CINXE.COM
Encyclop忙dia Universalis
<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="fr-FR" xml:lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <!-- This website is powered by TYPO3 - inspiring people to share! TYPO3 is a free open source Content Management Framework initially created by Kasper Skaarhoj and licensed under GNU/GPL. TYPO3 is copyright 1998-2024 of Kasper Skaarhoj. Extensions are copyright of their respective owners. Information and contribution at https://typo3.org/ --> <title>Encyclop忙dia Universalis</title> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1" /> <meta name="generator" content="TYPO3 CMS" /> <meta name="description" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis pour les particuliers met la connaissance 脿 la port茅e de tous. Reconnue depuis plus de 50 ans pour la richesse et la fiabilit茅 de son contenu." /> <meta name="robots" content="index, all, follow" /> <meta name="viewport" content="viewport-fit=cover, width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, minimum-scale=1.0" /> <meta name="author" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis pour les particuliers met la connaissance 脿 la port茅e de tous. Reconnue depuis plus de 50 ans pour la richesse et la fiabilit茅 de son contenu." /> <meta property="og:locale" content="fr_FR" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.universalis.fr/_web/static/icons/favicon.png" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="256" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="252" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Encyclop忙dia Universalis pour les particuliers met la connaissance 脿 la port茅e de tous. Reconnue depuis plus de 50 ans pour la richesse et la fiabilit茅 de son contenu." /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@universalisfr" /> <meta name="location" content="France" /> <meta name="rating" content="General" /> <meta name="distribution" content="Global" /> <meta name="resource-type" content="document" /> <meta name="copyright" content="漏 Copyright 2024 - Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes" /> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="default" /> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no,date=no,address=no,email=no,url=no" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_shared/pub/pub.css?1730108805" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/home.css?1730119190" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/_web/assets/css/classification.css?1730119190" media="all"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes"/> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-title" content="Universalis"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#526D78"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://statistiques.universalis.fr" /> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cmp.inmobi.com" /> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Universalis FR" href="/_web/static/search-fr.xml" /> <link rel="manifest" href="/_web/static/manifest.json"> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="/_web/static/icons/favicon.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="57x57" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-57x57.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="72x72" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-72x72.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="76x76" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-76x76.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="114x114" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-114x114.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="120x120" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-120x120.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="144x144" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-144x144.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="152x152" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-152x152.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/_web/static/icons/fr-apple-touch-icon-180x180.png" /> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 810px) and (device-height: 1080px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.2__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 744px) and (device-height: 1133px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/8.3__iPad_Mini_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 1024px) and (device-height: 1366px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/12.9__iPad_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 820px) and (device-height: 1180px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.9__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11_Pro_Max__iPhone_XS_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 393px) and (device-height: 852px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 320px) and (device-height: 568px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/4__iPhone_SE__iPod_touch_5th_generation_and_later_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 812px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_13_mini__iPhone_12_mini__iPhone_11_Pro__iPhone_XS__iPhone_X_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 390px) and (device-height: 844px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14__iPhone_13_Pro__iPhone_13__iPhone_12_Pro__iPhone_12_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 768px) and (device-height: 1024px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/9.7__iPad_Pro__7.9__iPad_mini__9.7__iPad_Air__9.7__iPad_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 428px) and (device-height: 926px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Plus__iPhone_13_Pro_Max__iPhone_12_Pro_Max_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 896px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_11__iPhone_XR_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 375px) and (device-height: 667px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: portrait)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8__iPhone_7__iPhone_6s__iPhone_6__4.7__iPhone_SE_portrait.