrostatic potential</a> of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons. </p><p>For an electron to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_electron_transition" title="Atomic electron transition">transition between two different states</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ground_state" title="Ground state">ground state</a> to first <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited state</a>, it must absorb or emit a <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels, according to the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> model, what can be precisely calculated by the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>. Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon; see <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">Electron properties</a>. </p><p>The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a>, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-martin2007_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin2007-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fraunhofer_lines.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/330px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/495px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/660px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>An example of absorption lines in a spectrum</figcaption></figure> <p>When a continuous <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">spectrum of energy</a> is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark <a href="/wiki/Absorption_band" title="Absorption band">absorption bands</a> in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a series of <a href="/wiki/Emission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission line">emission lines</a> from the photons emitted by the atoms.) <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopic</a> measurements of the strength and width of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spectral_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic spectral line">atomic spectral lines</a> allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.<sup id="cite_ref-avogadro_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avogadro-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a <a href="/wiki/Fine_structure" title="Fine structure">fine structure</a> splitting. This occurs because of <a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93orbit_interaction" title="Spin–orbit interaction">spin–orbit coupling</a>, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron.<sup id="cite_ref-fitzpatrick20070216_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fitzpatrick20070216-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the <a href="/wiki/Zeeman_effect" title="Zeeman effect">Zeeman effect</a>. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple <a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">electron configurations</a> with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines.<sup id="cite_ref-weiss2001_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiss2001-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of an external <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the <a href="/wiki/Stark_effect" title="Stark effect">Stark effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause <a href="/wiki/Stimulated_emission" title="Stimulated emission">stimulated emission</a> of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.<sup id="cite_ref-watkins_sjsu_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watkins_sjsu-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valence_and_bonding_behavior">Valence and bonding behavior</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">Valence (chemistry)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></div> <p>Valency is the combining power of an element. It is determined by the number of bonds it can form to other atoms or groups.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the <a href="/wiki/Valence_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence shell">valence shell</a>, and the electrons in that shell are called <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electrons</a>. The number of valence electrons determines the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">bonding</a> behavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemically react</a> with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells.<sup id="cite_ref-reusch20070716_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reusch20070716-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> and other chemical ionic salts. Many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonding</a> between these elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-chemguide_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemguide-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> are often displayed in a <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-husted20031211_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-husted20031211-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-baum2003_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum2003-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="States">States</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">State of matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase (matter)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/220px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/330px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/440px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Graphic illustrating the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a state, a material can also exist in different <a href="/wiki/Allotropes" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotropes">allotropes</a>. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pu49_7_719_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pu49_7_719-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as <a href="/wiki/Dioxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxygen">dioxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>. </p><p>At temperatures close to <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>, atoms can form a <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a>, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nist_bec_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_bec-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This super-cooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single <a href="/wiki/Super_atom" class="mw-redirect" title="Super atom">super atom</a>, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-colton_fyffe1999_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colton_fyffe1999-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identification">Identification</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/220px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/330px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/440px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">Scanning tunneling microscope</a> image showing the individual atoms making up this <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> (<a href="/wiki/Miller_index" title="Miller index">100</a>) surface. The surface atoms deviate from the bulk <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> and arrange in columns several atoms wide with pits between them (See <a href="/wiki/Surface_reconstruction" title="Surface reconstruction">surface reconstruction</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>While atoms are too small to be seen, devices such as the <a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">scanning tunneling microscope</a> (STM) enable their visualization at the surfaces of solids. The microscope uses the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">quantum tunneling</a> phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would be insurmountable in the classical perspective. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two <a href="/wiki/Biasing" title="Biasing">biased</a> electrodes, providing a tunneling current that is exponentially dependent on their separation. One electrode is a sharp tip ideally ending with a single atom. At each point of the scan of the surface the tip's height is adjusted so as to keep the tunneling current at a set value. How much the tip moves to and away from the surface is interpreted as the height profile. For low bias, the microscope images the averaged electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels—the local <a href="/wiki/Density_of_states" title="Density of states">density of the electronic states</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_level" title="Fermi level">Fermi level</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-jacox1997_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacox1997-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nf_physics1986_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nf_physics1986-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the distances involved, both electrodes need to be extremely stable; only then periodicities can be observed that correspond to individual atoms. The method alone is not chemically specific, and cannot identify the atomic species present at the surface. </p><p>Atoms can be easily identified by their mass. If an atom is <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionized</a> by removing one of its electrons, its trajectory when it passes through a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> will bend. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometer</a> uses this principle to measure the <a href="/wiki/Mass-to-charge_ratio" title="Mass-to-charge ratio">mass-to-charge ratio</a> of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include <a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_atomic_emission_spectroscopy" title="Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy">inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry</a>, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-sab53_13_1739_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sab53_13_1739-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Atom_probe" title="Atom probe">atom-probe tomograph</a> has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using <a href="/wiki/Time-of-flight_mass_spectrometry" title="Time-of-flight mass spectrometry">time-of-flight mass spectrometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rsi39_1_83_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsi39_1_83-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Electron emission techniques such as <a href="/wiki/X-ray_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy">X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy</a> (XPS) and <a href="/wiki/Auger_electron_spectroscopy" title="Auger electron spectroscopy">Auger electron spectroscopy</a> (AES), which measure the binding energies of the <a href="/wiki/Core_electron" title="Core electron">core electrons</a>, are used to identify the atomic species present in a sample in a non-destructive way. With proper focusing both can be made area-specific. Another such method is <a href="/wiki/Electron_energy_loss_spectroscopy" title="Electron energy loss spectroscopy">electron energy loss spectroscopy</a> (EELS), which measures the energy loss of an <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam">electron beam</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission electron microscope">transmission electron microscope</a> when it interacts with a portion of a sample. </p><p>Spectra of <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited states</a> can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>. Specific light <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a <a href="/wiki/Gas-discharge_lamp" title="Gas-discharge lamp">gas-discharge lamp</a> containing the same element.