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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stagnation_in_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stagnation_in_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Stagnation in 1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stagnation_in_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resurgence_after_2010" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resurgence_after_2010"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Resurgence after 2010</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resurgence_after_2010-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Helmut_Kohl_in_a_reunited_Germany_(1990–1998)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chancellorship_of_Helmut_Kohl_in_a_reunited_Germany_(1990–1998)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Chancellorship of Helmut Kohl in a reunited Germany (1990–1998)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chancellorship_of_Helmut_Kohl_in_a_reunited_Germany_(1990–1998)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chancellorship of Helmut Kohl in a reunited Germany (1990–1998) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Helmut_Kohl_in_a_reunited_Germany_(1990–1998)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Five_new_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Five_new_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Five new states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Five_new_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kohl's_fourth_term,_1991–1994" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kohl's_fourth_term,_1991–1994"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Kohl's fourth term, 1991–1994</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kohl's_fourth_term,_1991–1994-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kohl's_fifth_term,_1994–1998" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kohl's_fifth_term,_1994–1998"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Kohl's fifth term, 1994–1998</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kohl's_fifth_term,_1994–1998-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Gerhard_Schröder_(1998–2005)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chancellorship_of_Gerhard_Schröder_(1998–2005)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder (1998–2005)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chancellorship_of_Gerhard_Schröder_(1998–2005)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder (1998–2005) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Gerhard_Schröder_(1998–2005)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_term,_1998–2002" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_term,_1998–2002"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>First term, 1998–2002</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_term,_1998–2002-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_term,_2002–2005" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_term,_2002–2005"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Second term, 2002–2005</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_term,_2002–2005-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Angela_Merkel_(2005–2021)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chancellorship_of_Angela_Merkel_(2005–2021)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Chancellorship of Angela Merkel (2005–2021)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chancellorship_of_Angela_Merkel_(2005–2021)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chancellorship of Angela Merkel (2005–2021) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Angela_Merkel_(2005–2021)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_term,_2005–2009" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_term,_2005–2009"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>First term, 2005–2009</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_term,_2005–2009-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_term,_2009–2013" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_term,_2009–2013"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Second term, 2009–2013</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_term,_2009–2013-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_term,_2013–2018" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_term,_2013–2018"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Third term, 2013–2018</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_term,_2013–2018-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_term,_2018–2021" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_term,_2018–2021"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Fourth term, 2018–2021</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_term,_2018–2021-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Olaf_Scholz_(2021–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chancellorship_of_Olaf_Scholz_(2021–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Chancellorship of Olaf Scholz (2021–present)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chancellorship_of_Olaf_Scholz_(2021–present)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chancellorship of Olaf Scholz (2021–present) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chancellorship_of_Olaf_Scholz_(2021–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Far_Right_and_the_AfD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Far_Right_and_the_AfD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Rise of the Far Right and the AfD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Far_Right_and_the_AfD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyskland_efter_genforeningen" title="Tyskland efter genforeningen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tyskland efter genforeningen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Deutschlands_seit_1990" title="Geschichte Deutschlands seit 1990 – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Deutschlands seit 1990" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%AC%ED%86%B5%EC%9D%BC_%EC%9D%B4%ED%9B%84_%EB%8F%85%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="재통일 이후 독일의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="재통일 이후 독일의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%97%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%97%D7%95%D7%93" title="גרמניה אחרי האיחוד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גרמניה אחרי האיחוד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_historie_(etter_1990)" title="Tysklands historie (etter 1990) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tysklands historie (etter 1990)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Gjermanis%C3%AB_(1990%E2%80%93tani)" title="Historia e Gjermanisë (1990–tani) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Gjermanisë (1990–tani)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tysklands_historia_efter_%C3%A5terf%C3%B6reningen" title="Tysklands historia efter återföreningen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tysklands historia efter återföreningen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_(1990%E2%80%93%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80)" title="Історія Німеччини (1990–дотепер) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Німеччини (1990–дотепер)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%A9%E5%BE%B7%E7%B5%B1%E4%B8%80%E4%BB%A5%E4%BE%86%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="兩德統一以來德國歷史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="兩德統一以來德國歷史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22History+of+Germany%22+1990%E2%80%93present">"History of Germany" 1990–present</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22History+of+Germany%22+1990%E2%80%93present+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22History+of+Germany%22+1990%E2%80%93present&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22History+of+Germany%22+1990%E2%80%93present+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22History+of+Germany%22+1990%E2%80%93present">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22History+of+Germany%22+1990%E2%80%93present&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and 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.ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Federal Republic of Germany</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span class="nowrap"><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bundesrepublik Deutschland</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/125px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/188px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/250px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Germany"><img alt="Coat of arms of Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/85px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/128px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany" title="Coat of arms of Germany"> Coat of arms</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Deutschlandlied" title="Deutschlandlied">Deutschlandlied</a></i></span><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />"Song of Germany"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" 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label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="switcher-container"><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:EU-Germany_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/EU-Germany_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/220px-EU-Germany_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/EU-Germany_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/330px-EU-Germany_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/EU-Germany_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/440px-EU-Germany_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none" data-switcher-default="">Show globe</span></div><div><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:EU-Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/EU-Germany.svg/250px-EU-Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/EU-Germany.svg/375px-EU-Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/EU-Germany.svg/500px-EU-Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2045" data-file-height="1720" /></a></span><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none">Show map of Europe</span></div></div><div class="ib-country-map-caption"><div style="text-align:center;line-height:1.15em;">Location of History of Germany (1990–present) (dark green)<p style="text-align:left;margin-left:1.2ex;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;line-height:1.15em;">– in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> (light green & dark grey)<br />– in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (light green)</p></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a><small><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&params=52_31_N_13_23_E_type:city"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">52°31′N</span> <span class="longitude">13°23′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">52.517°N 13.383°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">52.517; 13.383</span></span></span></a></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a> (seat of government, 1990–1999)<br /><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&params=50_44_N_7_6_E_type:city"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">50°44′N</span> <span class="longitude">7°6′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">50.733°N 7.100°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">50.733; 7.100</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Largest city</th><td class="infobox-data">Berlin<br /><span class="geo-inline"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&params=52_31_N_13_23_E_type:city"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">52°31′N</span> <span class="longitude">13°23′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">52.517°N 13.383°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">52.517; 13.383</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Germany" title="Politics of Germany">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federal</a> <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">parliamentary republic</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier" title="Frank-Walter Steinmeier">Frank-Walter Steinmeier</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Olaf Scholz</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bundesrat_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesrat of Germany">Bundesrat</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Formation</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3 October 1990</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Sovereignty attained</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">15 March 1991</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany#History" title="Group of Soviet Forces in Germany">Russian troops withdrawn</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">31 August 1994</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Germany" title="Geography of Germany">Area </a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">357,022 km<sup>2</sup> (137,847 sq mi)<sup id="cite_ref-CIA_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CIA-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">63rd</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water (%)</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1.27 (2015)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Germany" title="Demographics of Germany">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• 2020 estimate</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Neutral increase"><img alt="Neutral increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/11px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/17px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Increase_Neutral.svg/22px-Increase_Neutral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="346" /></span></span> 83,190,556<sup id="cite_ref-2018pop_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2018pop-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">18th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Density</div></th><td class="infobox-data">232/km<sup>2</sup> (600.9/sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density" title="List of countries and dependencies by population density">58th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>)</span></th><td class="infobox-data">2021 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> $4.743 trillion<sup id="cite_ref-imf2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imf2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP)">5th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> $56,956<sup id="cite_ref-imf2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imf2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita">15th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(nominal)</span></th><td class="infobox-data">2021 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> $4.319 trillion<sup id="cite_ref-imf2_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imf2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal)">4th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> $51,860<sup id="cite_ref-imf2_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imf2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita" title="List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita">15th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(2019)</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Positive decrease"><img alt="Positive decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/11px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/17px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/22px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> 29.7<sup id="cite_ref-eurogini_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eurogini-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:forestgreen">low inequality</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(2019)</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> 0.947<sup id="cite_ref-UNHDR_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNHDR-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgreen">very high</span></span> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of countries by Human Development Index">6th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data">1990–1999:<br /><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Mark</a> (DM)<br />1999–present:<br /><a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a> (<a href="/wiki/Euro_sign" title="Euro sign">€</a>) (<a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">EUR</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+1</span> (<a