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class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Yorkist claim </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yorkist_claim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_phase_of_conflict_(1377–1399)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_phase_of_conflict_(1377–1399)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Initial phase of conflict (1377–1399) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Initial_phase_of_conflict_(1377–1399)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Initial phase of conflict (1377–1399) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Initial_phase_of_conflict_(1377–1399)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Succession_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succession_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Succession crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succession_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reign_of_Richard_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_Richard_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Reign of Richard II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_Richard_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deposition_by_Henry_Bolingbroke_(1399)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deposition_by_Henry_Bolingbroke_(1399)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Deposition by Henry Bolingbroke (1399) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deposition_by_Henry_Bolingbroke_(1399)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lancastrian_dynasty_(1399–1455)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lancastrian_dynasty_(1399–1455)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Lancastrian dynasty (1399–1455) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lancastrian_dynasty_(1399–1455)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Lancastrian dynasty (1399–1455) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Lancastrian_dynasty_(1399–1455)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Henry_IV_and_Henry_V_(1399–1422)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_IV_and_Henry_V_(1399–1422)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Henry IV and Henry V (1399–1422) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_IV_and_Henry_V_(1399–1422)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Henry_VI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Henry_VI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Henry VI </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Henry_VI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-York's_revolt_(1455–1460)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#York's_revolt_(1455–1460)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 York's revolt (1455–1460) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-York's_revolt_(1455–1460)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle York's revolt (1455–1460) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-York's_revolt_(1455–1460)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-St._Albans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#St._Albans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 St. Albans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-St._Albans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-York's_attempt_to_take_the_throne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#York's_attempt_to_take_the_throne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 York's attempt to take the throne </div> </a> <ul id="toc-York's_attempt_to_take_the_throne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_of_Richard_of_York" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_of_Richard_of_York"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Death of Richard of York </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_of_Richard_of_York-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yorkist_triumph_(1461)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yorkist_triumph_(1461)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Yorkist triumph (1461) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yorkist_triumph_(1461)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yorkist_rule_under_Edward_IV_(1461–1483)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yorkist_rule_under_Edward_IV_(1461–1483)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Yorkist rule under Edward IV (1461–1483) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Yorkist_rule_under_Edward_IV_(1461–1483)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Yorkist rule under Edward IV (1461–1483) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Yorkist_rule_under_Edward_IV_(1461–1483)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coronation_of_Edward_IV_and_Warwick's_apex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coronation_of_Edward_IV_and_Warwick's_apex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Coronation of Edward IV and Warwick's apex </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coronation_of_Edward_IV_and_Warwick's_apex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discontent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discontent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Discontent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discontent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Redesdale's_rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Redesdale's_rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Redesdale's rebellion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Redesdale's_rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebellion_by_Warwick_and_Readeption_of_Henry_VI_(1470–1471)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellion_by_Warwick_and_Readeption_of_Henry_VI_(1470–1471)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Rebellion by Warwick and Readeption of Henry VI (1470–1471) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebellion_by_Warwick_and_Readeption_of_Henry_VI_(1470–1471)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defeat_of_Henry_VI_by_Edward_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeat_of_Henry_VI_by_Edward_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Defeat of Henry VI by Edward IV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeat_of_Henry_VI_by_Edward_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_reign_of_Edward_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_reign_of_Edward_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Second reign of Edward IV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_reign_of_Edward_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yorkist_rule_under_Richard_III_and_defeat_(1483–1485)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yorkist_rule_under_Richard_III_and_defeat_(1483–1485)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Yorkist rule under Richard III and defeat (1483–1485) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Yorkist_rule_under_Richard_III_and_defeat_(1483–1485)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Yorkist rule under Richard III and defeat (1483–1485) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Yorkist_rule_under_Richard_III_and_defeat_(1483–1485)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Overview </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edward_V's_claims_to_the_throne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edward_V's_claims_to_the_throne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Edward V's claims to the throne </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edward_V's_claims_to_the_throne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Richard_III_takes_the_throne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Richard_III_takes_the_throne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Richard III takes the throne </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Richard_III_takes_the_throne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conflicts_and_actions_against_opposing_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflicts_and_actions_against_opposing_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Conflicts and actions against opposing claims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflicts_and_actions_against_opposing_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buckingham's_Rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buckingham's_Rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Buckingham's Rebellion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buckingham's_Rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defeat_of_Richard_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeat_of_Richard_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Defeat of Richard III </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeat_of_Richard_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_Henry_VII's_reign_(1485–1509)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_Henry_VII's_reign_(1485–1509)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Aftermath and Henry VII's reign (1485–1509) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath_and_Henry_VII's_reign_(1485–1509)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath and Henry VII's reign (1485–1509) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_Henry_VII's_reign_(1485–1509)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Challengers_to_Henry_VII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challengers_to_Henry_VII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Challengers to Henry VII </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challengers_to_Henry_VII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lincoln's_rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lincoln's_rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Lincoln's rebellion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lincoln's_rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warbeck's_rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warbeck's_rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Warbeck's rebellion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warbeck's_rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Impact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immediate_social_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immediate_social_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Immediate social effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immediate_social_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Question_of_succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Question_of_succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Question of succession </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Question_of_succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tudor_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tudor_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Tudor dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tudor_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armies_and_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armies_and_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Armies and warfare </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Armies_and_warfare-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Armies and warfare subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Armies_and_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Strategy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Change_in_system_of_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Change_in_system_of_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Change in system of war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Change_in_system_of_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decline_of_chivalry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_chivalry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.1 Decline of chivalry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_chivalry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tactics,_arms,_and_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactics,_arms,_and_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.2 Tactics, arms, and equipment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tactics,_arms,_and_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recruitment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recruitment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.3 Recruitment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recruitment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_tree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_tree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Family tree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_tree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 In literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Wars of the Roses</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" > 77 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose-oorlo%C3%AB" title="Rose-oorloë – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rose-oorloë" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86" title="حرب الوردتين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الوردتين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_les_Dos_Roses" title="Guerra de les Dos Roses – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerra de les Dos Roses" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_v%C9%99_a%C4%9F_q%C4%B1z%C4%B1lg%C3%BCl_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99l%C9%99ri" title="Al və ağ qızılgül müharibələri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Al və ağ qızılgül müharibələri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84_%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%84_%D9%88_%D8%A2%D8%BA_%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%84_%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="آل قیزیل گول و آغ قیزیل گول ساواش‌لاری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آل قیزیل گول و آغ قیزیل گول ساواش‌لاری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhi%C3%BB%E2%81%BF-b%C3%AE_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Chhiûⁿ-bî Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chhiûⁿ-bî Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB_%D2%BB%D3%99%D0%BC_%D0%90%D2%A1_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B" title="Ал һәм Аҡ раузалар һуғышы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ал һәм Аҡ раузалар һуғышы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%96_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D1%8B" title="Вайна пунсовай і белай ружы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вайна пунсовай і белай ружы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%96_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D1%8B" title="Вайна Пунсовай і Белай ружы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вайна Пунсовай і Белай ружы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Война на розите – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Война на розите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratovi_dviju_ru%C5%BEa" title="Ratovi dviju ruža – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ratovi dviju ruža" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezel_an_Div_Rozenn" title="Brezel an Div Rozenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezel an Div Rozenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_les_Dues_Roses" title="Guerra de les Dues Roses – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra de les Dues Roses" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%C4%83%D0%BC_%D0%A5%C4%95%D1%80%D0%BB%C4%95_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%80%C4%83_%D0%9A%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%C4%83%D1%80%C3%A7%D0%B8" title="Йăм Хĕрлĕ тата Шурă Кĕлчечексен вăрçи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Йăм Хĕрлĕ тата Шурă Кĕлчечексен вăрçи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1lky_r%C5%AF%C5%BE%C3%AD" title="Války růží – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Války růží" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfeloedd_y_Rhosynnau" title="Rhyfeloedd y Rhosynnau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfeloedd y Rhosynnau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosekrigene" title="Rosekrigene – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rosekrigene" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenkriege" title="Rosenkriege – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rosenkriege" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooside_s%C3%B5da" title="Rooside sõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooside sõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A1%CF%8C%CE%B4%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Πόλεμος των Ρόδων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πόλεμος των Ρόδων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_las_Dos_Rosas" title="Guerra de las Dos Rosas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra de las Dos Rosas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militoj_de_rozoj" title="Militoj de rozoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Militoj de rozoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi_Arrosen_Gerra" title="Bi Arrosen Gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bi Arrosen Gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%87%D8%A7" title="جنگ رزها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ رزها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_des_Deux-Roses" title="Guerre des Deux-Roses – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre des Deux-Roses" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogadh_na_R%C3%B3sanna" title="Cogadh na Rósanna – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cogadh na Rósanna" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_das_D%C3%BAas_Rosas" title="Guerra das Dúas Rosas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra das Dúas Rosas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%A5%EB%AF%B8_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="장미 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="장미 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF_%D6%87_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%AB%D6%80_%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Սպիտակ և կարմիր վարդերի պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սպիտակ և կարմիր վարդերի պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="गुलाबों का युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गुलाबों का युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratovi_dviju_ru%C5%BEa" title="Ratovi dviju ruža – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ratovi dviju ruža" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milito_di_la_du_Rozi" title="Milito di la du Rozi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Milito di la du Rozi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Mawar" title="Perang Mawar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Mawar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_del_duo_Rosas" title="Guerra del duo Rosas – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Guerra del duo Rosas" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3sastr%C3%AD%C3%B0in" title="Rósastríðin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rósastríðin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_delle_due_rose" title="Guerra delle due rose – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra delle due rose" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מלחמות השושנים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמות השושנים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ვარდების ომი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვარდების ომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BB_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%90%D2%9B_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Алқызыл мен Ақ раушан соғысы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Алқызыл мен Ақ раушан соғысы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Rosarum" title="Bella Rosarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bella Rosarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarkan%C4%81s_un_Balt%C4%81s_rozes_kar%C5%A1" title="Sarkanās un Baltās rozes karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sarkanās un Baltās rozes karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ro%C5%BEi%C5%B3_karai" title="Rožių karai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rožių karai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_de_li_Do_R%C5%93se" title="Guerra de li Do Rœse – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Guerra de li Do Rœse" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3zs%C3%A1k_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BAja" title="Rózsák háborúja – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rózsák háborúja" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Војна на розите – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Војна на розите" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86" title="حروب الوردتين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="حروب الوردتين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Bunga_Mawar" title="Perang Bunga Mawar – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Bunga Mawar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozenoorlogen" title="Rozenoorlogen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rozenoorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%96%94%E8%96%87%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="薔薇戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="薔薇戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li 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href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Война Алой и Белой розы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Война Алой и Белой розы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luft%C3%ABrat_e_Tr%C3%ABndafilave" title="Luftërat e Trëndafilave – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Luftërat e Trëndafilave" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Wars of the Roses" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojna_ru%C5%BE%C3%AD" title="Vojna ruží – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vojna ruží" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojna_dveh_ro%C5%BE" title="Vojna dveh rož – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vojna dveh rož" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Ратови ружа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ратови ружа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratovi_dviju_ru%C5%BEa" title="Ratovi dviju ruža – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ratovi dviju ruža" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruusujen_sota" title="Ruusujen sota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ruusujen sota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosornas_krig" title="Rosornas krig – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Wars of the Roses (disambiguation)">Wars of the Roses (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Wars of the Roses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg/220px-MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg/330px-MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg/440px-MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="1738" /></a> Miniature of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Battle of Tewkesbury</a>, late 15th century</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>22 May 1455 – 16 June 1487</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Calais" title="Pale of Calais">Calais</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Victory for the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></li> <li>See <a href="#Aftermath">§ Aftermath</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_France_(France_Moderne).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Arms_of_France_%28France_Moderne%29.svg/16px-Arms_of_France_%28France_Moderne%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Arms_of_France_%28France_Moderne%29.svg/24px-Arms_of_France_%28France_Moderne%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Arms_of_France_%28France_Moderne%29.svg/32px-Arms_of_France_%28France_Moderne%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="701" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/16px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/24px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg/32px-Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="599" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg/16px-Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg/24px-Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg/32px-Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_the_Duke_of_Burgundy_since_1430.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Arms_of_the_Duke_of_Burgundy_since_1430.svg/16px-Arms_of_the_Duke_of_Burgundy_since_1430.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Arms_of_the_Duke_of_Burgundy_since_1430.svg/24px-Arms_of_the_Duke_of_Burgundy_since_1430.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Arms_of_the_Duke_of_Burgundy_since_1430.svg/32px-Arms_of_the_Duke_of_Burgundy_since_1430.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="923" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_State" title="Burgundian State">Burgundian State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg/16px-Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg/24px-Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg/32px-Arms_of_Jean_III_de_Bretagne.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_England_(1470-1471).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281470-1471%29.svg/16px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281470-1471%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281470-1471%29.svg/24px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281470-1471%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281470-1471%29.svg/32px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281470-1471%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Edmund_Tudor,_Earl_of_Richmond.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Arms_of_Edmund_Tudor%2C_Earl_of_Richmond.svg/16px-Arms_of_Edmund_Tudor%2C_Earl_of_Richmond.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Arms_of_Edmund_Tudor%2C_Earl_of_Richmond.svg/24px-Arms_of_Edmund_Tudor%2C_Earl_of_Richmond.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Arms_of_Edmund_Tudor%2C_Earl_of_Richmond.svg/32px-Arms_of_Edmund_Tudor%2C_Earl_of_Richmond.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Margaret_of_Anjou.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Arms_of_Margaret_of_Anjou.svg/16px-Arms_of_Margaret_of_Anjou.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Arms_of_Margaret_of_Anjou.svg/24px-Arms_of_Margaret_of_Anjou.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Arms_of_Margaret_of_Anjou.svg/32px-Arms_of_Margaret_of_Anjou.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="477" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_England_(1399-1603).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/16px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/24px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/32px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="701" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">#</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_England_(1399-1603).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/16px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/24px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/32px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="701" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_V" title="Edward V">Edward V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Arms_of_England_(1399-1603).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/16px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/24px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg/32px-Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="701" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard III">Richard III</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Richard_of_York,_3rd_Duke_of_York.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Arms_of_Richard_of_York%2C_3rd_Duke_of_York.svg/16px-Arms_of_Richard_of_York%2C_3rd_Duke_of_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Arms_of_Richard_of_York%2C_3rd_Duke_of_York.svg/24px-Arms_of_Richard_of_York%2C_3rd_Duke_of_York.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Arms_of_Richard_of_York%2C_3rd_Duke_of_York.svg/32px-Arms_of_Richard_of_York%2C_3rd_Duke_of_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York,_3rd_Duke_of_York" title="Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York">Duke of York</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> 105,000 dead<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201751-3">[1]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd 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style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Wars of the Roses"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wars_of_the_Roses" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wars of the Roses</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="First Battle of St Albans">1st St Albans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blore_Heath" title="Battle of Blore Heath">Blore Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rout_of_Ludford_Bridge" title="Rout of Ludford Bridge">Ludford Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sandwich_(1460)" title="Battle of Sandwich (1460)">Sandwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Tower_of_London_(1460)" title="Siege of the Tower of London (1460)">London (1460)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Northampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Worksop" title="Battle of Worksop">Worksop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mortimer%27s_Cross" title="Battle of Mortimer's Cross">Mortimer's Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="Second Battle of St Albans">2nd St Albans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ferrybridge" title="Battle of Ferrybridge">Ferrybridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Piltown" title="Battle of Piltown">Piltown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hedgeley_Moor" title="Battle of Hedgeley Moor">Hedgeley Moor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hexham" title="Battle of Hexham">Hexham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgcote" title="Battle of Edgcote">Edgcote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Losecoat_Field" title="Battle of Losecoat Field">Losecoat Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Tewkesbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_London_(1471)" title="Siege of London (1471)">London (1471)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckingham%27s_rebellion" title="Buckingham's rebellion">Buckingham's rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Bosworth Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_and_Lovell_rebellion" title="Stafford and Lovell rebellion">Stafford's & Lovell's rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stoke_Field" title="Battle of Stoke Field">Stoke Field</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The Wars of the Roses, known at the time and in following centuries as the Civil Wars, were a series of <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil wars</a> fought over control of the <a href="/wiki/English_throne" class="mw-redirect" title="English throne">English throne</a> from 1455 to 1487. The wars were fought between supporters of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a>, two rival <a href="/wiki/Cadet_branches" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadet branches">cadet branches</a> of the royal <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a>. The conflict resulted in the end of Lancaster's <a href="/wiki/Male_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Male line">male line</a> in 1471, leaving the <a href="/wiki/Tudors_of_Penmynydd" title="Tudors of Penmynydd">Tudor family</a> to inherit their claim to the throne through the <a href="/wiki/Female_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Female line">female line</a>. Conflict was largely brought to an end upon the union of the two houses through marriage, creating the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor dynasty</a> that would subsequently rule England. The Wars of the Roses were rooted in English socio-economic troubles caused by the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (1337–1453) with France, as well as the quasi-military <a href="/wiki/Bastard_feudalism" title="Bastard feudalism">bastard feudalism</a> resulting from the powerful duchies created by King <a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a>. The mental instability of King <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> of the House of Lancaster revived his cousin <a href="/wiki/Richard,_Duke_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard, Duke of York">Richard, Duke of York</a>'s interest in a <a href="/wiki/House_of_York#Descent_from_Edward_III" title="House of York">claim to the throne</a>. Warfare began in 1455 with York's capture of Henry at the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="First Battle of St Albans">First Battle of St Albans</a>, upon which York was appointed <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> by <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a>. Fighting resumed four years later when Yorkists led by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_Earl_of_Warwick" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick">Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick</a> captured Henry again at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Battle of Northampton</a>. After attempting to seize the throne, York was killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Battle of Wakefield</a>, and his son <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward</a> inherited his claim per the controversial <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Accord" title="Act of Accord">Act of Accord</a>. The Yorkists lost custody of Henry in 1461 after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="Second Battle of St Albans">Second Battle of St Albans</a>, but defeated the Lancastrians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Battle of Towton</a>. The Yorkist Edward was formally crowned in June 1461. In 1464, Edward married <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth Woodville</a> against the advice of Warwick, and reversed Warwick's policy of seeking closer ties with France. Warwick rebelled against Edward in 1469, leading to Edward's imprisonment after Warwick's supporters defeated a Yorkist army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgcote" title="Battle of Edgcote">Battle of Edgcote</a>. Edward was allowed to resume his rule after Warwick failed to replace him with his brother <a href="/wiki/George_of_Clarence" class="mw-redirect" title="George of Clarence">George of Clarence</a>. Within a year, Warwick launched an invasion of England alongside Henry VI's wife <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a>. Edward fled to <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Readeption_of_Henry_VI" title="Readeption of Henry VI">Henry VI was restored as king</a> in 1470. Edward mounted a counter-invasion with aid from <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> a few months later, and killed Warwick at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Battle of Barnet</a>. Henry was returned to prison, and his sole heir later killed by Edward at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Battle of Tewkesbury</a>, followed by Henry's own death in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>, possibly on Edward's orders. Edward ruled unopposed for the next twelve years, during which England enjoyed a period of relative peace. Upon his death in April 1483, he was succeeded by the twelve-year-old <a href="/wiki/Edward_V" title="Edward V">Edward V</a>, who reigned for 78 days until being deposed by his uncle <a href="/wiki/Richard_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard III">Richard III</a>. Richard assumed the throne amid controversies regarding the <a href="/wiki/Princes_in_the_Tower" title="Princes in the Tower">disappearance of Edward IV's two sons</a>. He was met with a <a href="/wiki/Buckingham%27s_rebellion" title="Buckingham's rebellion">short-lived but major revolt</a> and a wave of Yorkist defections. Amid the chaos, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a>, a descendant of Edward III through <a href="/wiki/Lady_Margaret_Beaufort" title="Lady Margaret Beaufort">Lady Margaret Beaufort</a> and a veteran Lancastrian, returned from exile with an army and defeated and killed Richard at <a href="/wiki/Bosworth_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosworth Field">Bosworth Field</a> in 1485. Tudor then assumed the English throne as Henry VII and <a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Roses" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of the Roses">united the rival houses</a> through marriage with <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a>, Edward IV's eldest daughter and heir. The wars concluded in 1487, with Henry VII's defeat of the remaining Yorkist opposition at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stoke_Field" title="Battle of Stoke Field">Stoke Field</a>. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a> would rule England until 1603, <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">a period</a> that saw the strengthening of the monarchy and the end of <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">the medieval period in England</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature_and_symbolism">Nomenclature and symbolism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nomenclature and symbolism">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:138px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/138px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="138" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/207px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/276px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York">White Rose</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:138px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/138px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png" decoding="async" width="138" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/207px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/276px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Red_Rose_of_Lancaster" title="Red Rose of Lancaster">Red Rose</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:138px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Tudor_Rose.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/138px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png" decoding="async" width="138" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/207px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/276px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The unified <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Rose" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor Rose">Tudor Rose</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a></div></div></div></div></div> The name "Wars of the Roses" refers to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_badges_of_England" title="Royal badges of England">heraldic badges</a> associated with the two rival <a href="/wiki/Cadet_branch" title="Cadet branch">branches</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">royal House of Plantagenet</a> fighting for control of the English throne; the <a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York">White Rose of York</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Rose_of_Lancaster" title="Red Rose of Lancaster">Red Rose of Lancaster</a>. Embryonic forms of this term were used in 1727 by <a href="/wiki/Bevil_Higgons" title="Bevil Higgons">Bevil Higgons</a>, who described the quarrel between the two roses<a href="#cite_note-4">[2]</a> and by <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_England_(Hume_book)" title="The History of England (Hume book)">The History of England</a> (1754–1761): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> The people, divided in their affections, took different symbols of party: the partisans of the house of Lancaster chose the red rose as their mark of distinction; those of York were denominated from the white; and these civil wars were thus known over Europe by the name of the quarrel between the two roses.<a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a> </blockquote> The modern term Wars of the Roses came into common use in the early 19th century following the publication of the 1829 novel <a href="/wiki/Anne_of_Geierstein" title="Anne of Geierstein">Anne of Geierstein</a> by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Walter_Scott" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Walter Scott">Sir Walter Scott</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201219-6">[4]</a> Scott based the name on a scene in <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s play <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI,_Part_1" title="Henry VI, Part 1">Henry VI, Part 1</a> (Act 2, Scene 4), set in the gardens of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Church" title="Temple Church">Temple Church</a>, where a number of noblemen and a lawyer pick red or white roses to symbolically display their loyalty to the Lancastrian or Yorkist faction respectively. During Shakespeare's time, the conflict was simply referred to as the "civil wars".<a href="#cite_note-7">[c]</a> The Yorkist faction used the symbol of the white rose from early in the conflict, but the red rose of Lancaster was introduced only after the victory of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a> in 1485. After Henry's victory and marriage to <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a>, the heir of <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a>, the two roses were combined to form the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose" title="Tudor rose">Tudor rose</a>, to symbolise the union of the two claims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201221-8">[5]</a> The use of the rose itself as a <a href="/wiki/Heraldic_badge" title="Heraldic badge">cognizance</a> stemmed from <a href="/wiki/Edward_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward I">Edward I</a>'s use of "a golden rose stalked proper".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoutell1914228-9">[6]</a> Often, owing to nobles holding multiple titles, more than one badge was used: <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a>, for example, used both his <a href="/wiki/Sun_in_splendour" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun in splendour">sun in splendour</a> as <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_March" title="Earl of March">Earl of March</a>, but also his father's falcon and <a href="/wiki/Fetterlock" title="Fetterlock">fetterlock</a> as <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">Duke of York</a>. Badges were not always distinct; at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Battle of Barnet</a>, Edward's 'sun' was very similar to the <a href="/wiki/John_de_Vere,_13th_Earl_of_Oxford" title="John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford">Earl of Oxford's</a> <a href="/wiki/De_Vere_family" class="mw-redirect" title="De Vere family">Vere star</a>, which caused fatal confusion in the fighting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1945240–241-10">[7]</a> Many participants wore <a href="/wiki/Livery_badge" class="mw-redirect" title="Livery badge">livery badges</a> associated with their immediate liege lords or patrons. The wearing of livery was confined to those in "continuous employ of a lord", thus excluding, for example, mercenary companies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy198919-11">[8]</a> For example, Henry Tudor's forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Dragon" title="Welsh Dragon">red dragon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoutell1914229-12">[9]</a> while the Yorkist army used Richard III's <a href="/wiki/Personal_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal device">personal device</a> of a <a href="/wiki/White_boar" title="White boar">white boar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoutell191426-13">[10]</a> While the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lancaster,_Lancashire" title="Lancaster, Lancashire">Lancaster</a>, the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Duchy" title="Duchy">duchy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duke" title="Duke">dukedom</a> had little to do with these cities. The lands and offices attached to the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lancaster" title="Duchy of Lancaster">Duchy of Lancaster</a> were primarily located in <a href="/wiki/Gloucestershire" title="Gloucestershire">Gloucestershire</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a>, and, ironically, in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>, while the estates of the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">Duke of York</a> were spread throughout England and Wales, with many in the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966109-14">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> Historians disagree over which factors were the main causes of the wars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrummitt2012xviii–xxi-15">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bastard_feudalism">Bastard feudalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bastard feudalism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:206px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England"><img alt="Edward III of England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Edward_III_of_England_%28Order_of_the_Garter%29.jpg/152px-Edward_III_of_England_%28Order_of_the_Garter%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Edward_III_of_England_%28Order_of_the_Garter%29.jpg/228px-Edward_III_of_England_%28Order_of_the_Garter%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Edward_III_of_England_%28Order_of_the_Garter%29.jpg/304px-Edward_III_of_England_%28Order_of_the_Garter%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="880" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a> was the father of five dukes: Edward (<a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Cornwall" title="Duke of Cornwall">Cornwall</a>), Lionel (<a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Clarence" title="Duke of Clarence">Clarence</a>), John (<a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Lancaster" title="Duke of Lancaster">Lancaster</a>), Edmund (<a href="/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">York</a>), and Thomas (<a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Gloucester" title="Duke of Gloucester">Gloucester</a>).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:206px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England"><img alt="King Richard II of England (1367–1400). This portrait of him famously is shown in Westminster Abbey, London, where Richard is buried. It is the work of an unknown master, and the date is usually given as about 1390. This painting is the earliest known portrait of an English monarch, according to the Abbey's website." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Richard_II_King_of_England.jpg/152px-Richard_II_King_of_England.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Richard_II_King_of_England.jpg/228px-Richard_II_King_of_England.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Richard_II_King_of_England.jpg 2x" data-file-width="279" data-file-height="380" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Richard_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard II">Richard II</a> was a child-king who succeeded his grandfather <a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a> shortly after the death of his father, <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Black_Prince" title="Edward the Black Prince">Edward the Black Prince</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a>, who ruled England from 1327 to 1377, had five sons who survived into adulthood; <a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Woodstock" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward of Woodstock">Edward of Woodstock "the Black Prince"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lionel_of_Antwerp" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel of Antwerp">Lionel of Antwerp</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt" title="John of Gaunt">John of Gaunt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_of_Langley" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund of Langley">Edmund of Langley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Woodstock" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas of Woodstock">Thomas of Woodstock</a>. Throughout his reign, he created <a href="/wiki/Duchies" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchies">duchies</a> for his sons; <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Cornwall" title="Duke of Cornwall">Cornwall</a> in 1337 for Edward,<a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a> and in 1362 <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Clarence" title="Duke of Clarence">Clarence</a> for Lionel<a href="#cite_note-Chisholm-17">[14]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Lancaster" title="Duke of Lancaster">Lancaster</a> for John.