<sup id="cite_ref-lochner2007_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lochner2007-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-winter2007_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-winter2007-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_current_state">Origin and current state</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">Baryonic matter</a> forms about 4% of the total energy density of the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>, with an average density of about 0.25 particles/m<sup>3</sup> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and electrons).<sup id="cite_ref-hinshaw20060210_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hinshaw20060210-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a galaxy such as the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, particles have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a> (ISM) ranging from 10<sup>5</sup> to 10<sup>9</sup> atoms/m<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sun is believed to be inside the <a href="/wiki/Local_Bubble" title="Local Bubble">Local Bubble</a>, so the density in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_neighborhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar neighborhood">solar neighborhood</a> is only about 10<sup>3</sup> atoms/m<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-science259_5093_327_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science259_5093_327-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. </p><p>Up to 95% of the Milky Way's baryonic matter are concentrated inside stars, where conditions are unfavorable for atomic matter. The total baryonic mass is about 10% of the mass of the galaxy;<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the remainder of the mass is an unknown <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nigel2000_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nigel2000-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> inside stars makes most "atoms" fully ionized, that is, separates <i>all</i> electrons from the nuclei. In <a href="/wiki/Stellar_remnant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar remnant">stellar remnants</a>—with exception of their surface layers—an immense <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> make electron shells impossible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/600px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/900px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/1200px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Periodic table showing the origin of each element. Elements from carbon up to sulfur may be made in small stars by the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">alpha process</a>. Elements beyond iron are made in large stars with slow neutron capture (<a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a>). Elements heavier than iron may be made in neutron star mergers or supernovae after the <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>. Atomic nuclei forms in <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a> reactions. In about three minutes <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a> produced most of the <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a> in the Universe, and perhaps some of the <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ns1794_42_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ns1794_42-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-science267_5195_192_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science267_5195_192-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hinshaw20051215_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hinshaw20051215-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a>, which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> is much higher than <a href="/wiki/Ionization_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionization potential">ionization potential</a>, the matter exists in the form of <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>—a gas of positively charged ions (possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below the ionization potential, atoms become <a href="/wiki/Statistical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical physics">statistically</a> favorable. Atoms (complete with bound electrons) became to dominate over <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particles</a> 380,000 years after the Big Bang—an epoch called <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">recombination</a>, when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-abbott20070530_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abbott20070530-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the Big Bang, which produced no <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">heavier elements</a>, atomic nuclei have been combined in <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> through the process of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> to produce more of the element <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, and (via the <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">triple-alpha process</a>) the sequence of elements from carbon up to <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-mnras106_343_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mnras106_343-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a> for details. </p><p>Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">cosmic ray spallation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nature405_656_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature405_656-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected. </p><p>Elements heavier than iron were produced in <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a> and colliding <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a> through the <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">AGB stars</a> through the <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a>, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-mashnik2000_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashnik2000-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elements such as <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.<sup id="cite_ref-kgs20050504_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kgs20050504-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earth">Earth</h3></div> <p>Most of the atoms that make up the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebula</a> that collapsed out of a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular cloud</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the Earth">age of the Earth</a> through <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuel2001pp511-519_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuel2001pp511-519-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gs190_1_205_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gs190_1_205-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a>) is a product of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-anderson_foulger_meibom2006_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anderson_foulger_meibom2006-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not "primordial"), nor are results of radioactive decay. <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">Carbon-14</a> is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-pennicott2001_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pennicott2001-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions.<sup id="cite_ref-yarris2001_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yarris2001-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pr119_6_2000_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pr119_6_2000-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the <a href="/wiki/Transuranium_element" title="Transuranium element">transuranic elements</a>—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a> occur naturally on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-poston1998_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-poston1998-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cz97_10_522_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cz97_10_522-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-244" title="Plutonium-244">plutonium-244</a> possibly deposited by cosmic dust.<sup id="cite_ref-Manuel2001pp511-519_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manuel2001pp511-519-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> in uranium ore.<sup id="cite_ref-ofr_cut_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ofr_cut-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Earth contains approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7050133000000000000♠"></span>1.33<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>50</sup></span> atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-weisenberger_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weisenberger-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although small numbers of independent atoms of <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a> exist, such as <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, 99% of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">the atmosphere</a> is bound in the form of molecules, including <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diatomic_molecule" title="Diatomic molecule">diatomic</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>. At the surface of the Earth, an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a>. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a> and liquid or solid <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pidwirnyf_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pidwirnyf-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pnas99_22_13966_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas99_22_13966-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rare_and_theoretical_forms">Rare and theoretical forms</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Superheavy_elements">Superheavy elements</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Superheavy_element" title="Superheavy element">Superheavy element</a></div> <p>All nuclides with atomic numbers higher than 82 (<a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>) are known to be radioactive. No nuclide with an atomic number exceeding 92 (<a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>) exists on Earth as a <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclide</a>, and heavier elements generally have shorter half-lives. Nevertheless, an "<a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">island of stability</a>" encompassing relatively long-lived isotopes of superheavy elements<sup id="cite_ref-cern28509_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cern28509-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with atomic numbers <a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">110</a> to <a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">114</a> might exist.