href="/wiki/Central_European_Time" title="Central European Time">CET</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Summer (<a href="/wiki/Daylight_saving_time" title="Daylight saving time">DST</a>)</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+2</span> (<a href="/wiki/Central_European_Summer_Time" title="Central European Summer Time">CEST</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">right</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Germany" title="Telephone numbers in Germany">Calling code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Germany" title="Telephone numbers in Germany">+49</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:DE" title="ISO 3166-2:DE">DE</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">Internet TLD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/.de" title=".de">.de</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/30px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/40px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany (Bonn Republic)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/20px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/30px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/40px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output 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nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Germany" title="Category:History of Germany">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of <span class="fn org label">Germany</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBT_history_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of LGBT history in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Germany" title="Territorial evolution of Germany">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Germany" title="List of historic states of Germany">Historic states</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs" title="List of German monarchs">Monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_German_queens" title="List of German queens">Queens</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Holy_Roman_empresses" title="List of Holy Roman empresses">Empresses</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs_in_1918" title="List of German monarchs in 1918">1918</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_German_monarchs" title="Family tree of German monarchs">Family tree</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Austria" title="List of rulers of Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Saxony" title="List of rulers of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Württemberg">Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediatised_houses" title="Mediatised houses">Mediatised</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear Pottery culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Kingdom of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Eastward settlement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kleinstaaterei" title="Kleinstaaterei">Sectionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_mediatisation" title="German mediatisation">Mediatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i></span></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1871–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1918–1933</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1933–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Contemporary Germany</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation</a></li><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">Ostgebiete</a></i></span></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1945–1949/1952</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1944–1950</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West</a>–<a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">division</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1949–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">New states</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern history</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">since 1990</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of Germany from 1990 to the present</b> spans the period following the <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>, when <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> were reunited after <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">being divided</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Germany after 1990 is referred to by historians as the <b>Berlin Republic</b> (<i>Berliner Republik</i>). This time period is also determined by the ongoing process of the "<a href="/wiki/Inner_reunification" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner reunification">inner reunification</a>" of the formerly divided country. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stagnation_in_1990s">Stagnation in 1990s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Stagnation in 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_German_reunification" title="Economic history of the German reunification">Economic history of the German reunification</a></div> <p>Germany invested over two trillion marks in the rehabilitation of the former East Germany, helping it to transition to a market economy and cleaning up the environmental degradation. By 2011 the results were mixed, with slow economic development in the East, in sharp contrast to the rapid economic growth in both west and southern Germany. Unemployment was much higher in the East, often over 15%. Economists Snower and Merkl (2006) suggest that the malaise was prolonged by all the social and economic help from the German government, pointing especially to bargaining by proxy, high unemployment benefits and welfare entitlements, and generous job-security provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German economic miracle petered out in the 1990s, so that by the end of the century and the early 2000s it was ridiculed as "the sick man of Europe."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It suffered a short recession in 2003. The economic growth rate was a very low 1.2% annually from 1988 to 2005. Unemployment, especially in the eastern districts, remained stubbornly high despite heavy stimulus spending. It rose from 9.2% in 1998 to 11.1% in 2009. The worldwide <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> of 2008-2010 worsened conditions briefly, as there was a sharp decline in <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a>. However unemployment did not rise, and recovery was faster than almost anywhere else. The old industrial centers of the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a> and North Germany lagged as well, as the coal and steel industries faded in importance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resurgence_after_2010">Resurgence after 2010</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Resurgence after 2010"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The economic policies were heavily oriented toward the world market, and the export sector continued to be very strong.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prosperity was pulled along by exports that reached a record of $1.7 trillion US dollars in 2011, or half of the German GDP, or nearly 8% of all of the exports in the world. While the rest of the European Community struggled with financial issues, Germany took a conservative position based on an extraordinarily strong economy after 2010. The labor market proved flexible, and the export industries were attuned to world demand.