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1112px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/10.5__iPad_Air_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 834px) and (device-height: 1194px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 2) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/11__iPad_Pro__10.5__iPad_Pro_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 414px) and (device-height: 736px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_8_Plus__iPhone_7_Plus__iPhone_6s_Plus__iPhone_6_Plus_landscape.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-startup-image" media="screen and (device-width: 430px) and (device-height: 932px) and (-webkit-device-pixel-ratio: 3) and (orientation: landscape)" href="/_web/static/img/splash/iPhone_14_Pro_Max_landscape.png"> <script>!function(a,b,c){if(c in b&&b[c]){var d,e=a.location,f=/^(a|html)$/i;a.addEventListener("click",function(a){for(d=a.target;!f.test(d.nodeName);)d=d.parentNode;"href"in d&&(d.href.indexOf("http")||~d.href.indexOf(e.host))&&(a.preventDefault(),e.href=d.href)},!1),a.querySelector("html").classList.add("standalone")}}(document,window.navigator,"standalone")</script> <script> var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || []; /* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */ _paq.push(['trackPageView']); _paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']); (function() { var u="//statistiques.universalis.fr/"; _paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']); _paq.push(['setSiteId', '1']); var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s); })(); </script> <style>.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide{display:none}.swiper-container[data-loaded=false] .swiper-wrapper .swiper-slide:first-child{display:block}img{max-width:100%;height:auto;max-height:250px}img.d-formule{max-height:none}strong{font-weight:bold !important}.dark-mode body{background:#29363a !important}.loader{display:none;height:100vh}.loader:after{display:block;margin:auto;content:"";background:url(/_web/assets/img/banniere-fr.png) no-repeat center;background-size:contain;width:50%;height:50%;position:absolute;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%, -50%);opacity:.25}#page_3 .pub-container,#page_16 .pub-container{display:none !important}#skip{padding:5px 15px;position:absolute;background:rgba(0,0,0,.85);color:#fff;left:10%;transform:translateY(-100%);transition:transform .3s;border-bottom-left-radius:6px;border-bottom-right-radius:6px;z-index:100;text-decoration:none}#skip:focus{transform:translateY(0%);box-shadow:0 0 10px #333}.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:none}.site-fr .article-quote{display:none !important}@media(max-width: 768px){.login-form-wrapper-mobile{display:block;text-align:center;margin-top:-1em;margin-bottom:1em}}body.loading{overflow:hidden}body.loading>*{display:none}body.loading .loader{display:block}.dropdown-menu,.d-none,#podcast audio{display:none}.list-inline-item{display:inline-block}.offcanvas{visibility:hidden}.main-navbar-wrapper .btn-universalis{background-color:#e8eced;color:#000;font-weight:normal}.offcanvas{display:none !important;height:0 !important}.offcanvas[data-loaded=true]{display:inherit !important;height:inherit !important}.clearfix{clear:both}.fr .is-edu{display:none !important}#podcast{min-height:90px}#article-medias-strip-junior{min-height:255px}#callSommaire{position:fixed;bottom:10px;left:10px;z-index:2}#qc-cmp2-ui{padding:10px !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons{justify-content:space-around !important}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button[mode=secondary],.qc-cmp2-footer button[mode=secondary]{border:none;box-shadow:none}.eCBsvP.eCBsvP{height:auto !important}.qc-cmp-cleanslate{background-color:rgba(33,41,52,.95) !important}.fill-universalis{fill:#1c3479}.fill-universalis-up{fill:#526d78}@media(min-width: 768px){.