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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Germany" title="Category:History of Germany">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">History of <span class="fn org label">Germany</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_LGBT_history_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of LGBT history in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Germany" title="Territorial evolution of Germany">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Germany" title="List of historic states of Germany">Historic states</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="List of states in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs" title="List of German monarchs">Monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_German_queens" title="List of German queens">Queens</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Holy_Roman_empresses" title="List of Holy Roman empresses">Empresses</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_German_monarchs_in_1918" title="List of German monarchs in 1918">1918</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_German_monarchs" title="Family tree of German monarchs">Family tree</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Austria" title="List of rulers of Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bavaria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Saxony" title="List of rulers of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Württemberg">Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediatised_houses" title="Mediatised houses">Mediatised</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear Pottery culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Germany" title="Kingdom of Germany">Kingdom of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Eastward settlement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kleinstaaterei" title="Kleinstaaterei">Sectionalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_mediatisation" title="German mediatisation">Mediatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Zollverein" title="Zollverein">Zollverein</a></i></span></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/German_Reich" title="German Reich">German Reich</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1871–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1914–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1918–1933</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1933–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1939–1945</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Contemporary Germany</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation</a></li><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Former_eastern_territories_of_Germany" title="Former eastern territories of Germany">Ostgebiete</a></i></span></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1945–1949/1952</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">1944–1950</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West</a>–<a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">division</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1949–1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/New_states_of_Germany" title="New states of Germany">New states</a></li></ul></div></td><td style="text-align:right;">1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1990%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Germany (1990–present)">Modern history</a></td><td style="text-align:right;">since 1990</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/16px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/24px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Germany_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Germany sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From the 1680s to 1789, Germany comprised many small territories which were parts of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire_of_the_German_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation">Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation</a>. Prussia finally emerged as dominant. Meanwhile, the states developed a classical culture that found its greatest expression in the Enlightenment, with world class leaders such as philosophers <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a>, writers such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a>, and musicians <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Bach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_and_diplomatic_history">Military and diplomatic history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Military and diplomatic history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_wars" title="Cabinet wars">Cabinet wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_(1781_or_1786)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_%281781_or_1786%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_%281781_or_1786%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_%281781_or_1786%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_%281781_or_1786%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_%281781_or_1786%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Friedrich_der_Gro%C3%9Fe_%281781_or_1786%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5285" data-file-height="6419" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia</a> (1712–1786)</figcaption></figure> <p>Germany, or more exactly the old <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, in the 18th century entered a period of decline that would finally lead to the dissolution of the Empire during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. Since the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648, the Empire had been fragmented into numerous independent states (<a href="/wiki/Kleinstaaterei" title="Kleinstaaterei">Kleinstaaterei</a>). In 1701, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_I_of_Prussia" title="Frederick I of Prussia">Elector Frederick of Brandenburg</a> was crowned "<a href="/wiki/King_in_Prussia" title="King in Prussia">King <i>in</i> Prussia</a>". From 1713 to 1740, King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_I_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William I of Prussia">Frederick William I</a>, also known as the "Soldier King", established a highly centralized state. </p><p>The term <i>German dualism</i> describes the long conflict between the two largest German states <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> from 1740 to 1866 when Prussia finally forced Austria out of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> emerged as the leading state of the Empire. Frederick III (1688–1701) became King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_I_of_Prussia" title="Frederick I of Prussia">Frederick I of Prussia</a> in 1701. Since there was only one <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Germans" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Germans">King of the Germans</a> within the Empire, Frederick gained the assent of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leopold_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor">Leopold I</a> (in return for alliance against France in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>) to his adoption (January 1701) of the title of "<a href="/wiki/King_in_Prussia" title="King in Prussia">King in Prussia</a>" based on his non-imperial territories. The title came into general acceptance with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a> (1713). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_Dallinger_von_Dalling_-_Entrance_of_the_Emperor_Franz_I._Stephan_and_his_son_Joseph_(II.)_into_Frankfurt_on_March_29,_1764_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Johann_Dallinger_von_Dalling_-_Entrance_of_the_Emperor_Franz_I._Stephan_and_his_son_Joseph_%28II.%29_into_Frankfurt_on_March_29%2C_1764_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Johann_Dallinger_von_Dalling_-_Entrance_of_the_Emperor_Franz_I._Stephan_and_his_son_Joseph_%28II.%29_into_Frankfurt_on_March_29%2C_1764_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Johann_Dallinger_von_Dalling_-_Entrance_of_the_Emperor_Franz_I._Stephan_and_his_son_Joseph_%28II.%29_into_Frankfurt_on_March_29%2C_1764_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Johann_Dallinger_von_Dalling_-_Entrance_of_the_Emperor_Franz_I._Stephan_and_his_son_Joseph_%28II.%29_into_Frankfurt_on_March_29%2C_1764_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Johann_Dallinger_von_Dalling_-_Entrance_of_the_Emperor_Franz_I._Stephan_and_his_son_Joseph_%28II.%29_into_Frankfurt_on_March_29%2C_1764_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Johann_Dallinger_von_Dalling_-_Entrance_of_the_Emperor_Franz_I._Stephan_and_his_son_Joseph_%28II.%29_into_Frankfurt_on_March_29%2C_1764_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4135" data-file-height="3607" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor">Joseph II</a> on his way to <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> for his coronation as <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Romans" title="King of the Romans">King of the Romans</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a>'s defeat by <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Hanover" title="Electorate of Hanover">Hanover</a>, and Prussia in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a> (1700–21) marked the end of significant Swedish power on the southern shores of the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. In the Prusso–Swedish <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Stockholm_(Great_Northern_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Stockholm (Great Northern War)">Treaty of Stockholm</a> (January 1720), Prussia regained <a href="/wiki/Szczecin" title="Szczecin">Stettin (Szczecin)</a> and other parts of Sweden's holding in <a href="/wiki/Pomerania" title="Pomerania">Pomerania</a>. The Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg had held the reversion to the Duchy of Pomerania since 1472. During this time, the trends set in motion by the Great Elector reached their culmination, as the <a href="/wiki/Junker" title="Junker">Junkers</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">landed aristocracy</a>, were welded to the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Army" title="Prussian Army">Prussian Army</a>. </p><p>In 1740, King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick II</a> (Frederick the Great) came to the throne. Using the pretext of a 1537 treaty (vetoed by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor">Ferdinand I</a>), by which parts of <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a> were to pass to <a href="/wiki/Margraviate_of_Brandenburg" title="Margraviate of Brandenburg">Brandenburg</a> after the extinction of its ruling <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast dynasty</a>, Frederick invaded Silesia, thereby beginning the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–48). In 1744, Frederick invaded again to forestall reprisals and to claim, this time, the province of <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>. He failed, but <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">French</a> pressure on Austria's ally Great Britain led to a series of treaties and compromises, culminating in the 1748 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1748)" title="Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)">Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle</a> that restored peace and left Prussia in possession of most of Silesia. When Frederick preemptively invaded Saxony and Bohemia over the course of a few months in 1756–57, he initiated the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>. This war was a desperate struggle for the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Army" title="Prussian Army">Prussian Army</a>, and the fact that it managed to fight much of Europe to a draw bears witness to Frederick's military skills. The situation became progressively grimmer until the death of Empress <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia" title="Elizabeth of Russia">Elizabeth of Russia</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Miracle_of_the_House_of_Brandenburg" title="Miracle of the House of Brandenburg">miracle of the House of Brandenburg</a>). The accession of the Prussophile <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a> relieved the pressure on the eastern front. Defeating the Austrian army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Burkersdorf_(1762)" title="Battle of Burkersdorf (1762)">Battle of Burkersdorf</a> and relying on continuing British success against France in the war's colonial theatres, Prussia was finally able to force a <i><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_ante_bellum" title="Status quo ante bellum">status quo ante bellum</a></i> on the continent. This result confirmed Prussia's major role within the German states and established the country as a European <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a>. This gave the start to the <a href="/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93Prussia_rivalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Austria–Prussia rivalry">rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany</a>, referred to as German dualism. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Empire_of_Germany_(1782).tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_the_Empire_of_Germany_%281782%29.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Map_of_the_Empire_of_Germany_%281782%29.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_the_Empire_of_Germany_%281782%29.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Map_of_the_Empire_of_Germany_%281782%29.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_the_Empire_of_Germany_%281782%29.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Map_of_the_Empire_of_Germany_%281782%29.