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of December 2023, Germany is the fourth largest economy in the world after the United States, China and Japan and the largest economy in Europe. It is the third largest export nation in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Key_Facts_Germany_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Key_Facts_Germany-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chancellorship_of_Helmut_Kohl_in_a_reunited_Germany_(1990–1998)"><span id="Chancellorship_of_Helmut_Kohl_in_a_reunited_Germany_.281990.E2.80.931998.29"></span>Chancellorship of Helmut Kohl in a reunited Germany (1990–1998)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chancellorship of Helmut Kohl in a reunited Germany (1990–1998)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Five_new_states">Five new states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Five new states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">New states of Germany</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Helmut Kohl addressing crowd" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg/220px-KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg/330px-KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg/440px-KohlModrowMomperBrandenburgerTor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="1860" /></a><figcaption>Helmut Kohl after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> in 1989</figcaption></figure> <p>On October 3, 1990, the <a href="/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="German Democratic Republic">German Democratic Republic</a> was dissolved, five states were recreated (<a href="/wiki/Brandenburg" title="Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg-Vorpommern" title="Mecklenburg-Vorpommern">Mecklenburg-Vorpommern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxony-Anhalt" title="Saxony-Anhalt">Saxony-Anhalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a>) and the new states became part of the Federal Republic of Germany, an event known as the <a href="/wiki/German_Reunification" class="mw-redirect" title="German Reunification">German Reunification</a>. </p><p>Elections for new state parliaments were held in the five states on October 14, and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">Christian Democratic Union of Germany</a> became the largest party in all states except Brandenburg, where the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">Social Democratic Party of Germany</a> became the largest party. </p><p>The reunified <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> became the capital of Germany on October 3, although the government continued to have its seat in Bonn until 1999. December 2 marks the first elections for the city parliament after reunification. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kohl's_fourth_term,_1991–1994"><span id="Kohl.27s_fourth_term.2C_1991.E2.80.931994"></span>Kohl's fourth term, 1991–1994</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Kohl's fourth term, 1991–1994"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first federal election after reunification, the <a href="/wiki/1990_German_federal_election" title="1990 German federal election">1990 federal election</a>, took place on December 2 in that year. The CDU became the largest party with 43.8%, followed by the SPD (33.5%) and the <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Democratic Party of Germany">Free Democratic Party of Germany</a> (11%).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 20, 1991, the <a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a> decided that the parliament and parts of the government and central administration <a href="/wiki/Decision_on_the_Capital_of_Germany" title="Decision on the Capital of Germany">would be relocated</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a> to the capital, Berlin. At this time, the term "Berlin Republic" (alluding to the Cold War era "<a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Bonn Republic</a>" and the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a> "<a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>") emerged. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Roman_Herzog" title="Roman Herzog">Roman Herzog</a>, a former Judge at the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Court_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Constitutional Court of Germany">Federal Constitutional Court of Germany</a>, was elected <a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President of Germany</a> in 1994, succeeding <a href="/wiki/Richard_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Richard von Weizsäcker">Richard von Weizsäcker</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kohl's_fifth_term,_1994–1998"><span id="Kohl.27s_fifth_term.2C_1994.E2.80.931998"></span>Kohl's fifth term, 1994–1998</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Kohl's fifth term, 1994–1998"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/1994_German_federal_election" title="1994 German federal election">1994 federal election</a>, Helmut Kohl was reelected as Chancellor for his fifth and last term. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chancellorship_of_Gerhard_Schröder_(1998–2005)"><span id="Chancellorship_of_Gerhard_Schr.C3.B6der_.281998.E2.80.932005.29"></span>Chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder (1998–2005)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder (1998–2005)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_with_Gerhard_Schroeder-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vladimir_Putin_with_Gerhard_Schroeder-1.jpg/220px-Vladimir_Putin_with_Gerhard_Schroeder-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vladimir_Putin_with_Gerhard_Schroeder-1.jpg/330px-Vladimir_Putin_with_Gerhard_Schroeder-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vladimir_Putin_with_Gerhard_Schroeder-1.jpg/440px-Vladimir_Putin_with_Gerhard_Schroeder-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Schröder with <a href="/wiki/President_of_Russia" title="President of Russia">Russian president</a> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> in Moscow on 9 May 2005</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_term,_1998–2002"><span id="First_term.2C_1998.E2.80.932002"></span>First term, 1998–2002</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: First term, 1998–2002"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ruling liberal-conservative coalition government, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/CDU/CSU" title="CDU/CSU">CDU/CSU</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">FDP</a>, lost the <a href="/wiki/1998_German_federal_election" title="1998 German federal election">1998 federal election</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Gerhard Schröder">Gerhard Schröder</a> was elected as Chancellor, at the head of a coalition government consisting of his own <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">SPD</a> party and <a href="/wiki/The_Greens_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Greens (Germany)">The Greens</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joschka_Fischer" title="Joschka Fischer">Joschka Fischer</a>, a leading Green politician, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. </p><p>Shortly after the formation of the government, Minister of Finance <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Lafontaine" title="Oskar Lafontaine">Oskar Lafontaine</a>, a former SPD chairman and rival of Schröder, resigned from the cabinet. He was succeeded as Minister of Finance by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Eichel" title="Hans Eichel">Hans Eichel</a>. </p><p>In 1998, it became known that the CDU/CSU had received anonymous funding. Helmut Kohl subsequently resigned as honorary party chairman, and in 2000, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Sch%C3%A4uble" title="Wolfgang Schäuble">Wolfgang Schäuble</a> resigned as party chairman. <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a>, the Secretary General of the CDU since 1998, emerged as a leading figure in the party and was elected chairwoman in 2000. </p><p>In 1999, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Rau" title="Johannes Rau">Johannes Rau</a> was elected President of Germany. Rau had tried to be elected president for several years. </p><p>A large tax reform was implemented in 2000. After 2003, the federal government enacted a number of reforms in social and health policy, known as <a href="/wiki/Agenda_2010" title="Agenda 2010">Agenda 2010</a>. The Schröder government also stressed environmental issues and promoted the reduction of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>. </p><p>Germany took part in the <a href="/wiki/1999_NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">NATO war against Yugoslavia</a> in 1999, when German forces saw combat for the first time since World War II. Chancellor Schröder supported the <a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">war on terror</a> following the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a> against the United States, and Germany sent forces to <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. Germany also sent forces to <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> and other parts of the world. </p><p>In 1999, Germany partially adopted the <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a>, which completely replaced the <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Mark</a> as the currency of Germany in 2002. </p><p>Several German cities, notably <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg" title="Magdeburg">Magdeburg</a>, experienced severe flooding during the <a href="/wiki/2002_European_floods" title="2002 European floods">2002 European floods</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_term,_2002–2005"><span id="Second_term.2C_2002.E2.80.932005"></span>Second term, 2002–2005</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Second term, 2002–2005"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2002, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Stoiber" title="Edmund Stoiber">Edmund Stoiber</a> was the candidate for Chancellor for the <a href="/wiki/CDU/CSU" title="CDU/CSU">CDU/CSU</a>, the first time a CSU politician was chancellor candidate since the candidacy of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef_Strauss" title="Franz Josef Strauss">Franz Josef Strauss</a> in 1980. Both CDU/CSU and the SPD polled 38.5% in the <a href="/wiki/2002_German_federal_election" title="2002 German federal election">2002 federal election</a>. Since the Greens became larger than the liberals, Gerhard Schröder's government was reelected. </p><p>Germany and France vehemently opposed the 2003 <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a>, leading the administration of <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> to label Germany and France as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Europe_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Europe (politics)">Old Europe</a>, as opposed to the countries (mainly former east bloc countries) that supported the war. However, Germany supported the United States militarily in other parts of the world, notably in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horst_K%C3%B6hler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Horst_K%C3%B6hler.jpg/220px-Horst_K%C3%B6hler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Horst_K%C3%B6hler.jpg/330px-Horst_K%C3%B6hler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Horst_K%C3%B6hler.jpg/440px-Horst_K%C3%B6hler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1184" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>President Horst Köhler</figcaption></figure> <p>The early 2000s saw increased unemployment and an aging population. The government instituted further reforms to meet these challenges, known as the <a href="/wiki/Hartz_concept" title="Hartz concept">Hartz reforms</a>. However, as the <a href="/wiki/Bundesrat_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesrat of Germany">Bundesrat of Germany</a> had a CDU/CSU majority, the government of Gerhard Schröder was dependent on support from the conservatives in order to pass legislation. </p><p>On May 23, 2004, <a href="/wiki/Horst_K%C3%B6hler" title="Horst Köhler">Horst Köhler</a>, the former head of the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> and a CDU politician, was elected <a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President of Germany</a>. Köhler, who was previously relatively unknown in Germany, quickly became one of the country's most popular politicians. </p><p>After a bitter defeat for the SPD in state elections in the state of <a href="/wiki/North_Rhine-Westphalia" title="North Rhine-Westphalia">North Rhine-Westphalia</a> (22 May 2005), Chancellor Schröder asked the German <a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a> (lower house of parliament) for a <a href="/wiki/Constructive_Vote_of_No_Confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructive Vote of No Confidence">vote of no-confidence</a>. Schröder argued that it had become increasingly difficult to push for the necessary socio-economic reforms because of the opposition majority in the upper house of the parliament, the <a href="/wiki/Bundesrat_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundesrat (Germany)">Bundesrat</a>, as well as the tensions within his own party. After losing this vote, as intended, on July 1, Chancellor Schröder was able to ask <a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Horst_K%C3%B6hler" title="Horst Köhler">Horst Köhler</a> to call new federal elections. On 21 July 2005 the President agreed to Chancellor's request and dissolved the parliament, scheduling early parliamentary elections for 18 September. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chancellorship_of_Angela_Merkel_(2005–2021)"><span id="Chancellorship_of_Angela_Merkel_.282005.E2.80.932021.29"></span>Chancellorship of Angela Merkel (2005–2021)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chancellorship of Angela Merkel (2005–2021)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_term,_2005–2009"><span id="First_term.2C_2005.E2.80.932009"></span>First term, 2005–2009</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: First term, 2005–2009"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Merkelunileipzigdr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Merkelunileipzigdr.jpg/220px-Merkelunileipzigdr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Merkelunileipzigdr.jpg/330px-Merkelunileipzigdr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Merkelunileipzigdr.jpg/440px-Merkelunileipzigdr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1302" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a>, 2008</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/2005_German_federal_election" title="2005 German federal election">2005 federal election</a> resulted in a stalemate for both major parties, SPD and CDU/CSU, as they won almost the same number of seats, but not enough to form a majority without the support of several smaller parties. This was resolved on November 11, 2005, when both parties agreed to form a grand coalition led by <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> who became the first female <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor of Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under Merkel, Germany hosted the <a href="/wiki/33rd_G8_summit" title="33rd G8 summit">2007 G8 summit</a> in <a href="/wiki/Heiligendamm" title="Heiligendamm">Heiligendamm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg" title="Mecklenburg">Mecklenburg</a>. </p><p>In January 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn and a subsequent rise in unemployment rates.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_term,_2009–2013"><span id="Second_term.2C_2009.E2.80.932013"></span>Second term, 2009–2013</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Second term, 2009–2013"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/2009_German_federal_election" title="2009 German federal election">2009 federal election</a>, the <a href="/wiki/CDU/CSU" title="CDU/CSU">CDU/CSU</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">FDP</a> won a majority and Angela Merkel could form a coalition with the liberals, the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_Merkel_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet Merkel II">Cabinet Merkel II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Guido_Westerwelle" title="Guido Westerwelle">Guido Westerwelle</a> became the new Vice Chancellor. The Social Democrats did especially poorly in the election.