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container{text-align:center}.qc-cmp2-publisher-logo-container figure img{display:block !important}}#page_14 .filter-article-container{display:none}#newsletter_subscription .text-light{color:#fff !important}#bandeau-footer{display:none}</style> <link rel="stylesheet" id="typo-css" href="/_web/assets/css/typo.css?t=20240418-1" /><script>let cssLoaded=!1,bodyLoaded=!1;const loadedTO=setTimeout((()=>{cssLoaded=!0,bodyLoaded=!0,loaded()}),5e3),loaded=function(){cssLoaded&&bodyLoaded&&document.body.classList.contains("loading")&&(document.body.className=document.body.className.replace("loading","").trim(),clearTimeout(loadedTO))};</script> <link rel="preload" href="/_web/assets/css/lazy.css?t=20240418-1" as="style" media="all" crossorigin onload="this.rel=`stylesheet`; cssLoaded = true; loaded()" /><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "WebSite", "name": "Encyclop忙dia Universalis", "alternateName": "Universalis", "url": "https://www.universalis.fr", "sameAs": [ "https://www.facebook.com/EncyclopedieUniversalis/", "https://www.linkedin.com/company/encyclopaedia-universalis", "https://www.twitter.com/universalisfr", "https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0srTZiJaRaDw3fAvtCo4Ow" ] } </script> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.universalis.fr"/> </head> <body id="page_1" class="edu SENIOR loading" > <div class="loader"></div> <a href="#main-content" id="skip"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-arrow-down"></i> Acc茅der au contenu </a> <header class="d-none d-md-block d-print-none"> <div class="container row-between"> <a class="header-logo mr-3" title="Retour 脿 la page d'accueil" href="/"> <svg viewBox="0 0 370 76.44" height="70" width="277" id="logo-main"> <text class="fill-universalis text-darkblue" transform="translate(74.25 37.1)" font-family="Arial" font-size="43.37"> <tspan x="0" y="0">UNIVERSALIS</tspan> </text> <text class="text-darkblue subtitle" transform="translate(76.75 66.74)" font-family="Arial" font-size="35.8"> <tspan class="fill-universalis-up" x="0" y="0" font-size=".85em">.fr</tspan> </text> <g> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M57,6.36H4.25C1.9,6.36,0,8.27,0,10.62V62.51c0,2.35,1.9,4.25,4.25,4.25H57c2.35,0,4.25-1.9,4.25-4.25V10.62c0-2.35-1.9-4.25-4.25-4.25ZM29.63,31.87h7.33v8.06c-.77-1.77-1.61-2.99-2.96-4.38-1.41-1.44-2.42-2.35-4.36-3.29v-.39Zm2.37,29.2c-.85,.68-1.75,1.28-2.71,1.75-.11,.05-.22,.1-.33,.15H13.39c-1.67-.77-3.19-1.8-4.53-3.14-3.13-3.13-4.69-7.06-4.69-11.77s1.56-8.84,4.67-12.04c3.12-3.19,7.02-4.79,11.72-4.79,2.71,0,5.14,.49,7.3,1.43,1.81,.79,3.44,1.9,4.87,3.36,1.35,1.38,2.4,2.97,3.17,4.74,1,2.31,1.52,4.94,1.52,7.9l-.03,1.51H11.86c.37,2.25,1.36,4.04,2.95,5.37,1.6,1.33,3.64,1.99,6.13,1.99,2.79,0,4.96-.67,6.99-2.49l6.74,3.26c-.84,1.12-1.61,1.9-2.67,2.75Zm24.74-15.61c0,5.53-.44,9.31-1.31,11.35-1.07,2.49-2.64,4.39-4.72,5.72-.24,.15-.49,.3-.75,.44h-14.33c-.44-.23-.87-.49-1.26-.77-.26-.18-.43-.29-.66-.49,.29-.3,2.13-2.54,3.11-3.92,0,0-7.13-3.32-7.3-3.39-.22-1.04-.28-1.34-.44-2.83h7.98c.1,1.11,.27,1.26,.5,1.93,.41,1.15,1.07,2.05,1.97,2.69,.9,.64,2.02,.96,3.34,.96s2.45-.32,3.37-.95c.92-.63,1.61-1.55,2.06-2.78,.33-.91,.5-2.86,.5-5.85v-15.51h7.95v13.42Z"/> <path class="fill-universalis-up" d="M29.44,43.92c-.32-1.09-.87-2.04-1.58-2.88-.44-.52-.93-1-1.52-1.43-1.54-1.11-3.34-1.66-5.38-1.66-2.22,0-4.16,.62-5.83,1.86-1.05,.78-2.02,2.14-2.92,4.11H29.44Z"/> </g> </svg> </a> <div class="p-1 d-flex justify-content-end flex-column" style="height: 80px"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper" style="align-items: flex-end; display: flex; flex-direction: column" data-identification_uri="/identification/"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div id="toast-manager"></div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="d-print-none sticky-top"> <div role="navigation" aria-label="Navigation mobile" class="main-navbar-wrapper shadow"> <a class="navbar-brand-md d-none d-md-block" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_3bdd01b6ad.webp " width="32" height="32" alt=""> </a> <div class="container"> <nav class="navbar navbar-expand-lg navbar-dark"> <a class="navbar-brand d-md-none" href="/"> <img alt="Universalis" src=" /typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/b/csm_eu-blanc-2x_3bdd01b6ad.webp " width="36" height="36" alt=""> </a> <div id="navbar-collapse-grid" class="navbar-collapse collapse pt-2 pt-md-0"> <ul class="navbar-nav me-auto"> <li><a href="/" title="Niveaux" class="nav-link">Accueil</a></li> <li><a href="/atlas/" title="Atlas" class="nav-link">Atlas</a></li><li><a href="/datapays/" title="DataPays" class="nav-link">DataPays</a></li><li><a href="/classification/" title="Classification" class="nav-link">Classification</a></li><li><a href="/dictionnaire/" title="Dictionnaire fran莽ais Universalis : retrouvez toutes les d茅finitions, 茅tymologies, expressions, synonymes, exemples, et flexions de plus de 120 000 mots de la langue fran莽aise." class="nav-link">Dictionnaire</a></li><li><a href="https://boutique.universalis.fr" title="Boutique" class="nav-link">Boutique</a></li> </ul> </div> <form method="get" name="searchQuery" class="flex-grow-1 my-1" id="search-form" autocomplete="off" action="/recherche/redirect/"> <div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@extension]" value="SolrData" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@controller]" value="SearchForm" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@action]" value="showFr" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][arguments]" value="YTowOnt9789d077876a7a0adeb4a9a4c4853f315af9bb201" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__referrer][@request]" value="{"@extension":"SolrData","@controller":"SearchForm","@action":"showFr"}db953a457671272659a1e7710096726899d321a7" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[__trustedProperties]" value="{"data-action":1,"searchQuery":{"resultType":1,"searchedString":1}}36e15bfcc110b23d6ba91a6810381c8ec6b87146" /> </div> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[data-action]" value="https://www.universalis.fr/recherche/___searchedString___/article/1/" /> <input