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1163" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A map of by Louis Delarochette, titled <i>Map of the Empire of Germany: Including All the States Comprehended Under that Name with the Kingdom of Prussia</i>, 1782 CE</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1763, against resistance from the nobility and citizenry, an "<a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</a>" was established in Prussia and Austria, according to which the ruler was to be "the first servant of the state". The economy developed and legal reforms were undertaken, including the abolition of torture and the improvement in the status of <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>; the emancipation of the peasants began. Education was promoted. </p><p>In 1772–95, Prussia took part in the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitions of Poland</a>, occupying western territories of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, which led to centuries of Polish resistance against German rule and persecution. To the east and south of Prussia, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had gradually weakened during the 18th century. Frederick took part in the first of the partitions of Poland, between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772. The Kingdom of Prussia annexed most of the Polish province of <a href="/wiki/Royal_Prussia" title="Royal Prussia">Royal Prussia</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Warmia" title="Warmia">Warmia</a>; the annexed land was organized the following year into the Province of <a href="/wiki/West_Prussia" title="West Prussia">West Prussia</a>. The new territory connected <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> (the territory previously known as the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Prussia" title="Duchy of Prussia">Duchy of Prussia</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pomerania_(1653%E2%80%931815)" title="Province of Pomerania (1653–1815)">Pomerania</a>, uniting the kingdom's eastern territories. After Frederick died in 1786, his nephew <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_II_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William II of Prussia">Fredrick William II</a> continued the partitions, gaining a large part of western Poland in 1793. </p><p>In 1795, the Kingdom of Poland ceased to exist and a large area (including <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>) to the south of East Prussia became part of Prussia. These new territories were organized into the Provinces of <a href="/wiki/New_Silesia" title="New Silesia">New Silesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Prussia" title="South Prussia">South Prussia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_East_Prussia" title="New East Prussia">New East Prussia</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> sparked a new war between France and several of its Eastern neighbors, including Prussia and Austria. Following the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Basel" title="Peace of Basel">Peace of Basel</a> in 1795 with Prussia, the west bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon I of France</a> relaunched the war against the Empire. In 1803, under the <i>"<a href="/wiki/Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" title="Reichsdeputationshauptschluss">Reichsdeputationshauptschluss</a>"</i> (a resolution of a committee of the <a href="/wiki/Eternal_Imperial_Diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Eternal Imperial Diet">Eternal Imperial Diet</a> meeting in <a href="/wiki/Regensburg" title="Regensburg">Regensburg</a>), he abolished almost all the ecclesiastical and the smaller secular states and most of the imperial free cities. New medium-sized states were established in south-western Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in north-western Germany. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis II</a> (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>) resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806, the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a> was established under Napoleon's protection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_rivalry" title="Austro-Prussian rivalry">Austro-Prussian rivalry</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acprussiamap2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Acprussiamap2.gif/300px-Acprussiamap2.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Acprussiamap2.gif/450px-Acprussiamap2.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Acprussiamap2.gif 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption>After 1763, Prussia became a European great power. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany began</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1640, <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg-Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburg-Prussia">Brandenburg-Prussia</a> had started to rise under the Great Elector, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William,_Elector_of_Brandenburg" title="Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg">Frederick William</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648 strengthened it even further, through the acquisition of East Pomerania. From 1713 to 1740, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_I_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William I of Prussia">King Frederick William I</a>, also known as the "Soldier King", established a highly centralized, militarized state with a heavily rural population of about three million (compared to the nine million in Austria). </p><p>In terms of the boundaries of 1914, Germany in 1700 had a population of 16 million, increasing slightly to 17 million by 1750, and growing more rapidly to 24 million by 1800. Wars continued, but they were no longer so devastating to the civilian population; famines and major epidemics did not occur, but increased agricultural productivity led to a higher birth rate, and a lower death rate.<sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740–48) <a href="/wiki/Maria_Theresa" title="Maria Theresa">Maria Theresa</a> fought successfully for recognition of her succession to the throne. But in the <a href="/wiki/Silesian_Wars" title="Silesian Wars">Silesian Wars</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> she had to cede 95 percent of Silesia to <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Hubertsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Hubertsburg">Peace of Hubertsburg</a> in 1763 between Austria, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>, Prussia became a European great power. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany. </p><p>From 1763, against resistance from the nobility and citizenry, an "<a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened absolutism</a>" was established in Prussia and Austria, according to which the ruler governed according to the best precepts of the philosophers. The economies developed and legal reforms were undertaken, including the abolition of torture and the improvement in the status of Jews. Emancipation of the peasants slowly began. Compulsory education was instituted. </p><p>In 1772–1795 Prussia and Austria took part in the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partitions of Poland</a>. Prussia occupied the western territories of the former <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> that surrounded existing Prussian holdings, while Austria took the territory of Galicia further south. This occupation led to centuries of Polish resistance against Germanization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Smaller_states">Smaller states</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Smaller states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Residenzschloss_Ludwigsburg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Residenzschloss_Ludwigsburg.jpg/550px-Residenzschloss_Ludwigsburg.jpg" decoding="async" width="550" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Residenzschloss_Ludwigsburg.