<a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a> In 1385, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Richard_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard II">Richard II</a>, Edmund became <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">Duke of York</a><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-19">[16]</a> and Thomas became the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Gloucester" title="Duke of Gloucester">Duke of Gloucester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chisholm-17">[14]</a> Dukedoms had hitherto never been conferred by any English monarch upon a subject until the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Cornwall" title="Duchy of Cornwall">Duchy of Cornwall</a> in 1337,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1913435-20">[17]</a> and their genesis spawned a powerful new class of English nobility with claims to the <a href="/wiki/Throne_of_England" title="Throne of England">throne</a> and, theoretically, enough power to vie for it, since the new duchies provided Edward's sons and their heirs presumptive with an income independent of the sovereign or the state,<a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a> thereby allowing them to establish and maintain their own private military retinues.<a href="#cite_note-Walker20063-22">[19]</a> Over time, these duchies began to exacerbate the structural defects inherent in so-called "<a href="/wiki/Bastard_feudalism" title="Bastard feudalism">bastard feudalism</a>", a somewhat controversial term coined in 1885 by historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_Plummer" title="Charles Plummer">Charles Plummer</a> but largely defined by Plummer's contemporary, <a href="/wiki/William_Stubbs" title="William Stubbs">William Stubbs</a>. During the reign of Edward's grandfather, <a href="/wiki/Edward_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward I">Edward I</a>, Stubbs describes a substantive shift in social dynamics in which the conscription-based <a href="/wiki/Feudal_levy" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal levy">feudal levy</a> came to be replaced by a system of royal payment in return for military service by the <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnates</a> who served the monarch. Thus, instead of <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a> rendering military service when called, they paid a portion of their income into their lord's treasury, who would supplement the owed service with hired retainers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStubbs1875-23">[20]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinues</a> were known as <a href="/wiki/Affinities" class="mw-redirect" title="Affinities">affinities</a>; essentially a collection of all the individuals to whom a lord had gathered for service, and came to be one of the most fundamentally defining aspects of bastard feudalism.<a href="#cite_note-FritzeRobison2002-24">[21]</a> These affinities also had the means of tying the more powerful magnates to the lower nobility, although these relationships were now largely defined by personal connections that exhibited reciprocal benefit, rather than <a href="/wiki/Tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenure">tenurial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> relationships that preceded bastard feudalism.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a> Consequently, lords could now raise retinues they could implicitly trust, since the men of the affinity owed their positions to their patron.<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> These affinities were often much larger than the number of men the lord actually knew, since the members of the affinity also knew and supported each other.<a href="#cite_note-Spencer20133-27">[24]</a> Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Richard_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard II">Richard II</a>, this created a power struggle with the magnates, as Richard sought to increase the size of his own affinities as a counterweight to the growing retinues of his nobles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhDY4lLAtjXoCpgPA57_57]-28">[25]</a> The retinues of the magnates became powerful enough to defend the interests of their lord against even the authority of the monarch, as John of Gaunt, and later his son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bolingbroke" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Bolingbroke">Henry Bolingbroke</a>, did against Richard.<a href="#cite_note-Walker20063-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FritzeRobison2002-24">[21]</a> During the wars, disaffected magnates such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of York">Richard of York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warwick_the_Kingmaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Warwick the Kingmaker">Warwick the Kingmaker</a> were able to rely upon their complex network of servants and retainers to successfully defy the authority of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2007300-29">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_the_two_Houses">Claims of the two Houses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Claims of the two Houses">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lancastrian_claim">Lancastrian claim</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lancastrian claim">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a> descended from John of Gaunt, the third surviving son of Edward III. The name derives from Gaunt's primary title as Duke of Lancaster, which he held <a href="/wiki/Jure_uxoris" title="Jure uxoris">by right of his spouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blanche_of_Lancaster" title="Blanche of Lancaster">Blanche of Lancaster</a>. The Lancastrian claim on the throne had received preference from Edward III which explicitly emphasised the <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">male line of descent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154-30">[27]</a> Henry IV based his right to depose Richard II and subsequent assumption of the throne upon this claim,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuck1985221-31">[28]</a> since it could be argued that the heir presumptive was in fact <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Mortimer,_5th_Earl_of_March" title="Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March">Edmund Mortimer</a>, the great-grandson of Edward III's second surviving son, <a href="/wiki/Lionel,_Duke_of_Clarence" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel, Duke of Clarence">Lionel, Duke of Clarence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005419–20-32">[29]</a> However, Mortimer was descended through the female line, inheriting the claim from his grandmother, <a href="/wiki/Philippa_of_Clarence" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippa of Clarence">Philippa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154-30">[27]</a> An important branch of the House of Lancaster was the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Beaufort" title="House of Beaufort">House of Beaufort</a>, whose members were descended from Gaunt by his mistress, <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Swynford" title="Katherine Swynford">Katherine Swynford</a>. Originally illegitimate, they were legitimised by an Act of Parliament when Gaunt and Katherine later married. However, Henry IV excluded them from the line of succession to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward199539-33">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yorkist_claim">Yorkist claim</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Yorkist claim">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a> descended from Edmund of Langley, the fourth surviving son of Edward III and younger brother of John of Gaunt. The name derives from Langley's primary title as Duke of York, which he acquired in 1385 during the reign of his nephew, Richard II.<a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-19">[16]</a> The Yorkist claim on the throne, unlike the Lancastrian claim, was based upon the <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">female line of descent</a>, as descendants of Lionel, the Duke of Clarence. Langley's second son, <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Conisburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of Conisburgh">Richard of Conisburgh</a>, had married <a href="/wiki/Anne_de_Mortimer" title="Anne de Mortimer">Anne de Mortimer</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Roger_Mortimer,_4th_Earl_of_March" title="Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March">Roger Mortimer</a> and sister of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Mortimer,_5th_Earl_of_March" title="Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March">Edmund Mortimer</a>. Anne's grandmother, <a href="/wiki/Philippa_of_Clarence" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippa of Clarence">Philippa of Clarence</a>, was the daughter of Lionel of Antwerp. During the fourteenth century, the Mortimers were the most powerful <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">marcher</a> family in the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001141-34">[31]</a> G.M. Trevelyan wrote that "the Wars of the Roses were to a large extent a quarrel between Welsh <a href="/wiki/Marcher_Lord" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcher Lord">Marcher Lords</a>, who were also great English nobles, closely related to the English throne."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1968589-35">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Initial_phase_of_conflict_(1377–1399)">Initial phase of conflict (1377–1399)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Initial phase of conflict (1377–1399)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Succession_crisis">Succession crisis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Succession crisis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johnofgaunt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Johnofgaunt.jpg/220px-Johnofgaunt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Johnofgaunt.jpg/330px-Johnofgaunt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Johnofgaunt.jpg/440px-Johnofgaunt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt" title="John of Gaunt">John of Gaunt</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmund_of_Langley_2C_Duke_of_York.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Edmund_of_Langley_2C_Duke_of_York.jpg/220px-Edmund_of_Langley_2C_Duke_of_York.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Edmund_of_Langley_2C_Duke_of_York.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="259" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edmund_of_Langley" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund of Langley">Edmund of Langley</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a></figcaption></figure> The question of succession following the death of <a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a> in 1377 is said by historian <a href="/wiki/Ian_Mortimer_(historian)" title="Ian Mortimer (historian)">Ian Mortimer</a> to be the root cause of the Wars of the Roses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortimer2006320-36">[33]</a> Although Edward's succession seemed secure, there was a "sudden narrowing in the direct line of descent" near the end of his reign;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154-30">[27]</a> Edward's two eldest sons, the heir apparent <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Black_Prince" title="Edward the Black Prince">Edward, Duke of Cornwall ("the Black Prince")</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lionel,_Duke_of_Clarence" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel, Duke of Clarence">Lionel, Duke of Clarence</a>, had predeceased their father in 1376 and 1368 respectively. Edward III was survived by three sons with claims to the throne: <a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt,_Duke_of_Lancaster" class="mw-redirect" title="John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster">John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_of_Langley,_1st_Duke_of_York" title="Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York">Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Woodstock,_1st_Duke_of_Gloucester" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester">Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester</a>. The Black Prince had one surviving son, <a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard</a>, who had a claim to the throne based upon the principle that the son of the heir apparent (Edward, in this case) had priority in the line of succession over his uncles. Thus, Richard had a superior claim to the throne than his much older uncles: John, Edmund and Thomas. However, Richard was a minor; had no siblings; and his three living uncles (at the time of Edward III's death) were politically powerful and ambitious, so there was considerable uncertainty within the realm over who should inherit the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1998584–585-37">[34]</a> Ultimately, Edward was succeeded by his grandson who was crowned Richard II at just 10 years old.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1998584-38">[35]</a> Under the laws of <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a>, if Richard died without a legitimate heir, his successors would be the descendants of Lionel of Antwerp the Duke of Clarence, Edward III's second eldest son. Clarence's only child, his daughter <a href="/wiki/Philippa,_5th_Countess_of_Ulster" title="Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster">Philippa</a>, married into the <a href="/wiki/Mortimer#Medieval_magnates" title="Mortimer">Mortimer</a> family and had a son, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Mortimer,_4th_Earl_of_March" title="Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March">Roger Mortimer</a>, who technically would have the best legal claim of succession. However, a legal decree issued by Edward III in 1376 introduced complexity into the question of succession, since the <a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">letters patent</a> he issued limited the right of succession to his <a href="/wiki/Male_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Male line">male line</a>, which placed his third son, John of Gaunt, ahead of Clarence's descendants, since the latter were descended through the <a href="/wiki/Female_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Female line">female line</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154-30">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_Richard_II">Reign of Richard II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reign of Richard II">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard II">Richard II</a>, also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was <a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. During Richard's first years as king, government was in the hands of a series of <a href="/wiki/Regency" class="mw-redirect" title="Regency">regency</a> councils, influenced by Richard's uncles <a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt" title="John of Gaunt">John of Gaunt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Woodstock" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas of Woodstock">Thomas of Woodstock</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> then faced various problems, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. A major challenge of the reign was the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a> in 1381, and the young king played a central part in the successful suppression of this crisis. Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years' War. A firm believer in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative" title="Royal prerogative">royal prerogative</a>, Richard restrained the power of the aristocracy and relied on a private <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinue</a> for military protection instead. In contrast to his grandfather, Richard cultivated a refined atmosphere centred on art and culture at court, in which the king was an elevated figure. Richard's reign as <a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard II of England</a> was tumultuous, marked by increasing dissension between the monarch and several of the most powerful nobles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse196614–24-39">[36]</a> Richard ruled without a regency council despite his young age in order to exclude his uncle, John of Gaunt the Duke of Lancaster, from wielding legitimate power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKisack1959399–400-40">[37]</a> Unpopular taxes which funded unsuccessful military expeditions in Europe triggered the <a href="/wiki/Peasant%27s_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasant's Revolt">Peasant's Revolt</a> in 1381,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuck1985-41">[38]</a> and Parliament's refusal to cooperate with the king's unpopular <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_de_la_Pole,_1st_Earl_of_Suffolk" title="Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk">Michael de la Pole</a>, created a <a href="/wiki/Merciless_Parliament" title="Merciless Parliament">political crisis</a> that seriously threatened to dethrone Richard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005158-42">[39]</a> Richard had repeatedly switched his choice of heir throughout his reign to keep his political enemies at bay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortimer2007appendix_2-43">[40]</a> The king's dependence on a small number of courtiers caused discontent among the influential, and in 1387 control of government was taken over by a group of aristocrats known as the <a href="/wiki/Lords_Appellant" title="Lords Appellant">Lords Appellant</a>. By 1389 Richard had regained control, and for the next eight years governed in relative harmony with his former opponents. In France, much of the territory conquered by Edward III had been lost,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] leading Richard to negotiate a peace treaty known as <a href="/wiki/Truce_of_Leulinghem" title="Truce of Leulinghem">Truce of Leulinghem</a> with <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">Charles VI</a> in July 1389. The peace proposal, which would effectively have made England a client kingdom of France, was derided and rejected by Parliament, which was predominately controlled by the knights fighting the war.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Richard decided to negotiate a de facto peace directly with Charles without seeking Parliament's approval and agreed to marry his six-year-old daughter, <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Valois" title="Isabella of Valois">Isabella of Valois</a>. Richard used the interim peace to punish his political rivals. In 1397, he took his revenge on the Appellants, many of whom were executed or exiled. The next two years have been described by historians as Richard's "tyranny". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deposition_by_Henry_Bolingbroke_(1399)">Deposition by Henry Bolingbroke (1399)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Deposition by Henry Bolingbroke (1399)">edit</a>]</div> When John of Gaunt died in 1399, Richard confiscated the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lancaster" title="Duchy of Lancaster">lands and titles</a> of Gaunt's son <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bolingbroke" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Bolingbroke">Henry Bolingbroke</a> whom he had exiled to France in 1398.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In May 1399, Richard left England for a military expedition in Ireland,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKisack1959491-44">[41]</a> giving Bolingbroke the opportunity to return to England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005406–7-45">[42]</a> Henry invaded England in June 1399 with a small force that quickly grew in numbers, meeting little resistance. With the support of much of the disaffected nobility, Bolingbroke deposed Richard and was crowned as Henry IV, the first Lancastrian monarch.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> Richard is thought to have been starved to death in captivity, although questions remain regarding his final fate. Richard's posthumous reputation has been shaped to a large extent by <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, whose play <a href="/wiki/Richard_II_(play)" title="Richard II (play)">Richard II</a> portrayed Richard's misrule and his deposition as responsible for the Wars of the Roses. Modern historians do not accept this interpretation, while not exonerating Richard from responsibility for his own deposition. While probably not insane, as many historians of the 19th and 20th centuries believed, he may have had a <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">personality disorder</a>, particularly manifesting itself towards the end of his reign. Most authorities agree that his policies were not unrealistic or even entirely unprecedented, but that the way in which he carried them out was unacceptable to the political establishment, leading to his downfall.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lancastrian_dynasty_(1399–1455)">Lancastrian dynasty (1399–1455)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lancastrian dynasty (1399–1455)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_IV_and_Henry_V_(1399–1422)">Henry IV and Henry V (1399–1422)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Henry IV and Henry V (1399–1422)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illumination_of_Henry_IV_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Illumination_of_Henry_IV_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Illumination_of_Henry_IV_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Illumination_of_Henry_IV_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Illumination_of_Henry_IV_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Illumination_of_Henry_IV_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England" title="Henry IV of England">Henry IV of England</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_V_of_England_miniature.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Henry_V_of_England_miniature.jpg/220px-Henry_V_of_England_miniature.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Henry_V_of_England_miniature.jpg/330px-Henry_V_of_England_miniature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Henry_V_of_England_miniature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V of England</a></figcaption></figure> Almost immediately after assuming the throne, Henry IV faced an attempted deposition known as the "<a href="/wiki/Epiphany_Rising" title="Epiphany Rising">Epiphany Rising</a>" in 1400 by <a href="/wiki/John_Montagu,_3rd_Earl_of_Salisbury" title="John Montagu, 3rd Earl of Salisbury">John Montagu, 3rd Earl of Salisbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Holland,_1st_Duke_of_Exeter" title="John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter">John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Holland,_1st_Duke_of_Surrey" title="Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey">Thomas Holland, 1st Duke of Surrey</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Despenser,_1st_Earl_of_Gloucester" title="Thomas Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester">Thomas Despenser, 1st Earl of Gloucester</a>, to re-install the imprisoned Richard as king. The attempt failed, all four conspirators were executed, and Richard died shortly thereafter "by means unknown" in <a href="/wiki/Pontefract_Castle" title="Pontefract Castle">Pontefract Castle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> Further west in <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Wales</a>, the Welsh had generally supported Richard's rule, and, welded to a myriad of other socio-economic problems, the accession of Henry triggered a <a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_Rising" class="mw-redirect" title="Glyndŵr Rising">major rebellion in Wales</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a>, a member of the Welsh nobility.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-48">[45]</a> Glyndŵr's rebellion would outlast Henry's reign, and would not end until 1415.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-48">[45]</a> During the revolt, Glyndŵr received aid from members of the <a href="/wiki/Tudors_of_Penmynydd" title="Tudors of Penmynydd">Tudors</a>, a prominent Anglesey family and maternal cousins of Glyndŵr himself, who would come to play a defining role in the coming Wars of the Roses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffithsThomas198519-49">[46]</a> Disputes over promises of land, money, and royal favour in exchange for their continued support drove the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Percy" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Percy">House of Percy</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_1st_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Percy,_1st_Earl_of_Worcester" title="Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester">Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester</a>, to rebel multiple times against Henry. The first challenge was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shrewsbury" title="Battle of Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a> in 1403 and Worcester was executed,<a href="#cite_note-EH-50">[47]</a> while a second attempt failed at <a href="/wiki/Bramham_Moor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bramham Moor">Bramham Moor</a> in 1408, at which Northumberland was killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark201639-51">[48]</a> Henry himself died in 1413, and was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Monmouth" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry of Monmouth">Henry of Monmouth</a>, who was crowned Henry V.<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> To cement his position as king both domestically and abroad, Henry revived <a href="/wiki/English_claims_to_the_French_throne" title="English claims to the French throne">old dynastic claims to the French throne</a>, and, using commercial disputes and the support France loaned to Owain Glyndŵr as a <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War_(1415%E2%80%931453)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hundred Years' War (1415–1453)">invaded France in 1415</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> While not plagued by constant rebellions as his father's reign was, Henry V faced a major challenge to his authority on the eve of his expedition to France in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Southampton_Plot" title="Southampton Plot">Southampton Plot</a>. This was led by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Grey_(1384%E2%80%931415)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Grey (1384–1415)">Sir Thomas Grey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Scrope,_3rd_Baron_Scrope_of_Masham" title="Henry Scrope, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham">Henry, Baron Scrope</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Conisburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of Conisburgh">Richard of Conisburgh</a>, the latter of whom was the second son of Edmund of Langley the 1st Duke of York. They intended to replace Henry with the young <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Mortimer,_5th_Earl_of_March" title="Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March">Edmund Mortimer</a>, Richard of Conisburgh's brother-in-law, who was a great-great-grandson of Edward III and at one time the heir presumptive to Richard II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1932448-54">[51]</a> Mortimer remained loyal and informed Henry of the plot, who had all three ringleaders executed.<a href="#cite_note-Peberdy17-55">[52]</a> Henry <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Harfleur" title="Siege of Harfleur">captured Harfleur</a> on 22 September[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and inflicted a decisive defeat on the French at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Agincourt</a> on 25 October which wiped out a significant part of the French nobility.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Agincourt and Henry's subsequent campaigns firmly entrenched the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancastrian monarchy</a> and Henry's pursuit of his claims on the French throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortimer2007547–549-56">[53]</a> In 1420, Henry and <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">Charles VI of France</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Troyes" title="Treaty of Troyes">Treaty of Troyes</a>. The treaty disinherited the French Dauphin <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles</a> from the line of succession, married Charles' daughter <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Valois" title="Catherine of Valois">Catherine of Valois</a> to Henry, and acknowledged their future sons as legitimate successors to the French throne.<a href="#cite_note-Allmand2014-57">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of York">Richard of York</a>, the son of Richard of Conisburgh, was four years old when his father was executed. As his paternal uncle, <a href="/wiki/Edward,_2nd_Duke_of_York" title="Edward, 2nd Duke of York">Edward, 2nd Duke of York</a>, had died at Agincourt without issue,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPugh199289Tuck1985-58">[55]</a> Henry permitted Richard of York to inherit the title and lands of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of York">Duchy of York</a>. When Edmund Mortimer died childless in 1425, Richard of York also inherited the Earldom of March and Mortimer's claim to the throne through his late mother, Edmund Mortimer's sister. Henry, who himself had three younger brothers and had recently married Catherine, did not doubt that the Lancastrian claim on the crown was secure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001141-34">[31]</a> On 6 December 1421, Catherine gave birth to a son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry</a>. The following year, Henry V died of <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>, and his son ascended to the throne at just nine months old.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Henry V's younger brothers produced no surviving legitimate heirs, leaving only the Beaufort family as alternative Lancastrian successors. As Richard of York grew into maturity and Henry VI's rule deteriorated, York's claim to the throne became more attractive. The revenue from his estates also made him the wealthiest magnate in the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966109-14">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Henry_VI">Henry VI</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Henry VI">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_VI_of_England,_Shrewsbury_book.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Henry_VI_of_England%2C_Shrewsbury_book.jpg/220px-Henry_VI_of_England%2C_Shrewsbury_book.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Henry_VI_of_England%2C_Shrewsbury_book.jpg/330px-Henry_VI_of_England%2C_Shrewsbury_book.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Henry_VI_of_England%2C_Shrewsbury_book.jpg/440px-Henry_VI_of_England%2C_Shrewsbury_book.jpg 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI of England</a></figcaption></figure> From early childhood, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> was surrounded by quarrelsome councillors and advisors. His younger surviving paternal uncle, <a href="/wiki/Humphrey,_Duke_of_Gloucester" title="Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester">Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester</a>, sought to be named <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> until Henry came of age, and deliberately courted the popularity of the common people for his own ends,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoyle2009160–161-60">[57]</a> but was opposed by his half-uncle, Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Henry_Beaufort" title="Henry Beaufort">Henry Beaufort</a>. On several occasions, Beaufort called on <a href="/wiki/John,_Duke_of_Bedford" class="mw-redirect" title="John, Duke of Bedford">John, Duke of Bedford</a>, Gloucester's older brother and nominal <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> to Henry, to return from his post as the king's commander in France, either to mediate or defend him against Gloucester's accusations of treason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201220-61">[58]</a> Overseas, the French had rallied around <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> and had inflicted major defeats on the English at <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Siege of Orléans">Orléans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Patay" title="Battle of Patay">Patay</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] reversing many of the gains made by Henry V and leading to the coronation of the Dauphin as <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII</a> in <a href="/wiki/Reims" title="Reims">Reims</a> on 17 July 1429.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Henry was formally crowned as Henry VI, aged 7, shortly thereafter on 6 November in response to the coronation of Charles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllmand1982-63">[60]</a> Around this time, Henry's mother Catherine of Valois had remarried to <a href="/wiki/Owen_Tudor" title="Owen Tudor">Owen Tudor</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond2004-64">[61]</a> and bore two surviving sons; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Tudor,_1st_Earl_of_Richmond" title="Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond">Edmund Tudor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor</a>, both of whom would play key roles in the concluding stages of the coming wars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes19993-65">[62]</a> Henry came of age in 1437 at age sixteen.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, Bedford had died two years earlier in 1435, and Beaufort largely withdrew himself from public affairs sometime thereafter, in part because of the rise to prominence of his ally <a href="/wiki/William_de_la_Pole,_Earl_of_Suffolk" class="mw-redirect" title="William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk">William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk</a> as the dominant personality in the royal court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201234-66">[63]</a> Like Beaufort, Suffolk favoured a diplomatic rather than a military solution to the deteriorating situation in France, a position which resonated with Henry, who was by nature averse to violence and bloodshed.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> Suffolk was opposed by Gloucester and the rising <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of York">Richard of York</a>, both of whom favoured a continued prosecution of a military solution against France. Suffolk and the Beaufort family frequently received large grants of money, land, and important government and military positions from the king, who preferred their less <a href="/wiki/War_hawk" title="War hawk">hawkish</a> inclinations, redirecting much-needed resources away from Richard and Gloucester's campaigns in France, leading to Richard developing a bitter resentment for the Beauforts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1981467–468-68">[65]</a> Suffolk continued to increase his influence at court as the principal architect of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tours" title="Treaty of Tours">Treaty of Tours</a> in 1444 to broker peace between England and France. Suffolk successfully negotiated the marriage to Henry of <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a>, only a distant relation of Charles VII through marriage rather than blood, in exchange for the strategically important lands of <a href="/wiki/Maine_(province)" title="Maine (province)">Maine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Anjou" title="Duchy of Anjou">Anjou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> Though Suffolk earned a promotion from Earl to Marquess (and would be made a Duke in 1448) for his efforts, the clauses of the treaty that required cession of lands to France were kept secret from the English public due to fears of a significant backlash, but Henry insisted on the treaty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1996109–110-70">[67]</a> Two years later in 1447, Suffolk succeeded in having Gloucester arrested for treason. Gloucester died while awaiting trial, with some at the time suspecting that Suffolk had had him poisoned.<a href="#cite_note-vickers1907-71">[68]</a> Richard of York was stripped of his prestigious command in France and sent to govern the relatively distant <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a> with a ten-year term of office, where he could not interfere with affairs at court.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] During this time, England continued to suffer reversals in France. Suffolk, who was now the principal <a href="/wiki/Power_behind_the_throne" title="Power behind the throne">power behind the throne</a>, could not avoid taking the blame for these losses. Additionally, the blame of the unfavourable request to cede Maine and Anjou to the French was laid at Suffolk's feet, though he continued to insist he made no promises during negotiations to such a demand.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981172-72">[69]</a> In 1450, Suffolk was arrested, imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>, and impeached in the Commons. Henry intervened and instead exiled Suffolk for five years, but en route to Calais, Suffolk was captured and executed on 2 May 1450.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> Suffolk was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort,_2nd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset">Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset</a>, nephew of Henry Beaufort, as the leader of the faction pursuing peace with France, who had been appointed as Richard's replacement as commander in France in 1448. Somerset's political position was somewhat fragile, as English military failures in 1449 following a resumption of hostilities left him vulnerable to criticism from Richard's allies at court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKingsford1911-74">[71]</a> Somerset had by this time become a close ally of Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> Margaret herself wielded almost complete control over the pliable king Henry,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and her close friendship with Somerset led many to suspect the two were having an affair; indeed, upon the birth of Henry and Margaret's son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward of Westminster">Edward of Westminster</a> in 1453, there were widespread rumours that Somerset was the father.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall200233-76">[73]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_of_York_Talbot_Shrewsbury_Book.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Richard_of_York_Talbot_Shrewsbury_Book.jpeg/220px-Richard_of_York_Talbot_Shrewsbury_Book.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Richard_of_York_Talbot_Shrewsbury_Book.jpeg/330px-Richard_of_York_Talbot_Shrewsbury_Book.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Richard_of_York_Talbot_Shrewsbury_Book.jpeg/440px-Richard_of_York_Talbot_Shrewsbury_Book.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="703" data-file-height="1141" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of York">Richard of York</a></figcaption></figure> On 15 April 1450, the English suffered a major reversal in France at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Formigny" title="Battle of Formigny">Formigny</a>, which paved the way for the French reconquest of <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200134,_127-77">[74]</a> That same year, there was a <a href="/wiki/Jack_Cade%27s_Rebellion" title="Jack Cade's Rebellion">violent popular uprising</a> in Kent, which is often seen as a precursor to the Wars of the Roses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001133-78">[75]</a> The rebel manifesto, <a href="/wiki/The_Complaint_of_the_Poor_Commons_of_Kent" title="The Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent">The Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent</a>, written under the stewardship of rebel leader Jack Cade, accused the crown of extortion, perversion of justice, and election fraud. The rebels occupied parts of London, and executed <a href="/wiki/James_Fiennes,_1st_Baron_Saye_and_Sele" title="James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele">James Fiennes</a>, the unpopular <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Treasurer" title="Lord High Treasurer">Lord High Treasurer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> They dispersed after they were supposedly pardoned but several ringleaders, including Cade, were later executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966123–124-80">[77]</a> After the rebellion, the grievances of Cade and his followers formed the basis of Richard of York's opposition to a royal government from which he felt unduly excluded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001133-78">[75]</a> Richard of York used the opportunity to return from Ireland and went to London. Angling himself as a reformer to demand better government, he was eventually imprisoned for much of 1452 and 1453.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966125-81">[78]</a> By the summer of the latter year, Richard seemed to have lost the power struggle.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Throughout these quarrels, Henry himself had taken little part in proceedings. He displayed several symptoms of mental illness, possibly inherited from his maternal grandfather, <a href="/wiki/Charles_VI_of_France" title="Charles VI of France">Charles VI of France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201260–70-82">[79]</a> His near-total lack of leadership in military matters had left the English forces in France scattered and weak, which left them ripe for defeat at Formigny in 1450.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury2004176-83">[80]</a> Henry was described as more interested in matters of religion and learning, which, coupled with his timid and passive nature and, if not well-intentioned, aversion to warfare, made him an ineffectual king for the time.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> On 17 July 1453, the English forces in southern France suffered a catastrophic defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castillon" title="Battle of Castillon">Castillon</a>, and England lost all her possessions in France except for the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Calais" title="Pale of Calais">Pale of Calais</a>, shifting the balance of power in Europe, and ending the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Perhaps in reaction to the news, Henry suffered a complete mental breakdown, during which he failed to recognise his newborn son, Edward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981270-85">[82]</a> On 22 March 1454, Cardinal <a href="/wiki/John_Kemp" title="John Kemp">John Kemp</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>, died, and Henry could not be induced to nominate a successor, thus making government in the king's name constitutionally impossible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201263–64-86">[83]</a> The lack of central authority led to a continued deterioration of the unstable political situation, which polarised around long-standing feuds between the more powerful noble families, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Percy-Neville_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Percy-Neville feud">Percy-Neville feud</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Bonville-Courtenay_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonville-Courtenay feud">Bonville-Courtenay feud</a>, creating a volatile political climate ripe for civil war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoyle2009207–208-87">[84]</a> To ensure the country could be governed, a Regency Council was established and, despite the protests of Margaret, was led by Richard of York, who was appointed <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> and Chief Councillor on 27 March 1454. York appointed his brother-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_Earl_of_Salisbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury">Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury</a> to the post of Chancellor, backing the Nevilles against their chief adversary, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_2nd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland</a>. In backing the Nevilles, York gained a key ally, Salisbury's son <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_16th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick">Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick</a>, one of the wealthiest and most powerful magnates in the kingdom. York removed Somerset from his position and imprisoned him in the Tower of London.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201049–51-88">[85]</a> In 1455, Henry made a surprise recovery from his mental instability, and reversed much of Richard of York's progress. Somerset was released and restored to favour, and York was forced out of court into exile.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008107-89">[86]</a> However, disaffected nobles, chiefly the Earl of Warwick and his father the Earl of Salisbury, backed the claims of the rival <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a> to control of the government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1981-90">[87]</a> Henry, Somerset, and a select council of nobles elected to hold a Great Council at <a href="/wiki/Leicester" title="Leicester">Leicester</a> on 22 May, away from Somerset's enemies in London. Fearing that charges of treason would be brought against them, York and his allies gathered an army to intercept the royal party at <a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a>, before they could reach the Council.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="York's_revolt_(1455–1460)">York's revolt (1455–1460)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: York's revolt (1455–1460)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="St._Albans">St. Albans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: St. Albans">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York,_3rd_Duke_of_York" title="Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York">Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[d]</a> led a force of around 3,000–7,000 troops south toward London, where they were met by Henry's force of 2,000 at <a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a>, north of London, on 22 May 1455.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1981742–744-93">[89]</a> Though the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="First Battle of St Albans">ensuing struggle</a> resulted in fewer than 160 casualties combined,<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> it was a decisive Yorkist victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman198124-95">[91]</a> King <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> had been taken prisoner by York's men, who had found the monarch hiding in a local <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanner's shop</a>, abandoned by his courtiers and advisors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarquhar2001131-96">[92]</a> Despite the paucity of casualties on either side, many of York and the Neville family's most influential foes were killed, including <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort,_2nd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset">Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_2nd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Clifford,_8th_Baron_de_Clifford" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford">Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron de Clifford</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman198124-95">[91]</a> With the king in his custody and many of his key rivals dead, York was again appointed <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> by <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a>, and the Yorkist faction regained their position of influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008114-97">[93]</a> York's allies were soon in ascendancy thanks to the temporarily stabilised situation, particularly the young <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_16th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick">Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick</a>, who, in his capacity as <a href="/wiki/Captain_of_Calais" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain of Calais">Captain of Calais</a>, had conducted anti-piracy operations in the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2007177–178-98">[94]</a> Warwick rapidly overtook his father, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_5th_Earl_of_Salisbury" title="Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury">Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury</a>, as York's key ally, protecting York from retribution in Parliament.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008125-99">[95]</a> Warwick's position as commander of the strategically important port of <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a> also gave him command of England's largest <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Henry's consort, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a>, considered Warwick a serious threat to the throne and attempted to cut off his supplies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2007-100">[96]</a> however a French attack on <a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Sandwich</a> in August 1457 ignited fears of a French invasion, forcing Margaret to concede and provide Warwick with the funding he required to protect the realm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008144-101">[97]</a> However, in February 1456, Henry recovered his mental faculties, and once again relieved York of his office as Lord Protector, reassuming personal governance over the realm.