type="hidden" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][resultType]" value="ARTICLE" /> <div class="input-wrapper input-group"> <input placeholder="Rechercher sur Universalis" class="form-control" id="searchedString" autocomplete="off" type="text" name="tx_solrdata_pi1[searchQuery][searchedString]" value="" /> <button type="submit" class="btn btn-sm btn-light"> <span class="d-none d-md-block">Recherche</span> <span class="visually-hidden">Recherche</span> <span class="d-md-none"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-magnifying-glass"></i></span> </button> </div> </form> <button title="Afficher / masquer le menu du site" class="navbar-toggler ms-1" type="button" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#navbar-collapse-grid"> <span class="navbar-toggler-icon"></span> </button> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <main class="site-fr container main rounded-bottom shadow mb-3"> <div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper-mobile"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-lg-none text-center mb-3"> <a href="/abonnement" title="Je m'abonne" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Top (mobile)"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/6/csm_banner-cta_4de68c3a6b.webp" width="728" height="90" alt="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro" class="img-max shadow-sm"/> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="main-content" class="col-lg-8 col-xl-9 pb-4"> <h1 class="d-none">Encyclop忙dia Universalis</h1> <section id="articles" class="mt-3"> <h2>La s茅lection des 茅diteurs</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="col-6 col-md-3 text-center"> <a href="/encyclopedie/newspace/" title="Article : NewSpace - 漏 SpaceX/ Science Collection/ Alamy/ Hemis" class="image-protected"> <img class="img-max rounded shadow-sm" alt="SpaceX/ Science Collection/ Alamy/ Hemis" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/a/3/csm_ph240560_4e2d1604d2.jpg" width="300" height="225" /> </a> <h3 class="mt-3 fs-5 fw-bold"> <a href="/encyclopedie/newspace/"> NewSpace </a> </h3> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-3 text-center"> <a href="/encyclopedie/giec/" title="Article : GIEC - 漏 S. Estvanik/ Shutterstock" class="image-protected"> <img class="img-max rounded shadow-sm" alt="S. Estvanik/ Shutterstock" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/9/4/csm_ph120306a_e3c52055d0.jpg" width="300" height="225" /> </a> <h3 class="mt-3 fs-5 fw-bold"> <a href="/encyclopedie/giec/"> GIEC </a> </h3> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-3 text-center"> <a href="/encyclopedie/christopher-nolan-1970/" title="Article : Christopher Nolan - 漏 Grusho Anna/ Shutterstock" class="image-protected"> <img class="img-max rounded shadow-sm" alt="Grusho Anna/ Shutterstock" loading="lazy" src="/fileadmin/_processed_/6/0/csm_edu_nolan_af078e78de.jpg" width="300" height="225" /> </a> <h3 class="mt-3 fs-5 fw-bold"> <a href="/encyclopedie/christopher-nolan-1970/"> Christopher Nolan </a> </h3> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-3 text-center"> <a href="/encyclopedie/crises-economiques-au-tournant-du-xxie-siecle/" title="Article : Crises 茅conomiques au tournant du XXIe si猫cle - 漏 Greg Smith/ Corbis/ Getty Images" class="image-protected"> <img class="img-max rounded shadow-sm" alt="Greg Smith/ Corbis/ Getty Images" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/d/3/csm_ph130179_faa25de59f.jpg" width="300" height="225" /> </a> <h3 class="mt-3 fs-5 fw-bold"> <a href="/encyclopedie/crises-economiques-au-tournant-du-xxie-siecle/"> Crises 茅conomiques au tournant du XXI<sup>e</sup> si猫cle </a> </h3> </div> </div> </section> <section id="home-tools" class="mt-5 mb-5"> <h2>La bo卯te 脿 outils</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-6 col-xl-4 mb-3"> <a href="/atlas" class="d-flex align-items-center"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/9/c/csm_globe_3443e8be45.webp" alt="Atlas" class="home-tools-icon" onerror="this.classList.add('img-error'); this.setAttribute('alt',''); this.src='/_edu/assets/medias/img-error.png';" width="75" height="75" /> <strong style="font-size: 1.15em">Atlas</strong> </a> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-6 col-xl-4 mb-3"> <a href="/datapays" class="d-flex align-items-center"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/5/b/csm_business_32908fdea5.webp" alt="Comparateur de pays" class="home-tools-icon" onerror="this.classList.add('img-error'); this.setAttribute('alt',''); this.src='/_edu/assets/medias/img-error.png';" width="75" height="75" /> <strong style="font-size: 1.15em">Comparateur de pays</strong> </a> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-6 col-xl-4 mb-3"> <a href="/recherche/*/evenement/1" class="d-flex align-items-center"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/5/csm_time_c11e2baae8.webp" alt="Rep猫res 茅v茅nementiels" class="home-tools-icon" onerror="this.classList.add('img-error'); this.setAttribute('alt',''); this.src='/_edu/assets/medias/img-error.png';" width="75" height="75" /> <strong style="font-size: 1.15em">Rep猫res 茅v茅nementiels</strong> </a> </div> </div> </section> <section id="briefme" class="mt-3 alert alert-info shadow-sm "> <header class="d-block d-lg-flex justify-content-between align-items-start"> <h2 class="mb-1 text-center flex-grow-1"> L鈥檃ctualit茅 fran莽aise et internationale<br /> avec <img src="/_web/assets/img/briefme.svg" alt="Brief.me" height="50" id="briefme-logo" style="height: 50px" /> </h2> <div class="text-center text-lg-right mb-3 mb-lg-0"> Mis 脿 jour le 23/11/2024 <button class="btn btn-sm btn-secondary" data-bs-toggle="modal" data-bs-target="#modal-briefme">?