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href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%A1u-b%C4%ABn_kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Piáu-bīn kho-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Piáu-bīn kho-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Физикохимия на повърхностите – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Физикохимия на повърхностите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfladevidenskab" title="Overfladevidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Overfladevidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_de_superficies" title="Ciencia de superficies – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia de superficies" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD" title="علم سطح – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علم سطح" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_des_surfaces" title="Science des surfaces – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Science des surfaces" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%91%9C%EB%A9%B4%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="표면과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="표면과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="पृष्ठ रसायन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पृष्ठ रसायन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_permukaan" title="Ilmu permukaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu permukaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienza_delle_superfici" title="Scienza delle superfici – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienza delle superfici" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E9%9D%A2%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="表面科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="表面科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizykochemia_powierzchni" title="Fizykochemia powierzchni – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fizykochemia powierzchni" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncia_das_superf%C3%ADcies" title="Ciência das superfícies – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ciência das superfícies" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9Ba_suprafe%C8%9Belor" title="Știința suprafețelor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Știința suprafețelor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="புறப்பரப்பு அறிவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புறப்பரப்பு அறிவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faz_y%C3%BCzey_bilimi" title="Faz yüzey bilimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Faz yüzey bilimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96_%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Фізика і хімія поверхні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фізика і хімія поверхні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E9%9D%A2%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="表面科學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="表面科學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E9%9D%A2%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="表面科学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="表面科学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Surface_Science_(journal)" title="Surface Science (journal)">Surface Science (journal)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg/250px-Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg/375px-Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Selfassembly_Organic_Semiconductor_Trixler_LMU.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">STM</a> image of a <a href="/wiki/Quinacridone" title="Quinacridone">quinacridone</a> <a href="/wiki/Adsorbate" class="mw-redirect" title="Adsorbate">adsorbate</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Self-assembly" title="Self-assembly">self-assembled</a> <a href="/wiki/Supramolecular" class="mw-redirect" title="Supramolecular">supramolecular</a> chains of the <a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductor</a> are adsorbed on a <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> surface.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Surface science</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemical</a> phenomena that occur at the <a href="/wiki/Interface_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interface (chemistry)">interface</a> of two <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>–<a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a> interfaces, solid–<a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> interfaces, solid–<a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> interfaces, and <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> interfaces. It includes the fields of <i><a href="/wiki/Surface_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface chemistry">surface chemistry</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Surface_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface physics">surface physics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some related practical applications are classed as <a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">surface engineering</a>. The science encompasses concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis" title="Heterogeneous catalysis">heterogeneous catalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">semiconductor device fabrication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">fuel cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-assembled_monolayer" title="Self-assembled monolayer">self-assembled monolayers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">adhesives</a>. Surface science is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">interface and colloid science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interfacial chemistry and physics are common subjects for both. The methods are different. In addition, interface and colloid science studies <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> that occur in <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneous">heterogeneous</a> systems due to peculiarities of interfaces. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The field of surface chemistry started with <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis" title="Heterogeneous catalysis">heterogeneous catalysis</a> pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sabatier_(chemist)" title="Paul Sabatier (chemist)">Paul Sabatier</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> was also one of the founders of this field, and the scientific journal on surface science, <i><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_(journal)" title="Langmuir (journal)">Langmuir</a></i>, bears his name. The <a href="/wiki/Langmuir_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Langmuir equation">Langmuir adsorption equation</a> is used to model monolayer adsorption where all surface adsorption sites have the same affinity for the adsorbing species and do not interact with each other. <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ertl" title="Gerhard Ertl">Gerhard Ertl</a> in 1974 described for the first time the adsorption of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a> surface using a novel technique called <a href="/wiki/Low-energy_electron_diffraction" title="Low-energy electron diffraction">LEED</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar studies with <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed. Most recent developments in surface sciences include the 2007 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_prize_of_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel prize of Chemistry">Nobel prize of Chemistry</a> winner <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ertl" title="Gerhard Ertl">Gerhard Ertl</a>'s advancements in surface chemistry, specifically his investigation of the interaction between carbon monoxide molecules and platinum surfaces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry">Chemistry<span class="anchor" id="Surface_chemistry"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surface chemistry can be roughly defined as the study of chemical reactions at interfaces. It is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">surface engineering</a>, which aims at modifying the chemical composition of a surface by incorporation of selected elements or <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional groups</a> that produce various desired effects or improvements in the properties of the surface or interface. Surface science is of particular importance to the fields of <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis" title="Heterogeneous catalysis">heterogeneous catalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemistry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catalysis">Catalysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Catalysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The adhesion of gas or liquid molecules to the surface is known as <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a>. This can be due to either <a href="/wiki/Chemisorption" title="Chemisorption">chemisorption</a> or <a href="/wiki/Physisorption" title="Physisorption">physisorption</a>, and the strength of molecular adsorption to a catalyst surface is critically important to the catalyst's performance (see <a href="/wiki/Sabatier_principle" title="Sabatier principle">Sabatier principle</a>). However, it is difficult to study these phenomena in real catalyst particles, which have complex structures. Instead, well-defined <a href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">single crystal</a> surfaces of catalytically active materials such as <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a> are often used as model catalysts. Multi-component materials systems are used to study interactions between catalytically active metal particles and supporting oxides; these are produced by growing ultra-thin films or particles on a single crystal surface.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relationships between the composition, structure, and chemical behavior of these surfaces are studied using <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high_vacuum" title="Ultra-high vacuum">ultra-high vacuum</a> techniques, including adsorption and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_desorption_spectroscopy" title="Thermal desorption spectroscopy">temperature-programmed desorption</a> of molecules, <a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning tunneling microscopy">scanning tunneling microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_energy_electron_diffraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Low energy electron diffraction">low energy electron diffraction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Auger_electron_spectroscopy" title="Auger electron spectroscopy">Auger electron spectroscopy</a>. Results can be fed into chemical models or used toward the <a href="/wiki/Rational_design" title="Rational design">rational design</a> of new catalysts. Reaction mechanisms can also be clarified due to the atomic-scale precision of surface science measurements.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Electrochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electrochemistry is the study of processes driven through an applied potential at a solid–liquid or liquid–liquid interface. The behavior of an electrode–electrolyte interface is affected by the distribution of ions in the liquid phase next to the interface forming the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_double_layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical double layer">electrical double layer</a>. Adsorption and desorption events can be studied at atomically flat single-crystal surfaces as a function of applied potential, time and solution conditions using <a href="/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscopy" title="Scanning probe microscopy">spectroscopy, scanning probe microscopy</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystal_truncation_rod" title="X-ray crystal truncation rod">surface X-ray scattering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies link traditional electrochemical techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_voltammetry" title="Cyclic voltammetry">cyclic voltammetry</a> to direct observations of interfacial processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Geochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geological phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Iron_cycle" title="Iron cycle">iron cycling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a> are controlled by the interfaces between <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> and their environment. The atomic-scale structure and chemical properties of mineral–solution interfaces are studied using <i>in situ</i> <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light_source" title="Synchrotron light source">synchrotron</a> X-ray techniques such as <a href="/wiki/X-ray_reflectivity" title="X-ray reflectivity">X-ray reflectivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_standing_waves" title="X-ray standing waves">X-ray standing waves</a>, and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_absorption_spectroscopy" title="X-ray absorption spectroscopy">X-ray absorption spectroscopy</a> as well as scanning probe microscopy. For example, studies of <a href="/wiki/Toxic_heavy_metal" title="Toxic heavy metal">heavy metal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> adsorption onto mineral surfaces reveal molecular-scale details of adsorption, enabling more accurate predictions of how these contaminants travel through soils<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or disrupt natural dissolution–precipitation cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics">Physics<span class="anchor" id="Surface_physics"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surface physics can be roughly defined as the study of physical interactions that occur at interfaces. It overlaps with surface chemistry. Some of the topics investigated in surface physics include <a href="/wiki/Friction" title="Friction">friction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_states" title="Surface