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the major German political projects initiated in this term are the <a href="/wiki/Energy_transition_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy transition in Germany">energy transition</a> (<i>Energiewende</i>) [In fact, it was the previous government which initiated the exit from nuclear power. This policy was reversed by Merkel before she was forced into a U-turn by Fukushima.] for a sustainable energy supply, the "<a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment#Germany" title="Balanced budget amendment">Debt Brake</a>" (<i>Schuldenbremse</i>) for balanced budgets, the reform of <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Germany" title="Immigration to Germany">German immigration laws</a>, and high-tech strategies for the <a href="/wiki/Informatization" title="Informatization">informatization</a> and future transition of the German economy, summarized as <a href="/wiki/Industry_4.0" class="mw-redirect" title="Industry 4.0">Industry 4.0</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_term,_2013–2018"><span id="Third_term.2C_2013.E2.80.932018"></span>Third term, 2013–2018</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Third term, 2013–2018"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/German_intervention_against_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="German intervention against ISIL">German intervention against ISIL</a></div> <p>In December 2013, the grand coalition was re-established in a <a href="/wiki/Third_Merkel_cabinet" title="Third Merkel cabinet">Third Merkel cabinet</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">FDP Liberals</a> are not present in the Bundestag for the first time. Since 2014, the newly established right-wing populist <a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">Alternative for Germany</a> (AfD) party were elected for various <a href="/wiki/Landtag" title="Landtag">Landtag</a> mandates. </p><p>Major political projects of the second grand coalition under Merkel are the legislation for a general <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a> in Germany and various <a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare in Germany">welfare</a> reforms, including <a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany" title="Pensions in Germany">pension</a> reforms. Projects initiated with the Liberals in the second term are largely continued. </p><p>Germany was affected by the <a href="/wiki/European_migrant_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European migrant crisis">European migrant crisis</a> in 2015 as it became the final destination of choice for many asylum seekers from Africa and the Middle East entering the EU. The country took in over a million refugees and migrants and developed a quota system which redistributed migrants around its federal states based on their tax income and existing population density.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision by Merkel to authorize unrestricted entry led to heavy criticism in Germany as well as within Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourth_term,_2018–2021"><span id="Fourth_term.2C_2018.E2.80.932021"></span>Fourth term, 2018–2021</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fourth term, 2018–2021"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2017, Angela Merkel was elected to a fourth term as Chancellor. The FDP reentered the Bundestag, and for the first time the right-wing populist <a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">AfD</a> also entered in the <a href="/wiki/2017_German_federal_election" title="2017 German federal election">election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2018, Angela Merkel formed another grand coalition with Social Democrats (SPD) after five months of <a href="/wiki/2018_German_government_crisis" title="2018 German government crisis">political deadlock</a> since September's election.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Angela Merkel has said on her fourth term that she would not seek another term in the next elections and that she would retire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chancellorship_of_Olaf_Scholz_(2021–present)"><span id="Chancellorship_of_Olaf_Scholz_.282021.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Chancellorship of Olaf Scholz (2021–present)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Chancellorship of Olaf Scholz (2021–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olaf_Scholz_In_March_2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Olaf_Scholz_In_March_2022.jpg/220px-Olaf_Scholz_In_March_2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Olaf_Scholz_In_March_2022.jpg/330px-Olaf_Scholz_In_March_2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Olaf_Scholz_In_March_2022.jpg/440px-Olaf_Scholz_In_March_2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1193" data-file-height="1585" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Olaf Scholz</a></figcaption></figure> <p>On 8 December 2021, Social Democrat <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Olaf Scholz</a> was sworn in as chancellor. He formed a <a href="/wiki/Traffic_light_coalition" title="Traffic light coalition">traffic-light coalition</a> government with <a href="/wiki/Alliance_90/The_Greens" title="Alliance 90/The Greens">the Greens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">FDP</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="Social Democratic Party of Germany">SPD</a> won a plurality as a result of the <a href="/wiki/2021_German_federal_election" title="2021 German federal election">2021 federal election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier" title="Frank-Walter Steinmeier">Frank-Walter Steinmeier</a> was re-elected for a second five-year term as Germany's president, a first for an SPD president, attributed to his perception as a symbol of consensus and continuity.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic impact of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">its economic effects</a> dominated Scholz's early foreign and domestic policies. Germany’s previous foreign policy towards Russia (traditional <a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a>) was criticized for having been too credulous and soft towards Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholz's <a href="/wiki/Zeitenwende_speech" title="Zeitenwende speech">Zeitenwende speech</a> three days after the start of the invasion signaled a foreign policy shift in contemporary Germany, with billions of dollars in investments in the German military.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholz also approved direct military and economic aid to <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. Amid a <a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932023_global_energy_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2021–2023 global energy crisis">global energy crisis</a>, Scholz committed to weaken dependence on <a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_European_energy_sector" title="Russia in the European energy sector">Russian energy imports</a> by halting certification of <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_2" title="Nord Stream 2">Nord Stream 2</a> while also committing to Merkel's policy of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Germany" title="Nuclear power in Germany">phasing out nuclear energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of April 2023, over 1.06 million refugees from Ukraine were recorded in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of December 2023, Germany is the fourth largest economy in the world after the United States, China and Japan and the largest economy in Europe. It is the third largest export nation in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Economic_Key_Facts_Germany_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Economic_Key_Facts_Germany-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_the_Far_Right_and_the_AfD">Rise of the Far Right and the AfD</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Rise of the Far Right and the AfD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/2024_German_anti-extremism_protests" title="2024 German anti-extremism protests">2024 German anti-extremism protests</a></div> <p>On 5 June 2023, The <a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">Alternative for Germany</a> in <a href="/wiki/Thuringia" title="Thuringia">Thuringia</a> won its first district election in Sonneberg, despite all the other parties supporting the CDU Candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 17 December 2023, The AfD candidate for mayor of <a href="/wiki/Pirna" title="Pirna">Pirna</a> <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a> won in an election. it is the first mayor of a city with more than 20,000 inhabitants to be held by <a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">Alternative for Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/2024_Thuringian_state_election" title="2024 Thuringian state election">2024 Thuringian state election</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">Alternative for Germany </a> AfD became the first far-right party in Germany since the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> to win a plurality of seats in a state election.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From 1952 to 1990, the entire "Deutschlandlied" was the national anthem, but only the third verse was sung on official occasions. Since 1991, the third verse alone has been the national anthem.