<a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a> Despite the tenuous peace, disorder was returning to the kingdom as sporadic fighting once more broke out between the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Neville" title="House of Neville">Neville</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Percy" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Percy">Percy</a> families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966138-103">[99]</a> To quell the growing discontent, Henry attempted to broker a <a href="/wiki/The_Love_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="The Love Day">public display of reconciliation</a> between the two sides at <a href="/wiki/Old_St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" title="Old St Paul's Cathedral">St. Paul's Cathedral</a> on 25 March 1458, however, no sooner had the procession dispersed than the plotting resumed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966138-103">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="York's_attempt_to_take_the_throne">York's attempt to take the throne</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: York's attempt to take the throne">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg/220px-Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg/330px-Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg/440px-Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of York">Richard of York</a>'s stronghold; <a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Castle" title="Ludlow Castle">Ludlow Castle</a>, South Shropshire</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, as Henry attempted in vain to secure peace in England, Warwick, in disregard of royal authority, had conducted attacks against the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Castilian</a> fleet in May 1458, and against a fleet of the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> a few weeks later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008147-104">[100]</a> His position in Calais also enabled him to establish relations with <a href="/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France" title="Charles VII of France">Charles VII of France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Good" title="Philip the Good">Philip the Good</a> of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a>, international connections that would serve him in the future.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarriss2005638-105">[101]</a> In response to the attacks, Warwick was summoned to London to face inquiries along with York and Salisbury. However, fearing arrest once they were isolated from their allies, they refused.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> York instead summoned the Nevilles to rendezvous at his stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Castle" title="Ludlow Castle">Ludlow Castle</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a>; Warwick departed Calais with a portion of the garrison there to join the main Yorkist forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob1961515-107">[103]</a> Margaret had not been idle during this time and had been actively recruiting armed support for Henry, distributing a livery emblem of a silver swan to knights and squires enlisted by her personally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981317-108">[104]</a> Before Warwick could join them, the Yorkist army of 5,000 troops under Salisbury was ambushed by a Lancastrian force twice their size under <a href="/wiki/James_Tuchet,_5th_Baron_Audley" title="James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley">James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Blore_Heath" class="mw-redirect" title="Blore Heath">Blore Heath</a> on 23 September 1459.<a href="#cite_note-109">[105]</a> The Lancastrian army was defeated,<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a> and Baron Audley himself killed in the fighting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008143-111">[107]</a> In September, Warwick crossed over into England and made his way north to Ludlow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuck1985312-112">[108]</a> At nearby <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ludford_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ludford Bridge">Ludford Bridge</a>, the Yorkist forces were scattered due to the defection of Warwick's Calais troops under <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Trollope" title="Andrew Trollope">Andrew Trollope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008164-113">[109]</a> Forced to flee, York, who was still Lieutenant of Ireland, left for <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> with his second son, <a href="/wiki/Edmund,_Earl_of_Rutland" title="Edmund, Earl of Rutland">Edmund, Earl of Rutland</a>, while Warwick and Salisbury sailed to Calais accompanied by York's heir, <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward, Earl of March</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter1997145-114">[110]</a> The Lancastrian faction appointed the new <a href="/wiki/Henry_Beaufort,_3rd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset">Duke of Somerset, Henry Beaufort</a> to replace Warwick in Calais, however, the Yorkists managed to retain the loyalty of the garrison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuck1985312-112">[108]</a> Fresh from their victory at Ludford Bridge, the Lancastrian faction assembled a "<a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Devils" title="Parliament of Devils">Parliament of Devils</a>" at <a href="/wiki/Coventry" title="Coventry">Coventry</a> with the sole purpose of <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_attainder" title="Bill of attainder">attainting</a> York, his sons, Salisbury, and Warwick,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard198823–24-115">[111]</a> however, the actions of this assembly caused many uncommitted lords to fear for their titles and property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward199571–72-116">[112]</a> In March 1460, Warwick sailed to Ireland under the protection of the Gascon <a href="/wiki/Gaillard_IV_de_Durfort" title="Gaillard IV de Durfort">Lord of Duras</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a> to concert plans with York, evading the royal fleet commanded by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Holland,_3rd_Duke_of_Exeter" title="Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter">Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966140-118">[114]</a> before they returned to Calais.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008176-119">[115]</a> In late June 1460, Warwick, Salisbury, and Edward of March crossed the Channel and rode north to London, where they enjoyed widespread support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarriss2005641-120">[116]</a> Salisbury was left with a force to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Tower_of_London_(1460)" title="Siege of the Tower of London (1460)">besiege the Tower of London</a>,<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> while Warwick and March pursued Henry northward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200742-122">[118]</a> The Yorkists caught up with the Lancastrians and defeated them at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Northampton</a> on 10 July 1460.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner200186"Edward_of_Lancaster,_Prince_of_Wales"-123">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford,_1st_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham">Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Talbot,_2nd_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury">John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Beaumont,_1st_Viscount_Beaumont" title="John Beaumont, 1st Viscount Beaumont">John Beaumont, 1st Viscount Beaumont</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Percy,_1st_Baron_Egremont" title="Thomas Percy, 1st Baron Egremont">Thomas Percy, 1st Baron Egremont</a> were all killed defending their king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008153–154-124">[120]</a> For a second time, Henry was taken prisoner by the Yorkists, who escorted him to London, compelling the surrender of the Tower garrison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman198138-125">[121]</a> That September, York returned from Ireland, and, at the Parliament of October that year, he made a symbolic gesture of his intention to claim the English crown by placing his hand upon the throne,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19973–5-126">[122]</a> an act which shocked the assembly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008186–187-127">[123]</a> Even York's closest allies were not prepared to support such a move.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward199582-128">[124]</a> Assessing York's claim, the judges felt that <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> principles could not determine who had priority in the succession, and declared the matter "above the law and passed their learning".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1998580-129">[125]</a> Finding a lack of decisive support for his claim among the nobility who at this stage had no desire to usurp Henry, a compromise was reached: the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Accord" title="Act of Accord">Act of Accord</a> was passed on 25 October 1460, which stated that following Henry's death, his son <a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward of Westminster">Edward</a> would be disinherited, and the throne would pass to York.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200744-130">[126]</a> However, the compromise was quickly found to be unpalatable, and hostilities resumed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard198824-131">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_of_Richard_of_York">Death of Richard of York</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Death of Richard of York">edit</a>]</div> Queen Margaret and her son had fled to Lancastrian-held <a href="/wiki/Harlech_Castle" title="Harlech Castle">Harlech Castle</a>, where they joined Henry's half-brother <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Holland,_3rd_Duke_of_Exeter" title="Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter">Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter</a>, who were recruiting troops in Wales and the <a href="/wiki/West_Country" title="West Country">West Country</a>. Margaret headed north to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a>, where she successfully negotiated the use of Scottish troops and other aid for the Lancastrian cause from Queen Regent <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Guelders" title="Mary of Guelders">Mary of Guelders</a>, in return for the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Berwick_upon_Tweed" class="mw-redirect" title="Berwick upon Tweed">Berwick</a>, which a year prior, <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_Scotland" title="James II of Scotland">James II of Scotland</a>, using the turmoil of the war as an opportunity tried to retake as well as <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Roxburgh_(1460)" title="Capture of Roxburgh (1460)">Roxburgh</a>. The latter, though successful, cost him his life. A similar successful negotiation was made for the use of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">French</a> troops and aid for the Lancastrians cause that same year, this time in return for the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966144-132">[128]</a> thus having the <a href="/wiki/Auld_Alliance" title="Auld Alliance">Auld Alliance</a> backing the Lancastrian side to prevent the Yorkist ruled England from joining the <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_State" title="Burgundian State">Burgundian State</a> in its war with France, a scenario that neither ally had the stomach for. The Lancastrians rallied in the <a href="/wiki/North_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="North of England">North of England</a>, where the Percy family were gathering support. They were joined by Somerset and the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Courtenay,_6th/14th_Earl_of_Devon" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Courtenay, 6th/14th Earl of Devon">Thomas Courtenay, 6th/14th Earl of Devon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> York, his son the Earl of Rutland, and Salisbury left London to contain the Lancastrian threat in the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark2016229-134">[130]</a> On 16 December 1460, York's vanguard clashed with Somerset's forces from the West Country at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Worksop" title="Battle of Worksop">Battle of Worksop</a>, and was defeated.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] On 21 December, York reached his fortress of <a href="/wiki/Sandal_Castle" title="Sandal Castle">Sandal Castle</a> near the town of <a href="/wiki/Wakefield" title="Wakefield">Wakefield</a>, with the Lancastrians encamped just 9 mi (14 km). For reasons unclear, York sortied from the castle on 30 December,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1996254–255-135">[131]</a> and in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Battle of Wakefield</a>, York, Rutland, and Warwick's younger brother <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neville_(died_1460)" title="Thomas Neville (died 1460)">Thomas Neville</a> were all killed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201160-136">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966144-132">[128]</a> Salisbury was captured the following night and executed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yorkist_triumph_(1461)">Yorkist triumph (1461)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Yorkist triumph (1461)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earlwarwicksvow_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Earlwarwicksvow_large.jpg/220px-Earlwarwicksvow_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Earlwarwicksvow_large.jpg/330px-Earlwarwicksvow_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Earlwarwicksvow_large.jpg/440px-Earlwarwicksvow_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>Painting by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Tresham" title="Henry Tresham">Henry Tresham</a> representing <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_16th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick">Warwick the Kingmaker's</a> alleged vow prior to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Battle of Towton</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Edward_IV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/King_Edward_IV.jpg/220px-King_Edward_IV.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/King_Edward_IV.jpg/330px-King_Edward_IV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/King_Edward_IV.jpg/440px-King_Edward_IV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2919" data-file-height="3756" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward IV of England</a></figcaption></figure> Following the Yorkist defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard,_3rd_Duke_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard, 3rd Duke of York">Richard, 3rd Duke of York</a>'s 18-year-old son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward, Earl of March</a> was now heir to the <a href="/wiki/Dukedom_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukedom of York">Dukedom of York</a>, and thereby inherited Richard's claim to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-137">[133]</a> Edward sought to prevent the Lancastrian armies gathering under the <a href="/wiki/Tudors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudors">Tudors</a> in western England and Wales from joining the main Lancastrian forces opposing him in the north. On 2 February 1461, he decisively defeated the Lancastrian armies at <a href="/wiki/Mortimer%27s_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortimer's Cross">Mortimer's Cross</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008161-138">[134]</a> and the captured <a href="/wiki/Owen_Tudor" title="Owen Tudor">Owen Tudor</a>, husband to <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V's</a> widow <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Valois" title="Catherine of Valois">Catherine of Valois</a>, was executed by his troops.<a href="#cite_note-Gairdner-139">[135]</a> As dawn broke across the field, a meteorological phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Parhelion" class="mw-redirect" title="Parhelion">parhelion</a> occurred, giving the appearance of a trio of suns rising. Edward calmed his frightened troops by convincing them it represented the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Trinity">Holy Trinity</a>, and therefore evidence of divine blessing upon their cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss197431-140">[136]</a> Edward would later take the heraldic symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Sun_in_splendour" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun in splendour">sunne in splendour</a> as his <a href="/wiki/Personal_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal device">personal device</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vexillology-141">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> In the north, having defeated and killed Richard, Margaret's troops and the victorious Lancastrians moved south,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] while Warwick, with the captive Henry in tow, moved his forces to meet them astride the ancient Roman road of <a href="/wiki/Watling_Street" title="Watling Street">Watling Street</a> at <a href="/wiki/St_Albans" title="St Albans">St Albans</a>. Warwick's forces were well-entrenched,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks200837-143">[139]</a> but were ultimately defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="Second Battle of St Albans">Second Battle of St Albans</a> on 17 February.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981328-144">[140]</a> Henry was freed by the Lancastrians, and knighted his young son <a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward of Westminster">Edward of Westminster</a>, who in turn knighted thirty Lancastrian leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966143-145">[141]</a> Warwick and his troops marched to rendezvous with the Yorkist troops in the Marches under Edward, fresh from their victory at Mortimer's Cross.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199731–32-146">[142]</a> Although the Lancastrians had the strategic advantage after St Albans, the Lancastrian cause was unpopular in London, and the citizenry refused entry to Margaret's troops. Warwick and Edward, seizing the initiative, marched rapidly to London, where Edward was proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward IV of England</a> by a hastily gathered assembly.<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a> Edward was a more attractive prospect as a monarch for the people of England; contemporaries such as <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Commines" title="Philippe de Commines">Philippe de Commines</a> describe him as energetic, handsome, affable,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and struck an imposing sight in full armour and resplendent clothing, a deliberate move on the part of his supporters to contrast him with Henry, whose physical and mental frailties had fatally undermined his support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward199597-148">[144]</a> To cement his position, Edward and Warwick moved north to confront the Lancastrians. Warwick, leading the Yorkist vanguard, inconclusively clashed with the Lancastrians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ferrybridge" title="Battle of Ferrybridge">Ferrybridge</a> on 28 March, at which Warwick was wounded,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200748-149">[145]</a> and the Lancastrian commanders, the <a href="/wiki/Baron" title="Baron">Barons</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Clifford,_9th_Baron_Clifford" title="John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford">Clifford</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_Baron_Neville" title="John Neville, Baron Neville">Neville</a> (a distant relative of Warwick), were killed.<a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a> Edward engaged the Lancastrians' main army the following day on 29 March near <a href="/wiki/Towton" title="Towton">Towton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">battle that followed</a> was the largest and bloodiest ever fought on English soil,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGravett2003b7-151">[147]</a> and resulted in a decisive triumph for Edward which broke the power of the Lancastrians in the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199737–38-152">[148]</a> The lynchpins of Lancastrian control in the royal court were either killed or fled the country; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_3rd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland</a> was killed,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Trollope" title="Andrew Trollope">Andrew Trollope</a>, one of the most astute Lancastrian field commanders,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman1981166-153">[149]</a> was also killed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981135-154">[150]</a> while <a href="/wiki/James_Butler,_5th_Earl_of_Ormond" title="James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond">James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond</a> was captured and executed.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Henry, Margaret, and their son Prince Edward fled north to Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008235-155">[151]</a> Edward returned to London for his <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_English_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronation of the English monarch">coronation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn201954–55-156">[152]</a> while Warwick remained in the north to pacify further Lancastrian resistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob1961527–8-157">[153]</a> The Battle of Towton confirmed to the English people that Edward was the uncontested ruler of England, at least for the time being;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199737–38-152">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter1997149-158">[154]</a> as a result, Edward used this opportunity to employ a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_attainder" title="Bill of attainder">bill of attainder</a> to forfeit the titles of 14 Lancastrian peers and 96 knights and minor members of the <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Yorkist_rule_under_Edward_IV_(1461–1483)">Yorkist rule under Edward IV (1461–1483)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Yorkist rule under Edward IV (1461–1483)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coronation_of_Edward_IV_and_Warwick's_apex">Coronation of Edward IV and Warwick's apex</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Coronation of Edward IV and Warwick's apex">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fauconbridge%27s_tactics_at_Towton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Fauconbridge%27s_tactics_at_Towton.jpg/300px-Fauconbridge%27s_tactics_at_Towton.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Fauconbridge%27s_tactics_at_Towton.jpg/450px-Fauconbridge%27s_tactics_at_Towton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Fauconbridge%27s_tactics_at_Towton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Neville,_Earl_of_Kent" title="William Neville, Earl of Kent">William Neville</a> (mounted) directs his <a href="/wiki/Longbow" title="Longbow">longbowmen</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a> – 19th century print</figcaption></figure> Edward was formally crowned <a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> on 28 June 1461 in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[156]</a> Edward sought to <a href="/wiki/Winning_hearts_and_minds" title="Winning hearts and minds">win the affections</a> of his vanquished foes; he pardoned many of the Lancastrians he attainted following his victory at Towton after they submitted to his rule,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199767–68-161">[157]</a> and permitted them to retain their property and titles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter1997159-162">[158]</a> For his part, Warwick benefited generously from Edward's patronage and became the most powerful noble in the country.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200777–80-163">[159]</a> He had inherited the lands and titles of both his parents,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008227-164">[160]</a> and was made High Admiral of England, Steward of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lancaster" title="Duchy of Lancaster">Duchy of Lancaster</a>, along with several other offices of importance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008221-165">[161]</a> In the summer of 1462, Warwick successfully negotiated a truce with Scotland,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2007-100">[96]</a> while at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Piltown" title="Battle of Piltown">Piltown</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, Yorkist forces under <a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_7th_Earl_of_Desmond" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond">Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Piltown" title="Battle of Piltown">decisively defeated</a> the Lancastrians under <a href="/wiki/John_Butler,_6th_Earl_of_Ormond" title="John Butler, 6th Earl of Ormond">John Butler, 6th Earl of Ormond</a>,<a href="#cite_note-166">[162]</a> forcing the Ormonds into exile and ending Lancastrian designs on Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-167">[163]</a> That October, Margaret of Anjou invaded England with troops from France, and captured the castles of <a href="/wiki/Alnwick_Castle" title="Alnwick Castle">Alnwick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamburgh_Castle" title="Bamburgh Castle">Bamburgh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199750-168">[164]</a> although they were back in Yorkist hands within just three months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008242-169">[165]</a> In the spring of 1463, the north of England rose in revolt in support of Henry when <a href="/wiki/Sir_Ralph_Percy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Ralph Percy">Sir Ralph Percy</a> laid siege to <a href="/wiki/Norham_Castle" title="Norham Castle">Norham Castle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199759-170">[166]</a> Separate truces had been agreed with both <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a> by late 1463, allowing Warwick to recover much of the territory lost in the north by 1464.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008244–247-171">[167]</a> The main Lancastrian army moved south through Northumberland, however, and was destroyed by a Yorkist force under <a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_1st_Marquess_of_Montagu" title="John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu">John Neville</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hexham" title="Battle of Hexham">Hexham</a> on 15 May 1464.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss197461-172">[168]</a> All three Lancastrian commanders, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Beaufort,_3rd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset">Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEbtilley2007-173">[169]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ros,_9th_Baron_Ros" title="Thomas Ros, 9th Baron Ros">Baron Ros</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981151–152-174">[170]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hungerford,_3rd_Baron_Hungerford" title="Robert Hungerford, 3rd Baron Hungerford">Baron Hungerford</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] were captured and executed. Yorkist troops captured the deposed king Henry in the woods near the <a href="/wiki/River_Ribble" title="River Ribble">River Ribble</a>,<a href="#cite_note-175">[171]</a> and was taken to London where he was imprisoned in the Tower.<a href="#cite_note-176">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1996333–334-177">[173]</a> With Somerset's army defeated and Henry captured, all effective resistance to Edward's rule had been wiped out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981335–337-178">[174]</a> Edward saw no profit in killing Henry while his son remained alive, instead preferring to keep the Lancastrian claim with a frail captive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss197462-179">[175]</a> Margaret and Prince Edward were compelled to leave Scotland and sailed for the court of Margaret's cousin, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI of France</a>, where they maintained an impoverished court in exile for many years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966155–156-180">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discontent">Discontent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Discontent">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElizabethWoodville.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/ElizabethWoodville.JPG/220px-ElizabethWoodville.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/ElizabethWoodville.JPG/330px-ElizabethWoodville.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/ElizabethWoodville.JPG/440px-ElizabethWoodville.JPG 2x" data-file-width="894" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth Woodville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">queen consort</a> to <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a></figcaption></figure> With his position upon the throne secure, Edward was free to pursue his domestic and foreign ambitions. Internationally, Edward favoured a <a href="/wiki/Strategic_alliance" title="Strategic alliance">strategic alliance</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> but Warwick persuaded him to negotiate a treaty with <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI of France</a>; at the negotiations, Warwick suggested Edward would be disposed to a <a href="/wiki/Marriage_alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriage alliance">marriage alliance</a> with the French crown, the intended bride either being Louis' sister-in-law <a href="/wiki/Bona_of_Savoy" title="Bona of Savoy">Bona of Savoy</a>, or his daughter, <a href="/wiki/Anne_of_France" title="Anne of France">Anne of France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss197491-181">[177]</a> To his considerable embarrassment and rage, Warwick discovered in October 1464 that four months earlier on 1 May, Edward had secretly married <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth Woodville</a>, the widow of a Lancastrian noble.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss197485–86-182">[178]</a> Elizabeth had twelve siblings, some of whom married into prominent families, turning the Woodvilles into a powerful political establishment independent of Warwick's control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter1997169–171-183">[179]</a> The move demonstrated that Warwick was not the <a href="/wiki/Power_behind_the_throne" title="Power behind the throne">power behind the throne</a> as many had assumed and the marriage was criticised by Edward's <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England" title="Privy Council of England">Privy Councillors</a>, who felt that marriage to a woman who was the daughter of neither a duke nor an earl was unbefitting a man of royal blood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019114-184">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss197485-185">[181]</a> Warwick attempted to restore his lost influence by accusing Elizabeth and her mother <a href="/wiki/Jacquetta_of_Luxembourg" title="Jacquetta of Luxembourg">Jacquetta of Luxembourg</a> of witchcraft, a ploy which failed but did not break the relationship between Warwick and Edward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008-186">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard198826–27-187">[183]</a> Edward's choice of bride plagued him politically for the rest of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter1997170-188">[184]</a> Politically, it opened Edward up to accusations that Warwick had been deceiving the French into believing the king was committed to the marriage proposal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199791-189">[185]</a> Elizabeth's family began to ascend to positions of great importance; Edward's father-in-law, the <a href="/wiki/Earl_Rivers" title="Earl Rivers">Earl Rivers</a>, was appointed as <a href="/wiki/Lord_High_Treasurer" title="Lord High Treasurer">Lord High Treasurer</a>, and supported the king's position for a Burgundian alliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199795-190">[186]</a> Without Warwick's knowledge, Edward had already concluded a treaty in secret with Burgundy in October 1466, while leaving Warwick to continue with doomed negotiations with the French court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200760-191">[187]</a> In 1467, Edward removed Warwick's brother, the <a href="/wiki/George_Neville_(bishop)" title="George Neville (bishop)">Archbishop of York</a>, from his office of <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a>, while the king refused to entertain a marriage proposal between Warwick's eldest daughter, <a href="/wiki/Isabel_Neville,_Duchess_of_Clarence" title="Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence">Isabel</a> and Edward's brother, <a href="/wiki/George_Plantagenet,_Duke_of_Clarence" title="George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence">George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019203–205-192">[188]</a> For various reasons, Clarence greatly resented his brother's interference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019203–205-192">[188]</a> In 1468, Edward retook <a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> from the French. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Redesdale's_rebellion">Redesdale's rebellion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Redesdale's rebellion">edit</a>]</div> In April 1469, a rebellion broke out in <a href="/wiki/Yorkshire" title="Yorkshire">Yorkshire</a> under a leader known only as <a href="/wiki/Robin_of_Redesdale" title="Robin of Redesdale">Robin of Redesdale</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A second pro-Lancastrian revolt broke out the following month, which demanded the restoration of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_4th_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy</a> as <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Earl of Northumberland">Earl of Northumberland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981160-193">[189]</a> The revolt was quickly crushed by the earl, <a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_1st_Marquess_of_Montagu" title="John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu">John Neville</a>, though he made little attempt to quell Redesdale's actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981160-193">[189]</a> Warwick and Clarence had spent the summer assembling troops, officially to suppress the revolt but in early July they travelled to <a href="/wiki/Calais" title="Calais">Calais</a>, where Clarence and Isabel were married in a ceremony overseen by Warwick. They returned to London, where they assembled their troops, ostensibly to remove 'evil councillors' from the king's company and re-establish good governance and moved north to link with the Yorkshire rebels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019210–211-194">[190]</a> Privately, Warwick hoped to depose Edward and install the nineteen-year-old Clarence on the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200766-195">[191]</a> Redesdale defeated royal troops at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgcote" title="Battle of Edgcote">Edgcote</a> on 26 July 1469; although Redesdale was reportedly killed, the two royal commanders, <a href="/wiki/William_Herbert,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke_(died_1469)" title="William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke (died 1469)">William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford,_1st_Earl_of_Devon" title="Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon">Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon</a> were both captured and executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1996352-196">[192]</a> Elizabeth Woodville's father, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Rivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Rivers">Lord Rivers</a>, and brother <a href="/wiki/John_Woodville" title="John Woodville">Sir John Woodville</a> were apprehended and murdered.<a href="#cite_note-197">[193]</a> After the battle, Edward was taken captive by George Neville and held at <a href="/wiki/Middleham_Castle" title="Middleham Castle">Middleham Castle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200765–66-198">[194]</a> It soon became clear to the rebels that neither Warwick nor Clarence enjoyed significant support, and unable to quell the growing disorder, Edward was released in September of that year and re-assumed his duties as king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981165-199">[195]</a> In March 1470, Warwick and Clarence exploited political instabilities to incite the <a href="/wiki/1470_Lincolnshire_Rebellion" title="1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion">1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion</a>, hoping to lure Edward north where he could be taken by Warwick's men.<a href="#cite_note-201">[e]</a> On 12 March 1470, Edward routed the Yorkist rebels at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Losecoat_Field" title="Battle of Losecoat Field">Battle of Losecoat Field</a> and captured the rebel leader, the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Welles,_8th_Baron_Willoughby_de_Eresby" title="Robert Welles, 8th Baron Willoughby de Eresby">Baron Willoughby</a>, who named Warwick and Clarence as the "partners and chief provokers" of the rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001"Welles_Uprising_(1470)"-202">[197]</a> Physical evidence also came to light which proved the complicity of the two men, who fled to France in May.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Willoughby was beheaded and his lands seized.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebellion_by_Warwick_and_Readeption_of_Henry_VI_(1470–1471)">Rebellion by Warwick and Readeption of Henry VI (1470–1471)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Rebellion by Warwick and Readeption of Henry VI (1470–1471)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Barnet_lithograph.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Mounted knights chase their enemies off to the right, across a river." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Battle_of_Barnet_lithograph.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Barnet_lithograph.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Battle_of_Barnet_lithograph.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Barnet_lithograph.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Battle_of_Barnet_lithograph.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Barnet_lithograph.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="516" /></a><figcaption>1885 lithograph portraying the rout of Warwick's forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a> in the manner of <a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_San_Romano" title="The Battle of San Romano">Paolo Uccello</a></figcaption></figure> Seeking to capitalise on Warwick's disfavour with the king, <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI of France</a> arranged a reconciliation between Warwick and his bitter rival, Margaret of Anjou, with the objective to restore Henry to the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200769-203">[198]</a> As part of the arrangement, Warwick agreed to marry his daughter Anne to Edward of Westminster, Margaret and Henry's son and heir apparent;[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] while the marriage was solemnised, it may not have been consummated, as Margaret was hoping to find a better match for her son once he became king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoyle2009323-204">[199]</a> Staging a diversionary uprising in the north, Warwick and Clarence launched a two-pronged invasion of England at <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth,_Devon" title="Dartmouth, Devon">Dartmouth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plymouth" title="Plymouth">Plymouth</a> on 13 September 1470.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Warwick's brother, the <a href="/wiki/Marquess_of_Montagu" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquess of Montagu">Marquess of Montagu</a> joined him, bitter with the king that his support for the crown during the preceding revolts did not result in the restoration of his earldom.<a href="#cite_note-DNB_Montagu-205">[200]</a> Edward rushed south to meet the invasion, while Montagu's forces advanced from the north, and the king found himself surrounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1997152-206">[201]</a> With few options, Edward, his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard, Duke of Gloucester</a>, and several hundred retainers fled to <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flanders</a> on 2 October, then part of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a>, his ally.<a href="#cite_note-209">[f]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Readeption_of_Henry_VI" title="Readeption of Henry VI">Readeption of Henry VI</a> restored him as king, a throne which Warwick was now indisputably in effective control of.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200771-210">[204]</a> In November, Edward was attainted, and his brother Clarence was awarded the title of <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">Duke of York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks200874-211">[205]</a> Burgundy was ruled by <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bold" title="Charles the Bold">Charles the Bold</a>, husband of Edward's sister Margaret. Charles rendered precious little assistance to his brother-in-law, something Edward would never forget.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019256–258-212">[206]</a> However, unfortunately for Warwick and Clarence, Henry's new regime was precariously unstable; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort,_4th_Duke_of_Somerset" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset">Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset</a> held Warwick responsible for <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort,_2nd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset">his father's</a> death in 1455, and the ensuing internal disputes eventually left Warwick and Clarence politically isolated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019260–261-213">[207]</a> With the backing of Flemish merchants, Edward landed at <a href="/wiki/Ravenspurn" title="Ravenspurn">Ravenspurn</a> in Yorkshire on 14 March 1471, supported by the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Earl of Northumberland">Earl of Northumberland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008307-214">[208]</a> Edward was joined by troops under <a href="/wiki/William_Parr_(died_1483)" title="William Parr (died 1483)">Sir William Parr</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(Yorkist_knight)" title="James Harrington (Yorkist knight)">Sir James Harrington</a>, a move which convinced Clarence, who was politically disadvantaged by his agreement with the Lancastrians,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks200893-215">[209]</a> to abandon Warwick and Henry and join his brother.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019263-216">[210]</a> Edward's army made rapidly for London, where they took the by now feeble king Henry prisoner and sent him to the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966167-217">[211]</a> Poor weather contained French troops under Margaret and Edward of Westminster on the continent, preventing Warwick from being reinforced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981344–345-218">[212]</a> Despite this and Clarence's defection, Warwick marched in pursuit of Edward's growing army, and the two sides met in battle at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a> on 14 April 1471.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1997167–168-219">[213]</a> Poor visibility due to thick mist and the similarity of Edward's <a href="/wiki/Sun_in_splendour" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun in splendour">heraldic sun</a> to the Earl of Oxford's <a href="/wiki/Star_(heraldry)" title="Star (heraldry)">star</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooke1857208-220">[214]</a> led to the Lancastrians attacking their own men,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200773-221">[215]</a> and, coupled with Edward's determined attack, Warwick's army was destroyed. During the rout, Warwick was unhorsed and killed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008310-222">[216]</a> along with his brother the <a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_1st_Marquess_of_Montagu" title="John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu">John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaigh1995122-223">[217]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Henry_Holland,_3rd_Duke_of_Exeter" title="Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter">Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter</a> was apprehended and imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGravett2003a46-224">[218]</a> In 1475, Exeter would be sent on a Yorkist expedition to France, where he was reputed to have fallen overboard while at sea, and drowned without any witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1997xvi_"Foreword_to_the_Yale_Edition"_by_Griffiths,_R.A.-225">[219]</a> Warwick's defeat and death was a catastrophic blow for the Lancastrian cause,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond2004143-226">[220]</a> and the Neville family's political influence was irrevocably broken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008312-227">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeat_of_Henry_VI_by_Edward_IV">Defeat of Henry VI by Edward IV</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Defeat of Henry VI by Edward IV">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg/220px-MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg/330px-MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg/440px-MS_Ghent_-_Battle_of_Tewkesbury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="1738" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Battle of Tewkesbury</a></figcaption></figure> The return of Henry VI to the throne did not last long. Though the Nevilles had been defeated, on the same day of the clash at Barnet, Margaret had managed to land her forces at <a href="/wiki/Weymouth,_Dorset" title="Weymouth, Dorset">Weymouth</a>, and augmented her army with recruits from the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman198180-228">[222]</a> Despite the heavy defeat they had suffered at Barnet, survivors from the battle rallied around the Lancastrian queen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond2004143-226">[220]</a> Edward moved to intercept the Lancastrian army, realising they were attempting to cross the <a href="/wiki/River_Severn" title="River Severn">River Severn</a> into Wales. Acting upon correspondence sent by Henry VI, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Beauchamp,_2nd_Baron_Beauchamp" title="Richard Beauchamp, 2nd Baron Beauchamp">Sir Richard Beauchamp</a>, governor of <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a>, barred the gates to Margaret's troops, preventing the Lancastrians from crossing in time.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] On 4 May 1471, Edward intercepted and engaged Margaret's army at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Tewkesbury</a>, defeating it. Henry VI and Margaret's only son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward of Westminster">Edward of Westminster</a>, was killed by Clarence's men,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966169-229">[223]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort_(died_1471)" title="Edmund Beaufort (died 1471)">Duke of Somerset</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966169-229">[223]</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Courtenay,_15th_Earl_of_Devon" title="John Courtenay, 15th Earl of Devon">John Courtenay, 15th Earl of Devon</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScofield1923587-230">[224]</a> were both killed. The royal propagandist of the <a href="/wiki/Historie_of_the_arrivall_of_Edward_IV" title="Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV">Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV</a> suggests the royal army was, "though small, well-armed and determined" and that Edward claimed he had returned solely for his duchy of York.