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="579" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ludwigsburg_Palace" title="Ludwigsburg Palace">Ludwigsburg Palace</a> in Württemberg</figcaption></figure> <p>To the west of Austria and Prussia stood the remaining, major, part of Germany. The existence of the two big powers precluded a serious reform of the confederate structure of Germany; but reform of the individual state governments and administrations was not excluded. The general picture was as varied as the political map of the Holy Roman Empire, and it is difficult to generalise. But the impression prevails that, overall, after 1750 and especially after 1770, the general situation of the middle classes improved slightly, both economically and politically. Reforms were carried in a number of large and small states. There were some profligate, vicious and dull-witted rulers, but there were also some outstanding personalities. The bureaucrats, if often corrupt, were more competent and better educated than before.<sup id="cite_ref-holborn-1648_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holborn-1648-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Saxony</a> remained in the vanguard of German cultural activities, and its commercial and industrial activities remained considerable; but politically, it was outclassed by its neighbor Brandenburg-Prussia. <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> was especially unfortunate; it was a rural land with very heavy debts and few growth centers. In <a href="/wiki/History_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Württemberg">Württemberg</a> the duke lavished funds on palaces, mistresses, great celebrations, and hunting expeditions. Among the smaller princes, many offensive characters could be found, but also many of outstanding figures, such as Duke William Ferdinand of Brunswick and Margrave <a href="/wiki/Charles_Frederick,_Grand_Duke_of_Baden" title="Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden">Karl Friedrich</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Baden" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baden">Baden</a>. Under the rule of Karl Friedrich, an enthusiast for <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a>, Baden enjoyed some of the best governments of the smaller states. Serfdom was abolished in 1783, although this was done primarily to avert peasant unrest and the flight of unfree Baden peasants to neighboring <a href="/wiki/Breisgau" title="Breisgau">Breisgau</a> after Joseph II abolished serfdom in that Austrian province in 1781.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large part of Germany still lived under the rule of bishops. Conditions in these ecclesiastical principalities were no less variegated than those of the secular states. All the bishops were scions of the ruling dynasties or the high aristocracy and they considered themselves political rulers who lived and acted in the style of the contemporary secular court society. Their sense of responsibility and their capacity for the administration of their territories also varied greatly. However, even at their best, they could not achieve the continuity of government that some dynastic states began to acquire.<sup id="cite_ref-holborn-1648_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holborn-1648-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Landgraviate_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel">Hesse-Kassel</a>, the Landgrave <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Landgrave_of_Hesse-Kassel" title="Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel">Frederick II</a> ruled from 1760 to 1785 as an enlightened despot, and raised money by hiring soldiers (<a href="/wiki/Hessian_(soldiers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hessian (soldiers)">called "Hessians"</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> to help fight the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. He combined <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">Enlightenment ideas</a> with Christian values, <a href="/wiki/Cameralism" title="Cameralism">cameralist</a> plans for central control of the economy, and a militaristic approach to diplomacy.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hanover" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hanover">Hanover</a> did not have to support a lavish court: its rulers were also kings of England and resided in London. <a href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III</a>, elector (ruler) from 1760 to 1820, never once visited Hanover. The local nobility who ran the country opened the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> in 1737; it soon became a world-class intellectual center. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nobility">Nobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a heavily agrarian society, land ownership played a central role. Germany's nobles, especially those in the East – called <a href="/wiki/Junker" title="Junker">Junkers</a> –dominated not only the localities, but also the Prussian court, and especially the Prussian army. Increasingly after 1815, a centralized Prussian government based in Berlin took over the powers of the nobles, which in terms of control over the peasantry had been almost absolute. To help the nobility avoid indebtedness, Berlin set up a credit institution to provide capital loans in 1809, and extended the loan network to peasants in 1849. When the German Empire was established in 1871, the Junker nobility controlled the army and the Navy, the bureaucracy, and the royal court; they generally set governmental policies.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peasants_and_rural_life">Peasants and rural life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Peasants and rural life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adriaen_van_Ostade_-_Peasants_in_a_Tavern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Adriaen_van_Ostade_-_Peasants_in_a_Tavern.jpg/220px-Adriaen_van_Ostade_-_Peasants_in_a_Tavern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Adriaen_van_Ostade_-_Peasants_in_a_Tavern.jpg/330px-Adriaen_van_Ostade_-_Peasants_in_a_Tavern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Adriaen_van_Ostade_-_Peasants_in_a_Tavern.jpg/440px-Adriaen_van_Ostade_-_Peasants_in_a_Tavern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>"Peasants in a Tavern" by <a href="/wiki/Adriaen_van_Ostade" title="Adriaen van Ostade">Adriaen van Ostade</a> (c. 1635), at the Alte Pinakothek, Munich</figcaption></figure> <p>Peasants continued to center their lives on the village, where they were members of a corporate body<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2018)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and helped manage the community resources and monitor the community life.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the East, they were serfs who were bound permanently to parcels of land. In most of Germany, farming was undertaken by tenant farmers who paid rents and carried out obligatory services to the landlord, who was typically a nobleman. Peasant leaders supervised the fields and ditches and grazing rights, maintained public order and morals, and supported a village court which handled minor offenses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Within the family the patriarch made all the decisions, and tried to arrange advantageous marriages for his children. Much of the villages' communal life centered around church services and holy days. In Prussia, the peasants drew lots to choose conscripts required by the army. The noblemen handled external relationships and politics for the villages under their control, and were not typically involved in daily activities or decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-sagarra_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sagarra-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German history</a> the emancipation of the serfs came between 1770 and 1830, with the nobility in <a href="/wiki/Schleswig" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleswig">Schleswig</a> being the first to agree to do so in 1797, followed by the signing of the royal and political leaders of Denmark and Germany in 1804.