<sup id="cite_ref-KarpovSHE_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KarpovSHE-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Predictions for the half-life of the most stable nuclide on the island range from a few minutes to millions of years.<sup id="cite_ref-physorg_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physorg-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any case, superheavy elements (with <i>Z</i> > 104) would not exist due to increasing <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">Coulomb</a> repulsion (which results in <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> with increasingly short half-lives) in the absence of any stabilizing effects.<sup id="cite_ref-liquiddrop_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liquiddrop-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Exotic_matter">Exotic matter</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></div> <p>Each particle of matter has a corresponding <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> is a positively charged <a href="/wiki/Antielectron" class="mw-redirect" title="Antielectron">antielectron</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiproton</a> is a negatively charged equivalent of a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of <a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">baryogenesis</a> may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-koppes1999_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koppes1999-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cromie20010816_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cromie20010816-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1996, the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (<a href="/wiki/Antihydrogen" title="Antihydrogen">antihydrogen</a>) was synthesized at the <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> laboratory in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nature419_6906_439_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature419_6906_439-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BBC20021030_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC20021030-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other <a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">exotic atoms</a> have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a>, forming a <a href="/wiki/Muonic_atom" class="mw-redirect" title="Muonic atom">muonic atom</a>. These types of atoms can be used to test fundamental predictions of physics.<sup id="cite_ref-ns1728_77_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ns1728_77-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-psT112_1_20_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psT112_1_20-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ripin1998_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ripin1998-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/25px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/37px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/49px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/28px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/42px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/56px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Chemistry portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 21em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">History of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinite_divisibility" title="Infinite divisibility">Infinite divisibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" title="Outline of chemistry">Outline of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear model">Nuclear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radionuclide</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For more recent updates see <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart">Interactive Chart of Nuclides</a> ] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725182342/https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/">Archived</a> 25 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A carat is 200 milligrams. <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">By definition</a>, carbon-12 has 0.012 kg per mole. The <a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro constant</a> defines <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7023600000000000000♠"></span>6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>23</sup></span> atoms per mole.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">a combination of the negative term "a-" and "τομή," the term for "cut"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iron(II) oxide's formula is written here as "Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>" rather than the more conventional "FeO" because this better illustrates the explanation.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsnuclei">"DOE Explains...Nuclei"</a>. <i>Energy.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=DOE+Explains...Nuclei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Fscience%2Fdoe-explainsnuclei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPullman1998" class="citation book cs1">Pullman, Bernard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56"><i>The Atom in the History of Human Thought</i></a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 31–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7"><bdi>978-0-19-515040-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205165029/https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atom+in+the+History+of+Human+Thought&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=31-33&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515040-7&rft.aulast=Pullman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIQs5hur-BpgC%26q%3DLeucippus%2BDemocritus%2Batom%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refMelsen1952">Melsen (1952). <i>From Atomos to Atom</i>, pp. 18–19</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refPullman1998">Pullman (1998). <i>The Atom in the History of Human Thought</i>, p. 201</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pullman (1998). <i>The Atom in the History of Human Thought</i>, p. 199: "The constant ratios, expressible in terms of integers, of the weights of the constituents in composite bodies could be construed as evidence on a macroscopic scale of interactions at the microscopic level between basic units with fixed weights. For Dalton, this agreement strongly suggested a corpuscular structure of matter, even though it did not constitute definite proof."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refDalton1817">Dalton (1817). <i>A New System of Chemical Philosophy</i> vol. 2, p. 36</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refMelsen1952">Melsen (1952). <i>From Atomos to Atom</i>, p. 137</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refDalton1817">Dalton (1817). <i>A New System of Chemical Philosophy</i> vol. 2, p. 28</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refMillington1906">Millington (1906). <i>John Dalton</i>, p. 113</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refDalton1808">Dalton (1808). <i>A New System of Chemical Philosophy</i> vol. 1, pp. 316–319</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refHolbrowEtAl2010">Holbrow et al. (2010). <i>Modern Introductory Physics</i>, pp. 65–66</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._J._Thomson1897" class="citation journal cs1">J. J. Thomson (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/thomson1897.html">"Cathode rays"</a>. <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>. <b>44</b> (269): 293–316.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=Cathode+rays&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=269&rft.pages=293-316&rft.date=1897&rft.au=J.+J.+Thomson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.lemoyne.edu%2F~GIUNTA%2Fthomson1897.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In his book <i>The Corpuscular Theory of Matter</i> (1907), Thomson estimates electrons to be 1/1700 the mass of hydrogen.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/C0111709/English/DC-Circuts/mechanism.html">"The Mechanism Of Conduction In Metals"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121025004809/http://library.thinkquest.org/">Archived</a> 25 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Think Quest.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1901" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, J.J. (August 1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3CMDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA323">"On bodies smaller than atoms"</a>. <i>The Popular Science Monthly</i>: 323–335. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161201152039/https://books.google.com/books?id=3CMDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA323">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=On+bodies+smaller+than+atoms&rft.pages=323-335&rft.date=1901-08&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3CMDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. J. Thomson (1907). <i>On the Corpuscular Theory of Matter</i>, p. 26: "The simplest interpretation of these results is that the positive ions are the atoms or groups of atoms of various elements from which one or more corpuscles have been removed [...] while the negative electrified body is one with more corpuscles than the unelectrified one."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. J. Thomson (1907). <i>The Corpuscular Theory of Matter</i>, p. 103: "In default of exact knowledge of the nature of the way in which positive electricity occurs in the atom, we shall consider a case in which the positive electricity is distributed in the way most amenable to mathematical calculation, i.e., when it occurs as a sphere of uniform density, throughout which the corpuscles are distributed."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HonGoldstein2013-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HonGoldstein2013_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiora_HonBernard_R._Goldstein2013" class="citation journal cs1">Giora Hon; Bernard R. Goldstein (6 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.201300732">"J. J. Thomson's plum-pudding atomic model: The making of a scientific myth"</a>. <i>Annalen der Physik</i>. <b>525</b> (8–9): A129–A133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AnP...525A.129H">2013AnP...525A.129H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.201300732">10.1002/andp.201300732</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-3804">0003-3804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=J.+J.+Thomson%27s+plum-pudding+atomic+model%3A+The+making+of+a+scientific+myth&rft.volume=525&rft.issue=8%E2%80%939&rft.pages=A129-A133&rft.date=2013-09-06&rft.issn=0003-3804&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.201300732&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013AnP...525A.129H&rft.au=Giora+Hon&rft.au=Bernard+R.+Goldstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.201300732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heilbron2003p64-68-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron2003p64-68_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#refHeilbron2003">Heilbron (2003). <i>Ernest Rutherford and the Explosion of Atoms</i>, pp. 64–68</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stern20050516-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stern20050516_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern2005" class="citation web cs1">Stern, David P. (16 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Q5.htm">"The Atomic Nucleus and Bohr's Early Model of the Atom"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center" title="Goddard Space Flight Center">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070820084047/http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Q5.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Nucleus+and+Bohr%27s+Early+Model+of+the+Atom&rft.pub=NASA%2FGoddard+Space+Flight+Center&rft.date=2005-05-16&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=David+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fstargaze%2FQ5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bohr19221211-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bohr19221211_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohr1922" class="citation web cs1">Bohr, Niels (11 December 1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1922/bohr-lecture.html">"Niels Bohr, The Nobel Prize in Physics 1922, Nobel Lecture"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415183736/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1922/bohr-lecture.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Niels+Bohr%2C+The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1922%2C+Nobel+Lecture&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft.date=1922-12-11&rft.aulast=Bohr&rft.aufirst=Niels&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1922%2Fbohr-lecture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._J._Thomson1898" class="citation journal cs1">J. J. Thomson (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh5461898lon/page/528/mode/2up">"On the Charge of Electricity carried by the Ions produced by Röntgen Rays"</a>. <i>The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science</i>. 5. <b>46</b> (283): 528–545. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786449808621229">10.1080/14786449808621229</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London%2C+Edinburgh+and+Dublin+Philosophical+Magazine+and+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=On+the+Charge+of+Electricity+carried+by+the+Ions+produced+by+R%C3%B6ntgen+Rays&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=283&rft.pages=528-545&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786449808621229&rft.au=J.+J.+Thomson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flondonedinburgh5461898lon%2Fpage%2F528%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. J. Thomson (1907). <i>The Corpuscular Theory of Matter</i>. p. 26–27: "In an unelectrified atom there are as many units of positive electricity as there are of negative; an atom with a unit of positive charge is a neutral atom which has lost one corpuscle, while an atom with a unit of negative charge is a neutral atom to which an additional corpuscle has been attached."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford,_Ernest1919" class="citation journal cs1">Rutherford, Ernest (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/rutherford.html">"Collisions of alpha Particles with Light Atoms. IV. An Anomalous Effect in Nitrogen"</a>. <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>. <b>37</b> (222): 581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440608635919">10.1080/14786440608635919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=Collisions+of+alpha+Particles+with+Light+Atoms.+IV.+An+Anomalous+Effect+in+Nitrogen&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=222&rft.pages=581&rft.date=1919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786440608635919&rft.au=Rutherford%2C+Ernest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.lemoyne.edu%2F~GIUNTA%2Frutherford.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Development of the Theory of Atomic Structure</i> (Rutherford 1936). Reprinted in <i>Background to Modern Science: Ten Lectures at Cambridge arranged by the History of Science Committee 1936</i>:<br />"In 1919 I showed that when light atoms were bombarded by α-particles they could be broken up with the emission of a proton, or hydrogen nucleus. We therefore presumed that a proton must be one of the units of which the nuclei of other atoms were composed..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrme_Masson1921" class="citation journal cs1">Orme Masson (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/records/1430963/files/article.pdf%3Fdownload%3D1&ved=2ahUKEwjN-YzeqIiGAxVyUqQEHaM_COwQFnoECBwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1G76aUFXByKGSDekUwv2sa">"The Constitution of Atoms"</a>. <i>The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science</i>. <b>41</b> (242): 281–285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786442108636219">10.1080/14786442108636219</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London%2C+Edinburgh%2C+and+Dublin+Philosophical+Magazine+and+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Constitution+of+Atoms&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=242&rft.pages=281-285&rft.date=1921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786442108636219&rft.au=Orme+Masson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecords%2F1430963%2Ffiles%2Farticle.pdf%253Fdownload%253D1%26ved%3D2ahUKEwjN-YzeqIiGAxVyUqQEHaM_COwQFnoECBwQAQ%26usg%3DAOvVaw1G76aUFXByKGSDekUwv2sa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span><br />Footnote by Ernest Rutherford: 'At the time of writing this paper in Australia, Professor Orme Masson was not aware that the name "proton" had already been suggested as a suitable name for the unit of mass nearly 1, in terms of oxygen 16, that appears to enter into the nuclear structure of atoms. The question of a suitable name for this unit was discussed at an informal meeting of a number of members of Section A of the British Association at Cardiff this year. The name "baron" suggested by Professor Masson was mentioned, but was considered unsuitable on account of the existing variety of meanings. Finally the name "proton" met with general approval, particularly as it suggests the original term "protyle " given by Prout in his well-known hypothesis that all atoms are built up of hydrogen. The need of a special name for the nuclear unit of mass 1 was drawn attention to by Sir Oliver Lodge at the Sectional meeting, and the writer then suggested the name "proton."'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Scerri (2020). <i>The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance</i>, p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helge Kragh (2012). <i>Niels Bohr and the Quantum Atom</i>, p. 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Chadwick1932" class="citation journal cs1">James Chadwick (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/22.54/resources/Chadwick.pdf">"Possible Existence of a Neutron"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>129</b> (3252): 312. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932Natur.129Q.312C">1932Natur.129Q.312C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F129312a0">10.1038/129312a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4076465">4076465</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://web.mit.edu/22.54/resources/Chadwick.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Possible+Existence+of+a+Neutron&rft.volume=129&rft.issue=3252&rft.pages=312&rft.date=1932&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4076465%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F129312a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932Natur.129Q.312C&rft.au=James+Chadwick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2F22.54%2Fresources%2FChadwick.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pais-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pais_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pais_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPais1986" class="citation book cs1">Pais, Abraham (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0/page/228"><i>Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat00pais_0/page/228">228–230</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851971-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851971-3"><bdi>978-0-19-851971-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inward+Bound%3A+Of+Matter+and+Forces+in+the+Physical+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=228-230&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-19-851971-3&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finwardboundofmat00pais_0%2Fpage%2F228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEvoy,_J._P.Zarate,_Oscar2004" class="citation book cs1">McEvoy, J. P.; Zarate, Oscar (2004). <i>Introducing Quantum Theory</i>. Totem Books. pp. 110–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-577-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-577-8"><bdi>978-1-84046-577-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Quantum+Theory&rft.pages=110-114&rft.pub=Totem+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84046-577-8&rft.au=McEvoy%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Zarate%2C+Oscar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKozłowski2019" class="citation web cs1">Kozłowski, Miroslaw (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332241721">"The Schrödinger equation A History"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Schr%C3%B6dinger+equation+A+History&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Koz%C5%82owski&rft.aufirst=Miroslaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F332241721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChad_Orzel2014" class="citation web cs1">Chad Orzel (16 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQKELOE9eY4">"What is the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle?"</a>. <i>TED-Ed</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150913185956/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQKELOE9eY4">Archived</a> from the original on 13 September 2015 – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TED-Ed&rft.atitle=What+is+the+Heisenberg+Uncertainty+Principle%3F&rft.date=2014-09-16&rft.au=Chad+Orzel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DTQKELOE9eY4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brown2007-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brown2007_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2007" class="citation web cs1">Brown, Kevin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath538/kmath538.htm">"The Hydrogen Atom"</a>. MathPages. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120905172648/http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath538/kmath538.