<a href="#cite_note-:3-231">[225]</a> However, Henry VI could not start raising a force of any numbers until well to the south (of England), in <a href="/wiki/William_Hastings,_1st_Baron_Hastings" title="William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings">Lord Hastings</a>'s estates in the Midlands (about 3,000 men in Nottingham, where he was joined by <a href="/wiki/William_Parr_(died_1483)" title="William Parr (died 1483)">William Parr</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(Yorkist_knight)" title="James Harrington (Yorkist knight)">James Harrington</a>, with their personal forces of sixty men-at-arms). Whereas, in the north, came "not so many as supposed would have come", reported the Arrivalist.<a href="#cite_note-232">[226]</a> Edward IV entered London on 21 May. Henry VI died that night, or soon afterwards, perhaps on Edward's orders. A contemporary chronicle (favourable to Edward IV) reported Henry's death as caused by "melancholy" after hearing of his son's death.<a href="#cite_note-233">[227]</a> It is widely suspected however, that with Henry's only heir dead, Edward had ordered the former <a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">king's murder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981347-234">[228]</a> Margaret of Anjou was imprisoned until she was ransomed by Louis XI in 1475 to France,<a href="#cite_note-235">[229]</a> where she would live for the remainder of her life, dying on 25 August 1482.<a href="#cite_note-236">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_reign_of_Edward_IV">Second reign of Edward IV</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Second reign of Edward IV">edit</a>]</div> With the defeats at Barnet and Tewkesbury, armed Lancastrian resistance appeared to be at an end. However, Edward IV's regime was progressively fractured by a worsening feud between his brothers, <a href="/wiki/George_Plantagenet,_Duke_of_Clarence" title="George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence">George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard, Duke of Gloucester</a>. On 22 December 1476, Clarence's wife <a href="/wiki/Isabel_Neville,_Duchess_of_Clarence" title="Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence">Isabel</a> died. Clarence accused one of the late Isabel's <a href="/wiki/Ladies-in-waiting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladies-in-waiting">ladies-in-waiting</a>, Ankarette Twynyho, of having murdered her, and, in turn, Clarence <a href="/wiki/Judicial_murder" title="Judicial murder">murdered</a> her. Ankarette's grandson received a retrospective pardon for Ankarette from Edward in 1478, illustrating the quasi-monarchical attitude of Clarence which Edward was growing wary of.<a href="#cite_note-237">[231]</a> In 1477, Clarence was proposed as a suitor for <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy" title="Mary of Burgundy">Mary</a>, who had just become <a href="/wiki/Duchess_of_Burgundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchess of Burgundy">Duchess of Burgundy</a>, but Edward objected to the match, and Clarence left the royal court.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-238">[232]</a> For his part, Gloucester was married to <a href="/wiki/Anne_Neville" title="Anne Neville">Anne Neville</a>; both Anne and Isabel were daughters of the <a href="/wiki/Anne_Beauchamp,_16th_Countess_of_Warwick" title="Anne Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick">Countess of Warwick</a>, and therefore heirs to their mother's considerable fortune.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss198126–27-239">[233]</a> Many of the estates held by the two brothers had been bestowed upon them by Edward's patronage (who retained the right to revoke them). This was not the case with property acquired through marriage; this difference fuelled the disagreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019306–307-240">[234]</a> Clarence continued to fall out of favour with Edward; persistently widespread claims he was involved in a revolt against Edward led to his imprisonment and execution at the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> on 18 February 1478.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019406-241">[235]</a> Edward's reign was relatively peaceful domestically; in 1475 he invaded France, however he signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Picquigny" title="Treaty of Picquigny">Treaty of Picquigny</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019364–365-242">[236]</a> with Louis XI whereby Edward withdrew after receiving an initial payment of 75,000 <a href="/wiki/Crown_(English_coin)" title="Crown (English coin)">crowns</a> plus an annual pension of 50,000 crowns,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks200818-243">[237]</a> while in 1482, he attempted to usurp the Scottish throne but was ultimately compelled to withdraw back to England. Nevertheless, they were successful in retaking <a href="/wiki/English_invasion_of_Scotland_(1482)" title="English invasion of Scotland (1482)">Berwick</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019434–435-244">[238]</a> In 1483, Edward's health began to fail and he fell fatally ill that Easter. Prior to his death, he named his brother Richard to act as Lord Protector for his twelve-year-old son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Edward_V_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward V of England">Edward</a>. On 9 April 1483, Edward IV died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019494-245">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Yorkist_rule_under_Richard_III_and_defeat_(1483–1485)">Yorkist rule under Richard III and defeat (1483–1485)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Yorkist rule under Richard III and defeat (1483–1485)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was <a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord of Ireland">Lord of Ireland</a> from 26 June 1483 until his death in 1485. He was the last king of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a> and the last of the <a href="/wiki/Plantagenet_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenet dynasty">Plantagenet dynasty</a>. His defeat and death at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a>, the last battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in England">Middle Ages in England</a>. Richard was created <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Gloucester" title="Duke of Gloucester">Duke of Gloucester</a> in 1461 after the accession of his brother <a href="/wiki/King_Edward_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="King Edward IV">King Edward IV</a>. In 1472, he married <a href="/wiki/Anne_Neville" title="Anne Neville">Anne Neville</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_16th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick">Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick</a>. He governed northern England during Edward's reign, and played a role in the <a href="/wiki/English_invasion_of_Scotland_(1482)" title="English invasion of Scotland (1482)">invasion of Scotland</a> in 1482. When Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> of the realm for Edward's eldest son and successor, the 12-year-old <a href="/wiki/Edward_V" title="Edward V">Edward V</a>. Arrangements were made for Edward V's coronation on 22 June 1483. Before the king could be crowned, the marriage of his parents was declared <a href="/wiki/Bigamous" class="mw-redirect" title="Bigamous">bigamous</a> and therefore invalid. Officially illegitimate, their children were barred from inheriting the throne. On 25 June, an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed a declaration to this effect and proclaimed Richard as the rightful king. He was crowned on 6 July 1483. Edward and his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Shrewsbury,_Duke_of_York" title="Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York">Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York</a>, called the "<a href="/wiki/Princes_in_the_Tower" title="Princes in the Tower">Princes in the Tower</a>", were not seen in public after August and accusations circulated that they had been murdered on King Richard's orders, after the Tudor dynasty established their rule a few years later. There were two big rebellions against Richard during his reign. In October 1483, a revolt was led by staunch allies of Edward IV and Richard's former ally, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham</a>. Then, in August 1485, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a> and his uncle, <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor</a>, landed in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Wales">southern Wales</a> with a contingent of French troops and marched through <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a>, recruiting soldiers. Henry's forces defeated Richard's army near the <a href="/wiki/Leicestershire" title="Leicestershire">Leicestershire</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Market_Bosworth" title="Market Bosworth">Market Bosworth</a>. Richard was slain, making him the last English king to die in battle. Henry Tudor ascended the throne as Henry VII. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Edward_V's_claims_to_the_throne">Edward V's claims to the throne</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Edward V's claims to the throne">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_III_earliest_surviving_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Richard_III_earliest_surviving_portrait.jpg/200px-Richard_III_earliest_surviving_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Richard_III_earliest_surviving_portrait.jpg/300px-Richard_III_earliest_surviving_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Richard_III_earliest_surviving_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="446" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/King_Richard_III" class="mw-redirect" title="King Richard III">King Richard III</a> reigned 1483–1485 as the final York monarch (artist unknown)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_(1878).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_%281878%29.png/200px-The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_%281878%29.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_%281878%29.png/300px-The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_%281878%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_%281878%29.png/400px-The_Princes_in_the_Tower_by_John_Everett_Millais_%281878%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1830" data-file-height="3037" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Princes_in_the_Tower" title="Princes in the Tower">Princes in the Tower</a>: Richard III's nephews, <a href="/wiki/King_Edward_V" class="mw-redirect" title="King Edward V">King Edward V</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Shrewsbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of Shrewsbury">Richard of Shrewsbury</a> (painted here by <a href="/wiki/John_Everett_Millais" title="John Everett Millais">John Everett Millais</a>)</div></div></div></div></div> During Edward IV's reign, his brother <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard, Duke of Gloucester</a> had risen to become the most powerful magnate in the north of England,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall1956132,_133,_154-246">[240]</a> particularly in the city of <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a> where his popularity was high.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall1956132,_133,_154-246">[240]</a> Prior to his death, the king had named Richard as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> to act as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> to his twelve-year-old son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_V" title="Edward V">Edward V</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019494-245">[239]</a> Richard's allies, particularly <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_Duke_of_Buckingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham</a> and the powerful and wealthy Baron <a href="/wiki/William_Hastings,_1st_Baron_Hastings" title="William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings">William Hastings</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain" title="Lord Chamberlain">Lord Chamberlain</a>, urged Richard to bring a strong force to London to counter any move the Woodville family might make.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966186-247">[241]</a> Richard departed Yorkshire for London, where he intended to meet the young king at <a href="/wiki/Northampton" title="Northampton">Northampton</a> and travel to London together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin201395–96-248">[242]</a> Following Edward IV's death, the <a href="/wiki/Dowager_Queen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dowager Queen">Dowager Queen</a> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth</a> instructed her brother, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Woodville,_Earl_Rivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers">Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers</a>, to escort her son Edward V to London with an armed escort of 2,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall1956207–210-249">[243]</a> However, upon reaching Northampton, Richard discovered that the king had already been sent onward to <a href="/wiki/Stony_Stratford" title="Stony Stratford">Stony Stratford</a> in <a href="/wiki/Buckinghamshire" title="Buckinghamshire">Buckinghamshire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[244]</a> In response, and to forestall any Woodville family attempts on his person, on 30 April 1483, Richard had Earl Rivers, Edward's half-brother <a href="/wiki/Richard_Grey" title="Richard Grey">Richard Grey</a>, and Edward's chamberlain <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Vaughan_(died_1483)" title="Thomas Vaughan (died 1483)">Thomas Vaughan</a> arrested and sent to the north.<a href="#cite_note-251">[245]</a> Richard and Edward journeyed to London together, where the young king took up residence at the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> on 19 May 1483, joined the following month by his younger brother, <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Shrewsbury,_Duke_of_York" title="Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York">Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Richard_III_takes_the_throne">Richard III takes the throne</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Richard III takes the throne">edit</a>]</div> Despite his assurances to the contrary, Richard had Earl Rivers, Grey, and Vaughan beheaded in June 1483.<a href="#cite_note-253">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrox2004-254">[248]</a> Acting as Lord Protector, Richard repeatedly stalled the coronation of Edward V, despite the urging of the king's councillors, who wished to avoid another protectorate.<a href="#cite_note-255">[249]</a> That same month, Richard accused the Lord Chamberlain, the <a href="/wiki/William_Hastings,_1st_Baron_Hastings" title="William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings">Baron Hastings</a>, of treason, and had him <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">executed without trial</a> on 13 June.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss198183–85_&_84n62-256">[250]</a> Hastings had been popular, and his death created considerable controversy, not least because his loyalty to Edward and his continued presence would have presented a major obstacle to Richard's path to securing the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir2008b151-257">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall1956-258">[252]</a> A clergyman, likely <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stillington" title="Robert Stillington">Robert Stillington</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Bath_and_Wells" title="Bishop of Bath and Wells">Bishop of Bath and Wells</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall1956215–216-259">[253]</a> informed Richard that Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid because of Edward's earlier union to <a href="/wiki/Lady_Eleanor_Talbot" title="Lady Eleanor Talbot">Eleanor Butler</a>, thereby making Edward V and his siblings illegitimate heirs to the throne. On 22 June, the selected date for Edward's coronation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin2013101-260">[254]</a> a sermon was preached outside <a href="/wiki/Old_St._Paul%27s_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Old St. Paul's Cathedral">St. Paul's Cathedral</a> declaring Richard the rightful king,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008117-261">[255]</a> a post which the citizenry petitioned Richard to accept.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1975269–270-262">[256]</a> Richard accepted four days later, and was crowned at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> on 6 July 1483.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conflicts_and_actions_against_opposing_claims">Conflicts and actions against opposing claims</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Conflicts and actions against opposing claims">edit</a>]</div> Edward and his brother Richard of Shrewsbury, who were still in residence in the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>, had <a href="/wiki/Princes_in_the_Tower" title="Princes in the Tower">completely disappeared</a> by the summer of 1483.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrummitt2012116-263">[257]</a> The fate of the two princes following their disappearance remains a mystery to this day, however, the most widely accepted explanation is that they were murdered on the orders of Richard III.<a href="#cite_note-264">[258]</a> Stripped of her family's influence at court, the widowed <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth Woodville</a>, along with Richard's disaffected former ally <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham</a>, allied themselves with <a href="/wiki/Lady_Margaret_Beaufort" title="Lady Margaret Beaufort">Lady Margaret Beaufort</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013195–196-265">[259]</a> who began to actively promote her son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a>, a great-great-great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[260]</a> and the closest male heir of the Lancastrian claim,<a href="#cite_note-267">[g]</a> as an alternative to Richard.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1981111-268">[261]</a> Woodville proposed to strengthen Henry's claim by marrying him to her daughter <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a>, the only living heir to Edward IV. Convinced of the need for Yorkist support, Henry promised his hand to Elizabeth well before his planned invasion of England,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199965-269">[262]</a> a factor which caused many Yorkists to abandon Richard.<a href="#cite_note-270">[263]</a> By September 1483, a conspiracy against Richard began to be formulated among members of the disaffected English gentry, many of whom had been staunch supporters of Edward IV and his heirs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008211-271">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buckingham's_Rebellion">Buckingham's Rebellion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Buckingham's Rebellion">edit</a>]</div> Since Edward IV had regained the throne in 1471, Henry Tudor had lived in exile at the court of <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Duke_of_Brittany" title="Francis II, Duke of Brittany">Francis II</a>, Duke of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Brittany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199917-272">[265]</a> Henry was half-guest half-prisoner, since Francis regarded Henry, his family, and his courtiers as valuable bargaining tools to barter for the aid of England, particularly in conflicts with France, and therefore shielded the exiled Lancastrians well, repeatedly refusing to surrender them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1999192-273">[266]</a> Henry, in particular, was supported by the Breton treasurer <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Landais" title="Pierre Landais">Pierre Landais</a>, who hoped that an overthrow of Richard would cement a joint Anglo-Breton alliance.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Now in alliance with Richard's former supporter, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham</a>, Francis provided Henry with 40,000 gold crowns, 15,000 troops, and a fleet of ships to invade England. However, Henry's forces were scattered by a storm, compelling Henry to abandon the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams197325-274">[267]</a> Nevertheless, Buckingham had already <a href="/wiki/Buckingham%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckingham's Rebellion">launched a revolt</a> against Richard on 18 October 1483 with the aim of installing Henry as king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966199-275">[268]</a> Buckingham raised a substantial number of troops from his Welsh estates, and planned to join his brother the <a href="/wiki/Edward_Courtenay,_1st_Earl_of_Devon_(1485_creation)" title="Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (1485 creation)">Earl of Devon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1981105–119-276">[269]</a> However, without Henry's troops, Richard easily defeated Buckingham's rebellion, and the defeated duke was captured, convicted of treason, and executed in <a href="/wiki/Salisbury" title="Salisbury">Salisbury</a> on 2 November 1483.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199925–26-277">[270]</a> Following the rebellion in January 1484, Richard stripped Elizabeth Woodville of all the lands bestowed upon her during her late husband's reign.<a href="#cite_note-278">[271]</a> For the sake of outward appearances, the two appeared to reconcile.<a href="#cite_note-279">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeat_of_Richard_III">Defeat of Richard III</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Defeat of Richard III">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry7England.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Henry7England.jpg/220px-Henry7England.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Henry7England.jpg/330px-Henry7England.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Henry7England.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Bosworth_by_Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Battle_of_Bosworth_by_Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Bosworth_by_Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Battle_of_Bosworth_by_Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Bosworth_by_Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Battle_of_Bosworth_by_Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Bosworth_by_Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1172" data-file-height="884" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a>, fought on 22 August 1485</figcaption></figure> Following Buckingham's failed revolt, some 500 Englishmen fled to <a href="/wiki/Rennes" title="Rennes">Rennes</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Brittany</a> to join Henry in exile.<a href="#cite_note-280">[273]</a> Richard opened negotiations with Francis for Henry's extradition to England, however, the Duke continued to refuse, hoping for the possibility of extracting more generous concessions from Richard in exchange.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199919-281">[274]</a> By mid-1484, Francis was incapacitated from illness, leaving Landais to take the reins of government. Richard made overtures to Landais, offering military support to defend Brittany against a possible French attack; Landais agreed, however, Henry escaped to France by mere hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELander1980324-282">[275]</a> Henry was warmly received at the court of <a href="/wiki/Charles_VIII_of_France" title="Charles VIII of France">Charles VIII of France</a>, who supplied Henry with resources for his coming invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall297-283">[276]</a> Upon the recovery of Francis II, Charles offered the remaining Lancastrians in Brittany safe conduct to France, paying for their expenses himself. For Charles, Henry and his supporters were useful political pawns to ensure Richard did not intervene with French designs on the acquisition of Brittany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199931-284">[277]</a> On 16 March 1485, Richard's wife, <a href="/wiki/Anne_Neville" title="Anne Neville">Anne Neville</a>, died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1999144-285">[278]</a> Rumours quickly spread that she had been murdered to allow Richard to marry his niece, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a>, rumours which alienated Richard's northern supporters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1999145–146-286">[279]</a> Richard's marriage to Elizabeth had the potential of unravelling the Tudor plans, and split the Yorkists who supported Henry from their cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199939-287">[280]</a> Henry secured the patronage of the French regent <a href="/wiki/Anne_of_Beaujeu" class="mw-redirect" title="Anne of Beaujeu">Anne of Beaujeu</a>, who supplied him with 2,000 troops in support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199929–30-288">[281]</a> Overseas, Henry relied heavily on his mother Margaret of Beaufort to raise troops and support for him in England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013226-289">[282]</a> Anxious to press his claim, with the backing of the Woodvilles, Henry set sail from France on 1 August with a force consisting of his English and Welsh exiles, along with a large contingent of French and Scottish troops,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELander1980325-290">[283]</a> landing near <a href="/wiki/Dale,_Pembrokeshire" title="Dale, Pembrokeshire">Dale, Pembrokeshire</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-291">[284]</a> Henry's return to his Welsh homeland was regarded by some as the fulfilment of a Messianic prophecy,<a href="#cite_note-292">[285]</a> as "the youth of Brittany defeating the <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>" and restore their country to glory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton200389-293">[286]</a> Henry amassed an army of approximately 5,000 troops to confront Richard.<a href="#cite_note-294">[287]</a> Richard's lieutenant in Wales, Sir Walter Herbert, failed to move against Henry, and two of his officers deserted to the Tudor claimant with their troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966215-295">[288]</a> Richard's lieutenant in West Wales, Rhys ap Thomas, also defected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966215-295">[288]</a> By mid-August, Henry crossed the English border, advancing on <a href="/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGravett199940-296">[289]</a> Richard, who had been well-informed of Henry's movements, had ordered a mobilisation of his troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1999212–215-297">[290]</a> The powerful <a href="/wiki/Stanley_family" title="Stanley family">Stanleys</a> had assembled their bannermen upon hearing of Henry's landing; while they had been communicating on friendly terms with Henry both prior to and during his landfall in England,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199939-287">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter1997217-298">[291]</a> their forces were a wildcard, and would not support Henry until a decisive juncture in the coming battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199949-299">[292]</a> On 22 August 1485, Henry Tudor's outnumbered forces<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014-300">[293]</a> engaged Richard's army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a>. Stanley's forces entered the fray on behalf of Henry, decisively defeating Richard's army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981244-301">[294]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polydore_Vergil" title="Polydore Vergil">Polydore Vergil</a>, Henry's official historian, records that "King Richard, alone, was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall2002368-302">[295]</a> and became the last English king to die in battle.<a href="#cite_note-auto-303">[296]</a> Richard's ally the <a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_4th_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland">Earl of Northumberland</a> fled, while the <a href="/wiki/John_Howard,_1st_Duke_of_Norfolk" title="John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk">Duke of Norfolk</a> was killed, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Howard,_Earl_of_Surrey" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey">Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey</a> was taken captive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199949-299">[292]</a> Henry claimed the throne by <a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">right of conquest</a>, retroactively dating his claim to the day prior to Richard's defeat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199950-304">[297]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_Henry_VII's_reign_(1485–1509)">Aftermath and Henry VII's reign (1485–1509)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Aftermath and Henry VII's reign (1485–1509)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_School,_16th_century_-_Elizabeth_of_York_-_Haunted_Gallery,_Hampton_Court_Palace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/British_School%2C_16th_century_-_Elizabeth_of_York_-_Haunted_Gallery%2C_Hampton_Court_Palace.jpg/220px-British_School%2C_16th_century_-_Elizabeth_of_York_-_Haunted_Gallery%2C_Hampton_Court_Palace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/British_School%2C_16th_century_-_Elizabeth_of_York_-_Haunted_Gallery%2C_Hampton_Court_Palace.jpg/330px-British_School%2C_16th_century_-_Elizabeth_of_York_-_Haunted_Gallery%2C_Hampton_Court_Palace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/British_School%2C_16th_century_-_Elizabeth_of_York_-_Haunted_Gallery%2C_Hampton_Court_Palace.jpg/440px-British_School%2C_16th_century_-_Elizabeth_of_York_-_Haunted_Gallery%2C_Hampton_Court_Palace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a> – <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a>'s marriage to Elizabeth united the rival <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancastrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yorkist" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorkist">Yorkist</a> claims to the throne</figcaption></figure> Henry was crowned as <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a> on 30 October 1485 in <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-305">[298]</a> As per his pledge, Henry married <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a> on 18 January 1486,<a href="#cite_note-306">[299]</a> and Elizabeth gave birth to their first child just 8 months later, Prince Arthur.<a href="#cite_note-:2-307">[300]</a> The couple's marriage appears to have been a happy one;<a href="#cite_note-308">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes1999302-309">[302]</a> Henry in particular was noted for being uncharacteristically faithful for a king of the time.<a href="#cite_note-:2-307">[300]</a> Henry and Elizabeth's marriage united the rival <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancastrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yorkist" class="mw-redirect" title="Yorkist">Yorkist</a> claims since their children would inherit the claims of both dynasties; however, paranoia persisted that anyone with blood ties to the Plantagenets were secretly coveting the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn201922–23-310">[303]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challengers_to_Henry_VII">Challengers to Henry VII</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Challengers to Henry VII">edit</a>]</div> Despite the union of the two dynasties, Henry's position as king was not immediately secure. That same year he faced a <a href="/wiki/Stafford_and_Lovell_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Stafford and Lovell Rebellion">rebellion of the Stafford brothers</a>, aided and abetted by <a href="/wiki/Viscount_Lovell" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscount Lovell">Viscount Lovell</a>, but the revolt collapsed without any open fighting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199969-311">[304]</a> The Stafford brothers claimed <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary" title="Sanctuary">sanctuary</a> at a church belonging to Abingdon Abbey in <a href="/wiki/Culham" title="Culham">Culham</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1928186-312">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199971-313">[306]</a> however, Henry had the Staffords forcibly removed by the knight <a href="/wiki/John_Savage_(soldier)" title="John Savage (soldier)">Sir John Savage</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[307]</a> on 14 May<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1928186-312">[305]</a> and tried before the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_the_King%27s_Bench" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of the King's Bench">Court of the King's Bench</a>, which ruled that sanctuary was inapplicable in matters of treason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001152"Lovell-Stafford_Uprising_(1486)"-315">[308]</a> Protests over Henry's actions were lodged with <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_VIII" title="Pope Innocent VIII">Pope Innocent VIII</a>, which resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> that agreed to some modifications over the right of sanctuary.<a href="#cite_note-316">[309]</a> Henry also dealt with other potential threats to his reign; the heir to the male-line Yorkist claim was <a href="/wiki/Edward,_Earl_of_Warwick" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward, Earl of Warwick">Edward, Earl of Warwick</a>, the ten-year-old son of Edward IV's brother, <a href="/wiki/George,_Duke_of_Clarence" class="mw-redirect" title="George, Duke of Clarence">George, Duke of Clarence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199972-317">[310]</a> Henry had Warwick arrested and imprisoned at the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199951-318">[311]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lincoln's_rebellion">Lincoln's rebellion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Lincoln's rebellion">edit</a>]</div> Around this time, a Yorkist-sympathising priest by the name of Richard Symonds had noticed a striking similarity between a young boy, <a href="/wiki/Lambert_Simnel" title="Lambert Simnel">Lambert Simnel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Shrewsbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of Shrewsbury">Richard of Shrewsbury</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Princes_in_the_Tower" title="Princes in the Tower">Princes in the Tower</a>, and began tutoring the boy in the manners of the royal court, perhaps hoping to put forth Simnel as an impostor Prince Richard.<a href="#cite_note-319">[312]</a> The rumour spread that Edward IV's children were still alive, however, the false report of the death of the imprisoned Earl of Warwick changed the impersonation, who was roughly the same age as Simnel.<a href="#cite_note-:3-231">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_de_la_Pole,_1st_Earl_of_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln">John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln</a>, who himself had a claim on the throne as a Plantagenet descendant and Richard III's nephew,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199972-317">[310]</a> left the royal court on 19 March 1487 for <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> to capitalise on the rumours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamson196126-320">[313]</a> His aunt, <a href="/wiki/Margaret,_Duchess_of_Burgundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy">Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy</a> provided him with financial and military support. The Yorkist exiles sailed for Ireland, where the Yorkist cause was popular, to gather support.<a href="#cite_note-321">[314]</a> Simnel was proclaimed King Edward VI in <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> despite Henry's efforts to quell the rumours, which included parading the real Earl of Warwick through the streets of London.<a href="#cite_note-:3-231">[225]</a> While nominally supporting the impostor king, Lincoln likely saw the whole affair as an opportunity to claim the throne for himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001211–212-322">[315]</a> Lincoln had no intention of remaining in Ireland, and with Simnel, 2,000 German mercenaries and an additional large host of Irish troops, landed on <a href="/wiki/Piel_Island" title="Piel Island">Piel Island</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lancashire" title="Lancashire">Lancashire</a> and proceeded to march on York.<a href="#cite_note-pauper-323">[316]</a> Though the Yorkist march avoided Henry's main army, they were repeatedly harassed by Tudor cavalry under Sir Edward Woodville.<a href="#cite_note-324">[317]</a> While Henry's army was outnumbered, they were far better equipped than the Yorkists, and Henry's two principal commanders, <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_de_Vere,_13th_Earl_of_Oxford" title="John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford">John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford</a>, were more experienced than any of the Yorkist leaders.<a href="#cite_note-:5-325">[318]</a> The two armies met in battle at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stoke_Field" title="Battle of Stoke Field">Stoke Field</a> on 16 June 1487, and resulted in the destruction of the Yorkist force.<a href="#cite_note-326">[319]</a> The <a href="/wiki/John_de_la_Pole,_1st_Earl_of_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln">Earl of Lincoln</a> was killed in the fighting, while the <a href="/wiki/Viscount_Lovell" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscount Lovell">Viscount Lovell</a> disappeared, likely to Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-:4-327">[320]</a> Henry pardoned the young Simnel, likely recognising he was merely a puppet in the hands of adults, and put him to work in the royal kitchens as a <a href="/wiki/Roasting_jack" title="Roasting jack">spit-turner</a>. Simnel later became a falconer, and died around 1534.<a href="#cite_note-328">[321]</a> Henry persuaded the Pope to excommunicate the Irish clergy who supported the revolt, and had Symonds imprisoned, but not executed.<a href="#cite_note-:5-325">[318]</a> Stoke Field proved to be the last military engagement of the Wars of the Roses.<a href="#cite_note-329">[322]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Warbeck's_rebellion">Warbeck's rebellion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Warbeck's rebellion">edit</a>]</div> In 1491, <a href="/wiki/Perkin_Warbeck" title="Perkin Warbeck">Perkin Warbeck</a>, a young man hired in the service of a Breton merchant,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] was regarded favourably as an inheritor of the Yorkist claim to the throne by the pro-York citizens of <a href="/wiki/Cork_(city)" title="Cork (city)">Cork</a> in Ireland, who allegedly decided to put Warbeck forth as an impostor <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Shrewsbury" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of Shrewsbury">Richard of Shrewsbury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGairdner1876267-330">[323]</a> Warbeck first claimed the throne at the Burgundian court in 1490, claiming to indeed be Richard, and that he had been spared due to his young age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir2008b238–240-331">[324]</a> He was publicly recognised as Richard by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_York" title="Margaret of York">Margaret of York</a>, sister of Edward IV, and was recognised as Richard IV of England at the funeral of the Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick III</a>, and had become recognised as the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">Duke of York</a> in international diplomacy, despite Henry's protests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWroe2003148–151-332">[325]</a> Some nobles in England were prepared to recognise Warbeck as Richard, including <a href="/wiki/Simon_de_Montford" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon de Montford">Sir Simon Montfort</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_(Battle_of_Bosworth)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Stanley (Battle of Bosworth)">Sir William Stanley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Thwaites_(civil_servant)" title="Thomas Thwaites (civil servant)">Sir Thomas Thwaites</a>, and Sir Robert Clifford. Clifford, who visited Warbeck, wrote back to his allies in England confirming Warbeck's identity as the lost prince.<a href="#cite_note-333">[326]</a> In January 1495, Henry crushed the conspiracy with six of the conspirators imprisoned and fined, while Montfort, Stanley, and several others were executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArthurson1994-334">[327]</a> Warbeck courted the Scottish royal court, where he was well received by <a href="/wiki/James_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="James IV">James IV</a>, who hoped to use Warbeck as leverage in international diplomacy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In September 1496, James invaded England with Warbeck, however the army was forced to withdraw when it expended its supplies, and support for Warbeck in the north failed to materialise.<a href="#cite_note-335">[328]</a> Having now fallen out of favour with James, Perkin sailed to Waterford.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickson1877342–345-336">[329]</a> On 7 September 1497, Warbeck landed in Cornwall, hoping to capitalise on the Cornish people's resentment to Henry VII's unpopular taxes,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArthurson198729–30-337">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-338">[331]</a> which had <a href="/wiki/Cornish_rebellion_of_1497" title="Cornish rebellion of 1497">induced them into revolt</a> just three months earlier.<a href="#cite_note-Cornish_History-339">[332]</a> Warbeck's presence <a href="/wiki/Second_Cornish_uprising_of_1497" title="Second Cornish uprising of 1497">triggered a second revolt</a>; he was declared as Richard IV on <a href="/wiki/Bodmin_Moor" title="Bodmin Moor">Bodmin Moor</a>, and his army of 6,000 Cornishmen advanced on <a href="/wiki/Taunton" title="Taunton">Taunton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cornish_History-339">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-Payton2004-340">[333]</a> However, when Warbeck received word the king's troops were in the area, he panicked and deserted his army. Warbeck was captured, imprisoned, and on 23 November 1499, he was hanged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir2008b238–240-331">[324]</a> That same year, Henry had the captive <a href="/wiki/Edward_Plantagenet,_17th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick">Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick</a>, who had shared a cell with Warbeck and made an escape attempt together, executed. With Warwick's death, the direct male-line descent of the Plantagenet dynasty was rendered extinct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArthurson1994215-341">[334]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Impact">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immediate_social_effects">Immediate social effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Immediate social effects">edit</a>]</div> Some historians question the impact the wars had on the fabric of English society and culture; revisionists, such as the Oxford historian <a href="/wiki/K._B._McFarlane" title="K. B. McFarlane">K. B. McFarlane</a>, suggest that the effects of the conflict were greatly exaggerated.<a href="#cite_note-342">[335]</a> Many parts of England were largely unaffected by the wars, particularly <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedstone1902159–200-343">[336]</a> In the densely populated regions of the country, both factions had far more to lose by the ruin of the country through protracted <a href="/wiki/Sieges" class="mw-redirect" title="Sieges">sieges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pillaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Pillaging">pillaging</a>, and sought a quick resolution to the conflict through a <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">pitched battle</a>. The lengthy sieges that did occur, such as at <a href="/wiki/Harlech_Castle" title="Harlech Castle">Harlech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bamburgh_Castle" title="Bamburgh Castle">Bamburgh</a> were in comparatively remote and sparsely populated areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201114-344">[337]</a> Contemporaries such as <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Commines" title="Philippe de Commines">Philippe de Commines</a> observed in 1470 that England was a unique case compared to wars that befell the continent, in that the consequences of war were only visited upon soldiers and nobles, not citizens and private property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseEmbleton19834-345">[338]</a> The instability caused by the Wars of the Roses allowed nobles to take advantage and promote their own position at the expense of others. This was because the 15th century witnessed the phenomenon of 'bastard feudalism' which involved the partial degradation of medieval feudalism. Rich landowners were able to possess private armies of retainers, accumulate wealth, and diminish the power of the Crown at a local level.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-346">[339]</a> Many areas undertook little effort to improve their defences; city walls were either left in prior ruinous states or only partially rebuilt, as was the case in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, whereby the citizenry was able to avoid devastation by persuading the Yorkist and Lancastrian troops to stay out, after the inability to reconstruct adequate walls, thereby rendering the city indefensible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELander1980363–365-347">[340]</a> "It is true that the wars were largely fought between nobles and their private armies, and they were also intermittent with fewer than 24 months of actual fighting over the entire period. Nevertheless, the local populace was sometimes dragged into the conflict, especially if nobles formed militia from their estate workers."<a href="#cite_note-auto1-346">[339]</a> Among the lords, few noble houses were extinguished entirely by the wars; between 1425 and 1449, before the outbreak of fighting, there were as many extinctions of noble lines from natural causes (25), as occurred between 1450 and 1474 (24), during the heaviest period of combat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseEmbleton19834-345">[338]</a> However, several preeminent noble families had their power crippled because of the fighting, such as the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Neville" title="House of Neville">Neville</a> family,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008312-227">[221]</a> while the direct male line of the <a href="/wiki/Plantagenet_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenet dynasty">Plantagenet dynasty</a> was rendered extinct. Nevertheless, every subsequent monarch of England and its successor states has been a direct descendant of Edward III of England through three of his sons, but through the female line. The reign of the monarchy was broken briefly only by <a href="/wiki/Cromwell" class="mw-redirect" title="Cromwell">Cromwell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArthurson1994215-341">[334]</a> Despite the relative paucity of violence undertaken against civilians, the wars claimed the lives of 105,000 people, approximately 5.5 per cent of the population in 1450.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201751-3">[1]</a> By 1490 England had experienced a 12.6 per cent increase in population compared to 1450, despite the wars.<a href="#cite_note-348">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-wns-349">[342]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Question_of_succession">Question of succession</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Question of succession">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1491_Henry_VIII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1491_Henry_VIII.jpg/170px-1491_Henry_VIII.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1491_Henry_VIII.jpg/255px-1491_Henry_VIII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/1491_Henry_VIII.jpg/340px-1491_Henry_VIII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1213" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a>'s anxiety over producing a male heir was driven by fears of a continuation of the Wars of the Roses</figcaption></figure> Although there would be no more serious military threat to Henry's rule or the Tudor claim to the throne that threatened a repeat of the Wars of the Roses, individuals also claiming descent from the Plantagenets continued to present challenges to the Tudor dynasty; when Henry VII ascended the throne, there were eighteen other Plantagenet descendants who may be considered to have a stronger claim to the throne, and by 1510 this number had increased by the birth of sixteen Yorkist children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir2008a148-350">[343]</a> The De La Pole family continued to lay claim to the throne; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_de_la_Pole,_3rd_Duke_of_Suffolk" title="Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk">Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk</a>, brother of the deceased <a href="/wiki/John_de_la_Pole,_1st_Earl_of_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln">Earl of Lincoln</a>, was executed in 1513 by <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> for this claim,<a href="#cite_note-351">[344]</a> while his brother <a href="/wiki/Richard_de_la_Pole" title="Richard de la Pole">Richard</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York">White Rose</a> and who had conspired to invade England to claim the throne, was <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a> in 1525.