<sup id="cite_ref-PresidentsOffice_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PresidentsOffice-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin is the sole constitutional capital and <i>de jure</i> seat of government, but the former provisional capital of the Federal Republic of Germany, <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>, has the special title of "federal city" (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bundesstadt</i></span>) and is the primary seat of six ministries.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorbian_languages" title="Sorbian languages">Sorbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romany</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a> are recognised by the <a href="/wiki/European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages" title="European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages">European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-PresidentsOffice-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PresidentsOffice_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBundespräsidialamt" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Bundespr%C3%A4sidialamt" title="Bundespräsidialamt">Bundespräsidialamt</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bundespraesident.de/DE/Amt-und-Aufgaben/Wirken-im-Inland/Repraesentation-und-Integration/repraesentation-und-integration-node.html">"Repräsentation und Integration"</a> (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307221541/http://www.bundespraesident.de/DE/Amt-und-Aufgaben/Wirken-im-Inland/Repraesentation-und-Integration/repraesentation-und-integration-node.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=German+far-right+party+wins+its+first+county+leadership+post+as+it+rises+in+polls&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FInternational%2FwireStory%2Fgerman-party-wins-county-leadership-post-rises-polls-100367965&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281990%E2%80%93present%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/germany-far-right-afd-wins-first-city-mayoral-election/a-67750487">"Germany: Far-right AfD wins first city mayoral election – DW – 12/17/2023"</a>. <i><a 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=German+far-right+party+makes+electoral+breakthrough&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2Fa9f6d836-dba1-46fc-9093-a96c06badf6c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281990%E2%80%93present%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.eu/article/germany-far-right-elections-victory-afd-cdu-olaf-scholz/">"German far right wins first major election since World War II"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. 1 September 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240901170435/https://www.politico.eu/article/germany-far-right-elections-victory-afd-cdu-olaf-scholz/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=German+far+right+wins+first+major+election+since+World+War+II&rft.date=2024-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.eu%2Farticle%2Fgermany-far-right-elections-victory-afd-cdu-olaf-scholz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281990%E2%80%93present%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/09/01/germany-far-right-afd-elections/">"Far right set to win in a German state for the first time since WWII"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. 1 September 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240903120713/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/09/01/germany-far-right-afd-elections/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Far+right+set+to+win+in+a+German+state+for+the+first+time+since+WWII&rft.date=2024-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fworld%2F2024%2F09%2F01%2Fgermany-far-right-afd-elections%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281990%E2%80%93present%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/1/germanys-far-right-party-likely-to-make-gains-in-eastern-region-elections">"Far-right AfD wins eastern state in Germany's regional election"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i>. 1 September 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240901165329/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/1/germanys-far-right-party-likely-to-make-gains-in-eastern-region-elections">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Far-right+AfD+wins+eastern+state+in+Germany%27s+regional+election&rft.date=2024-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F9%2F1%2Fgermanys-far-right-party-likely-to-make-gains-in-eastern-region-elections&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281990%E2%80%93present%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/sep/01/success-far-right-afd-shows-east-west-germany-drifting-further-apart">"Success of far-right AfD shows east and west Germany are drifting further apart"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 1 September 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240901185234/https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/sep/01/success-far-right-afd-shows-east-west-germany-drifting-further-apart">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Success+of+far-right+AfD+shows+east+and+west+Germany+are+drifting+further+apart&rft.date=2024-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2Farticle%2F2024%2Fsep%2F01%2Fsuccess-far-right-afd-shows-east-west-germany-drifting-further-apart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281990%E2%80%93present%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn02w01xr2jo">"German far right hails 'historic' election victory in east"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 1 September 2024. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240902144402/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn02w01xr2jo">Archived</a> from the original on 2 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=German+far+right+hails+%27historic%27+election+victory+in+east&rft.date=2024-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Fcn02w01xr2jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Germany+%281990%E2%80%93present%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ash, Timothy Garton. <i>In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent</i> (1997), 700pp</li> <li>Bolgherini, Silvia. and Florian Grotz, eds. <i>Germany After the Grand Coalition: Governance and Politics in a Turbulent Environment</i> (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 231 pages; studies of the "Grand Coalition" of 2005-09 and the first Merkel government.</li> <li>Crawford, Alan, and Tony Czuczka. <i>Angela Merkel: A Chancellorship Forged in Crisis</i> (2013)</li> <li>Epstein, Catherine. "East Germany and Its History since 1989," <i>Journal of Modern History</i> Vol. 75, No. 3 (September 2003), pp. 634–661 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/380240">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Faas, Thorsten. "The German Federal Election of 2013: Merkel’s Triumph, the Disappearance of the Liberal Party, and Yet Another Grand Coalition." <i>West European Politics</i> 38#1 (2015): 238–247.</li> <li>Jarausch, Konrad H. <i>The Rush to German Unity</i> (1994), 304pp</li> <li>Kornelius, Stefan. <i>Angela Merkel: The Chancellor and Her World</i> (2013)</li> <li>Smith, Helmut Walser, ed. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History</i> (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Modern-History-Handbooks/dp/0198728913">excerpt</a> pp 753–814</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Jarausch, Konrad H., and Volker Gransow, eds. <i>Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944-1993</i> (1994)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">List of early Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">History of the Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_campaigns_in_Germania_(12_BC_%E2%80%93_AD_16)" title="Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)">Roman campaigns in Germania 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title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early modern period, 1500–1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18th-century_history_of_Germany" title="18th-century history of Germany">18th-century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li> <li><a 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War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Flight and expulsions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">Divided Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_since_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germany since 1990">History of Germany since 1990</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Prussia">History of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Brandenburg">History of Brandenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a>, 1583–1588</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baden_Revolution" title="Baden Revolution">Baden Revolution</a>, 1848</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Germany" title="Geography of Germany">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of Germany">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Germany" title="Districts of Germany">Districts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Germany" title="List of cities and towns in Germany">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Germany" title="List of earthquakes in Germany">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Germany" title="Geology of Germany">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Germany" title="List of islands of Germany">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Germany" title="List of lakes of Germany">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Germany" title="Category:Mountains of Germany">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Germany" title="Category:Rivers of Germany">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Germany" title="Politics of Germany">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Bundesrat" title="German Bundesrat">Bundesrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr"><i>Bundeswehr</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(military)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Germany" title="Cabinet of Germany">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Germany" title="Judiciary of Germany">Court system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Germany" title="Elections in Germany">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Germany" title="Foreign relations of Germany">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Germany" title="Human rights in Germany">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Germany" title="Intersex rights in Germany">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_in_Germany" title="Transgender rights in Germany">Transgender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Germany" title="Law enforcement in Germany">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobbying_in_Germany" title="Lobbying in Germany">Lobbying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Germany" title="List of political parties in Germany">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Germany" title="Economy of Germany">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Germany" title="Agriculture in Germany">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Germany" title="Automotive industry in Germany">Automobile industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Germany" title="Banking in Germany">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbank" title="Deutsche Bundesbank">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_German_Chemical_Triangle" title="Middle German Chemical Triangle">Chemical Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Germany" title="Energy in Germany">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Germany" title="List of exports of Germany">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_model" title="German model">German model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_states_by_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="List of German states by GDP">German states by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelstand" title="Mittelstand"><i>Mittelstand</i> companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany" title="Science and technology in Germany">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Stock_Exchange" title="Frankfurt Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Germany" title="Taxation in Germany">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Germany" title="Tourism in Germany">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Germany" title="Trade unions in Germany">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Germany" title="Transport in Germany">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare in Germany">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Germany" title="Category:Society of Germany">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Germany" title="Crime in Germany">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Germany" title="Corruption in Germany">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Germany" title="Demographics of Germany">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Germany" title="Drug policy of Germany">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Germany" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Germany">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Germany" title="Healthcare in Germany">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_Germany" title="Homelessness in Germany">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Germany" title="Immigration to Germany">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Germany" title="Irreligion in Germany">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of German states by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturism_in_Germany" title="Naturism in Germany">Naturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_Germany" title="Pensions in Germany">Pensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_in_Germany" title="Pornography in Germany">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Germany" title="Poverty in Germany">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Germany" title="Prostitution in Germany">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues in Germany">Social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Germany" title="Trade unions in Germany">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Germany" title="Culture of Germany">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutschlandlied" title="Deutschlandlied">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Germany" title="Architecture of Germany">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_art" title="German art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arts_in_Germany" title="Category:Arts in Germany">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Germany" title="Cinema of Germany">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany" title="Coat of arms of Germany">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_cuisine" title="German cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li>Cultural icons</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dance_in_Germany" title="Category:Dance in Germany">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_fashion" title="German fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Festivals_in_Germany" title="Category:Festivals in Germany">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_folklore" title="German folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Germany" title="Flag of Germany">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Germany" title="List of libraries in Germany">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature" title="German literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Germany" title="Internet in Germany">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Germany">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Germany" title="Music of Germany">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Germany" title="Names of Germany">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_virtues" title="Prussian virtues">Prussian virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Germany" title="Sport in Germany">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Germany" title="Television in Germany">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Germany" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Germany">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Germany" title="Outline of Germany">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Germany" title="Outline of Germany">Index</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a 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