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hydrogen+Atom&rft.pub=MathPages&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mathpages.com%2Fhome%2Fkmath538%2Fkmath538.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison2000-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harrison2000_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2000" class="citation web cs1">Harrison, David M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/DevelQM/DevelQM.html">"The Development of Quantum Mechanics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071225095938/http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/GeneralInterest/Harrison/DevelQM/DevelQM.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Quantum+Mechanics&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upscale.utoronto.ca%2FGeneralInterest%2FHarrison%2FDevelQM%2FDevelQM.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemtröder2002" class="citation book cs1">Demtröder, Wolfgang (2002). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atomsmoleculesph00demt_277"><i>Atoms, Molecules and Photons: An Introduction to Atomic- Molecular- and Quantum Physics</i></a></span> (1st ed.). Springer. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atomsmoleculesph00demt_277/page/n51">39</a>–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20631-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20631-6"><bdi>978-3-540-20631-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/181435713">181435713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atoms%2C+Molecules+and+Photons%3A+An+Introduction+to+Atomic-+Molecular-+and+Quantum+Physics&rft.pages=39-42&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F181435713&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20631-6&rft.aulast=Demtr%C3%B6der&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatomsmoleculesph00demt_277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoan2000" class="citation book cs1">Woan, Graham (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehandboo0000woan/page/8"><i>The Cambridge Handbook of Physics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehandboo0000woan/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57507-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57507-2"><bdi>978-0-521-57507-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/224032426">224032426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Physics&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F224032426&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57507-2&rft.aulast=Woan&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgehandboo0000woan%2Fpage%2F8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2014_CODATA-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2014_CODATA_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohr, P.J.; Taylor, B.N. and Newell, D.B. (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nist.gov/constants">"The 2014 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120211083747/http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html">Archived</a> 11 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Web Version 7.0). The database was developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Kotochigova" title="Svetlana Kotochigova">S. Kotochigova</a>. (2014). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacGregor1992" class="citation book cs1">MacGregor, Malcolm H. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/astronomyencyclo0000unse/page/33"><i>The Enigmatic Electron</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/astronomyencyclo0000unse/page/33">33–37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521833-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521833-6"><bdi>978-0-19-521833-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223372888">223372888</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enigmatic+Electron&rft.pages=33-37&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223372888&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521833-6&rft.aulast=MacGregor&rft.aufirst=Malcolm+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fastronomyencyclo0000unse%2Fpage%2F33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pdg2002-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pdg2002_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pdg2002_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParticle_Data_Group2002" class="citation web cs1">Particle Data Group (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.particleadventure.org/">"The Particle Adventure"</a>. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070104075936/http://www.particleadventure.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Particle+Adventure&rft.pub=Lawrence+Berkeley+Laboratory&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Particle+Data+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.particleadventure.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schombert2006-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schombert2006_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schombert2006_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchombert2006" class="citation web cs1">Schombert, James (18 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html">"Elementary Particles"</a>. University of Oregon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110830212645/http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Elementary+Particles&rft.pub=University+of+Oregon&rft.date=2006-04-18&rft.aulast=Schombert&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabyss.uoregon.edu%2F~js%2Fast123%2Flectures%2Flec07.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJevremovic2005" class="citation book cs1">Jevremovic, Tatjana (2005). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nuclearprinciple00jevr_450"><i>Nuclear Principles in Engineering</i></a></span>. Springer. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nuclearprinciple00jevr_450/page/n83">63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23284-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-23284-3"><bdi>978-0-387-23284-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/228384008">228384008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Principles+in+Engineering&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F228384008&rft.isbn=978-0-387-23284-3&rft.aulast=Jevremovic&rft.aufirst=Tatjana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnuclearprinciple00jevr_450&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfefferNir2000" class="citation book cs1">Pfeffer, Jeremy I.; Nir, Shlomo (2000). <i>Modern Physics: An Introductory Text</i>. 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"Gamma-Rays from the Reaction H<sup>1</sup>(n,γ)D<sup>2</sup> and the Binding Energy of the Deuteron". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a></i>. <b>79</b> (2): 282–285. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1950PhRv...79..282B">1950PhRv...79..282B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.79.282">10.1103/PhysRev.79.282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Gamma-Rays+from+the+Reaction+H%3Csup%3E1%3C%2Fsup%3E%28n%2C%CE%B3%29D%3Csup%3E2%3C%2Fsup%3E+and+the+Binding+Energy+of+the+Deuteron&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=282-285&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.79.282&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1950PhRv...79..282B&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=R.E.&rft.au=Elliott%2C+L.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmirnov2003" class="citation book cs1">Smirnov, Boris M. (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicsatomsions00smir"><i>Physics of Atoms and Ions</i></a></span>. 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Physics World. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071214151450/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/17319">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bismuth+breaks+half-life+record+for+alpha+decay&rft.date=2003-04-23&rft.aulast=Dum%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Belle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fnews%2F17319&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lidsay20000730-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lidsay20000730_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay2000" class="citation web cs1">Lindsay, Don (30 July 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.don-lindsay-archive.org/creation/isotope_list.html">"Radioactives Missing From The Earth"</a>. 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Sci</i>. <b>3</b> (11): 87–113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fi3020087">10.3390/i3020087</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Int.+J.+Mol.+Sci.&rft.atitle=Theoretical+calculation+of+Absolute+Radii+of+Atoms+and+Ions.+Part+1.+The+Atomic+Radii&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=87-113&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fi3020087&rft.au=Ghosh%2C+D.C.&rft.au=Biswas%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fi3020087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aca32_5_751-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aca32_5_751_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShannon1976" class="citation journal cs1">Shannon, R.D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Crystallographica+A&rft.atitle=Revised+effective+ionic+radii+and+systematic+studies+of+interatomic+distances+in+halides+and+chalcogenides&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=751-767&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1107%2FS0567739476001551&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976AcCrA..32..751S&rft.aulast=Shannon&rft.aufirst=R.D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.iucr.org%2Fa%2Fissues%2F1976%2F05%2F00%2Fa12967%2Fa12967.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dong1998-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dong1998_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDong1998" class="citation web cs1">Dong, Judy (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml">"Diameter of an Atom"</a>. The Physics Factbook. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071104160920/http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Diameter+of+an+Atom&rft.pub=The+Physics+Factbook&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Dong&rft.aufirst=Judy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhypertextbook.com%2Ffacts%2FMichaelPhillip.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZumdahl2002" class="citation book cs1">Zumdahl, Steven S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+Status+Solidi+B&rft.atitle=Interatomic+distances+in+pyrite-structure+disulfides+%E2%80%93+a+case+for+ellipsoidal+modeling+of+sulfur+ions&rft.volume=245&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1858-1864&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A97824066%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpssb.200879532&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PSSBR.245.1858B&rft.au=Birkholz%2C+M.&rft.au=Rudert%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mariobirkholz.de%2Fpssb2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mdpi2014-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mdpi2014_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirkholz,_M.2014" class="citation journal cs1">Birkholz, M. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fcryst4030390">"Modeling the Shape of Ions in Pyrite-Type Crystals"</a>. <i>Crystals</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 390–403. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fcryst4030390">10.3390/cryst4030390</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crystals&rft.atitle=Modeling+the+Shape+of+Ions+in+Pyrite-Type+Crystals&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=390-403&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fcryst4030390&rft.au=Birkholz%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fcryst4030390&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-osu2007-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-osu2007_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff2007" class="citation web cs1">Staff (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/terra/2007/02/small-miracles/">"Small Miracles: Harnessing nanotechnology"</a>. Oregon State University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110521145107/http://oregonstate.edu/terra/2007/02/small-miracles/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Small+Miracles%3A+Harnessing+nanotechnology&rft.pub=Oregon+State+University&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foregonstate.edu%2Fterra%2F2007%2F02%2Fsmall-miracles%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span> – describes the width of a human hair as <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>5</sup> nm</span> and 10 carbon atoms as spanning 1 nm.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadillaMiaoulis,_IoannisCyr,_Martha2002" class="citation book cs1">Padilla, Michael J.; Miaoulis, Ioannis; Cyr, Martha (2002). <i>Prentice Hall Science Explorer: Chemical Building Blocks</i>. 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Splung.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071204135150/http://www.splung.com/content/sid/5/page/radioactivity">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radioactivity&rft.pub=Splung.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.splung.com%2Fcontent%2Fsid%2F5%2Fpage%2Fradioactivity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL'Annunziata2003" class="citation book cs1">L'Annunziata, Michael F. 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University of California-Riverside. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080202143147/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Zeeman+Effect&rft.pub=University+of+California-Riverside&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmath.ucr.edu%2Fhome%2Fbaez%2Fspin%2Fnode8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeyerShevelko2003" class="citation book cs1">Beyer, H.F.; Shevelko, V.P. (2003). <i>Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions</i>. CRC Press. pp. 232–236. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0481-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0481-8"><bdi>978-0-7503-0481-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47150433">47150433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Physics+of+Highly+Charged+Ions&rft.pages=232-236&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47150433&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0481-8&rft.aulast=Beyer&rft.aufirst=H.F.&rft.au=Shevelko%2C+V.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-watkins_sjsu-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-watkins_sjsu_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins" class="citation web cs1">Watkins, Thayer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm">"Coherence in Stimulated Emission"</a>. San José State University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080112234014/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coherence+in+Stimulated+Emission&rft.pub=San+Jos%C3%A9+State+University&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.aufirst=Thayer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sjsu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fwatkins%2Fstimem.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/V06588.html">valence</a>". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.V06588">10.1351/goldbook.V06588</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reusch20070716-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reusch20070716_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReusch2007" class="citation web cs1">Reusch, William (16 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071029211245/http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm">"Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry"</a>. Michigan State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm">the original</a> on 29 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Virtual+Textbook+of+Organic+Chemistry&rft.pub=Michigan+State+University&rft.date=2007-07-16&rft.aulast=Reusch&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cem.msu.edu%2F~reusch%2FVirtualText%2Fintro1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chemguide-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chemguide_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html">"Covalent bonding – Single bonds"</a>. chemguide. 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081101203444/http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Covalent+bonding+%E2%80%93+Single+bonds&rft.pub=chemguide&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemguide.co.uk%2Fatoms%2Fbonding%2Fcovalent.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-husted20031211-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-husted20031211_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHusted2003" class="citation web cs1">Husted, Robert; et al. (11 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm">"Periodic Table of the Elements"</a>. Los Alamos National Laboratory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080110103232/http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Periodic+Table+of+the+Elements&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&rft.date=2003-12-11&rft.aulast=Husted&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodic.lanl.gov%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-baum2003-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-baum2003_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaum2003" class="citation magazine cs1">Baum, Rudy (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html">"It's Elemental: The Periodic Table"</a>. <i>Chemical & Engineering News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110406121140/http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.atitle=It%27s+Elemental%3A+The+Periodic+Table&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Baum&rft.aufirst=Rudy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fcen%2F80th%2Felements.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodstein2002" class="citation book cs1">Goodstein, David L. (2002). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/statesmatter00good_082"><i>States of Matter</i></a></span>. Courier Dover Publications. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/statesmatter00good_082/page/n445">436</a>–438. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-843557-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-843557-8"><bdi>978-0-13-843557-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=States+of+Matter&rft.pages=436-438&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-13-843557-8&rft.aulast=Goodstein&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstatesmatter00good_082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pu49_7_719-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pu49_7_719_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrazhkin2006" class="citation journal cs1">Brazhkin, Vadim V. (2006). "Metastable phases, phase transformations, and phase diagrams in physics and chemistry". <i>Physics-Uspekhi</i>. <b>49</b> (7): 719–724. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhyU...49..719B">2006PhyU...49..719B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1070%2FPU2006v049n07ABEH006013">10.1070/PU2006v049n07ABEH006013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:93168446">93168446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics-Uspekhi&rft.atitle=Metastable+phases%2C+phase+transformations%2C+and+phase+diagrams+in+physics+and+chemistry&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=719-724&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A93168446%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1070%2FPU2006v049n07ABEH006013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhyU...49..719B&rft.aulast=Brazhkin&rft.aufirst=Vadim+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers2003" class="citation book cs1">Myers, Richard (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicschemistry00myer"><i>The Basics of Chemistry</i></a></span>. Greenwood Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicschemistry00myer/page/n98">85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31664-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31664-7"><bdi>978-0-313-31664-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50164580">50164580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Basics+of+Chemistry&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50164580&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31664-7&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasicschemistry00myer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nist_bec-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nist_bec_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff2001" class="citation news cs1">Staff (9 October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/bec_background.cfm">"Bose–Einstein Condensate: A New Form of Matter"</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080103192918/https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/BEC_background.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bose%E2%80%93Einstein+Condensate%3A+A+New+Form+of+Matter&rft.date=2001-10-09&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpublic_affairs%2Freleases%2Fbec_background.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colton_fyffe1999-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-colton_fyffe1999_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColtonFyffe,_Jeanette1999" class="citation web cs1">Colton, Imogen; Fyffe, Jeanette (3 February 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070829200820/http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html">"Super Atoms from Bose–Einstein Condensation"</a>. The University of Melbourne. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html">the original</a> on 29 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Super+Atoms+from+Bose%E2%80%93Einstein+Condensation&rft.pub=The+University+of+Melbourne&rft.date=1999-02-03&rft.aulast=Colton&rft.aufirst=Imogen&rft.au=Fyffe%2C+Jeanette&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.unimelb.edu.au%2F~ywong%2Fposter%2Farticles%2Fbec.