<a href="#cite_note-352">[345]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tudor_dynasty">Tudor dynasty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Tudor dynasty">edit</a>]</div> The English monarchy prior to the wars exerted only weak influence, unable to prevent the growing factional rivalries that undermined the political structure of the country.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] When Henry VII ascended the throne, he inherited a government that had been significantly weakened.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008269-353">[346]</a> Although the Tudor claim on the throne was weak and the new regime faced several rebellions, Henry's rule provided much-needed stability to the realm that prevented further outbreaks of war. Trade, commerce, and culture flourished and war would not return to England for <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">155 years</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks20088,_238–245-354">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagnerSchmid2011-355">[348]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy1988-356">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCaffrey1984[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrecentviewsonbri0000unsepage1_1–34]-357">[350]</a> Upon his death, Henry VII had left to his successors a thriving economy, in part thanks to his frugal spending.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir201113-358">[351]</a> Slavin (1964) considers Henry VII to be a member of the "<a href="/wiki/New_Monarchs" title="New Monarchs">New Monarchs</a>", defined as a ruler who centralised power in the monarchy and unified their nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavin1964vii–viii-359">[352]</a> Though the monarchy saw a strengthening under the Tudors, they generally operated within the established legal and financial boundaries, which compelled the monarch to cooperate closely with the nobility, rather than against them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris19992-360">[353]</a> Tudor monarchs, particularly <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>, defined the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a>" to help reinforce monarchical authority, a philosophical concept which would come to plague England under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, leading to the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy198878-361">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClelland1996224-362">[355]</a> The ascension of the Tudor dynasty saw the end of the dawn of the <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a>, an offshoot of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>, that saw a revolution in art, literature, music, and architecture.<a href="#cite_note-363">[356]</a> The <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>, England's break with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, occurred under the Tudors, which saw the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican Church">Anglican Church</a>, and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> as England's dominant religious denomination.<a href="#cite_note-364">[357]</a> Henry VIII's need for a male heir, impelled by the potential for a crisis of succession that dominated the Wars of the Roses, was the prime motivator influencing his decision to separate England from <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaigh199393–94-365">[358]</a> The reign of Henry VIII's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>, is considered by historians to be a <a href="/wiki/Golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age">golden age</a> in English history, and is widely remembered today as the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-366">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-367">[360]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Guy_(historian)" title="John Guy (historian)">John Guy</a> argued that "England was economically healthier, more expansive, and more optimistic under the Tudors" than at any time since the Roman occupation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy198832-368">[361]</a> Historians such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Murray_Kendall" title="Paul Murray Kendall">Kendall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole" title="Horace Walpole">Walpole</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Buck" title="George Buck">Buck</a> contend that the characterisation of the Wars of the Roses as a period of bloodshed and lawlessness, contrasted with the Tudors ushering in a period of law, peace, and prosperity, served the political interests of the Tudors to <a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">present the new regime positively</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-369">[362]</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-371">[364]</a> Contemporaries of the Tudors, such as <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> and Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>, wrote fictional and non-fictional works respectively which were hostile to <a href="/wiki/Richard_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard III">Richard III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-372">[365]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Horspool" title="David Horspool">Horspool</a> observes that More's work (which likely influenced Shakespeare) was a private endeavour published only after his death, as opposed to a state-sponsored commission, and M.M. Reese notes that More's work was "as much a protest against the harsh, competitive society of the early Tudors as against the supposed tyrannies of Richard III".<a href="#cite_note-373">[366]</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-375">[368]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armies_and_warfare">Armies and warfare</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Armies and warfare">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategy">Strategy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Strategy">edit</a>]</div> Military strategy in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a> was predominated by <a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare#Fortifications" title="Medieval warfare">siege warfare</a>; fortifications provided a powerful bastion of defence for a regional populace to shelter from large-scale pillaging that characterised groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a>,<a href="#cite_note-376">[369]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castles</a> evolved as a central point of control and protection for local elites to exercise their authority over a given area. Fortifications also nullified the dominant weapon of the medieval battlefield: <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">heavy cavalry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-377">[370]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">Pitched battles</a> were generally rare compared to the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical period</a> due to a dramatic reduction in logistical capability,<a href="#cite_note-378">[371]</a> and those that were fought tended to be decisive encounters that risked the deaths of the leaders and the potential destruction of the army as a fighting force, discouraging them from taking place.<a href="#cite_note-379">[372]</a> The Wars of the Roses were anomalous in this regard; nobles had a great deal to lose by the ruin of the countryside in a protracted conflict, so they tended to deliberately seek pitched battles to resolve their grievances quickly and decisively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201114-344">[337]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Change_in_system_of_war">Change in system of war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Change in system of war">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline_of_chivalry">Decline of chivalry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Decline of chivalry">edit</a>]</div> The code of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a> governed the actions of nobles in medieval warfare; in particular, nobles would often go to great lengths to take a fellow noble prisoner during combat in order to <a href="/wiki/Ransom" title="Ransom">ransom</a> them for a sum of money, rather than simply killing them.<a href="#cite_note-380">[373]</a> However, the concept of chivalry had been in decline for many years prior to the Wars of the Roses; for example, the battle at <a href="/wiki/Crecy" class="mw-redirect" title="Crecy">Crecy</a> in 1346 (over a century prior) saw the cream of French nobility cut down by English archers, and the killing of many wounded French knights by common soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAyton2007192-381">[374]</a> The Wars of the Roses continued this trend; <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a> was noted by contemporary <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Commines" title="Philippe de Commines">Philippe de Commines</a> as ordering his troops to spare common soldiers and kill the nobles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseEmbleton19834-345">[338]</a> Ensuring the deaths of nobles in battle often led to one side wielding lopsided political control in the aftermath as a result, as occurred after <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a> at which 42 captured knights were executed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler2011124-382">[375]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a>, which irrevocably broke the influence of the powerful <a href="/wiki/House_of_Neville" title="House of Neville">Neville</a> family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008312-227">[221]</a> Nobles who escaped battle might be <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_attainder" title="Bill of attainder">attainted</a>, thereby being stripped of their lands and titles, and would therefore be of no value to a captor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler20119,_14–15-383">[376]</a> Knights during the Wars of the Roses typically valued money, land, and sabotaging other factions, even within or allied to the same house, they perceived as not supporting them enough.<a href="#cite_note-384">[377]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tactics,_arms,_and_equipment">Tactics, arms, and equipment</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Tactics, arms, and equipment">edit</a>]</div> Much like their <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">campaigns in France</a>, the English <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a> fought on foot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIngram2012[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbosworth14850000ingrpage44_44]-385">[378]</a> Though <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">heavy cavalry</a> had been the dominant class of soldier on the medieval battlefield for centuries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarruthers20136-386">[379]</a> the relative inexpensiveness to train and outfit an infantryman compared to an expensive mounted <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a> incentivised leaders for expanding their use,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and the late medieval battlefield saw an increased use of infantry and light cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-Nicolle-387">[380]</a> In particular, English armies were characterised by their use of massed <a href="/wiki/Longbow" title="Longbow">longbowmen</a>, which often proved decisive in their encounters with French cavalry,<a href="#cite_note-Nicolle-387">[380]</a> however, as the English nobility fought on foot, and due to advances in fluted <a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a>, neither side possessed a decisive tactical advantage from the use of these archers.<a href="#cite_note-388">[381]</a> An exception to this was at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a>, where the Yorkist archers took advantage of the high winds to extend their maximum range, dealing disproportionate damage to their Lancastrian opponents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss199737-389">[382]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGravett2003a53–56-390">[383]</a> English armies of the time tended to favour a mix between infantry equipped with <a href="/wiki/Bill_(weapon)" title="Bill (weapon)">bills</a> supported by massed <a href="/wiki/Longbow" title="Longbow">longbowmen</a>, a combination they would continue to use well into the Tudor period.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Despite their frequent association with medieval warfare, <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">swords</a> were rare among the common soldiery and were instead favoured by <a href="/wiki/Men-at-arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Men-at-arms">men-at-arms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Knights">knights</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Personal_defense_weapon" title="Personal defense weapon">personal weapon</a> indicating prestige and wealth.<a href="#cite_note-391">[384]</a> Other weapons commonly used by infantry and men-at-arms include <a href="/wiki/Battle_axe" title="Battle axe">axes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-392">[385]</a> <a href="/wiki/Halberd" title="Halberd">halberds</a>,<a href="#cite_note-393">[386]</a> <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbows</a>,<a href="#cite_note-394">[387]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dagger" title="Dagger">daggers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-395">[388]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hand_cannon" title="Hand cannon">Hand cannon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arquebuses" class="mw-redirect" title="Arquebuses">arquebuses</a> were used by both sides, however their numbers were limited.<a href="#cite_note-396">[389]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> were used as early as 1346 at <a href="/wiki/Crecy" class="mw-redirect" title="Crecy">Crecy</a>, these were crude <a href="/wiki/Ribauldequin" title="Ribauldequin">ribauldequins</a> firing metal arrows or <a href="/wiki/Grapeshot" title="Grapeshot">grapeshot</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and were rendered obsolete by <a href="/wiki/Bombard_(weapon)" title="Bombard (weapon)">bombards</a> that came in the late 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottomley198317,_43-397">[390]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamburgh_Castle" title="Bamburgh Castle">Bamburgh Castle</a>, previously thought impregnable, was captured thanks to bombards in 1464.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottomley198325-398">[391]</a> Cannons were used sparingly; <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Northampton</a> was the first battle on English soil in which they were used.<a href="#cite_note-399">[392]</a> Early cannon were expensive to cast as they were often made from <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>,<a href="#cite_note-400">[393]</a> as such few commanders were willing to risk their capture on the field; at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a> in 1471, the Yorkist artillery withheld their fire so as not to betray their location.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaigh1995119-401">[394]</a> The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> in Sweden in the mid-14th century increased and improved iron production,<a href="#cite_note-402">[395]</a> which led to advances in <a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">plate armour</a> to protect soldiers from the powerful <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longbow" title="Longbow">longbows</a>, and the advent of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> weaponry, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hand_cannon" title="Hand cannon">hand cannon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebus</a>, that began to emerge around the same time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle1995188-403">[396]</a> By the 15th century, plate armour had become cheaper than <a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">mail</a>, although mail continued to be used to protect joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow, and groin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams197355-404">[397]</a> Contrary to the popular preconception of medieval armour as excessively heavy,<a href="#cite_note-405">[398]</a> a full suit of medieval armour in the 15th century seldom weighed more than 15 kg (33 lbs),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1973916-406">[399]</a> substantially less than the loads that modern ground combat troops carry.<a href="#cite_note-407">[400]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recruitment">Recruitment</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Recruitment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indenture_1723.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Indenture_1723.jpg/240px-Indenture_1723.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Indenture_1723.jpg/360px-Indenture_1723.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Indenture_1723.jpg/480px-Indenture_1723.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2233" data-file-height="1831" /></a><figcaption>Half of an <a href="/wiki/Indenture" title="Indenture">indenture</a> contract, the randomly cut (or indented) edge at the top proves a match to the counterpart document</figcaption></figure> Following the climax of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, large numbers of experienced unemployed soldiers returned to England seeking work in the growing forces of the local nobility. England drifted towards misrule and violence as feuds between powerful families, such as the <a href="/wiki/Percy-Neville_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Percy-Neville feud">Percy-Neville feud</a>, increasingly relied on their retainers to settle disputes. It became common practice for local landowners to bind their mesnie knights to their service with annual payments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler20003-408">[401]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward III">Edward III</a> had developed a contractual system whereby the monarch entered into agreements named <a href="/wiki/Indenture" title="Indenture">indentures</a> with experienced captains who were obliged to provide an agreed-upon number of men, at established rates, for a given period. Knights, men-at-arms, and archers were often sub-contracted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler20003-408">[401]</a> Skilled archers could often command wages as high as knights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler20004-409">[402]</a> The <a href="#Origins">complex feudal structures</a> that existed in England enabled nobles to raise large <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinues</a>, with armies large enough that could challenge the power of the crown.<a href="#cite_note-Walker20063-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FritzeRobison2002-24">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Leadership">Leadership</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Leadership">edit</a>]</div> As the wars were a series of sporadic battles fought across a period of over 32 years, many of the key commanders fluctuated due to <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">death in battle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">death by natural causes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Execution" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution">executions</a>, and possible <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassinations</a>. Some key commanders also defected between sides, such as <a href="/wiki/Warwick_the_Kingmaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Warwick the Kingmaker">Warwick the Kingmaker</a>. Yorkists are those who supported the rival <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a>'s claims to the throne, over the incumbent <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancastrian dynasty</a>. Lancastrians are those who supported the Lancastrian claim to the throne, principally by supporting the incumbent monarch, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a>. Tudors are those who supported <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a>'s claim to the throne by right of conquest in 1485.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199950-304">[297]</a> Yorkist rebels are Yorkists who, while not aligned with the claims of the Lancastrian dynasty, nevertheless rebelled against Edward IV during his reign. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Title </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Side </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" data-sort-value="1"><a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward IV of England</a> </td> <td rowspan="4">York </td> <td>First reign: 4 March 1461 – 3 October 1470 Second reign: 11 April 1471 – 9 April 1483 <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">Died of natural causes</a> on 9 April 1483<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenn2019494-245">[239]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Edward_V_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward V of England">Edward V of England</a> </td> <td>Reign: 9 April 1483 – 25 June 1483 Deposed by Richard III after a 78-day reign One of the <a href="/wiki/Princes_in_the_Tower" title="Princes in the Tower">Princes in the Tower</a><a href="#cite_note-Thornton2020-410">[403]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III of England</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>Reign: 26 June 1483 – 22 August 1485 <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bosworth_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosworth Field">Bosworth Field</a> on 22 August 1485, the last English king to die in battle<a href="#cite_note-auto-303">[296]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="3"><a href="/wiki/Queen_consort_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen consort of England">Queen consort of England</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth Woodville</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Consort to Edward IV Mother to <a href="/wiki/Edward_V" title="Edward V">Edward V</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a> Organised the alliance with Beaufort to promote Henry Tudor as a claimant to the throne<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013195–196-265">[259]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="4"><a href="/wiki/English_queen_mothers" class="mw-redirect" title="English queen mothers">Dowager Queen</a> </td> <td>Tudor </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="3"><a href="/wiki/Queen_consort_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen consort of England">Queen consort of England</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anne_Neville" title="Anne Neville">Anne Neville</a> </td> <td rowspan="4">York </td> <td>Consort to Richard III <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">Died of natural causes</a> on 16 March 1485<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELicence2013176-411">[404]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_York" title="Duke of York">Duke of York</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard of York">Richard of York</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>Also <a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a> on 30 December 1460<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward1995[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbriefhistoryofwa0000sewa_n3b4page85_85]-412">[405]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201160-136">[132]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Rutland" class="mw-redirect" title="Earl of Rutland">Earl of Rutland</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Edmund,_Earl_of_Rutland" title="Edmund, Earl of Rutland">Edmund Plantagenet</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>Son of Richard of York <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a> on 30 December 1460<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966144-132">[128]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Clarence" title="Duke of Clarence">Duke of Clarence</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/George_Plantagenet,_1st_Duke_of_Clarence" class="mw-redirect" title="George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence">George Plantagenet</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Briefly joined the Lancastrians Son of Richard of York <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> for <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> on 18 February 1478<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-238">[232]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lancaster </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Duke of Buckingham">Duke of Buckingham</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td>York </td> <td>Defected to the Tudor cause </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tudor </td> <td>Grandson of Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the failed <a href="/wiki/Buckingham%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckingham's Rebellion">Buckingham's Rebellion</a> on 2 November 1483<a href="#cite_note-dnb-413">[406]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Warwick" title="Earl of Warwick">Earl of Warwick</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_16th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick">Richard Neville</a> Warwick The Kingmaker  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>York </td> <td rowspan="2">Defected from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian cause. <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a> on 14 April 1471<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008300-207">[202]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lancaster </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Salisbury" title="Earl of Salisbury">Earl of Salisbury</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_5th_Earl_of_Salisbury" title="Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury">Richard Neville</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td rowspan="3">York </td> <td>Father of Warwick the Kingmaker <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Battle of Wakefield</a> by Lancastrians on 31 December 1460<a href="#cite_note-414">[407]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Kent" title="Earl of Kent">Earl of Kent</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/William_Neville,_1st_Earl_of_Kent" class="mw-redirect" title="William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent">William Neville</a> </td> <td>Uncle of Warwick the Kingmaker <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">Died of natural causes</a> on 9 January 1463 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Viscount_Fauconberg" title="Viscount Fauconberg">Viscount Fauconberg</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neville_(died_1471)" title="Thomas Neville (died 1471)">Thomas Neville</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Son of William Neville, Earl of Kent Defected from the Yorkists to the Lancastrians <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> at <a href="/wiki/Middleham_Castle" title="Middleham Castle">Middleham Castle</a> on 22 September 1471<a href="#cite_note-Paston_17-415">[408]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lancaster </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Marquess_of_Montagu" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquess of Montagu">Marquess of Montagu</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_1st_Marquess_of_Montagu" title="John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu">John Neville</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>York </td> <td rowspan="2">Younger brother of Warwick the Kingmaker Defected from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian cause <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a> on 14 April 1471<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1974168-416">[409]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Lancaster </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Baron_Neville" title="Baron Neville">Baron Neville</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_Baron_Neville" title="John Neville, Baron Neville">John Neville</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Briefly defected from the Lancastrians to the Yorkists <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ferrybridge" title="Battle of Ferrybridge">Ferrybridge</a> on 28 March 1461<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaigh199559-417">[410]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="10">York </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight of the Realm</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neville_(died_1460)" title="Thomas Neville (died 1460)">Thomas Neville</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>Younger brother of Warwick the Kingmaker <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a> on 30 December 1460<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1988222–224-418">[411]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Norfolk" title="Duke of Norfolk">Duke of Norfolk</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_de_Mowbray,_3rd_Duke_of_Norfolk" class="mw-redirect" title="John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk">John de Mowbray</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">Died of natural causes</a> on 6 November 1461<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond2004-64">[61]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Howard,_1st_Duke_of_Norfolk" title="John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk">John Howard</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bosworth_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosworth Field">Bosworth Field</a> on 22 August 1485<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall2002439–440-419">[412]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Lincoln" title="Earl of Lincoln">Earl of Lincoln</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_de_la_Pole,_1st_Earl_of_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln">John de la Pole</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stoke_Field" title="Battle of Stoke Field">Stoke Field</a> on 16 June 1487<a href="#cite_note-:4-327">[320]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Viscount_Lovell" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscount Lovell">Viscount Lovell</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lovell,_1st_Viscount_Lovell" title="Francis Lovell, 1st Viscount Lovell">Francis Lovell</a> </td> <td>Disappeared after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a> on 22 August 1485<a href="#cite_note-:4-327">[320]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/William_Herbert,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke_(1423%E2%80%931469)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke (1423–1469)">William Herbert</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgcote" title="Battle of Edgcote">Battle of Edgcote</a> on 27 July 1469<a href="#cite_note-420">[413]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Devon" title="Earl of Devon">Earl of Devon</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford,_1st_Earl_of_Devon" title="Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon">Humphrey Stafford</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgcote" title="Battle of Edgcote">Battle of Edgcote</a> on 27 July 1469<a href="#cite_note-421">[414]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Desmond" title="Earl of Desmond">Earl of Desmond</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_7th_Earl_of_Desmond" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond">Thomas FitzGerald</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">X</a> </td> <td>Commanded Yorkist forces in <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Ireland</a> <a href="/wiki/Assassinated" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassinated">Assassinated</a> in <a href="/wiki/Drogheda" title="Drogheda">Drogheda</a> in 1468<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1974204-422">[415]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Hastings" title="Baron Hastings">Baron Hastings</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/William_Hastings,_1st_Baron_Hastings" title="William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings">William Hastings</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> on 20 June 1483<a href="#cite_note-423">[416]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="1"><a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI of England</a>  <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> </td> <td rowspan="14">Lancaster </td> <td>First reign: 1 September 1422 – 4 March 1461 Second reign: 3 October 1470 – 11 April 1471 Captured and imprisoned by the Yorkists <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England#Imprisonment_and_death" title="Henry VI of England">Died in unclear circumstances</a> on 21 May 1471<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolffe1981347-234">[228]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="2"><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward of Westminster">Edward of Westminster</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>Son of Henry VI and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Tewkesbury</a> on 4 May 1471<a href="#cite_note-424">[417]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="3"><a href="/wiki/Queen_consort_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen consort of England">Queen consort of England</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a>  <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> </td> <td>Wife of Henry VI <a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">Died of natural causes</a> on 25 August 1482<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHookham1872369–371-425">[418]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Somerset" title="Duke of Somerset">Duke of Somerset</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_Beaufort,_2nd_Duke_of_Somerset" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset">Henry Beaufort</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="First Battle of St Albans">St Albans</a> on 22 May 1455<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman198124-95">[91]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_Beaufort,_3rd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset">Henry Beaufort</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td>Son of Henry Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hexham" title="Battle of Hexham">Battle of Hexham</a> on 15 May 1464<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEbtilley2007-173">[169]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort_(died_1471)" title="Edmund Beaufort (died 1471)">Edmund Beaufort</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td>Younger brother of Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Battle of Tewkesbury</a> on 6 May 1471<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2001156-426">[419]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Earl of Northumberland">Earl of Northumberland</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_3rd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a> on 29 March 1461[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_4th_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy</a> </td> <td>Son of Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Duke of Buckingham">Duke of Buckingham</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford,_1st_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham">Humphrey Stafford</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Northampton</a> on 10 July 1460<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman198138-125">[121]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="Earl of Shrewsbury">Earl of Shrewsbury</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Talbot,_2nd_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury">John Talbot</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Northampton</a> on 10 July 1460<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir1996244-427">[420]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Exeter" title="Duke of Exeter">Duke of Exeter</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_Holland,_3rd_Duke_of_Exeter" title="Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter">Henry Holland</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Death_by_natural_causes" class="mw-redirect" title="Death by natural causes">Died of natural causes</a> in September 1475<a href="#cite_note-fabyan-428">[421]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Wiltshire" title="Earl of Wiltshire">Earl of Wiltshire</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/James_Butler,_5th_Earl_of_Ormond" title="James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond">James Butler</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Battle of Towton</a> on 1 May 1461[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Devon" title="Earl of Devon">Earl of Devon</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Courtenay,_15th_Earl_of_Devon" title="John Courtenay, 15th Earl of Devon">John Courtenay</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Tewkesbury</a> on 4 May 1471<a href="#cite_note-429">[422]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Oxford" title="Earl of Oxford">Earl of Oxford</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/John_de_Vere,_13th_Earl_of_Oxford" title="John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford">John de Vere</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Later supported the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a> claim to the throne under Henry VII </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tudor </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Ormond_(Ireland)" title="Earl of Ormond (Ireland)">Earl of Ormond</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Butler,_6th_Earl_of_Ormond" title="John Butler, 6th Earl of Ormond">John Butler</a> </td> <td rowspan="9">Lancaster </td> <td>Commanded Lancastrian forces in <a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Ireland</a> Died in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> of natural causes on 14 December 1476<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis2004-430">[423]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Viscount_Beaumont" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscount Beaumont">Viscount Beaumont</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Beaumont,_1st_Viscount_Beaumont" title="John Beaumont, 1st Viscount Beaumont">John Beaumont</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Northampton</a> on 10 July 1460<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201156-431">[424]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Audley" title="Baron Audley">Baron Audley</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/James_Tuchet,_5th_Baron_Audley" title="James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley">James Tuchet</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Blore_Heath" class="mw-redirect" title="Blore Heath">Blore Heath</a> on 23 September 1459<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008143-111">[107]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Clifford" title="Baron Clifford">Baron Clifford</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Clifford,_9th_Baron_Clifford" title="John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford">John Clifford</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ferrybridge" title="Battle of Ferrybridge">Ferrybridge</a> on 28 March 1461<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1913293–294-432">[425]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Ros" class="mw-redirect" title="Baron Ros">Baron Ros</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_de_Ros,_9th_Baron_de_Ros" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros">Thomas de Ros</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hexham" title="Battle of Hexham">Battle of Hexham</a> on 17 May 1464<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981151–152-174">[170]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight of the Realm</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Trollope" title="Andrew Trollope">Andrew Trollope</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">Killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a> on 29 March 1461<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGillingham1981135-154">[150]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Owen_Tudor" title="Owen Tudor">Owen Tudor</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td>Grandfather of Henry VII Father of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Tudor,_1st_Earl_of_Richmond" title="Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond">Edmund Tudor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor</a> <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mortimer%27s_Cross" title="Battle of Mortimer's Cross">Battle of Mortimer's Cross</a> at <a href="/wiki/Hereford" title="Hereford">Hereford</a> on 2 February 1461<a href="#cite_note-Gairdner-139">[135]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Richmond" title="Earl of Richmond">Earl of Richmond</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Tudor,_1st_Earl_of_Richmond" title="Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond">Edmund Tudor</a>  <a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a> </td> <td>Father of Henry VII Died of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> on 3 November 1456 while imprisoned at Carmarthen Castle<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffithsThomas198546-433">[426]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a> </td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor</a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Uncle of Henry VII </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="8">Tudor </td></tr> <tr> <td data-sort-value="1"><a href="/wiki/King_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King of England">King of England</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a> </td> <td>Reign: 22 August 1485 – 21 April 1509 Inherited the Lancastrian claim Defeated the Yorkists at <a href="/wiki/Bosworth_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosworth Field">Bosworth Field</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPugh199252–56-434">[427]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Richmond" title="Earl of Richmond">Countess of Richmond</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lady_Margaret_Beaufort" title="Lady Margaret Beaufort">Lady Margaret Beaufort</a> </td> <td>Mother of Henry VII Orchestrated the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor dynasty</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013226-289">[282]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="Earl of Shrewsbury">Earl of Shrewsbury</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_Talbot,_4th_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="George Talbot, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury">George Talbot</a> </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Stanley" title="Baron Stanley">Baron Stanley</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stanley,_1st_Earl_of_Derby" title="Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby">Thomas Stanley</a> </td> <td>Supported Henry VII late at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199949-299">[292]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Strange" title="Baron Strange">Baron Strange</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_Stanley,_9th_Baron_Strange" title="George Stanley, 9th Baron Strange">George Stanley</a> </td> <td>Son and heir apparent of Thomas Stanley </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight of the Realm</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_(Battle_of_Bosworth)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Stanley (Battle of Bosworth)">William Stanley</a> </td> <td>Younger brother of Thomas Stanley Supported Henry VII late at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Scales" title="Baron Scales">Baron Scales</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Edward_Woodville" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Woodville">Edward Woodville</a> </td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baron_Willoughby_de_Eresby" title="Baron Willoughby de Eresby">Baron Willoughby de Eresby</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Robert_Welles,_8th_Baron_Willoughby_de_Eresby" title="Robert Welles, 8th Baron Willoughby de Eresby">Robert Welles</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </td> <td rowspan="2">Yorkist rebel </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">Executed</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Losecoat_Field" title="Battle of Losecoat Field">Battle of Losecoat Field</a> on 19 March 1470[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight of the Realm</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Robin_of_Redesdale" title="Robin of Redesdale">Robin of Redesdale</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </td> <td>Reportedly <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_battle" class="mw-redirect" title="Killed in battle">killed in battle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgcote" title="Battle of Edgcote">Edgcote</a> on 24 July 1469 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family_tree">Family tree</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Family tree">edit</a>]</div> <table class="collapsible collapsed" style="margin: 0.3em auto auto; clear:none; min-width:60em; width:auto; font-size:85%; border:1px solid #aaa"> <tbody><tr> <th style="padding:0.2em 0.3em 0.2em 4.3em;background:#CDF; color: black; width:auto"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini" style="float:left"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wars_of_the_Roses_family_tree" title="Template:Wars of the Roses family tree"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wars_of_the_Roses_family_tree" title="Template talk:Wars of the Roses family tree"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wars_of_the_Roses_family_tree" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wars of the Roses family tree"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div>English royal families in the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wars of the Roses</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center"> Dukes (except <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Aquitaine" title="Duke of Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a>) and Princes of Wales are noted, as are the monarchs' reigns.  