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup"><span title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">so did it start in 1770 or 1780?</span></a></i>]</sup> The peasants, no longer serfs, could own their land, buy and sell it, and move about freely. The nobles approved; for now they could buy land owned by the peasants. The chief reformer was <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Karl_vom_und_zum_Stein" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein">Baron vom Stein</a>(1757–1831), who was influenced by <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a>, especially the free market ideas of <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The end of serfdom raised the personal legal status of the peasantry. A bank was set up so that landowner could borrow government money to buy land from peasants (the peasants were not allowed to use it to borrow money to buy land until 1850). The result was that the large landowners obtained larger estates, and many peasants became landless tenants, or moved to the cities or to America. The other German states imitated Prussia after 1815. In sharp contrast to the violent events of the French Revolution, Germany handled land reform peacefully. In Schleswig the peasants, who had been influenced by the Enlightenment, played an active role; elsewhere they were largely passive. Indeed, for most peasants, customs and traditions continued largely unchanged, including the old habits of deference to the nobles whose legal authority over the villagers remained quite strong. Although the peasants were no longer tied to the land, the old paternalistic relationship in East Prussia lasted into the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-sagarra_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sagarra-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The agrarian reforms in northwestern Germany in 1770–1870 were driven by progressive governments and local elites. They abolished feudal obligations and divided collectively owned <a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">common land</a> into private parcels; and thus created a more efficient market-oriented rural economy; resulting in higher productivity and population growth. It strengthened the traditional social order because wealthy peasants obtained most of the former common land, while the rural proletariat was left without land; many left for the cities or America. Meanwhile, the division of the common land served as a buffer preserving social peace between nobles and peasants.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the east the serfs were emancipated but the <a href="/wiki/Junker" title="Junker">Junker class</a> maintained its large estates and monopolized political power.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 1800 the Catholic monasteries, which had large land holdings, were nationalized and sold off by the government. In Bavaria they had controlled 56% of the land.<sup id="cite_ref-nipperdey_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nipperdey-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enlightenment">Enlightenment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Enlightenment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg/220px-Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg/330px-Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg/440px-Oer-Weimarer_Musenhof.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><i>Weimar’s Courtyard of the Muses</i>, a tribute to <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a> depicting German poets <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Before 1750, the German upper classes often looked to France (or, previously, Italy) for intellectual, cultural and architectural leadership; French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century the "Aufklärung" (<a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a>) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science and literature. <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> (1679–1754) was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers; he legitimized German as a philosophic language.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> (1744–1803) broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a> movement of proto-Romanticism. <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar Classicism</a> ("Weimarer Klassik") was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and Enlightenment ideas. The movement, from 1772 until 1805, involved Herder as well as polymath <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> (1749–1832) and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a> (1759–1805), a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle against <a href="/wiki/Social_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Social pressure">social pressures</a> and the force of destiny.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a> (1685–1750), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a> (1732–1809), <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a> (1756–1791), and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In remote <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought – and indeed all of European philosophy – well into the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French_Revolution_1789–1815"><span id="French_Revolution_1789.E2.80.931815"></span>French Revolution 1789–1815</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: French Revolution 1789–1815"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rheinbund_1812,_political_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/220px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/330px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png/440px-Rheinbund_1812%2C_political_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1243" data-file-height="1420" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>, a confederation of client states of the First French Empire, existed from 1806 to 1813.</figcaption></figure> <p>German reaction to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> was mixed at first. German intellectuals celebrated the outbreak, hoping to see the triumph of Reason and The Enlightenment. The royal courts in Vienna and Berlin denounced the overthrow of the king and the threatened spread of notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity. By 1793, the <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">execution of the French king</a> and the onset of <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">the Terror</a> disillusioned the Bildungsbürgertum (educated middle classes). Reformers said the solution was to have faith in the ability of Germans to reform their laws and institutions in peaceful fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Europe was racked by two decades of war revolving around France's efforts to spread its revolutionary ideals, as well as to annex Belgium and the Rhine's Left Bank to France and establish puppet regimes in the Netherlands, Germany and Italy. The French revolutionaries' open and strident republicanism led to the conclusion of a defensive alliance between Austria and Prussia on 7 February 1792. The alliance also declared that any violation of the borders of the Empire by France would be a cause for war. The extremists among the French revolutionaries saw war as a chance to defeat their domestic opponents and embarrass the king, whose Austrian wife, Marie-Antoinette, was Emperor Leopold II's sister. They demanded that Austria not only disarm but abandon all alliances directed against France. Upon Leopold II's refusal, France declared war on Austria and Prussia on 20 April.