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jacox1997-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jacox1997_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacoxGadzuk,_J._William1997" class="citation web cs1">Jacox, Marilyn; Gadzuk, J. William (November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html">"Scanning Tunneling Microscope"</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080107133132/http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scanning+Tunneling+Microscope&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft.date=1997-11&rft.aulast=Jacox&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rft.au=Gadzuk%2C+J.+William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2FGenInt%2FSTM%2Fstm.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nf_physics1986-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nf_physics1986_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/index.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986"</a>. The Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080917103215/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1986&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1986%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span> In particular, see the Nobel lecture by G. Binnig and H. Rohrer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sab53_13_1739-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sab53_13_1739_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakubowskiMoensVanhaecke1998" class="citation journal cs1">Jakubowski, N.; Moens, Luc; Vanhaecke, Frank (1998). 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Panitz">Panitz, John A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/S._Brooks_McLane" title="S. Brooks McLane">McLane, S. Brooks</a> (1968). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.newscientist.com/article/mg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html">the original</a> on 21 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=The+Strange+World+of+the+Exotic+Atom&rft.issue=1728&rft.pages=77-115&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-psT112_1_20-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-psT112_1_20_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIndelicato2004" class="citation journal cs1">Indelicato, Paul (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00002825">"Exotic Atoms"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physica_Scripta" title="Physica Scripta">Physica Scripta</a></i>. <b>T112</b> (1): 20–26. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0409058">physics/0409058</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhST..112...20I">2004PhST..112...20I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1238%2FPhysica.Topical.112a00020">10.1238/Physica.Topical.112a00020</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11134265">11134265</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181104170051/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00002825">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+Scripta&rft.atitle=Exotic+Atoms&rft.volume=T112&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-26&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0409058&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11134265%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1238%2FPhysica.Topical.112a00020&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PhST..112...20I&rft.aulast=Indelicato&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00002825&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ripin1998-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ripin1998_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRipin1998" class="citation web cs1">Ripin, Barrett H. (July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120723135110/http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html">"Recent Experiments on Exotic Atoms"</a>. American Physical Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html">the original</a> on 23 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recent+Experiments+on+Exotic+Atoms&rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&rft.date=1998-07&rft.aulast=Ripin&rft.aufirst=Barrett+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F199807%2Fexperiment.cfm.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refManuel2001" class="citation book cs1">Oliver Manuel (2001). <i>Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46562-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46562-8"><bdi>978-0-306-46562-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/228374906">228374906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origin+of+Elements+in+the+Solar+System%3A+Implications+of+Post-1957+Observations&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F228374906&rft.isbn=978-0-306-46562-8&rft.au=Oliver+Manuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refMelsen1952" class="citation book cs1">Andrew G. van Melsen (2004) [1952]. <i>From Atomos to Atom: The History of the Concept Atom</i>. Translated by Henry J. Koren. Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-49584-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-49584-1"><bdi>0-486-49584-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Atomos+to+Atom%3A+The+History+of+the+Concept+Atom&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-486-49584-1&rft.au=Andrew+G.+van+Melsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refMillington1906" class="citation book cs1">J.P. Millington (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.30924/"><i>John Dalton</i></a>. J. M. Dent & Co. (London); E. P. Dutton & Co. (New York).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Dalton&rft.pub=J.+M.+Dent+%26+Co.+%28London%29%3B+E.+P.+Dutton+%26+Co.+%28New+York%29&rft.date=1906&rft.au=J.P.+Millington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.30924%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refHolbrowEtAl2010" class="citation book cs1">Charles H. Holbrow; James N. Lloyd; Joseph C. Amato; Enrique Galvez; M. Elizabeth Parks (2010). <i>Modern Introductory Physics</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-79079-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-79079-4"><bdi>978-0-387-79079-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Introductory+Physics&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-387-79079-4&rft.au=Charles+H.+Holbrow&rft.au=James+N.+Lloyd&rft.au=Joseph+C.+Amato&rft.au=Enrique+Galvez&rft.au=M.+Elizabeth+Parks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refDalton1808" class="citation book cs1">John Dalton (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/newsystemofchemi12dalt"><i>A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 1</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+System+of+Chemical+Philosophy+vol.+1&rft.date=1808&rft.au=John+Dalton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.si.edu%2Fdigital-library%2Fbook%2Fnewsystemofchemi12dalt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refDalton1817" class="citation book cs1">John Dalton (1817). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/newsystemofchemi21dalt"><i>A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 2</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+System+of+Chemical+Philosophy+vol.+2&rft.date=1817&rft.au=John+Dalton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.si.edu%2Fdigital-library%2Fbook%2Fnewsystemofchemi21dalt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1">John L. Heilbron (2003). <i>Ernest Rutherford and the Explosion of Atoms</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512378-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512378-6"><bdi>0-19-512378-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ernest+Rutherford+and+the+Explosion+of+Atoms&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-512378-6&rft.au=John+L.+Heilbron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refNavarro2012" class="citation book cs1">Jaume Navarro (2012). <i>A History of the Electron: J. J. and G. P. Thomson</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00522-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00522-8"><bdi>978-1-107-00522-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Electron%3A+J.+J.+and+G.+P.+Thomson&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-00522-8&rft.au=Jaume+Navarro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refPullman1998" class="citation book cs1">Bernard Pullman (1998). <i>The Atom in the History of Human Thought</i>. Translated by Axel Reisinger. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511447-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511447-7"><bdi>0-19-511447-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atom+in+the+History+of+Human+Thought&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-511447-7&rft.au=Bernard+Pullman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refPerrin1909" class="citation book cs1">Jean Perrin (1910) [1909]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brownianmovement00perr"><i>Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality</i></a>. Translated by F. Soddy. Taylor and Francis.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brownian+Movement+and+Molecular+Reality&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=1910&rft.au=Jean+Perrin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrownianmovement00perr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_R._Scerri2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Scerri" title="Eric Scerri">Eric R. Scerri</a> (2020). <i>The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-190-91436-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-190-91436-3"><bdi>978-0-190-91436-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Periodic+Table%2C+Its+Story+and+Its+Significance&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-190-91436-3&rft.au=Eric+R.+Scerri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGangopadhyaya1981" class="citation book cs1">Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti (1981). <i>Indian Atomism: History and Sources</i>. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-02177-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-391-02177-8"><bdi>978-0-391-02177-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10916778">10916778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Atomism%3A+History+and+Sources&rft.place=Atlantic+Highlands%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Humanities+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10916778&rft.isbn=978-0-391-02177-8&rft.aulast=Gangopadhyaya&rft.aufirst=Mrinalkanti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIannone2001" class="citation book cs1">Iannone, A. Pablo (2001). <i>Dictionary of World Philosophy</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17995-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17995-9"><bdi>978-0-415-17995-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44541769">44541769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+World+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44541769&rft.isbn=978-0-415-17995-9&rft.aulast=Iannone&rft.aufirst=A.