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a>=Killed in action;  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a>=Executed See also <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_English_monarchs" title="Family tree of English monarchs">Family tree of English monarchs</a> <table style="border-spacing: 0px; border-collapse: separate; margin: 0 auto;"> <tbody><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Grosmont,_Duke_of_Lancaster" title="Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster">Henry of Grosmont</a> Duke of Lancaster</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid solid"><a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a> King of England <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1327–1377</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td 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style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Black_Prince" title="Edward the Black Prince">Edward of Woodstock</a> "The Black Prince" Prince of Wales</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Lionel_of_Antwerp,_Duke_of_Clarence" title="Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence">Lionel of Antwerp</a> Duke of Clarence</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Blanche_of_Lancaster" title="Blanche of Lancaster">Blanche of Lancaster</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt" title="John of Gaunt">John of Gaunt</a> Duke of Lancaster</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Swynford" title="Katherine Swynford">Katherine Swynford</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_of_Langley,_1st_Duke_of_York" title="Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York">Edmund of Langley</a> Duke of York</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Woodstock,_Duke_of_Gloucester" title="Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester">Thomas of Woodstock</a> Duke of Gloucester</td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid solid"><a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard II</a> Prince of Wales, King of England <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1377–1399</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Philippa,_5th_Countess_of_Ulster" title="Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster">Philippa of Clarence</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid"><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England" title="Henry IV of England">Henry IV</a> Duke of Lancaster, King of England <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>Lancastrian <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1399–1413</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/John_Beaufort,_1st_Earl_of_Somerset" title="John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset">John Beaufort</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Beaufort,_Duke_of_Exeter" title="Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter">Thomas Beaufort</a> Duke of Exeter</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Beaufort,_Countess_of_Westmorland" title="Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland">Joan Beaufort</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Neville,_1st_Earl_of_Westmorland" title="Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland">Ralph Neville</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" 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solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy_(Hotspur)" title="Henry Percy (Hotspur)">Henry Percy</a> "Hotspur"</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Mortimer" title="Elizabeth Mortimer">Elizabeth Mortimer</a></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Mortimer,_4th_Earl_of_March" title="Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March">Roger Mortimer</a></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Owen_Tudor" title="Owen Tudor">Owen Tudor</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Valois" title="Catherine of Valois">Catherine of Valois</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Edward,_2nd_Duke_of_York" title="Edward, 2nd Duke of York">Edward of Norwich</a> Duke of York</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Conisburgh,_3rd_Earl_of_Cambridge" title="Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge">Richard of Conisburgh</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Anne_de_Mortimer" title="Anne de Mortimer">Anne de Mortimer</a></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td 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style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/John_Beaufort,_1st_Duke_of_Somerset" title="John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset">John Beaufort</a> Duke of Somerset <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid"><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> King of England <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1422–1461, <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1470–1471 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort,_2nd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset">Edmund Beaufort</a> Duke of Somerset <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="First Battle of St Albans">1st St Albans</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/William_Neville,_Earl_of_Kent" title="William Neville, Earl of Kent">William Neville</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Neville,_Countess_of_Northumberland" title="Eleanor Neville, Countess of Northumberland">Eleanor Neville</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_2nd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="First Battle of St Albans">1st St Albans</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Neville,_Duchess_of_Buckingham" title="Anne Neville, Duchess of Buckingham">Anne Neville</a> Duchess of Buckingham</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_5th_Earl_of_Salisbury" title="Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury">Richard Neville</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Cecily_Neville,_Duchess_of_York" title="Cecily Neville, Duchess of York">Cecily Neville</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York,_3rd_Duke_of_York" title="Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York">Richard of York</a> Duke of York, Prince of Wales <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Beaufort,_3rd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset">Henry Beaufort</a> Duke of Somerset <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hexham" title="Battle of Hexham">Hexham</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Woodville,_1st_Earl_Rivers" title="Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers">Richard Woodville</a>  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgecote" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Edgecote">Edgecote</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Beaufort,_Countess_of_Stafford" title="Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Stafford">Margaret Beaufort</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort_(died_1471)" title="Edmund Beaufort (died 1471)">Edmund Beaufort</a> Duke of Somerset <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Tewkesbury</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_3rd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford,_Earl_of_Stafford" title="Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Stafford">Humphrey Stafford</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_1st_Marquess_of_Montagu" title="John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu">John Neville</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist, then <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_16th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick">Richard Neville</a> "Kingmaker" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist, then <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" 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style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" 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solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px solid;height:2em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px dotted;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dotted;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Lady_Margaret_Beaufort" title="Lady Margaret Beaufort">Margaret Beaufort</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Tudor,_1st_Earl_of_Richmond" title="Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond">Edmund Tudor</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor</a> Duke of Bedford <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Woodville,_Duchess_of_Buckingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine Woodville, Duchess of Buckingham">Catherine Woodville</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford</a> Duke of Buckingham <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist, then <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth Woodville</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid"><a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a> Duke of York, King of England <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1461–1470, <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1471–1483 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/George_Plantagenet,_Duke_of_Clarence" title="George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence">George Plantagenet</a> Duke of Clarence <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist, then <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster,_Prince_of_Wales" title="Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales">Edward of Westminster</a> Prince of Wales <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Tewkesbury</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Neville" title="Anne Neville">Anne Neville</a></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid"><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a> Duke of Gloucester, King of England <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1483–1485 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Bosworth Field</a></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:2em"></td><td style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px solid;width:1em"></td><td rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td><td style="height:1em;width:1em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td style="border-right:1px solid;height:1em;width:1em"></td></tr> <tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid"><a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> King of England <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Lancastrian <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1485–1509</td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;border-bottom:1px dashed;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_of_York" title="Elizabeth of York">Elizabeth of York</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em;border:2px solid"><a href="/wiki/Edward_V_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward V of England">Edward V</a> Prince of Wales, King of England <abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1483 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">Yorkist  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="border:1px solid;padding:0.2em"><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Shrewsbury,_Duke_of_York" title="Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York">Richard of Shrewsbury</a> Duke of York  <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower</a></td><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="height:2em;width:2em"></td></tr><tr style="height:1px;text-align:center"><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td><td colspan="2" style="height:1em;width:2em"></td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_literature">In literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: In literature">edit</a>]</div> Chronicles written during the Wars of the Roses include: <ul><li>Benet's Chronicle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory%27s_Chronicle" title="Gregory's Chronicle">Gregory's Chronicle</a> (1189–1469)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_English_Chronicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Short English Chronicle">Short English Chronicle</a> (before 1465)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hardyng" title="John Hardyng">Hardyng</a>'s Chronicle: first version for Henry VI (1457)</li> <li>Hardyng's Chronicle: second version for Richard, duke of York and Edward IV (1460 and <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1464)</li> <li>Hardyng's Chronicle: second "Yorkist" version revised for Lancastrians during Henry VI's Readeption (see Peverley's article).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Capgrave" title="John Capgrave">Capgrave</a> (1464)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commynes" class="mw-redirect" title="Commynes">Commynes</a> (1464–98)</li> <li>Chronicle of the Lincolnshire Rebellion (1470)</li> <li>Historie of the arrival of Edward IV in England (1471)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waurin" class="mw-redirect" title="Waurin">Waurin</a> (before 1471)</li> <li>An English Chronicle: AKA Davies' Chronicle (1461)</li> <li>Brief Latin Chronicle (1422–71)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Fabyan" title="Robert Fabyan">Fabyan</a> (before 1485)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rous_(historian)" title="John Rous (historian)">Rous</a> (1480/86)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croyland_Chronicle" title="Croyland Chronicle">Croyland Chronicle</a> (1449–1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Warkworth" title="John Warkworth">Warkworth</a>'s Chronicle (1500?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s plays: Henry VI trilogy and Richard III (1490s?)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roses_rivalry" title="Roses rivalry">Roses rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai" title="War of the League of Cambrai">War of the League of Cambrai</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis II of Brittany">Francis II</a> sheltered <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a>, supplying him with money, troops, and ships. It was only after Francis fell ill that Henry was forced to flee Brittany to France. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> After <a href="/wiki/Francis_II_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis II of Brittany">Francis II</a> became ill, his treasurer, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Landais" title="Pierre Landais">Pierre Landais</a>, ruling the Duchy in his stead, aided Richard III in attempting to capture Henry Tudor. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> During Shakespeare's time people used the term Civil Wars, cf. e.g., the title of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Daniel" title="Samuel Daniel">Samuel Daniel</a>'s work, the First Four Books of the Civil Wars </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York is referred to in the text as "York." </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> There has been debate over Warwick's actual involvement in the plot.<a href="#cite_note-200">[196]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> The date was not 29 September, as some sources state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008300-207">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1997153-208">[203]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> Henry Tudor's claim to the throne was weak, owing to a declaration of <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England" title="Henry IV of England">Henry IV</a> that barred the accession to the throne of any heirs of the legitimised offspring of his father <a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt" title="John of Gaunt">John of Gaunt</a> by his third wife Katherine Swynford. The original act legitimizing the children of John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford passed by Parliament and the bull issued by the Pope in the matter legitimised them fully, making questionable the legality of Henry IV's declaration. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201751-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201751_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201751_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2017">Clodfelter 2017</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHiggons1727" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bevil_Higgons" title="Bevil Higgons">Higgons, Bevil</a> (1727). A Short View of the English History:: With Reflections Political, Historical, Civil, Physical, and Moral; on the Reigns of the Kings; Their Characters, and Manners; Their Successions to the Throne, and All Other Remarkable Incidents to the Revolution 1688. : Drawn from Authentic Memoirs and Manuscripts. T. Johnston. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=el5aAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA165">165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+View+of+the+English+History%3A%3A+With+Reflections+Political%2C+Historical%2C+Civil%2C+Physical%2C+and+Moral%3B+on+the+Reigns+of+the+Kings%3B+Their+Characters%2C+and+Manners%3B+Their+Successions+to+the+Throne%2C+and+All+Other+Remarkable+Incidents+to+the+Revolution+1688.+%3A+Drawn+from+Authentic+Memoirs+and+Manuscripts&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=T.+Johnston&rft.date=1727&rft.aulast=Higgons&rft.aufirst=Bevil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume, David</a>. "EDWARD IV". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/19212/19212-h/19212-h.htm#linkedward4">The History of England in Three Volumes</a>. Vol. I.B.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=EDWARD+IV&rft.btitle=The+History+of+England+in+Three+Volumes&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F19212%2F19212-h%2F19212-h.htm%23linkedward4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201219-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201219_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoodwin2012">Goodwin 2012</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201221-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodwin201221_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoodwin2012">Goodwin 2012</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoutell1914228-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoutell1914228_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoutell1914">Boutell 1914</a>, p. 228. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1945240–241-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne1945240–241_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCokayne1945">Cokayne 1945</a>, pp. 240–241. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy198919-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy198919_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBellamy1989">Bellamy 1989</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoutell1914229-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoutell1914229_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoutell1914">Boutell 1914</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoutell191426-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoutell191426_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoutell1914">Boutell 1914</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966109-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowse1966109_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowse1966109_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRowse1966">Rowse 1966</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrummitt2012xviii–xxi-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrummitt2012xviii–xxi_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrummitt2012">Grummitt 2012</a>, pp. xviii–xxi. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackstone" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone, William</a>. "Chapter 12". <a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England" title="Commentaries on the Laws of England">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a>. Vol. Book 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+12&rft.btitle=Commentaries+on+the+Laws+of+England&rft.aulast=Blackstone&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chisholm-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chisholm_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chisholm_17-1">b</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /> One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Clarence,_Dukes_of" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Clarence, Dukes of">Clarence, Dukes of s.v. George, duke of Clarence</a>". <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 248.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Clarence%2C+Dukes+of+s.v.+George%2C+duke+of+Clarence&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=248&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lancastercastle.com/history-heritage/duchy-of-lancaster">"Duchy of Lancaster"</a>. Lancaster Castle. Retrieved 25 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lancaster+Castle&rft.atitle=Duchy+of+Lancaster&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lancastercastle.com%2Fhistory-heritage%2Fduchy-of-lancaster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica.com-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/653687/Edmund-of-Langley-1st-duke-of-York">"Edmund of Langley First Duke of York"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edmund+of+Langley+First+Duke+of+York&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F653687%2FEdmund-of-Langley-1st-duke-of-York&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1913435-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne1913435_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCokayne1913">Cokayne 1913</a>, p. 435. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.royal.uk/edward-iii">"Edward III (r. 1327–1377)"</a>. Royal Family. 12 January 2016. Retrieved 31 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Family&rft.atitle=Edward+III+%28r.+1327%E2%80%931377%29&rft.date=2016-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.royal.uk%2Fedward-iii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker20063-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker20063_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker20063_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker20063_22-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2006" class="citation book cs1">Walker, Simon (2006). Political Culture in Late Medieval England: Essays by Simon Walker. Manchester University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6M1RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA17">17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6826-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6826-3"><bdi>978-0-7190-6826-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Culture+in+Late+Medieval+England%3A+Essays+by+Simon+Walker&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-6826-3&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStubbs1875-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStubbs1875_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStubbs1875">Stubbs 1875</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FritzeRobison2002-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FritzeRobison2002_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FritzeRobison2002_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FritzeRobison2002_24-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritzeRobison2002" class="citation book cs1">Fritze, Ronald H.; Robison, William Baxter (2002). Historical Dictionary of Late Medieval England, 1272–1485. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=INmdwCSkvIgC&pg=PA3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29124-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29124-1"><bdi>978-0-313-29124-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Late+Medieval+England%2C+1272%E2%80%931485&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29124-1&rft.aulast=Fritze&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rft.au=Robison%2C+William+Baxter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarpenter1980" class="citation journal cs1">Carpenter, Christine (1980). "The Beauchamp Affinity: A Study of Bastard Feudalism at Work". English Historical Review. 95: 514–532. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FXCV.CCCLXXVI.514">10.1093/ehr/XCV.CCCLXXVI.514</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Beauchamp+Affinity%3A+A+Study+of+Bastard+Feudalism+at+Work&rft.volume=95&rft.pages=514-532&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2FXCV.CCCLXXVI.514&rft.aulast=Carpenter&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFHicks2008">Hicks 2008</a>, p. 105 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMercer2010" class="citation book cs1">Mercer, Malcolm (2010). Medieval Gentry: Power, Leadership and Choice during the Wars of the Roses. London. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441190642" title="Special:BookSources/9781441190642"><bdi>9781441190642</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Gentry%3A+Power%2C+Leadership+and+Choice+during+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=London&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781441190642&rft.aulast=Mercer&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFPollard2007">Pollard 2007</a>, p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-Spencer20133-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Spencer20133_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer2013" class="citation book cs1">Spencer, Andrew M. (31 October 2013). Nobility and Kingship in Medieval England: The Earls and Edward I, 1272–1307. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kQj3AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA127">127</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-65467-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-65467-9"><bdi>978-1-107-65467-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nobility+and+Kingship+in+Medieval+England%3A+The+Earls+and+Edward+I%2C+1272%E2%80%931307&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013-10-31&rft.isbn=978-1-107-65467-9&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhDY4lLAtjXoCpgPA57_57]-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHicks2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidhDY4lLAtjXoCpgPA57_57]_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHicks2008">Hicks 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hDY4lLAtjXoC&pg=PA57">57</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2007300-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard2007300_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPollard2007">Pollard 2007</a>, p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaul2005153–154_30-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaul2005">Saul 2005</a>, pp. 153–154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETuck1985221-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuck1985221_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTuck1985">Tuck 1985</a>, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005419–20-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaul2005419–20_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaul2005">Saul 2005</a>, pp. 419–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeward199539-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeward199539_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeward1995">Seward 1995</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner2001141-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2001141_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagner2001141_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWagner2001">Wagner 2001</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1968589-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths1968589_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGriffiths1968">Griffiths 1968</a>, p. 589. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortimer2006320-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortimer2006320_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortimer2006">Mortimer 2006</a>, p. 320. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1998584–585-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett1998584–585_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett1998">Bennett 1998</a>, pp. 584–585. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett1998584-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett1998584_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett1998">Bennett 1998</a>, p. 584. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse196614–24-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowse196614–24_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRowse1966">Rowse 1966</a>, pp. 14–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKisack1959399–400-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKisack1959399–400_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcKisack1959">McKisack 1959</a>, pp. 399–400. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETuck1985-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuck1985_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTuck1985">Tuck 1985</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005158-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaul2005158_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaul2005">Saul 2005</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortimer2007appendix_2-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMortimer2007appendix_2_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMortimer2007">Mortimer 2007</a>, appendix 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKisack1959491-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKisack1959491_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcKisack1959">McKisack 1959</a>, p. 491. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaul2005406–7-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaul2005406–7_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaul2005">Saul 2005</a>, pp. 406–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2012" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Dan (2012). "Richard Alone". <a href="/wiki/The_Plantagenets:_The_Kings_Who_Made_England" title="The Plantagenets: The Kings Who Made England">The Plantagenets: The Kings Who Made England</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0143124924" title="Special:BookSources/978-0143124924"><bdi>978-0143124924</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Richard+Alone&rft.btitle=The+Plantagenets%3A+The+Kings+Who+Made+England&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0143124924&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2014" class="citation book cs1">Potter, Philip J. 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McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786491032" title="Special:BookSources/9780786491032"><bdi>9780786491032</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monarchs+of+the+Renaissance%3A+The+Lives+and+Reigns+of+42+European+Kings+and+Queens&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2014-01-10&rft.isbn=9780786491032&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=Philip+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D39hKrtqiDcIC%26q%3Depiphany%2Brising%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch10_revolt_of_owain_glyndwr.shtml">"BBC Wales – History – Themes – Chapter 10: The revolt of Owain Glyndwr"</a>. 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Vol. 2. London: Tinsley brothers. pp. 369–371. Retrieved 17 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Times+of+Margaret+of+Anjou%2C+Queen+of+England+and+France%3B+and+of+her+Father+Ren%C3%A9+%22the+Good%2C%22+King+of+Sicily%2C+Naples%2C+and+Jerusalem+With+Memoirs+of+the+Houses+of+Anjou&rft.pages=369-371&rft.pub=London%3A+Tinsley+brothers&rft.date=1872&rft.aulast=Hookham&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flifetimesofmarga02hook%2Flifetimesofmarga02hook%23page%2Fn389%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Exemplification, at the request of Roger Twynyho of Westminster, kinsman and heir of Ankarette late the wife of William Twynyho of Cayforde, co. Somerset, esquire, viz. son of John their son, of the following: a petition of the said Roger in the present Parliament. 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Retrieved 17 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Croyland+Abbey%2C+Third+Continuation&rft.pub=R3.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.r3.org%2Fbookcase%2Fcroyland%2Fcroy7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhodes1962" class="citation journal cs1">Rhodes, D. E. (April 1962). "The Princes in the Tower and Their Doctor". The English Historical Review. 77 (303). 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In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 385.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rivers%2C+Anthony+Woodville%2C+2nd+Earl&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=385&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Gosse&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> This presents a detailed biography. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrox2004-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrox2004_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHorrox2004">Horrox 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard1991" class="citation book cs1">Pollard, A. J. (1991). Richard III and the Princes in the Tower. Alan Sutton Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0862996600" title="Special:BookSources/0862996600"><bdi>0862996600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III+and+the+Princes+in+the+Tower&rft.pub=Alan+Sutton+Publishing&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0862996600&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss198183–85_&_84n62-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss198183–85_&_84n62_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1981">Ross 1981</a>, pp. 83–85 & 84n62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir2008b151-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir2008b151_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeir2008b">Weir 2008b</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall1956-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKendall1956_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKendall1956">Kendall 1956</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall1956215–216-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKendall1956215–216_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKendall1956">Kendall 1956</a>, pp. 215–216. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin2013101-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaldwin2013101_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaldwin2013">Baldwin 2013</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008117-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHicks2008117_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHicks2008">Hicks 2008</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1975269–270-262"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood1975269–270_262-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWood1975">Wood 1975</a>, pp. 269–270, quoting a letter of instruction sent to <a href="/wiki/John_Blount,_3rd_Baron_Mountjoy" title="John Blount, 3rd Baron Mountjoy">John Blount, Lord Mountjoy</a> two days following Richard's assumption of the throne. However, Wood goes on to observe that "the impressions conveyed by this document are in many respects demonstrably false."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrummitt2012116-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrummitt2012116_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrummitt2012">Grummitt 2012</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorrox" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Horrox, Rosemary. "Edward V". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F8521">10.1093/ref:odnb/8521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edward+V&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F8521&rft.aulast=Horrox&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013195–196-265">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013195–196_265-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013195–196_265-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGristwood2013">Gristwood 2013</a>, pp. 195–196. </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Genealogical Tables in Morgan, (1988), p. 709 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1981111-268"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss1981111_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1981">Ross 1981</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199965-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199965_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrimes1999">Chrimes 1999</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Annette. Richard III: The Maligned King.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III%3A+The+Maligned+King&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Annette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008211-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHicks2008211_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHicks2008">Hicks 2008</a>, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199917-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199917_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrimes1999">Chrimes 1999</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1999192-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss1999192_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1999">Ross 1999</a>, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams197325-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams197325_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams1973">Williams 1973</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowse1966199-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowse1966199_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRowse1966">Rowse 1966</a>, p. 199. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1981105–119-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss1981105–119_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1981">Ross 1981</a>, pp. 105–119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199925–26-277"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199925–26_277-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrimes1999">Chrimes 1999</a>, pp. 25–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130901080051/http://www.partyparcel.co.uk/#annullment_elizabeth">"Parliamentary Rolls Richard III"</a>. Rotuli Parliamentorum A.D. 1483 1 Richard III Cap XV. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://partyparcel.co.uk/#annullment_elizabeth">the original</a> on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rotuli+Parliamentorum+A.D.+1483+1+Richard+III+Cap+XV&rft.atitle=Parliamentary+Rolls+Richard+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpartyparcel.co.uk%2F%23annullment_elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060709203718/http://www.r3.org/basics/basic8.html">"Richard III and Yorkist History Server"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.r3.org/basics/basic8.html">the original</a> on 9 July 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Richard+III+and+Yorkist+History+Server&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.r3.org%2Fbasics%2Fbasic8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bosworthbirthoft0000skid/page/154/mode/2up">Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors</a>. Phoenix Press. 2013. pp. 153–154. <q>Polydore Vergil records that Henry travelled to the ducal capital at Rennes, where he sent for Dorset and the other exiles who arrived at Vannes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bosworth%3A+The+Birth+of+the+Tudors&rft.pages=153-154&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbosworthbirthoft0000skid%2Fpage%2F154%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199919-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199919_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrimes1999">Chrimes 1999</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELander1980324-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELander1980324_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLander1980">Lander 1980</a>, p. 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKendall297-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKendall297_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKendall">Kendall</a>, p. 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199931-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199931_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrimes1999">Chrimes 1999</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1999144-285"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss1999144_285-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1999">Ross 1999</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss1999145–146-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss1999145–146_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoss1999">Ross 1999</a>, pp. 145–146. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199939-287">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199939_287-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199939_287-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrimes1999">Chrimes 1999</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChrimes199929–30-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChrimes199929–30_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChrimes1999">Chrimes 1999</a>, pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013226-289">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013226_289-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGristwood2013226_289-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGristwood2013">Gristwood 2013</a>, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELander1980325-290"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELander1980325_290-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLander1980">Lander 1980</a>, p. 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historypoints.org/index.php?page=henry-tudor-s-landing-site">"Henry Tudor's landing site"</a>. History Points. Retrieved 14 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Points&rft.atitle=Henry+Tudor%27s+landing+site&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorypoints.org%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3Dhenry-tudor-s-landing-site&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRees1985" class="citation book cs1">Rees, David (1985). The Son of Prophecy: Henry Tudor's Road to Bosworth. London: Black Raven Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85159-005-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85159-005-9"><bdi>978-0-85159-005-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Son+of+Prophecy%3A+Henry+Tudor%27s+Road+to+Bosworth&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Black+Raven+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-85159-005-9&rft.aulast=Rees&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElton200389-293"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElton200389_293-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElton2003">Elton 2003</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendall" class="citation book cs1">Kendall, Paul Murray. 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House of Stratus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-755-11878-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-755-11878-6"><bdi>978-0-755-11878-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+Of+Cornwall&rft.pub=House+of+Stratus&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-755-11878-6&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cornish_History-339">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cornish_History_339-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cornish_History_339-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060619090607/http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=5749">"Timeline of Cornish History 1066–1700 AD"</a>. Cornwall County Council. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=5749">the original</a> on 19 June 2006. Retrieved 10 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cornwall+County+Council&rft.atitle=Timeline+of+Cornish+History+1066%E2%80%931700+AD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cornwall.gov.uk%2Findex.cfm%3Farticleid%3D5749&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Payton2004-340"><a href="#cite_ref-Payton2004_340-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayton2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Payton" title="Philip Payton">Payton, Philip</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UfCvxdhNLHIC&pg=PA111">Cornwall: A History</a>. Cornwall Editions. pp. 111–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904880-05-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904880-05-9"><bdi>978-1-904880-05-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cornwall%3A+A+History&rft.pages=111-&rft.pub=Cornwall+Editions&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-904880-05-9&rft.aulast=Payton&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUfCvxdhNLHIC%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArthurson1994215-341">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArthurson1994215_341-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArthurson1994215_341-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFArthurson1994">Arthurson 1994</a>, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00546sp">"BBC War of the Roses discussion"</a>. In our Time Radio 4. 18 May 2000. Retrieved 1 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=In+our+Time+Radio+4&rft.atitle=BBC+War+of+the+Roses+discussion&rft.date=2000-05-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fp00546sp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERedstone1902159–200-343"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedstone1902159–200_343-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRedstone1902">Redstone 1902</a>, pp. 159–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201114-344">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESadler201114_344-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESadler201114_344-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSadler2011">Sadler 2011</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiseEmbleton19834-345">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiseEmbleton19834_345-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiseEmbleton19834_345-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiseEmbleton19834_345-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWiseEmbleton1983">Wise & Embleton 1983</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-346">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_346-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_346-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatwright" class="citation web cs1">Catwright, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1504/the-wars-of-the-roses-consequences--effects/#:~:text=The%20various%20consequences%20of%20the%20Wars%20of%20the,House%20of%20Tudor%20by%20Henry%20VII.%20More%20items">"The Wars of the Roses: Consequences & Effects"</a>. Worldhistory.org. Retrieved 16 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Worldhistory.org&rft.atitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses%3A+Consequences+%26+Effects&rft.aulast=Catwright&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1504%2Fthe-wars-of-the-roses-consequences--effects%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520various%2520consequences%2520of%2520the%2520Wars%2520of%2520the%2CHouse%2520of%2520Tudor%2520by%2520Henry%2520VII.%2520More%2520items&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELander1980363–365-347"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELander1980363–365_347-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLander1980">Lander 1980</a>, pp. 363–365. </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> S. Broadberry et al. (2010), "English Medieval Population: Reconciling Time Series and Cross Sectional Evidence", Table 7 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/sbroadberry/wp/medievalpopulation7.pdf">Preprint</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160122090413/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/sbroadberry/wp/medievalpopulation7.pdf">Archived</a> 22 January 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p.22); S. Broadberry et al. (2010), "British Economic Growth 1270–1870", Table 18 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/sbroadberry/wp/britishgdplongrun8a.pdf">Preprint</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160421052951/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/sbroadberry/wp/britishgdplongrun8a.pdf">Archived</a> 21 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 54); see also S. Broadberry et al. (2015), British Economic Growth 1270–1870, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1107070783" title="Special:BookSources/1107070783">1107070783</a>, Chapter 1, and Table 5.06, pg <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wJvWBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA205">205</a> See also B. Campbell (1990), "People and Land in the Middle Ages, 1066–1500", in Robert A. Dodgshon and Robin A. Butlin (eds), Historical Geography of England and Wales, 2nd edition. Elsevier. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1483288412" title="Special:BookSources/1483288412">1483288412</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XkvgBAAAQBAJ&dq=england+dark+age+population&pg=PA69">69–122</a> for discussion of drivers and trends underlying the numbers. </li> <li id="cite_note-wns-349"><a href="#cite_ref-wns_349-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrigleySchofield1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tony_Wrigley" title="Tony Wrigley">Wrigley, Edward Anthony</a>; <a href="/wiki/Roger_Schofield" title="Roger Schofield">Schofield, Roger Snowden</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/populationhistor0000wrig_w4s3/page/208/mode/2up">The population history of England, 1541–1871: a reconstruction</a>. Edward Arnold. Table 7.8 (p. 208–209).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+population+history+of+England%2C+1541%E2%80%931871%3A+a+reconstruction&rft.pages=Table+7.8+%28p.+208-209%29&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Wrigley&rft.aufirst=Edward+Anthony&rft.au=Schofield%2C+Roger+Snowden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpopulationhistor0000wrig_w4s3%2Fpage%2F208%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir2008a148-350"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir2008a148_350-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeir2008a">Weir 2008a</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cunningham, Sean (2008). "Pole, Edmund de la, eighth earl of Suffolk (1472?–1513)". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F22446">10.1093/ref:odnb/22446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pole%2C+Edmund+de+la%2C+eighth+earl+of+Suffolk+%281472%3F%E2%80%931513%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F22446&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunningham2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cunningham, Sean (2004). "Pole, Richard de la (d. 1525)". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F22458">10.1093/ref:odnb/22458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pole%2C+Richard+de+la+%28d.+1525%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F22458&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks2008269-353"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHicks2008269_353-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHicks2008">Hicks 2008</a>, p. 269. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHicks20088,_238–245-354"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHicks20088,_238–245_354-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHicks2008">Hicks 2008</a>, pp. 8, 238–245. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagnerSchmid2011-355"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWagnerSchmid2011_355-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWagnerSchmid2011">Wagner & Schmid 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy1988-356"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuy1988_356-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuy1988">Guy 1988</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCaffrey1984[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrecentviewsonbri0000unsepage1_1–34]-357"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCaffrey1984[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrecentviewsonbri0000unsepage1_1–34]_357-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCaffrey1984">McCaffrey 1984</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recentviewsonbri0000unse/page/1">1–34</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeir201113-358"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeir201113_358-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeir2011">Weir 2011</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESlavin1964vii–viii-359"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlavin1964vii–viii_359-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSlavin1964">Slavin 1964</a>, pp. vii–viii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris19992-360"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorris19992_360-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMorris1999">Morris 1999</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy198878-361"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuy198878_361-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuy1988">Guy 1988</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcClelland1996224-362"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcClelland1996224_362-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcClelland1996">McClelland 1996</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/collections/154826/an-introduction-to-the-english-renaissance">"English Renaissance"</a>. Poetry Foundation online. 9 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=English+Renaissance&rft.pub=Poetry+Foundation+online&rft.date=2021-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.poetryfoundation.org%2Fcollections%2F154826%2Fan-introduction-to-the-english-renaissance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritze1991" class="citation book cs1">Fritze, Ronald H. (1991). Historical Dictionary of Tudor England, 1485–1603. pp. 419–420.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Tudor+England%2C+1485%E2%80%931603&rft.pages=419-420&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Fritze&rft.aufirst=Ronald+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaigh199393–94-365"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaigh199393–94_365-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaigh1993">Haigh 1993</a>, pp. 93–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrong1999" class="citation book cs1">Strong, Roy (1999). The Cult of Elizabeth: Elizabethan Portraiture and Pageantry.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cult+of+Elizabeth%3A+Elizabethan+Portraiture+and+Pageantry&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Strong&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-367"><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilliam2005" class="citation book cs1">Hilliam, Paul (2005). Elizabeth I: Queen of England's Golden Age.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elizabeth+I%3A+Queen+of+England%27s+Golden+Age&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hilliam&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy198832-368"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuy198832_368-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuy1988">Guy 1988</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-369"><a href="#cite_ref-:6_369-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese1961" class="citation book cs1">Reese, M. M. (1961). The Cease of Majesty: A Study of Shakespeare's History Plays. New York: St Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cease+of+Majesty%3A+A+Study+of+Shakespeare%27s+History+Plays&rft.pub=New+York%3A+St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=M.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendall1956" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Murray_Kendall" title="Paul Murray Kendall">Kendall, Paul Murray</a> (1956). <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_(biography)" title="Richard III (biography)">Richard III</a>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00785-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00785-5"><bdi>0-393-00785-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III&rft.pub=New+York%3A+W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=0-393-00785-5&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=Paul+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendall1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Murray_Kendall" title="Paul Murray Kendall">Kendall, Paul Murray</a> (1965). Richard III: The Great Debate: Sir Thomas More's History of King Richard III, Horace Walpole's Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00310-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00310-9"><bdi>978-0-393-00310-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III%3A+The+Great+Debate%3A+Sir+Thomas+More%27s+History+of+King+Richard+III%2C+Horace+Walpole%27s+Historic+Doubts+on+the+Life+and+Reign+of+King+Richard+III&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-393-00310-9&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=Paul+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarleton2014" class="citation book cs1">Carleton, Charles (2014). Royal Warriors: A Military History of the British Monarchy. 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London: Bloomsbury. pp. 259–260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-0299-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4729-0299-3"><bdi>978-1-4729-0299-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/920860617">920860617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III%3A+a+ruler+and+his+reputation&rft.place=London&rft.pages=259-260&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F920860617&rft.isbn=978-1-4729-0299-3&rft.aulast=Horspool&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F920860617&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese1961" class="citation book cs1">Reese, M.M. 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Pen and Sword. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473846968" title="Special:BookSources/9781473846968"><bdi>9781473846968</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Warfare&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781473846968&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradbury2004" class="citation book cs1">Bradbury, Jim (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/475908407">Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare</a>. London: Routledge. pp. 272–279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-64466-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-64466-9"><bdi>978-0-203-64466-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/475908407">475908407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Companion+to+Medieval+Warfare.&rft.place=London&rft.pages=272-279&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F475908407&rft.isbn=978-0-203-64466-9&rft.aulast=Bradbury&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F475908407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniell2003" class="citation book cs1">Daniell, Christopher (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/860711898">From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta : England 1066–1215</a>. London. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-35697-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-35697-1"><bdi>978-1-136-35697-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/860711898">860711898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Norman+Conquest+to+Magna+Carta+%3A+England+1066%E2%80%931215&rft.place=London&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F860711898&rft.isbn=978-1-136-35697-1&rft.aulast=Daniell&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F860711898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt2002" class="citation book cs1">Holt (May 2002). 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(1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hnVKAAAAYAAJ">The Life and Reign of Edward the Fourth</a>. Vol. I. London: Longmans, Green and Co. p. 587.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Reign+of+Edward+the+Fourth&rft.pages=587&rft.pub=London%3A+Longmans%2C+Green+and+Co.&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Scofield&rft.aufirst=Cora+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhnVKAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis2004-430"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis2004_430-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllis2004">Ellis 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESadler201156-431"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESadler201156_431-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSadler2011">Sadler 2011</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECokayne1913293–294-432"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECokayne1913293–294_432-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCokayne1913">Cokayne 1913</a>, pp. 293–294. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffithsThomas198546-433"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffithsThomas198546_433-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGriffithsThomas1985">Griffiths & Thomas 1985</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPugh199252–56-434"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPugh199252–56_434-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPugh1992">Pugh 1992</a>, pp. 52–56. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllmand1982" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Allmand" title="Christopher Allmand">Allmand, C. 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Vol. 32, no. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170728212009/https://www.historytoday.com/ct-allmand/coronations-henry-vi">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=The+Coronations+of+Henry+VI&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=5&rft.date=1982-04-30&rft.aulast=Allmand&rft.aufirst=C.+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fct-allmand%2Fcoronations-henry-vi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthurson1987" class="citation book cs1">Arthurson, Ian (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/peoplepoliticsco00rose#page/n19/mode/2up">"Chapter 1: The Rising of 1497: A Revolt of the Peasantry?"</a>. 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Alan Sutton. pp. 1–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-01220-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-01220-9"><bdi>0-312-01220-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+The+Rising+of+1497%3A+A+Revolt+of+the+Peasantry%3F&rft.btitle=People%2C+Politics+and+Community+in+the+Later+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=1-18&rft.pub=Alan+Sutton&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-312-01220-9&rft.aulast=Arthurson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fpeoplepoliticsco00rose%23page%2Fn19%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthurson1994" class="citation book cs1">—— (1994). The Perkin Warbeck Conspiracy, 1491–1499. 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Retrieved 28 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Field+of+the+Battle+of+Barnet&rft.btitle=Visits+to+Fields+of+Battle%2C+in+England%2C+of+the+Fifteenth+Century%3A+To+which+are+Added+Some+Miscellaneous+Tracts+and+Papers+Upon+Archaeological+Subjects&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Russell+Smith&rft.date=1857&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43406489&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6922778M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Brooke&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvwAHAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFbtilley2007" class="citation news cs1">btilley (26 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229231627/http://www.hexhamcourant.co.uk/tourism/arts-leisure/debunking-myths-about-the-real-battle-of-hexham-1.184434?referrerPath=home%2F2.3307">"Debunking myths about the real Battle of Hexham"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hexham_Courant" title="Hexham Courant">Hexham Courant</a>. 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Henry VII. Yale English Monarchs. <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven, Connecticut</a>; and London: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07883-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07883-8"><bdi>0-300-07883-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99061177">99061177</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL53092M">53092M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henry+VII&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut%3B+and+London&rft.series=Yale+English+Monarchs&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL53092M%23id-name%3DOL&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99061177&rft.isbn=0-300-07883-8&rft.aulast=Chrimes&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2016" class="citation book cs1">Clark, K. L. (2016). The Nevills of Middleham: England's Most Powerful Family in the Wars of the Roses. Stroud, Gloucestershire: The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-6365-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-6365-7"><bdi>978-0-7509-6365-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nevills+of+Middleham%3A+England%27s+Most+Powerful+Family+in+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=Stroud%2C+Gloucestershire&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7509-6365-7&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=K.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7470-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7470-7"><bdi>978-0-7864-7470-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492%E2%80%932015&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-7470-7&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=Micheal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCokayne1913" class="citation book cs1">Cokayne, G. E. (1913). Gibbs, Vicary & Doubleday, H. Arthur (eds.). The Complete peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, extant, extinct or dormant (Canonteign to Cutts). Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). London: The St Catherine Press. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL17518257M">17518257M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+peerage+of+England%2C+Scotland%2C+Ireland%2C+Great+Britain+and+the+United+Kingdom%2C+extant%2C+extinct+or+dormant+%28Canonteign+to+Cutts%29&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+St+Catherine+Press&rft.date=1913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL17518257M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Cokayne&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCokayne1932" class="citation book cs1">—— (1932). H. A. Doubleday & Lord Howard de Walden (eds.). The Complete Peerage, or a history of the House of Lords and all its members from the earliest times (Lindley to Moate). Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). London: The St Catherine Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Peerage%2C+or+a+history+of+the+House+of+Lords+and+all+its+members+from+the+earliest+times+%28Lindley+to+Moate%29&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+St+Catherine+Press&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Cokayne&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCokayne1945" class="citation book cs1">—— (1945). Doubleday, H. A. & Lord Howard de Walden (eds.). The Complete Peerage, or a history of the House of Lords and all its members from the earliest times (Oakham to Richmond). Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). London: The St Catherine Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Peerage%2C+or+a+history+of+the+House+of+Lords+and+all+its+members+from+the+earliest+times+%28Oakham+to+Richmond%29&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+St+Catherine+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Cokayne&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ellis, Steven G. (2004). "Butler, John, sixth earl of Ormond (d. 1476/7)". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F4195">10.1093/ref:odnb/4195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Butler%2C+John%2C+sixth+earl+of+Ormond+%28d.+1476%2F7%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F4195&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Steven+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Elton" title="Geoffrey Elton">Elton, Geoffrey</a> (2003) [1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hIS8AourX2gC&pg=PA77">"Henry VII"</a>. Studies in Tudor and Stuart Politics and Government: Volume 4, Papers and Reviews 1982–1990. Vol. 4. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-53317-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-53317-1"><bdi>0-521-53317-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Henry+VII&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Tudor+and+Stuart+Politics+and+Government%3A+Volume+4%2C+Papers+and+Reviews+1982%E2%80%931990&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-53317-1&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhIS8AourX2gC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarquhar2001" class="citation book cs1">Farquhar, Michael (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/treasuryofroyals00farq">A Treasury of Royal Scandals</a>. New York: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-2025-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-2025-6"><bdi>978-0-7394-2025-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Treasury+of+Royal+Scandals&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7394-2025-6&rft.aulast=Farquhar&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftreasuryofroyals00farq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGravett1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Gravett" title="Christopher Gravett">Gravett, Christopher</a> (1999). Bosworth 1485: Last Charge of the Plantagenets. Campaign. Vol. 66. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-863-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85532-863-1"><bdi>1-85532-863-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bosworth+1485%3A+Last+Charge+of+the+Plantagenets&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Campaign&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=1-85532-863-1&rft.aulast=Gravett&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGravett2003a" class="citation book cs1">—— (2003a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190227153854/http://droppdf.com/files/PUZeq/gravetttewkesbury1971.pdf">Tewkesbury 1471: The last Yorkist victory</a> (PDF). Oxford: Osprey Publishing (published 22 October 2003). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-514-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-84176-514-7"><bdi>1-84176-514-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://droppdf.com/files/PUZeq/gravetttewkesbury1971.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tewkesbury+1471%3A+The+last+Yorkist+victory&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-84176-514-7&rft.aulast=Gravett&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdroppdf.com%2Ffiles%2FPUZeq%2Fgravetttewkesbury1971.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGravett2003b" class="citation book cs1">—— (2003b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130808023313/https://brego-weard.com/lib/newosp/Towton%201461.pdf">Towton 1461: England's Bloodiest Battle</a> (PDF). Campaign. Vol. 120. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing (published 20 April 2003). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-513-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-513-6"><bdi>978-1-84176-513-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brego-weard.com/lib/newosp/Towton%201461.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 8 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towton+1461%3A+England%27s+Bloodiest+Battle&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.series=Campaign&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-513-6&rft.aulast=Gravett&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrego-weard.com%2Flib%2Fnewosp%2FTowton%25201461.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillingham1981" class="citation book cs1">Gillingham, John (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warsofrosespeace0000gill">The Wars of the Roses : peace and conflict in fifteenth-century England</a>. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807110058" title="Special:BookSources/9780807110058"><bdi>9780807110058</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses+%3A+peace+and+conflict+in+fifteenth-century+England&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780807110058&rft.aulast=Gillingham&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarsofrosespeace0000gill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1981" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Anthony (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warsofrosesmilit0000good">The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English society, 1452–97</a>. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780710007285" title="Special:BookSources/9780710007285"><bdi>9780710007285</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses%3A+Military+Activity+and+English+society%2C+1452%E2%80%9397&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780710007285&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarsofrosesmilit0000good&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths1968" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_A._Griffiths" title="Ralph A. Griffiths">Griffiths, Ralph Alan</a> (1968). "Local Rivalries and National Politics: The Percies, the Nevilles, and the Duke of Exeter, 1452–55". <a href="/wiki/Speculum_(journal)" title="Speculum (journal)">Speculum</a>. 43 (4): 589–632. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2855323">10.2307/2855323</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2855323">2855323</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155012397">155012397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=Local+Rivalries+and+National+Politics%3A+The+Percies%2C+the+Nevilles%2C+and+the+Duke+of+Exeter%2C+1452%E2%80%9355&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=589-632&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155012397%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2855323%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2855323&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsThomas1985" class="citation book cs1">——; Thomas, Roger S. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingoftudord00grif">The Making of the Tudor Dynasty</a>. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-31250-745-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-31250-745-9"><bdi>978-0-31250-745-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Tudor+Dynasty&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-31250-745-9&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Alan&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Roger+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingoftudord00grif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin2012" class="citation book cs1">—— (16 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A9EGec-o2joC">Fatal Colours</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson" title="Weidenfeld & Nicolson">Phoenix</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2817-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-2817-5"><bdi>978-0-7538-2817-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fatal+Colours&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Phoenix&rft.date=2012-02-16&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-2817-5&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA9EGec-o2joC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGristwood2013" class="citation book cs1">Gristwood, Sarah (2013). Blood Sisters: The Women Behind the Wars of the Roses. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465065981" title="Special:BookSources/9780465065981"><bdi>9780465065981</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1261945310">1261945310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blood+Sisters%3A+The+Women+Behind+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1261945310&rft.isbn=9780465065981&rft.aulast=Gristwood&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrummitt2012" class="citation book cs1">Grummitt, David (30 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ESdz_nc_A2QC">A Short History of the Wars of the Roses</a>. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-875-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-875-6"><bdi>978-1-84885-875-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2012-10-30&rft.isbn=978-1-84885-875-6&rft.aulast=Grummitt&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DESdz_nc_A2QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuy1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Guy_(historian)" title="John Guy (historian)">Guy, J.</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tudorengland00john">Tudor England</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285213-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285213-7"><bdi>978-0-19-285213-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17677564">17677564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tudor+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17677564&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285213-7&rft.aulast=Guy&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftudorengland00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaigh1993" class="citation book cs1">Haigh, Christopher (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englishreformati0000haig">English Reformations: Religion, Politics, and Society under the Tudors</a>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822162-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822162-3"><bdi>978-0-19-822162-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Reformations%3A+Religion%2C+Politics%2C+and+Society+under+the+Tudors&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-822162-3&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenglishreformati0000haig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaigh1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_A._Haigh" title="Philip A. Haigh">Haigh, P.</a> (1995). The Military Campaigns of the Wars of the Roses. A. Sutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-0904-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-0904-8"><bdi>0-7509-0904-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+Campaigns+of+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.pub=A.+Sutton&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-7509-0904-8&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarriss2005" class="citation book cs1">Harriss, G. L. (2005). Shaping the Nation. England, 1360-1461.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaping+the+Nation.+England%2C+1360-1461&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Harriss&rft.aufirst=G.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngram2012" class="citation book cs1">Ingram, Mike (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bosworth14850000ingr">Bosworth 1485: Battle Story</a>. The History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-6988-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-6988-1"><bdi>978-0-7524-6988-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bosworth+1485%3A+Battle+Story&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-6988-1&rft.aulast=Ingram&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbosworth14850000ingr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._F._Jacob" title="E. F. Jacob">Jacob, Ernest Fraser</a> (1961). The Fifteenth Century 1399–1485. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_History_of_England" title="Oxford History of England">Oxford History of England</a>. Vol. 6. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19821-714-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19821-714-5"><bdi>978-0-19821-714-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fifteenth+Century+1399%E2%80%931485&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+History+of+England&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-19821-714-5&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=Ernest+Fraser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1988" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, P. A. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1gYXAQAAIAAJ">Duke Richard of York 1411–1460</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Historical_Monographs" title="Oxford Historical Monographs">Oxford Historical Monographs</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822946-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822946-9"><bdi>978-0-19-822946-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Duke+Richard+of+York+1411%E2%80%931460&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+Historical+Monographs&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-822946-9&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=P.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1gYXAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendall2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Murray_Kendall" title="Paul Murray Kendall">Kendall, Paul Murray</a> (2002). Richard The Third. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-00785-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-00785-5"><bdi>0-393-00785-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+The+Third&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-393-00785-5&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=Paul+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLander1980" class="citation book cs1">Lander, Jack Robert (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/governmentcommun0000land">Government and Community: England, 1450–1509</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-35794-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-35794-5"><bdi>978-0-674-35794-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Government+and+Community%3A+England%2C+1450%E2%80%931509&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-674-35794-5&rft.aulast=Lander&rft.aufirst=Jack+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgovernmentcommun0000land&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLicence2013" class="citation book cs1">Licence, Amy (2013). Anne Neville: Richard III's Tragic Queen. <a href="/wiki/Stroud" title="Stroud">Stroud</a>: <a href="/wiki/Amberley_Publishing" title="Amberley Publishing">Amberley Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-445-61177-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-445-61177-8"><bdi>978-1-445-61177-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anne+Neville%3A+Richard+III%27s+Tragic+Queen&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-445-61177-8&rft.aulast=Licence&rft.aufirst=Amy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCaffrey1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wallace_T._MacCaffrey" title="Wallace T. MacCaffrey">McCaffrey, Wallace</a> (1984). "Recent Writings on Tutor History". In Schlatter, Richard (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recentviewsonbri0000unse/page/1">Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966</a>. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-0959-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-0959-4"><bdi>978-0-8135-0959-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recent+Writings+on+Tutor+History&rft.btitle=Recent+Views+on+British+History%3A+Essays+on+Historical+Writing+since+1966&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-0959-4&rft.aulast=McCaffrey&rft.aufirst=Wallace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frecentviewsonbri0000unse%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClelland1996" class="citation cs2">McClelland, J. S. (1996), A History of Western Political Thought, London: Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Political+Thought&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=McClelland&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKisack1959" class="citation book cs1">McKisack, May (1959). The Fourteenth Century, 1307–1399. Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fourteenth+Century%2C+1307%E2%80%931399&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=McKisack&rft.aufirst=May&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1999" class="citation book cs1">Morris, T. A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tudorgovernment0000morr">Tudor Government</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-98167-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-98167-2"><bdi>978-0-203-98167-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tudor+Government&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-203-98167-2&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=T.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftudorgovernment0000morr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMortimer2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Mortimer_(historian)" title="Ian Mortimer (historian)">Mortimer, Ian</a> (20 June 2006). "Richard II and the Succession to the Crown". <a href="/wiki/History_(journal)" title="History (journal)">History</a>. 91 (3, 303): 320–336. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-229X.2006.00368.x">10.1111/j.1468-229X.2006.00368.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24427962">24427962</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History&rft.atitle=Richard+II+and+the+Succession+to+the+Crown&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=3%2C+303&rft.pages=320-336&rft.date=2006-06-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-229X.2006.00368.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24427962%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mortimer&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMortimer2007" class="citation book cs1">—— (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170617043032/http://erenow.com/postclassical/the-fears-of-henry-iv-the-life-of-englands-king">The Fears of Henry IV: The Life of England's Self-Made King</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Cape" title="Jonathan Cape">Jonathan Cape</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-224-07300-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-224-07300-4"><bdi>978-0-224-07300-4</bdi></a>. Archived from the original on 17 June 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fears+of+Henry+IV%3A+The+Life+of+England%27s+Self-Made+King&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-224-07300-4&rft.aulast=Mortimer&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ferenow.com%2Fpostclassical%2Fthe-fears-of-henry-iv-the-life-of-englands-king&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenn2019" class="citation book cs1">Penn, Thomas (2019). The Brothers York. Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1846146909" title="Special:BookSources/978-1846146909"><bdi>978-1846146909</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brothers+York&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1846146909&rft.aulast=Penn&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._J._Pollard" title="A. J. Pollard">Pollard, A. J.</a> (1988). The Wars of the Roses. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-40604-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-40604-5"><bdi>978-0-333-40604-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Macmillan+Education&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-333-40604-5&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard2001" class="citation cs2">Pollard, A. J. (2001), Pollard, A. J. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-10515-8_4">"The Causes of the Wars"</a>, The Wars of the Roses, British History in Perspective, London: Macmillan Education UK, pp. 41–67, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-137-10515-8_4">10.1007/978-1-137-10515-8_4</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-10515-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-10515-8"><bdi>978-1-137-10515-8</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6794297M">6794297M</a>, retrieved 29 July 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.atitle=The+Causes+of+the+Wars&rft.pages=41-67&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6794297M%23id-name%3DOL&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-137-10515-8_4&rft.isbn=978-1-137-10515-8&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-1-137-10515-8_4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard2007" class="citation book cs1">—— (2007). Warwick the Kingmaker: Politics, Power and Fame. London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-847-25182-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-847-25182-4"><bdi>978-1-847-25182-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warwick+the+Kingmaker%3A+Politics%2C+Power+and+Fame&rft.pub=London&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-847-25182-4&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPublic_Records_Office1870" class="citation book cs1">Public Records Office (1870). Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reigns of Edward VI, Mary, Elizabeth, 1547–1580: Elizabeth 1601–1603; with addenda, 1547–1565. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ovsUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60">60</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calendar+of+State+Papers%2C+Domestic+Series%2C+of+the+Reigns+of+Edward+VI%2C+Mary%2C+Elizabeth%2C+1547%E2%80%931580%3A+Elizabeth+1601%E2%80%931603%3B+with+addenda%2C+1547%E2%80%931565&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Brown%2C+Green%2C+Longmans%2C+%26+Roberts&rft.date=1870&rft.au=Public+Records+Office&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPugh1992" class="citation book cs1">Pugh, Thomas (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0GS7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA49">"Henry VII and the English Nobility"</a>. In Bernard, George (ed.). The Tudor Nobility. Manchester: Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-3625-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-3625-9"><bdi>0-7190-3625-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Henry+VII+and+the+English+Nobility&rft.btitle=The+Tudor+Nobility&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7190-3625-9&rft.aulast=Pugh&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0GS7AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedstone1902" class="citation journal cs1">Redstone, Vincent B. (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1449761">"Social Conditions of England during the Wars of the Roses"</a>. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. New Series. 16 (1): 159–200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3678121">10.2307/3678121</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3678121">3678121</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154994287">154994287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Social+Conditions+of+England+during+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=159-200&rft.date=1902&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154994287%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3678121%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3678121&rft.aulast=Redstone&rft.aufirst=Vincent+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1449761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Richmond, C. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19454">"Mowbray, John, third duke of Norfolk (1415–1461)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F19454">10.1093/ref:odnb/19454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mowbray%2C+John%2C+third+duke+of+Norfolk+%281415%E2%80%931461%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F19454&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2Farticle%2F19454&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ross_(historian)" title="Charles Ross (historian)">Ross, Charles D.</a> (1974). Edward IV. English Monarchs Series. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02781-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02781-7"><bdi>978-0-520-02781-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+IV&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=English+Monarchs+Series&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-520-02781-7&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Charles+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1981" class="citation book cs1">—— (1981). Richard III. Yale English Monarchs (1st ed.). London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22974-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22974-5"><bdi>978-0-300-22974-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III&rft.place=London&rft.series=Yale+English+Monarchs&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-300-22974-5&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Charles+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1997" class="citation book cs1">—— (1997) [1974]. Edward IV. <a href="/wiki/English_Monarchs_series" class="mw-redirect" title="English Monarchs series">English Monarchs series</a> (revised ed.). Connecticut, United States: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07372-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07372-0"><bdi>0-300-07372-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+IV&rft.place=Connecticut%2C+United+States&rft.series=English+Monarchs+series&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-300-07372-0&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Charles+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1999" class="citation book cs1">—— (1999) [1981]. Richard III. Yale English Monarchs (new ed.). New Haven, Connecticut; and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07979-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07979-6"><bdi>0-300-07979-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut%3B+and+London&rft.series=Yale+English+Monarchs&rft.edition=new&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-300-07979-6&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Charles+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowse1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._L._Rowse" title="A. L. Rowse">Rowse, A. L.</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bosworthfieldwar0000rows">Bosworth Field & the Wars of the Roses</a>. Wordsworth Military Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85326-691-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85326-691-4"><bdi>1-85326-691-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bosworth+Field+%26+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.pub=Wordsworth+Military+Library&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=1-85326-691-4&rft.aulast=Rowse&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbosworthfieldwar0000rows&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyle2009" class="citation book cs1">Royle, Trevor (2009). The Road to Bosworth Field. London: Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-72767-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-72767-9"><bdi>978-0-316-72767-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Bosworth+Field&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-316-72767-9&rft.aulast=Royle&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadler2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Sadler_(historian)" title="John Sadler (historian)">Sadler, John</a> (2000). Armies and Warfare During the Wars of the Roses. Bristol: Stuart Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85804-183-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85804-183-4"><bdi>978-1-85804-183-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armies+and+Warfare+During+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=Bristol&rft.pub=Stuart+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85804-183-4&rft.aulast=Sadler&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadler2010" class="citation book cs1">—— (2010). The Red Rose and the White: the Wars of the Roses 1453–1487. Longman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+Rose+and+the+White%3A+the+Wars+of+the+Roses+1453%E2%80%931487&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Sadler&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadler2011" class="citation book cs1">—— (2011). Towton: The Battle of Palm Sunday Field 1461. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Military. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-965-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84415-965-9"><bdi>978-1-84415-965-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towton%3A+The+Battle+of+Palm+Sunday+Field+1461&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword+Military&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84415-965-9&rft.aulast=Sadler&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaul2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Saul" title="Nigel Saul">Saul, Nigel</a> (2005). The Three Richards: Richard I, Richard II and Richard III. London: Hambledon Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1852855215" title="Special:BookSources/978-1852855215"><bdi>978-1852855215</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Three+Richards%3A+Richard+I%2C+Richard+II+and+Richard+III&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hambledon+Continuum&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1852855215&rft.aulast=Saul&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeward1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Seward" title="Desmond Seward">Seward, Desmond</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofwa0000sewa_n3b4">A Brief History of the Wars of the Roses</a>. London: Constable & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84529-006-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84529-006-1"><bdi>978-1-84529-006-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Constable+%26+Co&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-84529-006-1&rft.aulast=Seward&rft.aufirst=Desmond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefhistoryofwa0000sewa_n3b4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlavin1964" class="citation book cs1">Slavin, Arthur (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newmonarchiesrep0000slav">The New Monarchies and Representative Assemblies: Medieval Constitutionalism or Modern Absolutism?</a>. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Monarchies+and+Representative+Assemblies%3A+Medieval+Constitutionalism+or+Modern+Absolutism%3F&rft.place=Lexington%2C+MA&rft.pub=D.+C.+Heath&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Slavin&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewmonarchiesrep0000slav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStubbs1875" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Stubbs" title="William Stubbs">Stubbs, William</a> (1875). The Constitutional History of England, in its origin and development. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitutional+History+of+England%2C+in+its+origin+and+development&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Stubbs&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuck1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Tuck" title="Anthony Tuck">Tuck, Anthony</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crownnobility1270000tuck_v5y3">Crown and Nobility 1272–1461: Political Conflict in Late Medieval England</a>. London: Fontana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0006860842" title="Special:BookSources/0006860842"><bdi>0006860842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crown+and+Nobility+1272%E2%80%931461%3A+Political+Conflict+in+Late+Medieval+England&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Fontana&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0006860842&rft.aulast=Tuck&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrownnobility1270000tuck_v5y3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2001" class="citation book cs1">Wagner, John A. (2001). Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Roses. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-358-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-358-8"><bdi>978-1-85109-358-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-358-8&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagnerSchmid2011" class="citation book cs1">——; Schmid, Susan Walters, eds. (2011). Encyclopedia of Tudor England. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-298-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-298-2"><bdi>978-1-59884-298-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Tudor+England&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-298-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebster1998" class="citation book cs1">Webster, Bruce (1998). The Wars Of The Roses. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-493-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85728-493-5"><bdi>978-1-85728-493-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+Of+The+Roses&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-85728-493-5&rft.aulast=Webster&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeir1996" class="citation book cs1">Weir, Alison (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/warsofroses00weir_0">The Wars of the Roses</a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780345404336" title="Special:BookSources/9780345404336"><bdi>9780345404336</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/760599899">760599899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F760599899&rft.isbn=9780345404336&rft.aulast=Weir&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwarsofroses00weir_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeir2008a" class="citation book cs1">—— (2008a). Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-953973-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-953973-5"><bdi>978-0-09-953973-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%27s+Royal+Families%3A+The+Complete+Genealogy&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-09-953973-5&rft.aulast=Weir&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeir2008b" class="citation book cs1">—— (2008b) [1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/princesintower0000weir_x9a0">The Princes in the Tower</a>. London: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780099526964" title="Special:BookSources/9780099526964"><bdi>9780099526964</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princes+in+the+Tower&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780099526964&rft.aulast=Weir&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprincesintower0000weir_x9a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeir2011" class="citation book cs1">—— (2011). Henry VIII: King and Court. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-4923-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4464-4923-3"><bdi>978-1-4464-4923-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henry+VIII%3A+King+and+Court&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4464-4923-3&rft.aulast=Weir&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1928" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, C. H. (April 1928). "The Rebellion of Humphrey Stafford in 1486". English Historical Review. 43 (170). Oxford University Press: 181–189. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2Fxliii.clxx.181">10.1093/ehr/xliii.clxx.181</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/552001">552001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=English+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Rebellion+of+Humphrey+Stafford+in+1486&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=170&rft.pages=181-189&rft.date=1928-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fehr%2Fxliii.clxx.181&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F552001%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiseEmbleton1983" class="citation book cs1">Wise, Terence; Embleton, G.A. (1983). The Wars of the Roses. London: Osprey Military. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85045-520-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-85045-520-0"><bdi>0-85045-520-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Osprey+Military&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-85045-520-0&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.aufirst=Terence&rft.au=Embleton%2C+G.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolffe1981" class="citation book cs1">Wolffe, Bertram (1981). Henry VI (The English Monarchs Series). Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0413320803" title="Special:BookSources/978-0413320803"><bdi>978-0413320803</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henry+VI+%28The+English+Monarchs+Series%29&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0413320803&rft.aulast=Wolffe&rft.aufirst=Bertram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1975" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Charles T. (1975). "The Deposition of Edward V". Traditio. 31: 247–286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS036215290001134X">10.1017/S036215290001134X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27830988">27830988</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151769515">151769515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Traditio&rft.atitle=The+Deposition+of+Edward+V&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=247-286&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151769515%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27830988%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS036215290001134X&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Charles+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWroe2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ann_Wroe" title="Ann Wroe">Wroe, Ann</a> (2003). The perfect prince: the mystery of Perkin Warbeck and his quest for the throne of England. New York: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6033-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6033-7"><bdi>978-1-4000-6033-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+perfect+prince%3A+the+mystery+of+Perkin+Warbeck+and+his+quest+for+the+throne+of+England&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6033-7&rft.aulast=Wroe&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldwin2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Baldwin_(historian)" title="David Baldwin (historian)">Baldwin, David</a> (2002). Elizabeth Woodville: mother of the Princes in the Tower. Stroud: <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutton Publishing">Sutton Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-2774-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-2774-1"><bdi>978-0-7509-2774-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elizabeth+Woodville%3A+mother+of+the+Princes+in+the+Tower&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Sutton+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7509-2774-1&rft.aulast=Baldwin&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hicks_(historian)" title="Michael Hicks (historian)">Hicks, M. A.</a> (1980). False, fleeting, perjur'd Clarence: George, Duke of Clarence, 1449-78. Gloucester [England]: A. Sutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904387-44-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904387-44-5"><bdi>978-0-904387-44-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=False%2C+fleeting%2C+perjur%27d+Clarence%3A+George%2C+Duke+of+Clarence%2C+1449-78&rft.place=Gloucester+%5BEngland%5D&rft.pub=A.+Sutton&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-904387-44-5&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks1995" class="citation book cs1">—— (1995). Bastard feudalism. The medieval world. London: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-06091-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-06091-3"><bdi>978-0-582-06091-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bastard+feudalism&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+medieval+world&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-582-06091-3&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks1998" class="citation book cs1">—— (1998). Warwick, the Kingmaker. Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishers">Blackwell Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16259-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16259-9"><bdi>978-0-631-16259-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38207851">38207851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warwick%2C+the+Kingmaker&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38207851&rft.isbn=978-0-631-16259-9&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2000" class="citation book cs1">—— (2000). Richard III (Rev. ill. ed.). Stroud: <a href="/wiki/Tempus_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tempus Publishing">Tempus Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1781-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1781-3"><bdi>978-0-7524-1781-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+III&rft.place=Stroud&rft.edition=Rev.+ill.&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-1781-3&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2001" class="citation book cs1">—— (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hDY4lLAtjXoC">Revolution and consumption in late medieval England</a>. The fifteenth century. Woodbridge, Suffolk ; Rochester, NY: <a href="/wiki/Boydell_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Boydell Press">Boydell Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-832-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-832-7"><bdi>978-0-85115-832-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+and+consumption+in+late+medieval+England&rft.place=Woodbridge%2C+Suffolk+%3B+Rochester%2C+NY&rft.series=The+fifteenth+century&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-832-7&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhDY4lLAtjXoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2003" class="citation book cs1">—— (2003). The Wars of the Roses: 1455–1485. Essential histories. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-491-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-491-7"><bdi>978-1-84176-491-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+the+Roses%3A+1455%E2%80%931485&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Essential+histories&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-491-7&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2006" class="citation book cs1">—— (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annenevillequeen0000mich">Anne Neville: Queen to Richard III</a>. Stroud: <a href="/wiki/Tempus_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tempus Publishing">Tempus Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3663-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3663-0"><bdi>978-0-7524-3663-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anne+Neville%3A+Queen+to+Richard+III&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Tempus+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-3663-0&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannenevillequeen0000mich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></dd></dl></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeverley2004" class="citation journal cs1">Peverley, Sarah L. (Autumn 2004). "Adapting to Readeption in 1470–1471: The Scribe as Editor in a Unique Copy of John Hardyng's Chronicle of England (Garrett Ms. 142)". The Princeton University Library Chronicle. 66 (1). <a href="/wiki/The_Princeton_University_Library_Chronicle" class="mw-redirect" title="The Princeton University Library Chronicle">The Princeton University Library Chronicle</a>: 140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25290%2Fprinunivlibrchro.66.1.0140">10.25290/prinunivlibrchro.66.1.0140</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0032-8456">0032-8456</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.25290/prinunivlibrchro.66.1.0140">10.25290/prinunivlibrchro.66.1.0140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Princeton+University+Library+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Adapting+to+Readeption+in+1470%E2%80%931471%3A+The+Scribe+as+Editor+in+a+Unique+Copy+of+John+Hardyng%27s+Chronicle+of+England+%28Garrett+Ms.+142%29&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=140&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0032-8456&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.25290%2Fprinunivlibrchro.66.1.0140%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25290%2Fprinunivlibrchro.66.1.0140&rft.aulast=Peverley&rft.aufirst=Sarah+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantiuste2010" class="citation book cs1">Santiuste, David (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X8SIDwAAQBAJ">Edward IV and The Wars of the Roses</a>. Barnsley: <a href="/wiki/Pen_%26_Sword_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen & Sword Books">Pen & Sword Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-549-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84884-549-7"><bdi>978-1-84884-549-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edward+IV+and+The+Wars+of+the+Roses&rft.place=Barnsley&rft.pub=Pen+%26+Sword+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84884-549-7&rft.aulast=Santiuste&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX8SIDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWars+of+the+Roses" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Wars_of_the_Roses&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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photographs and discussion of places connected with the Wars of the Roses, including Bosworth, Harlech and Towton</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00546sp">"The Wars of the Roses"</a>, <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_4" title="BBC Radio 4">BBC Radio 4</a> discussion with Helen Castor, Colin Richmond and Steven Gunn (18 March 2000).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wars_of_the_Roses" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Template:Wars of the Roses"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Template talk:Wars of the Roses"><abbr title="Discuss 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style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">Monarchs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_Rose_of_Lancaster" title="Red Rose of Lancaster"><img alt="Red Rose Badge of Lancaster" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/15px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/23px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/30px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_IV" title="Edward IV">Edward IV</a> <a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York"><img alt="White Rose of York" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/15px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/23px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/30px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_V" title="Edward V">Edward V</a> <a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York"><img alt="White Rose of York" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/15px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/23px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/30px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a> <a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York"><img alt="White Rose of York" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/15px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/23px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/30px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose" title="Tudor rose"><img alt="Tudor rose" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/15px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/23px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/30px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_Rose_of_Lancaster" title="Red Rose of Lancaster"><img alt="Red Rose Badge of Lancaster" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/50px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/75px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg/100px-Red_Rose_Badge_of_Lancaster.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a> <a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose" title="Tudor rose"><img alt="Tudor rose" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/50px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/75px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tudor_Rose.svg/100px-Tudor_Rose.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="250" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Woodville" title="Elizabeth Woodville">Elizabeth Woodville, Queen of England</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster,_Prince_of_Wales" title="Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales">Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort,_2nd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset">Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beaufort_(died_1471)" title="Edmund Beaufort (died 1471)">Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Beaumont,_1st_Viscount_Beaumont" title="John Beaumont, 1st Viscount Beaumont">John Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Beaufort,_3rd_Duke_of_Somerset" title="Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset">Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sutton,_1st_Baron_Dudley" title="John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley">John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Butler,_5th_Earl_of_Ormond" title="James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond">James Butler, Earl of Ormond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Butler,_6th_Earl_of_Ormond" title="John Butler, 6th Earl of Ormond">John Butler, Earl of Ormond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clifford,_9th_Baron_Clifford" title="John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford">John Clifford, Baron Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Courtenay,_15th_Earl_of_Devon" title="John Courtenay, 15th Earl of Devon">John Courtenay, Earl of Devon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Holland,_3rd_Duke_of_Exeter" title="Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter">Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_Baron_Neville" title="John Neville, Baron Neville">John Neville, Baron Neville</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Neville,_1st_Marquess_of_Montagu" title="John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu">John Neville, Marquess of Montagu</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_16th_Earl_of_Warwick" title="Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick">Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neville_(died_1471)" title="Thomas Neville (died 1471)">Thomas Neville, Bastard of Fauconberg</a>3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_2nd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Percy,_3rd_Earl_of_Northumberland" title="Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland">Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ros,_9th_Baron_Ros" title="Thomas Ros, 9th Baron Ros">Thomas Ros, Baron Ros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stafford,_2nd_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham">Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford,_1st_Duke_of_Buckingham" title="Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham">Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stanley,_1st_Earl_of_Derby" title="Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby">Thomas Stanley, Earl of Derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Stanley,_9th_Baron_Strange" title="George Stanley, 9th Baron Strange">George Stanley, Baron Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stanley_(died_1495)" title="William Stanley (died 1495)">William Stanley</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Talbot,_4th_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="George Talbot, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury">George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Talbot,_2nd_Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury">John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Trollope" title="Andrew Trollope">Andrew Trollope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Clifford,_8th_Baron_Clifford" title="Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron Clifford">Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tuchet,_5th_Baron_Audley" title="James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley">James Tuchet, Baron Audley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Tudor,_1st_Earl_of_Richmond" title="Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond">Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor" title="Jasper Tudor">Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Margaret_Beaufort" title="Lady Margaret Beaufort">Margaret Beaufort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Tudor" title="Owen Tudor">Owen Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Woodville,_Lord_Scales" title="Edward Woodville, Lord Scales">Edward Woodville, Lord Scales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a> <a href="/wiki/White_Rose_of_York" title="White Rose of York"><img alt="White Rose of York" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/50px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/75px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg/100px-White_Rose_Badge_of_York.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Neville" title="Anne Neville">Anne Neville, Queen of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_de_la_Pole,_Earl_of_Lincoln" title="John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln">John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_FitzGerald,_7th_Earl_of_Desmond" title="Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond">Thomas FitzGerald, Earl of Desmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Herbert,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke_(died_1469)" title="William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke (died 1469)">William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hastings,_1st_Baron_Hastings" title="William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings">William Hastings, Baron Hastings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Howard,_1st_Duke_of_Norfolk" title="John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk">John Howard, Duke of Norfolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lovell,_1st_Viscount_Lovell" title="Francis Lovell, 1st Viscount Lovell">Francis Lovell, Viscount Lovell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mowbray,_3rd_Duke_of_Norfolk" title="John Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk">John Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neville,_5th_Earl_of_Salisbury" title="Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury">Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Neville_(died_1460)" title="Thomas Neville (died 1460)">Sir Thomas Neville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Neville,_Earl_of_Kent" title="William Neville, Earl of Kent">William Neville, Earl of Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Herbert_of_Coldbrook" title="Richard Herbert of Coldbrook">Sir Richard Herbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund,_Earl_of_Rutland" title="Edmund, Earl of Rutland">Edmund Plantagenet, Earl of Rutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Plantagenet,_Duke_of_Clarence" title="George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence">George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Stafford,_1st_Earl_of_Devon" title="Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon">Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_York" title="Margaret of York">Margaret of York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_York,_3rd_Duke_of_York" title="Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York">Richard of York</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="First Battle of St Albans">St Albans (First)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loveday_(1458)" title="Loveday (1458)">Loveday (1458)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blore_Heath" title="Battle of Blore Heath">Blore Heath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rout_of_Ludford_Bridge" title="Rout of Ludford Bridge">Ludford Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sandwich_(1460)" title="Battle of Sandwich (1460)">Sandwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Tower_of_London_(1460)" title="Siege of the Tower of London (1460)">Siege of the Tower of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northampton_(1460)" title="Battle of Northampton (1460)">Northampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Worksop" title="Battle of Worksop">Worksop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wakefield" title="Battle of Wakefield">Wakefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mortimer%27s_Cross" title="Battle of Mortimer's Cross">Mortimer's Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_St_Albans" title="Second Battle of St Albans">St Albans (Second)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ferrybridge" title="Battle of Ferrybridge">Ferrybridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Towton" title="Battle of Towton">Towton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Piltown" title="Battle of Piltown">Piltown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hedgeley_Moor" title="Battle of Hedgeley Moor">Hedgeley Moor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hexham" title="Battle of Hexham">Hexham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edgcote" title="Battle of Edgcote">Edgcote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1470_Lincolnshire_Rebellion" title="1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion">1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Losecoat_Field" title="Battle of Losecoat Field">Losecoat Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Readeption_of_Henry_VI" title="Readeption of Henry VI">Readeption of Henry VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barnet" title="Battle of Barnet">Barnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tewkesbury" title="Battle of Tewkesbury">Tewkesbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_London_(1471)" title="Siege of London (1471)">Siege of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckingham%27s_rebellion" title="Buckingham's rebellion">Buckingham's rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Bosworth Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_and_Lovell_rebellion" title="Stafford and Lovell rebellion">Stafford and Lovell rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stoke_Field" title="Battle of Stoke Field">Stoke Field</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Accord" title="Act of Accord">Act of Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issue_of_Edward_III_of_England" title="Issue of Edward III of England">Issue of Edward III of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titulus_Regius" title="Titulus Regius">Titulus Regius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princes_in_the_Tower" title="Princes in the Tower">Princes in the Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonville%E2%80%93Courtenay_feud" title="Bonville–Courtenay feud">Bonville–Courtenay feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy%E2%80%93Neville_feud" title="Percy–Neville feud">Percy–Neville feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville%E2%80%93Neville_feud" title="Neville–Neville feud">Neville–Neville feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkin_Warbeck" title="Perkin Warbeck">Perkin Warbeck</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Deal" title="Battle of Deal">Battle of Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cornish_uprising_of_1497" title="Second Cornish uprising of 1497">Second Cornish uprising of 1497</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>1 Briefly joined the Lancastrians. 2 Briefly joined the Yorkists. 3 Defected from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian cause. 4 Initially a Yorkist who later supported the Tudor claim. 5 Initially a Lancastrian who later supported the Tudor claim. <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Category:Wars of the Roses">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kingdom_of_England" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kingdom_of_England" title="Template:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kingdom_of_England" title="Template talk:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom_of_England" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom of England"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kingdom_of_England" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_English_history" title="Timeline of English history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heptarchy" title="Heptarchy">Heptarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Norman England">Anglo-Normans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Anarchy" title="The Anarchy">The Anarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="England in the late Middle Ages">England in the late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Economy of England in the Middle Ages">Economy in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_period" title="Stuart period">Stuart period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_the_Crowns" title="Union of the Crowns">Union of the Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Plot" title="Gunpowder Plot">Gunpowder Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interregnum_(England)" title="Interregnum (England)">Interregnum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protectorate" title="The Protectorate">The Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Restoration" title="Stuart Restoration">The Restoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Popish_Plot" title="Popish Plot">Popish Plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusion_Crisis" title="Exclusion Crisis">Exclusion Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707" title="Acts of Union 1707">Union with Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">Overseas possessions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">Crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proprietary_colony" title="Proprietary colony">Proprietary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">Protectorate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_England" title="Maritime history of England">Maritime history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Royal Houses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wessex" title="House of Wessex">Wessex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">Knýtlinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Normandy" title="House of Normandy">Normandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_kings_of_England" title="Angevin kings of England">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">Orange-Nassau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_England" title="Politics of England">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">Law</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Witan" title="Witan">Witan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_regis" title="Curia regis">Curia regis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_Concilium" title="Magnum Concilium">Magnum Concilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Lords of England">House of Lords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_England" title="House of Commons of England">House of Commons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Secretary" title="King's Secretary">King's Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_monarchy" title="History of the English monarchy">Monarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Council_of_State" title="English Council of State">Council of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Protector" title="Lord Protector">Lord Protector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_England" title="Peerage of England">Peerage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England" title="Privy Council of England">Privy Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_ministries" title="List of English ministries">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_(England)" title="Secretary of State (England)">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governance_of_England" title="Governance of England">Governance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Government in Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_in_medieval_England" title="Government in medieval England">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_government" title="Elizabethan government">Elizabethan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Chamber" title="Star Chamber">Star Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory" title="Tory">Tories</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Acts of Parliament:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1225%E2%80%931267" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1225–1267">1225–1267</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1275%E2%80%931307" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1275–1307">1275–1307</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1308%E2%80%931325" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1308–1325">1308–1325</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_uncertain_date" title="Statutes of uncertain date">Temp. incert.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1327%E2%80%931376" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1327–1376">1327–1376</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1377%E2%80%931397" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1377–1397">1377–1397</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1399%E2%80%931411" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1399–1411">1399–1411</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1413%E2%80%931421" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1413–1421">1413–1421</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1422%E2%80%931460" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England, 1422–1460">1422–1460</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1461" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1461">1461</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1463" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1463">1463</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1464" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1464">1464</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1467" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1467">1467</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1468" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1468">1468</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1472" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1472">1472</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1474" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1474">1474</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1477" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1477">1477</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1482" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1482">1482</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1483" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1483">1483</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1485" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1485">1485</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1487" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1487">1487</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1488" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1488">1488</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1491" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1491">1491</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1495" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1495">1495</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1496" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1496">1496</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1503" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1503">1503</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1509" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1509">1509</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1511" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1511">1511</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1512" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1512">1512</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1513" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1513">1513</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1514" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1514">1514</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1515" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1515">1515</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1523" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1523">1523</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1529" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1529">1529</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1530" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1530">1530</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1531" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1531">1531</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1532" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1532">1532</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1533" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1533">1533</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1534" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1534">1534</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1535" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1535">1535</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1536" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1536">1536</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1539" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1539">1539</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1540" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1540">1540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1541" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1541">1541</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1542" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1542">1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1543" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1543">1543</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1545" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1545">1545</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1546" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1546">1546</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1547" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1547">1547</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1548" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1548">1548</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1549" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1549">1549</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1551" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1551">1551</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1553" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1553">1553</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1554" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1554">1554</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1555" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1555">1555</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1557" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1557">1557</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1558" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1558">1558</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1562" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1562">1562</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1566" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1566">1566</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1571" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1571">1571</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1572" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1572">1572</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1575" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1575">1575</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1580" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1580">1580</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1584" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1584">1584</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1586" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1586">1586</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1588" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1588">1588</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1592" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1592">1592</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1597" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1597">1597</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1601" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1601">1601</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1603" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1603">1603</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1605" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1605">1605</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1606" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1606">1606</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1609" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1609">1609</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1620" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1620">1620</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1623" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1623">1623</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1625" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1625">1625</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1627" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1627">1627</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1640" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1640">1640</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ordinances_and_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England,_1642%E2%80%931660" title="List of ordinances and acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–1660">1642–1660</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1660" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1660">1660</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1661" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1661">1661</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1662" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1662">1662</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1663" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1663">1663</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1664" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1664">1664</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1665" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1665">1665</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1666" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1666">1666</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1667" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1667">1667</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1670" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1670">1670</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1672" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1672">1672</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1675" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1675">1675</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1677" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1677">1677</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1678" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1678">1678</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1679" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1679">1679</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1680" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1680">1680</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1685" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1685">1685</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1688" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1688">1688</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1689" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1689">1689</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1690" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1690">1690</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1691" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1691">1691</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1692" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1692">1692</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1693" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1693">1693</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1694" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1694">1694</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1695" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1695">1695</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1696" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1696">1696</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1697" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1697">1697</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1698" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1698">1698</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1700" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1700">1700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1701" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1701">1701</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1702" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1702">1702</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1703" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1703">1703</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1704" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1704">1704</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1705" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1705">1705</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_from_1706" title="List of acts of the Parliament of England from 1706">1706</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of England">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_military_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon military organization">Anglo-Saxon military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_warfare" title="Anglo-Saxon warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Army" title="English Army">English Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Model_Army" title="New Model Army">New Model Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ship_names_of_the_Royal_Navy" title="List of ship names of the Royal Navy">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Royal_Navy_(before_1707)" title="History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_England" title="Geography of England">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England" title="Historic counties of England">Counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_England" title="List of islands of England">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_England" title="List of places in England">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_in_England" title="List of towns in England">Towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_England" title="List of castles in England">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces#England" title="List of palaces">Palaces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_England" title="Demographics of England">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_people" title="List of English people">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_England" title="Culture of England">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_cuisine" title="English cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_folklore" title="English folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_dance" title="Morris dance">Morris dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_dance" title="Country dance">Country dance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_England" title="Architecture of England">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture" title="Anglo-Saxon architecture">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Gothic_architecture" title="English Gothic architecture">English Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_architecture" title="Tudor architecture">Tudor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_architecture" title="Elizabethan architecture">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobean_architecture" title="Jacobean architecture">Jacobean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture" title="Queen Anne style architecture">Queen Anne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_architecture" title="Georgian architecture">Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_England" title="National symbols of England">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_England" title="Flag of England">National flag</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_English_flags" title="List of English flags">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_heraldry" title="English heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_England" title="Coat of arms of England">Coat of arms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Arms" title="College of Arms">College of Arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_badges_of_England" title="Royal badges of England">Royal badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_supporters_of_England" title="Royal supporters of England">Royal supporters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_standards_of_England" title="Royal standards of England">Royal standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Jewels_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom">Crown Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_rose" title="Tudor rose">Tudor rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">Oak tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">St George</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Day_in_England" title="Saint George's Day in England">St George's Day</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q127751#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4178464-9">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85056769">United States</a></li><li><a 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