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Austria and Prussia then invaded France, but were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Battle of Valmy</a> (1792). The German lands saw armies marching back and forth, bringing devastation (albeit on a far lower scale than the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, almost two centuries before), but also bringing new ideas of liberty and civil rights for the people. Prussia and Austria ended their failed wars with France but (with Russia) partitioned Poland among themselves in 1793 and 1795. The French took control of the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, imposed French-style reforms, abolished feudalism, established constitutions, promoted freedom of religion, emancipated Jews, opened the bureaucracy to ordinary citizens of talent, and forced the nobility to share power with the rising middle class. Napoleon created the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Westphalia" title="Kingdom of Westphalia">Kingdom of Westphalia</a> (1807–1813) as a model state.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These reforms proved largely permanent and modernized the western parts of Germany. When the French tried to impose the French language, German opposition grew in intensity. A <a href="/wiki/Second_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Coalition">Second Coalition</a> of Britain, Russia, and Austria then attacked France but failed. Napoleon established direct or indirect control over most of western Europe, including the German states apart from Prussia and Austria. The old Holy Roman Empire was little more than a farce; Napoleon simply abolished it in 1806 while forming new countries under his control. In Germany Napoleon set up the "<a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>", comprising most of the German states except Prussia and Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prussia tried to remain neutral while imposing tight controls on dissent, but with German nationalism sharply on the rise, the small nation blundered by going to war with Napoleon in 1806. Its economy was weak, its leadership poor, and the once mighty Prussian army was a hollow shell. Napoleon easily crushed it at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena">Battle of Jena</a> (1806). Napoleon occupied Berlin, and Prussia paid dearly. Prussia lost its recently acquired territories in western Germany, its army was reduced to 42,000 men, no trade with Britain was allowed, and Berlin had to pay Paris heavy reparations and fund the French army of occupation. Saxony changed sides to support Napoleon and join his Confederation of the Rhine; its elector was rewarded with the title of king and given a slice of Poland taken from Prussia. </p><p>After Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia in 1812, including the deaths of many Germans in his invasion army, Prussia joined with Russia. Major battles followed in quick order, and when Austria switched sides to oppose Napoleon his situation grew tenuous. He was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of Leipzig</a> in late 1813, and his empire quickly unraveled. One after another the German states switched to oppose Napoleon, but he rejected peace terms. Allied armies invaded France in early 1814, Paris fell, and in April Napoleon surrendered. He returned for 100 days in 1815, but was finally defeated by the British and German armies at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a>. Prussia was the big winner at the Vienna peace conference, gaining extensive territory.<sup id="cite_ref-sheehan_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sheehan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/18th-century_German_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century German literature">18th-century German literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="German dualism">German dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-sheehan-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sheehan_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSheehan1989" class="citation book cs1">Sheehan, James J. (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanhistory17700shee"><i>German History: 1770–1866</i></a></span>. Clarendon Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/germanhistory17700shee/page/75">75</a>, 207–291, 291–323, 324–371, 802–820. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822120-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822120-3"><bdi>978-0-19-822120-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+History%3A+1770%E2%80%931866&rft.pages=75%2C+207-291%2C+291-323%2C+324-371%2C+802-820&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-822120-3&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=James+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgermanhistory17700shee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-holborn-1648-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-holborn-1648_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-holborn-1648_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolborn1964" class="citation book cs1">Holborn, Hajo (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng01holb"><i>A History of Modern Germany: 1648–1840</i></a></span>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderng01holb/page/291">291–302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Germany%3A+1648%E2%80%931840&rft.pages=291-302&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Holborn&rft.aufirst=Hajo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmoderng01holb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whaley, Joachim (2012), <i>Germany and the Holy Roman Empire</i>, vol. II, Oxford University Press, p. 499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngrao2003" class="citation book cs1">Ingrao, Charles W. (2003). <i>The Hessian Mercenary State: Ideas, Institutions, and Reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hessian+Mercenary+State%3A+Ideas%2C+Institutions%2C+and+Reform+under+Frederick+II%2C+1760%E2%80%931785&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Ingrao&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegarra1977" class="citation book cs1">Segarra, Eda (1977). <i>A Social History of Germany: 1648–1914</i>. pp. 37–55, 183–202.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+Germany%3A+1648%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=37-55%2C+183-202&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Segarra&rft.aufirst=Eda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sagarra-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sagarra_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sagarra_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagarra1977" class="citation book cs1">Sagarra, Eda (1977). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryofg0000saga"><i>A Social History of Germany: 1648–1914</i></a></span>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryofg0000saga/page/140">140</a>–154, 341–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780841903326" title="Special:BookSources/9780841903326"><bdi>9780841903326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Social+History+of+Germany%3A+1648%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=140-154%2C+341-45&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9780841903326&rft.aulast=Sagarra&rft.aufirst=Eda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialhistoryofg0000saga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For details on the life of a representative peasant farmer, who migrated in 1710 to Pennsylvania, see Bernd Kratz, "Jans Stauffer: A Farmer in Germany before his Emigration to Pennsylvania",<i>Genealogist</i>, Fall 2008, Vol. 22 Issue 2, pp 131–169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=3612">"Decree on the Abolition of Personal Serfdom in Schleswig-Holstein"</a>. <i>GHDI</i>. 1804<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GHDI&rft.atitle=Decree+on+the+Abolition+of+Personal+Serfdom+in+Schleswig-Holstein&rft.date=1804&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fghdi.ghi-dc.org%2Fsub_document.cfm%3Fdocument_id%3D3612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord1922" class="citation book cs1">Ford, Guy Stanton (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/steinanderarefo01fordgoog"><i>Stein and the era of reform in Prussia, 1807–1815</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/steinanderarefo01fordgoog/page/n205">199</a>–220.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stein+and+the+era+of+reform+in+Prussia%2C+1807%E2%80%931815&rft.pages=199-220&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Guy+Stanton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsteinanderarefo01fordgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrakensiek1994" class="citation cs2">Brakensiek, Stefan (April 1994), "Agrarian Individualism in North-Western Germany, 1770–1870", <i>German History</i>, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 137–179</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=German+History&rft.atitle=Agrarian+Individualism+in+North-Western+Germany%2C+1770%E2%80%931870&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=137-179&rft.date=1994-04&rft.aulast=Brakensiek&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins1986" class="citation cs2">Perkins, J. 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(2011). <i>Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+at+German+Courts%2C+1715%E2%80%931760%3A+Changing+Artistic+Priorities&rft.date=2011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuehn2001" class="citation book cs1">Kuehn, Manfred (2001). <i>Kant: A Biography</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%3A+A+Biography&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Kuehn&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_DulmenWilliams1992" class="citation book cs1">Van Dulmen, Richard; Williams, Anthony, eds. (1992). <i>The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Society+of+the+Enlightenment%3A+The+Rise+of+the+Middle+Class+and+Enlightenment+Culture+in+Germany&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A18th-century+history+of+Germany" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gagliardo, John, G., (1980) <i>Reich and Nation. The Holy Roman Empire as Idea and Reality, 1763-1806</i>, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Owen Connelly, <i>Napoleon's satellite kingdoms</i> (1966) ch 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diethher Raff, <i>History of Germany from the Medieval Empire to the Present,</i> (1988), pp. 34–55, 202–206</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=18th-century_history_of_Germany&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asprey,_Robert_B." class="mw-redirect" title="Asprey, Robert B.">Asprey, Robert B.</a> <i>Frederick the Great: The Magnificent Enigma</i> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Frederick-Great-Magnificent-Robert-Asprey/dp/0595469000/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanning,_Tim" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanning, Tim">Blanning, Tim</a>. <i>Frederick the Great: King of Prussia</i> (2016), major new scholarly biography</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark,_Christopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Clark, Christopher">Clark, Christopher</a>. <i>Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947</i> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holborn,_Hajo" class="mw-redirect" title="Holborn, Hajo">Holborn, Hajo</a>. <i>A History of Modern Germany: vol 2: 1648–1840</i> (1961)</li> <li>Hughes, Michael. <i>Early Modern Germany, 1477–1806</i> (1992).</li> <li>Lewis, Margaret Brannan. <i>Infanticide and Abortion in Early Modern Germany</i> (2016).</li> <li>Robisheaux, Thomas. <i>Rural society and the search for order in early modern Germany</i> (2002).</li> <li>Rowlands, Alison. "Witchcraft and old women in Early Modern Germany." <i>Past & present</i> 173 (2001): 50–89. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600840">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Sagarra, Eda. <i>A Social History of Germany, 1648–1914</i> (1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryofg0000saga">online</a></li> <li>Schindler, Norbert. <i>Rebellion, community and custom in early modern Germany</i> (2002).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schulze,_Hagen" class="mw-redirect" title="Schulze, Hagen">Schulze, Hagen</a>. <i>The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck 1763–1867</i> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheehan,_James_J." class="mw-redirect" title="Sheehan, James J.">Sheehan, James J.</a> <i>German History: 1770–1866</i> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith,_Helmut_Walser" class="mw-redirect" title="Smith, Helmut Walser">Smith, Helmut Walser</a>, ed. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History</i> (2011), 862 pp; 35 essays by specialists; Germany since 1760 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Modern-History-Handbooks/dp/0198728913">excerpt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson,_Peter_H." class="mw-redirect" title="Wilson, Peter H.">Wilson, Peter H.</a> <i>Europe's Tragedy: A New History of the Thirty Years War</i> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wunder,_Heide" class="mw-redirect" title="Wunder, Heide">Wunder, Heide</a>. <i>He is the sun, she is the moon: Women in early modern Germany</i> (Harvard UP, 1998).