+Pablo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1999" class="citation book cs1">King, Richard (1999). <i>Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought</i>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0954-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0954-3"><bdi>978-0-7486-0954-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+philosophy%3A+an+introduction+to+Hindu+and+Buddhist+thought&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-0954-3&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEvilley2002" class="citation book cs1">McEvilley, Thomas (2002). <i>The shape of ancient thought: comparative studies in Greek and Indian philosophies</i>. Allworth Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58115-203-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58115-203-6"><bdi>978-1-58115-203-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+shape+of+ancient+thought%3A+comparative+studies+in+Greek+and+Indian+philosophies&rft.pub=Allworth+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-58115-203-6&rft.aulast=McEvilley&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegfried2002" class="citation book cs1">Siegfried, Robert (2002). <i>From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition</i>. Diane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-924-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-924-4"><bdi>978-0-87169-924-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/186607849">186607849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Elements+to+Atoms%3A+A+History+of+Chemical+Composition&rft.pub=Diane&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F186607849&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-924-4&rft.aulast=Siegfried&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeresi2003" class="citation book cs1">Teresi, Dick (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C"><i>Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science</i></a>. Simon & Schuster. pp. 213–214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4379-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4379-7"><bdi>978-0-7432-4379-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200804145606/https://books.google.com/books?id=pheL_ubbXD0C">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Discoveries%3A+The+Ancient+Roots+of+Modern+Science&rft.pages=213-214&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-4379-7&rft.aulast=Teresi&rft.aufirst=Dick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpheL_ubbXD0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWurtz1881" class="citation book cs1">Wurtz, Charles Adolphe (1881). <i>The Atomic Theory</i>. New York: D. Appleton and company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-559-43636-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-559-43636-9"><bdi>978-0-559-43636-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&rft.date=1881&rft.isbn=978-0-559-43636-9&rft.aulast=Wurtz&rft.aufirst=Charles+Adolphe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Atom</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/atom" class="extiw" title="wikt:atom">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atom" class="extiw" title="c:Atom">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Atom" class="extiw" title="q:Atom">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work" class="extiw" title="s:The New Student's Reference Work">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Mathematical_Physics/N_body_problem_and_matter_description/Atoms" class="extiw" title="b:Introduction to Mathematical Physics/N body problem and matter description/Atoms">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/The_Atom" class="extiw" title="v:The Atom">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_01.html">Atoms in Motion – The Feynman Lectures on Physics</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharp2017" class="citation web cs1">Sharp, Tim (8 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/37206-atom-definition.html">"What is an Atom?"</a>. Live Science.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+an+Atom%3F&rft.pub=Live+Science&rft.date=2017-08-08&rft.aulast=Sharp&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F37206-atom-definition.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">Quarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">Up (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Up antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">Down (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Down antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">Charm (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Charm antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">Strange (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Strange antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">Top (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Top antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">Bottom (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom antiquark">antiquark)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Leptons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Muon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Antimuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Tau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Antitau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">Electron neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Electron antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">Muon neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Muon antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">Tau neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Tau antineutrino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">Bosons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">Gauge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" title="Scalar boson">Scalar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghost_(physics)" title="Ghost (physics)">Ghost fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghosts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">Gauginos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gluino" title="Gluino">Gluino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photino" title="Photino">Photino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axino" title="Axino">Axino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">Chargino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">Sfermion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_squark" title="Stop squark">Stop squark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvaton" title="Curvaton">Curvaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilaton" title="Dilaton">Dilaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">Inflaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoquark" title="Leptoquark">Leptoquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">Magnetic monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoron" title="Majoron">Majoron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">Tachyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" title="W′ and Z′ bosons">W′ and Z′ bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">Composite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hadrons" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_baryon" title="Delta baryon">Delta baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_baryon" title="Lambda baryon">Lambda baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_baryon" title="Sigma baryon">Sigma baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_baryon" title="Xi baryon">Xi baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_baryon" title="Omega baryon">Omega baryon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">Mesons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">Pion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rho_meson" title="Rho meson">Rho meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eta_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta meson">Eta and eta prime mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson" title="Bottom eta meson">Bottom eta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_meson" title="Phi meson">Phi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/psi_meson" title="J/psi meson">J/psi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_meson" title="Omega meson">Omega meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsilon_meson" title="Upsilon meson">Upsilon meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">Kaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Exotic_hadron" title="Exotic hadron">Exotic hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">Tetraquark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark" title="Double-charm tetraquark">Double-charm tetraquark</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nuclei</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauonium">Tauonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonium" title="Protonium">Protonium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superatom" title="Superatom">Superatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Hypothetical_composite_particles" title="Category:Hypothetical composite particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Baryons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaquark" title="Hexaquark">Hexaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaquark" title="Heptaquark">Heptaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">Skyrmion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mesons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">Glueball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_meson" title="Theta meson">Theta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_meson" title="T meson">T meson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" title="Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeron" title="Pomeron">Pomeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">Diquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-hadron" title="R-hadron">R-hadron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davydov_soliton" title="Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropleton" title="Dropleton">Dropleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)" title="Fracton (subdimensional particle)">Fracton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaron" title="Plasmaron">Plasmaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trion_(physics)" title="Trion (physics)">Trion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">Baryons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mesons" title="List of mesons">Mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles" title="List of quasiparticles">Quasiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">Timeline of particle discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">History of subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">mathematical formulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Subatomic particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)" title="Eightfold way (physics)">Eightfold way</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">Quark model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massless_particle" title="Massless particle">Massless particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_particle" title="Relativistic particle">Relativistic particle</a></li> <li><a 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a 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title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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