states">surface states</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_diffusion" title="Surface diffusion">surface diffusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_reconstruction" title="Surface reconstruction">surface reconstruction</a>, surface <a href="/wiki/Phonons" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonons">phonons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plasmons" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmons">plasmons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">epitaxy</a>, the emission and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunneling" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum tunneling">tunneling</a> of electrons, <a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a>, and the self-assembly of <a href="/wiki/Nanostructure" title="Nanostructure">nanostructures</a> on surfaces. Techniques to investigate processes at surfaces include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_X-ray_scattering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Surface X-ray scattering (page does not exist)">surface X-ray scattering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scanning_probe_microscopy" title="Scanning probe microscopy">scanning probe microscopy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface-enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy">surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy">X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis_techniques">Analysis techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Analysis techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study and analysis of surfaces involves both physical and chemical analysis techniques. </p><p>Several modern methods probe the topmost 1–10 nm of <a href="/wiki/Interface_(matter)" title="Interface (matter)">surfaces</a> exposed to vacuum. These include <a href="/wiki/Angle-resolved_photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy">angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy</a> (ARPES), <a href="/wiki/X-ray_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy">X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy</a> (XPS), <a href="/wiki/Auger_electron_spectroscopy" title="Auger electron spectroscopy">Auger electron spectroscopy</a> (AES), <a href="/wiki/Low-energy_electron_diffraction" title="Low-energy electron diffraction">low-energy electron diffraction</a> (LEED), <a href="/wiki/Electron_energy_loss_spectroscopy" title="Electron energy loss spectroscopy">electron energy loss spectroscopy</a> (EELS), <a href="/wiki/Thermal_desorption_spectroscopy" title="Thermal desorption spectroscopy">thermal desorption spectroscopy</a> (TPD), <a href="/wiki/Ion_scattering_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion scattering spectroscopy">ion scattering spectroscopy</a> (ISS), <a href="/wiki/Secondary_ion_mass_spectrometry" title="Secondary ion mass spectrometry">secondary ion mass spectrometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry" title="Dual-polarization interferometry">dual-polarization interferometry</a>, and other surface analysis methods included in the <a href="/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods" title="List of materials analysis methods">list of materials analysis methods</a>. Many of these techniques require vacuum as they rely on the detection of electrons or ions emitted from the surface under study. Moreover, in general <a href="/wiki/Ultra-high_vacuum" title="Ultra-high vacuum">ultra-high vacuum</a>, in the range of 10<sup>−7</sup> <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a> pressure or better, it is necessary to reduce surface contamination by residual gas, by reducing the number of molecules reaching the sample over a given time period. At 0.1 mPa (10<sup>−6</sup> torr) partial pressure of a contaminant and <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard temperature</a>, it only takes on the order of 1 second to cover a surface with a one-to-one monolayer of contaminant to surface atoms, so much lower pressures are needed for measurements. This is found by an order of magnitude estimate for the (number) <a href="/wiki/Specific_surface_area" title="Specific surface area">specific surface area</a> of materials and the impingement rate formula from the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory of gases</a>. </p><p>Purely optical techniques can be used to study interfaces under a wide variety of conditions. Reflection-absorption infrared, dual polarisation interferometry, <a href="/wiki/Surface-enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy">surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sum_frequency_generation_spectroscopy" title="Sum frequency generation spectroscopy">sum frequency generation spectroscopy</a> can be used to probe solid–vacuum as well as solid–gas, solid–liquid, and liquid–gas surfaces. <a href="/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance" title="Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance">Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance</a> works in solid–gas, solid–liquid, liquid–gas surfaces and can detect even sub-nanometer layers.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It probes the interaction kinetics as well as dynamic structural changes such as liposome collapse<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or swelling of layers in different pH. Dual-polarization interferometry is used to quantify the order and disruption in birefringent thin films.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been used, for example, to study the formation of lipid bilayers and their interaction with membrane proteins. </p><p>Acoustic techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Quartz_crystal_microbalance_with_dissipation_monitoring" title="Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring">quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring</a>, is used for time-resolved measurements of solid–vacuum, solid–gas and solid–liquid interfaces. The method allows for analysis of molecule–surface interactions as well as structural changes and viscoelastic properties of the adlayer.   </p><p>X-ray scattering and spectroscopy techniques are also used to characterize surfaces and interfaces. While some of these measurements can be performed using <a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">laboratory X-ray sources</a>, many require the high intensity and energy tunability of <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a>. <a href="/wiki/X-ray_crystal_truncation_rod" title="X-ray crystal truncation rod">X-ray crystal truncation rods</a> (CTR) and <a href="/wiki/X-ray_standing_waves" title="X-ray standing waves">X-ray standing wave</a> (XSW) measurements probe changes in surface and <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorbate</a> structures with sub-Ångström resolution. <a href="/wiki/Surface-extended_X-ray_absorption_fine_structure" title="Surface-extended X-ray absorption fine structure">Surface-extended X-ray absorption fine structure</a> (SEXAFS) measurements reveal the coordination structure and chemical state of adsorbates. <a href="/wiki/Grazing-incidence_small-angle_scattering" title="Grazing-incidence small-angle scattering">Grazing-incidence small angle X-ray scattering</a> (GISAXS) yields the size, shape, and orientation of <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a> on surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Texture_(crystalline)" class="mw-redirect" title="Texture (crystalline)">texture</a> of thin films can be investigated using <a href="/wiki/Grazing_incidence_diffraction" title="Grazing incidence diffraction">grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction</a> (GIXD, GIXRD). </p><p><a href="/wiki/X-ray_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy">X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy</a> (XPS) is a standard tool for measuring the chemical states of surface species and for detecting the presence of surface contamination. Surface sensitivity is achieved by detecting <a href="/wiki/Photoelectrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoelectrons">photoelectrons</a> with kinetic energies of about 10–1000 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a>, which have corresponding <a href="/wiki/Inelastic_mean_free_path" title="Inelastic mean free path">inelastic mean free paths</a> of only a few nanometers. This technique has been extended to operate at near-ambient pressures (ambient pressure XPS, AP-XPS) to probe more realistic gas–solid and liquid–solid interfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Performing XPS with hard X-rays at synchrotron light sources yields photoelectrons with kinetic energies of several keV (hard X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, HAXPES), enabling access to chemical information from buried interfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern physical analysis methods include <a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">scanning-tunneling microscopy</a> (STM) and a family of methods descended from it, including <a href="/wiki/Atomic_force_microscopy" title="Atomic force microscopy">atomic force microscopy</a> (AFM). These microscopies have considerably increased the ability of surface scientists to measure the physical structure of many surfaces. For example, they make it possible to follow reactions at the solid–gas interface in real space, if those proceed on a time scale accessible by the instrument.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interface_(matter)" title="Interface (matter)">Interface (matter)</a> – Boundary between volumes of matter of different types or states</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_probe_force_microscope" title="Kelvin probe force microscope">Kelvin probe force microscope</a> – Noncontact variant of atomic force microscopy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a> – Science and technology of small particles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_modification_of_biomaterials_with_proteins" title="Surface modification of biomaterials with proteins">Surface modification of biomaterials with proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_finishing" title="Surface finishing">Surface finishing</a> – Range of processes that alter the surface of an item to achieve a certain property</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_modification" title="Surface modification">Surface modification</a> – Act of modifying the surface of a material</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface phenomenon">Surface phenomenon</a> – Study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a> – Science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div 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V. W.; Zambelli, T.; Ertl, G. (1997). "Atomic and Macroscopic Reaction Rates of a Surface-Catalyzed Reaction". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>278</b> (5345): <span class="nowrap">1931–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Sci...278.1931W">1997Sci...278.1931W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.278.5345.1931">10.1126/science.278.5345.1931</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9395392">9395392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Atomic+and+Macroscopic+Reaction+Rates+of+a+Surface-Catalyzed+Reaction&rft.volume=278&rft.issue=5345&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1931-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9395392&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.278.5345.1931&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997Sci...278.1931W&rft.aulast=Wintterlin&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=V%C3%B6lkening%2C+S.&rft.au=Janssens%2C+T.+V.+W.&rft.au=Zambelli%2C+T.&rft.au=Ertl%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldmann2012" class="citation journal cs1">Waldmann, T.; et al. (2012). "Oxidation of an Organic Adlayer: A Bird's Eye View". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Chemical_Society" title="Journal of the American Chemical Society">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a></i>. <b>134</b> (21): <span class="nowrap">8817–</span>8822. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja302593v">10.1021/ja302593v</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22571820">22571820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=Oxidation+of+an+Organic+Adlayer%3A+A+Bird%27s+Eye+View&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8817-%3C%2Fspan%3E8822&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja302593v&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22571820&rft.aulast=Waldmann&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolasinski2012" class="citation book cs1">Kolasinski, Kurt W. (2012-04-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Surface+Science%3A+Foundations+of+Catalysis+and+Nanoscience%2C+3rd+Edition-p-9781119990369"><i>Surface Science: Foundations of Catalysis and Nanoscience</i></a> (3 ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119990352" title="Special:BookSources/978-1119990352"><bdi>978-1119990352</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surface+Science%3A+Foundations+of+Catalysis+and+Nanoscience&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2012-04-30&rft.isbn=978-1119990352&rft.aulast=Kolasinski&rft.aufirst=Kurt+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wiley.com%2Fen-us%2FSurface%2BScience%253A%2BFoundations%2Bof%2BCatalysis%2Band%2BNanoscience%252C%2B3rd%2BEdition-p-9781119990369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAttardBarnes1998" class="citation book cs1">Attard, Gary; Barnes, Colin (January 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/surfaces-9780198556862?cc=no&lang=en&"><i>Surfaces</i></a>. Oxford Chemistry Primers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198556862" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198556862"><bdi>978-0198556862</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surfaces&rft.pub=Oxford+Chemistry+Primers&rft.date=1998-01&rft.isbn=978-0198556862&rft.aulast=Attard&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Fsurfaces-9780198556862%3Fcc%3Dno%26lang%3Den%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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