</button> </div> </header> <div class="d-block"> <ul> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-23-3846-les-agriculteurs-francais-et-les-accords-de-libre-echange-culture-du-viol-celebre-tennisman/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les agriculteurs fran莽ais et les accords de libre-茅change | Culture du viol | C茅l猫bre tennisman" > <small class="text-muted">23/11/2024</small> <span>Les agriculteurs fran莽ais et les accords de libre-茅change | Culture du viol | C茅l猫bre tennisman > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans B‌r‌i‌e‌f‌.‌m‌e ce week-end, on vous explique l’opposition des agriculteurs français aux accords de libre-échange conclus par l’Union européenne et leurs conséquences sur l’agriculture française. On vous résume aussi l’actualité essentielle de la semaine.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-23-3846-les-agriculteurs-francais-et-les-accords-de-libre-echange-culture-du-viol-celebre-tennisman/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les agriculteurs fran莽ais et les accords de libre-茅change | Culture du viol | C茅l猫bre tennisman" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-22-3845-les-menaces-de-vladimir-poutine-renationalisation-du-rail-au-royaume-uni-bien-deneiger/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les menaces de Vladimir Poutine | Renationalisation du rail au Royaume-Uni | Bien d茅neiger" > <small class="text-muted">22/11/2024</small> <span>Les menaces de Vladimir Poutine | Renationalisation du rail au Royaume-Uni | Bien d茅neiger > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans B‌r‌i‌e‌f‌.‌m‌e aujourd’hui, on revient sur les menaces de Vladimir Poutine contre certains pays occidentaux et on vous explique l’évolution de la doctrine nucléaire russe. On s’intéresse aussi à la renationalisation du transport ferroviaire de voyageurs au Royaume-Uni.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-22-3845-les-menaces-de-vladimir-poutine-renationalisation-du-rail-au-royaume-uni-bien-deneiger/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Les menaces de Vladimir Poutine | Renationalisation du rail au Royaume-Uni | Bien d茅neiger" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-21-3843-greve-a-la-sncf-lutte-contre-les-gangs-en-nouvelle-zelande-cetait-lannee-1974/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Gr猫ve 脿 la SNCF | Lutte contre les gangs en Nouvelle-Z茅lande | C鈥櫭﹖ait l鈥檃nn茅e 1974" > <small class="text-muted">21/11/2024</small> <span>Gr猫ve 脿 la SNCF | Lutte contre les gangs en Nouvelle-Z茅lande | C鈥櫭﹖ait l鈥檃nn茅e 1974 > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans B‌r‌i‌e‌f‌.‌m‌e aujourd’hui, on vous explique les raisons de la grève à la SNCF et on vous raconte les évolutions de sa filiale fret. On vous parle aussi des gangs en Nouvelle-Zélande.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-21-3843-greve-a-la-sncf-lutte-contre-les-gangs-en-nouvelle-zelande-cetait-lannee-1974/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Gr猫ve 脿 la SNCF | Lutte contre les gangs en Nouvelle-Z茅lande | C鈥櫭﹖ait l鈥檃nn茅e 1974" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-20-3842-regain-de-tensions-entre-la-france-et-lazerbaidjan-le-vote-pour-donald-trump-des-prix-variables-a-disneyland/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Regain de tensions entre la France et l鈥橝zerba茂djan | Le vote pour Donald Trump | Des prix variables 脿 Disneyland" > <small class="text-muted">20/11/2024</small> <span>Regain de tensions entre la France et l鈥橝zerba茂djan | Le vote pour Donald Trump | Des prix variables 脿 Disneyland > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans B‌r‌i‌e‌f‌.‌m‌e aujourd’hui, on revient sur le regain de tensions entre la France et l’Azerbaïdjan et on vous explique les liens entre ce pays et des mouvements indépendantistes ultramarins français. On vous montre aussi l’évolution du vote pour Donald Trump depuis 2016.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-20-3842-regain-de-tensions-entre-la-france-et-lazerbaidjan-le-vote-pour-donald-trump-des-prix-variables-a-disneyland/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Regain de tensions entre la France et l鈥橝zerba茂djan | Le vote pour Donald Trump | Des prix variables 脿 Disneyland" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> <li> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-19-3841-des-missiles-americains-tires-en-russie-par-lukraine-peage-a-manhattan-van-gogh-revisite/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Des missiles am茅ricains tir茅s en Russie par l鈥橴kraine | P茅age 脿 Manhattan | Van Gogh revisit茅" > <small class="text-muted">19/11/2024</small> <span>Des missiles am茅ricains tir茅s en Russie par l鈥橴kraine | P茅age 脿 Manhattan | Van Gogh revisit茅 > Lire</span> </a> <p class="text-sm d-none"> <em>Dans B‌r‌i‌e‌f‌.‌m‌e aujourd’hui, on revient sur les premiers tirs de missiles américains par l’Ukraine sur le territoire russe et on vous explique l’impact de cette autorisation américaine sur le conflit. On s’intéresse aussi à l’instauration d’un péage pour circuler à New York.