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germany_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germany_topics" title="Template:Germany topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germany_topics" title="Template talk:Germany topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a 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href="/wiki/Timeline_of_German_history" title="Timeline of German history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Germany" title="Military history of Germany">Military history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Germanic_peoples" title="List of early Germanic peoples">List of early Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">History of the Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_campaigns_in_Germania_(12_BC_%E2%80%93_AD_16)" title="Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)">Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic Wars">Gothic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">Sack of Rome (410)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Early modern period, 1500–1800</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">18th-century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">German revolutions of 1848–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Constitution" title="Frankfurt Constitution">Frankfurt Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_during_World_War_I" title="History of Germany during World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">Revolution of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany#World_War_II" title="Nazi Germany">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Flight and expulsions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_(1945%E2%80%931990)" title="History of Germany (1945–1990)">Divided Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany_since_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germany since 1990">History of Germany since 1990</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Prussia">History of Prussia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Brandenburg">History of Brandenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_War" title="Cologne War">Cologne War</a>, 1583–1588</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baden_Revolution" title="Baden Revolution">Baden Revolution</a>, 1848</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Germany" title="Geography of Germany">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of Germany">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/States_of_Germany" title="States of Germany">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Germany" title="Districts of Germany">Districts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Germany" title="List of cities and towns in Germany">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Germany" title="List of earthquakes in Germany">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Germany" title="Geology of Germany">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Germany" title="List of islands of Germany">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Germany" title="List of lakes of Germany">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Germany" title="Category:Mountains of Germany">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Germany" title="Category:Rivers of Germany">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Germany" title="Politics of Germany">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundestag" title="Bundestag">Bundestag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Bundesrat" title="German Bundesrat">Bundesrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeswehr" title="Bundeswehr"><i>Bundeswehr</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(military)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Germany" title="Cabinet of Germany">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Germany" title="Judiciary of Germany">Court system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Germany" title="Elections in Germany">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Germany" title="Foreign relations of Germany">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Germany" title="Human rights in Germany">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Germany" title="Intersex rights in Germany">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Germany">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_in_Germany" title="Transgender rights in Germany">Transgender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Germany" title="Law enforcement in Germany">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobbying_in_Germany" title="Lobbying in Germany">Lobbying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Germany" title="List of political parties in Germany">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Germany" title="President of Germany">President</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Germany" title="Economy of Germany">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Germany" title="Agriculture in Germany">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Germany" title="Automotive industry in Germany">Automobile industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Germany" title="Banking in Germany">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Bundesbank" title="Deutsche Bundesbank">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_German_Chemical_Triangle" title="Middle German Chemical Triangle">Chemical Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Germany" title="Economic history of Germany">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Germany" title="Energy in Germany">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Germany" title="List of exports of Germany">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_model" title="German model">German model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_states_by_GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="List of German states by GDP">German states by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelstand" title="Mittelstand"><i>Mittelstand</i> companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany" title="Science and technology in Germany">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Stock_Exchange" title="Frankfurt Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Germany" title="Taxation in Germany">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Germany" title="Tourism in Germany">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Germany" title="Trade unions in Germany">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Germany" title="Transport in Germany">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare in Germany">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Germany" title="Women in Germany">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Germany" title="Category:Society of Germany">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Germany" title="Crime in Germany">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Germany" title="Corruption in Germany">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Germany" title="Demographics of Germany">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_Germany" title="Drug policy of Germany">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Germany" title="Education in Germany">Education</a></li> 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title="Pornography in Germany">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Germany" title="Poverty in Germany">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Germany" title="Prostitution in Germany">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_issues_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues in Germany">Social issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Germany" title="Trade unions in Germany">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Germany" title="Culture of Germany">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deutschlandlied" 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