</em> <a href="https://app.brief.me/edition/2024-11-19-3841-des-missiles-americains-tires-en-russie-par-lukraine-peage-a-manhattan-van-gogh-revisite/?utm_source=universalis" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" data-matomo-category="Home" data-matomo-name="To BriefMe" data-matomo-value="Des missiles am茅ricains tir茅s en Russie par l鈥橴kraine | P茅age 脿 Manhattan | Van Gogh revisit茅" >[Lire la suite]</a> </p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="modal" tabindex="-1" id="modal-briefme"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-lg"> <div class="modal-content"> <div class="modal-header"> <p class="modal-title">Qu'est-ce que <strong>Brief.me</strong> ?</p> <button type="button" class="btn-close" data-bs-dismiss="modal" aria-label="Fermer"></button> </div> <div class="modal-body"> <p>Brief.me est un m茅dia ind茅pendant en ligne qui r茅sume et explique l鈥檃ctualit茅 fran莽aise et internationale chaque soir 脿 18h30.</p> <p>Brief.me se distingue par sa capacit茅 脿 offrir une information synth茅tique, pr茅cise et v茅rifi茅e. La r茅daction de Brief.me applique une d茅marche journalistique rigoureuse pour s茅lectionner et valider l鈥檈nsemble des informations publi茅es.</p> <p>Face 脿 la prolif茅ration de contenus en ligne, Brief.me privil茅gie la qualit茅 sur la quantit茅, permettant 脿 ses lecteurs de rester inform茅s efficacement, sans 锚tre submerg茅s par des informations superflues ou biais茅es.</p> <p>Le format unique de Brief.me permet de mieux comprendre le monde en quelques minutes de lecture chaque jour, avec une vision claire et structur茅e des 茅v茅nements gr芒ce 脿 des mises en contexte et des analyses pertinentes.</p> <p>En tant que m茅dia ind茅pendant, Brief.me s'engage 脿 offrir une information libre de toute influence commerciale ou politique.</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section id="home-classification" class="mt-5" data-state="hidden"> <h2>Classification</h2> <div class="row"> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/1/csm_arts_999add140d.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Arts" href="/classification/arts/"> <span>Arts</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/c/5/csm_astronomie-et-astrophysique_6064c74e64.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Astronomie et astrophysique" href="/classification/astronomie-et-astrophysique/"> <span>Astronomie et astrophysique</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/f/4/csm_chimie_fa11ae3e1b.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Chimie" href="/classification/chimie/"> <span>Chimie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/b/csm_droit-et-institutions_f418541612.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Droit et institutions" href="/classification/droit-et-institutions/"> <span>Droit et institutions</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/f/csm_economie-et-gestion_fe4f665f44.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : 脡conomie et gestion" href="/classification/economie-et-gestion/"> <span>脡conomie et gestion</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/4/csm_environnement_5d2c729573.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Environnement" href="/classification/environnement/"> <span>Environnement</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/a/7/csm_geographie_b6b67cd8a6.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : G茅ographie" href="/classification/geographie/"> <span>G茅ographie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/8/csm_histoire_bdc4a8e7b5.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Histoire" href="/classification/histoire/"> <span>Histoire</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/f/csm_histoire-des-sciences_fa9c5cb869.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Histoire des sciences" href="/classification/histoire-des-sciences/"> <span>Histoire des sciences</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/5/csm_litteratures_964056117f.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Litt茅ratures" href="/classification/litteratures/"> <span>Litt茅ratures</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/f/4/csm_mathematiques_ecf03378ac.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Math茅matiques" href="/classification/mathematiques/"> <span>Math茅matiques</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/d/6/csm_medecine_bb60e3f610.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : M茅decine" href="/classification/medecine/"> <span>M茅decine</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/b/csm_musiques_eecd7db7e8.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Musiques" href="/classification/musiques/"> <span>Musiques</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/7/csm_philosophie_c7a9d73c1a.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Philosophie" href="/classification/philosophie/"> <span>Philosophie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/a/7/csm_physique_1ca5280451.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Physique" href="/classification/physique/"> <span>Physique</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/2/3/csm_religions_186e8eac80.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Religions" href="/classification/religions/"> <span>Religions</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/8/5/csm_sciences-de-la-terre_4ba046e884.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences de la Terre" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-terre/"> <span>Sciences de la Terre</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/9/e/csm_sciences-de-la-vie_1cb6468cdd.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences de la vie" href="/classification/sciences-de-la-vie/"> <span>Sciences de la vie</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/8/csm_sciences-humaines-et-sociales_bb4c55e727.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences humaines et sociales" href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/"> <span>Sciences humaines et sociales</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/2/7/csm_sciences-generalites_5302958bbe.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sciences: g茅n茅ralit茅s" href="/classification/sciences-generalites/"> <span>Sciences: g茅n茅ralit茅s</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/2/csm_sports-et-loisirs_b6882e9b53.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Sports et loisirs" href="/classification/sports-et-loisirs/"> <span>Sports et loisirs</span></a> </div> </div> <div class="col-6 col-md-4 col-lg-2 classif-item-container"> <div class=" classif-item" style="background-image: url('/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/3/6/csm_techniques_35ade2cbfe.webp');"> <a class="classif-item-a" title="Classification : Techniques" href="/classification/techniques/"> <span>Techniques</span></a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="text-center"> <button class="btn btn-block btn-link" data-action="toggle" data-target=".classif-item-container" data-limit="6" data-message-off="R茅duire" data-message-on="Afficher toute la classification">Afficher toute la classification</button> </div> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_f303c484f7.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous 脿 notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous 脿 Universalis pour 1 euro">Acc茅dez 脿 l'int茅gralit茅 d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicit茅</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclop忙dia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclop忙dia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions l茅gales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions l茅gales et politique de confidentialit茅</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions g茅n茅rales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item d-none d-md-inline-block"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclop忙dia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire de l'Encyclop忙dia Universalis </a> </p> <p class="mb-3">漏 2024 Encyclop忙dia Universalis France. Tous droits de propri茅t茅 industrielle et intellectuelle r茅serv茅s.</p> </footer> <a href="javascript:" class="btn btn-primary" id="back-to-top" title="Retour en haut de page"><i aria-hidden="true" class="far fa-arrow-up"></i></a> <script> // noinspection ES6ConvertVarToLetConst,JSUnusedGlobalSymbols var subscription_uri = 'https://www.universalis.fr/abonnement/' bodyLoaded = true; loaded(); </script> <script>(()=>{var e,a,r,_,d,c={},b={};function __webpack_require__(e){var a=b[e];if(void 0!==a)return a.exports;var r=b[e]={id:e,loaded:!1,exports:{}};return c[e].call(r.exports,r,r.exports,__webpack_require__),r.loaded=!0,r.exports}__webpack_require__.m=c,__webpack_require__.n=e=>{var a=e&&e.__esModule?()=>e.default:()=>e;return __webpack_require__.d(a,),a},__webpack_require__.d=(e,a)=>{for(var r in a)__webpack_require__.o(a,r)&&!__webpack_require__.o(e,r)&&Object.defineProperty(e,r,{enumerable:!0,get:a[r]})},__webpack_require__.f={},__webpack_require__.e=e=>Promise.all(Object.keys(__webpack_require__.f).reduce(((a,r)=>(__webpack_require__.f[r](e,a),a)),[])),__webpack_require__.u=e=>"js/"+e+"."+{13:"80d7e21db2f95ae99720",26:"378d7d0789f5af40346c",32:"f20d73ca82d98e7527c8",69:"7313a4f3fed161acce4b",89:"c626d929711e7d9749bb",596:"f42a3891c8a58bdfb96a",603:"ea3de1982fc803344bdd",689:"31c396836cb7e99e178d",709:"d4e0658f463af05ae223",897:"3e91b02003555b671e4b",1095:"9e59e92f30df1ec926e4",1203:"76e8c707d971e06822da",1250:"9865f41df828b2e8b447",1292:"93adae3e6784d8a8a976",1349:"9efae443d9392248187c",1377:"446728afc62ef1c19520",1394:"86027a2d101b1eb260c8",1419:"1387d471be2d6ae0a0aa",1641:"20b900e0adda4c80db1d",1651:"c86d270cf7725cab1d79",1956:"74c8ff5a5ca0f4903469",2034:"10aef63b282d61d6c639",2035:"e1aebed4bfd6bd09ee7e",2353:"44bbdb8df13e8a622208",2372:"a22ed3ddae437e986477",2724:"0bf0368274ee9e0747d2",2832:"eb28f9840b1271c7d62a",2936:"62bb94fb29069bd56587",2966:"2c1ff93e3007f7225cb8",2979:"d966b75bfce67342eeac",3107:"4ae39080543abe3da100",3138:"75edb076a18972355143",3195:"8dc5dbdee19baf1191a1",3292:"4204bb21e63dbda3313b",3493:"b843364884901abc3eb0",3559:"0407e4aa7480eddd0ef1",3581:"e65b43625d381405a12c",3716:"d6ab7b12b699eee673e0",3862:"4213b001dbf03cea161e",3963:"49b1c889b28a0c5714d1",4123:"874e7dece76e9760a495",4152:"70172b2b6a2202bc19e4",4254:"05f327b93d437c2f3601",4299:"37495161e93e1b14a62a",4325:"88bc29304269c158b066",4407:"767000e4cd0f3e15307e",4512:"f82c4b423f5c0dbd30dd",4531:"7457626c1fb01d704537",4644:"2721494c4c12cc6d3bc2",4785:"a097bbcd58df09778180",4840:"1b05bd12ede150f03e77",4947:"676f3abafc2b02c5fa31",5015:"211414a16467b37cae34",5058:"c0ca6a30fe8b53f6d2b2",5106:"908216bcff18d3fd7aad",5133:"74d1d5d467c9be5ef47a",5267:"e5a307f4cc5995492285",5274:"0be3aa33d3ffc719dcff",5505:"313286a530596f7a6b25",5662:"9b43b1237225d7ff7542",5667:"851d77804ca881f31ac9",5797:"861f7e8a005e9a4063c6",5865:"f1a798618f3b6f9903b0",5977:"bf7db06c1133a66449f3",5987:"028c01be18ffb17f5482",6017:"f4e0251f6746e3f339f1",6322:"30a126263c6970e6793a",6363:"9d5f249f8ba4467549c4",6574:"6f9df14941f855202a9d",6903:"d6dfc26ae3076c85ed1f",7024:"f436d8b414f7a558c554",7084:"4cdc22dfd7d247240602",7090:"291628b7c2c07c2d6f94",7131:"c27aefd28ade057122d1",7204:"3e5234153f1f490db272",7262:"0380fb22702b7b1fbf61",7269:"a46d5b5fe65c5fd574e8",7329:"430ef38cd030411e470c",7335:"920664487a3d2ae93e13",7345:"66b366ea63a5ec112a1d",7357:"557d366dc6db747c3062",7363:"f3c9aaf269ff7f29b793",7369:"38be51a057fc00f0f7ef",7539:"45b957bf1324ccf78ffe",7697:"35e517bb715e4b5c7b10",7794:"4e5dcc0a46043951fd82",8010:"1d4a0c12caaaca4542da",8113:"1a49932d3f9f58a0e19b",8151:"286ead9d06e13c599aa4",8211:"983a3e4ce7f9d841c8fb",8224:"972a60c780f0448a5f47",8236:"2aead7cb9f823d2b0bd9",8285:"01146be20c37f70177c6",8519:"69cf4d6707f67ab66004",8603:"5723927781ff4ed61db8",8661:"7093c6c8677b30f38493",8852:"d237c16bb6b8e4258674",9019:"633dbe3b28ca96a0abf5",9049:"d9917b1342dda4789bae",9198:"097d936d40dd0f3aa9da",9229:"5d03eb6d1503a7e3708e",9411:"fa23eea5dd4e55cc2da6",9416:"6ee4ffb0e861caab07f2",9529:"f93f4d7733e910b1cad8",9612:"48e1d8ac85448df568dc",9767:"51e75328b2c6a3d3fe16"}[e]+".bundle.js",__webpack_require__.miniCssF=e=>4826===e?"css/index.css":"css/"+e+".css",__webpack_require__.g=function(){if("object"==typeof globalThis)return globalThis;try{return this||new Function("return this")()}catch(e){if("object"==typeof window)return window}}(),__webpack_require__.o=(e,a)=>Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,a),e={},a="@universalis/web_fr:",__webpack_require__.l=(r,_,d,c)=>{if(e[r])e[r].push(_);else{var b,f;if(void 0!==d)for(var t=document.getElementsByTagName("script"),i=0;i<t.length;i++){var n=t[i];if(n.getAttribute("src")==r||n.getAttribute("data-webpack")==a+d){b=n;break}}b||(f=!0,(b=document.createElement("script")).charset="utf-8",b.timeout=120,__webpack_require__.nc&&b.setAttribute("nonce",__webpack_require__.nc),b.setAttribute("data-webpack",a+d),b.src=r),e[r]=[_];var onScriptComplete=(a,_)=>{b.onerror=b.onload=null,clearTimeout(u);var d=e[r];if(delete e[r],b.parentNode&&b.parentNode.removeChild(b),d&&d.forEach((e=>e(_))),a)return a(_)},u=setTimeout(onScriptComplete.bind(null,void 0,{type:"timeout",target:b}),12e4);b.onerror=onScriptComplete.bind(null,b.onerror),b.onload=onScriptComplete.bind(null,b.onload),f&&document.head.appendChild(b)}},__webpack_require__.r=e=>{"undefined"!=typeof Symbol&&Symbol.toStringTag&&Object.defineProperty(e,Symbol.toStringTag,{value:"Module"}),Object.defineProperty(e,"__esModule",{value:!0})},__webpack_require__.nmd=e=>(e.paths=[],e.children||(e.children=[]),e),__webpack_require__.p="/_web/assets/",r=(e,a,r)=>{var _=document.createElement("link");return _.rel="stylesheet",_.type="text/css",_.onload=a,_.onerror=function(a){var d=a&&a.target&&a.target.src||e,c=new Error("Loading CSS chunk "+chunkId+" failed.\n("+d+")");c.code="CSS_CHUNK_LOAD_FAILED",c.request=d,_.parentNode.removeChild(_),r(c)},_.href=e,document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(_),_},_=e=>new Promise(((a,_)=>{var d=__webpack_require__.miniCssF(e),c=__webpack_require__.p+d;if(((e,a)=>{for(var r=document.getElementsByTagName("link"),_=0;_<r.length;_++){var d=(b=r[_]).getAttribute("data-href")||b.getAttribute("href");if("stylesheet"===b.rel&&(d===e||d===a))return b}var c=document.getElementsByTagName("style");for(_=0;_<c.length;_++){var b;if((d=(b=c[_]).getAttribute("data-href"))===e||d===a)return b}})(d,c))return a();r(c,a,_)})),d={4826:0},__webpack_require__.f.miniCss=(e,a)=>{d[e]?a.push(d[e]):0!==d[e]&&{1203:1,2724:1,2979:1,4644:1,5667:1,6363:1}[e]&&a.push(d[e]=_(e).then((()=>{d[e]=0}),(a=>{throw delete d[e],a})))},(()=>{var e={4826:0};__webpack_require__.f.j=(a,r)=>{var _=__webpack_require__.o(e,a)?e[a]:void 0;if(0!==_)if(_)r.push(_[2]);else{var d=new Promise(((r,d)=>_=e[a]=[r,d]));r.push(_[2]=d);var c=__webpack_require__.p+__webpack_require__.u(a),b=new Error;__webpack_require__.l(c,(r=>{if(__webpack_require__.o(e,a)&&(0!==(_=e[a])&&(e[a]=void 0),_)){var d=r&&("load"===r.type?"missing":r.type),c=r&&r.target&&r.target.src;b.message="Loading chunk "+a+" failed.\n("+d+": "+c+")",b.name="ChunkLoadError",b.type=d,b.request=c,_[1](b)}}),"chunk-"+a,a)}};var webpackJsonpCallback=(a,r)=>{var _,d,[c,b,f]=r,t=0;if(c.some((a=>0!==e[a]))){for(_ in b)__webpack_require__.o(b,_)&&(__webpack_require__.m[_]=b[_]);if(f)f(__webpack_require__)}for(a&&a(r);t<c.length;t++)d=c[t],__webpack_require__.o(e,d)&&e[d]&&e[d][0](),e[d]=0},a=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr=self.webpackChunk_universalis_web_fr||[];a.forEach(webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,0)),a.push=webpackJsonpCallback.bind(null,a.push.bind(a))})(),__webpack_require__.nc=void 0,document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",(function(){__webpack_require__.e(3138).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,73138)).then((function(){Promise.all([__webpack_require__.e(9529),__webpack_require__.e(2372)]).then(__webpack_require__.bind(__webpack_require__,82372)).then((function(e){e.default()}))}))}))})();</script> </body> </html>