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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deviations_from_the_Beer–Lambert_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_uncertainty_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_uncertainty_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Measurement uncertainty sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement_uncertainty_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultraviolet–visible_spectrophotometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultraviolet–visible_spectrophotometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultraviolet–visible_spectrophotometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microspectrophotometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microspectrophotometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Microspectrophotometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microspectrophotometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Additional applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%88%D9%81%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مطيافية الأشعة المرئية وفوق البنفسجية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مطيافية الأشعة المرئية وفوق البنفسجية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Оптична спектроскопия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Оптична спектроскопия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultravioletna-vidljiva_spektroskopija" title="Ultravioletna-vidljiva spektroskopija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ultravioletna-vidljiva spektroskopija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espectrosc%C3%B2pia_ultraviolada-visible" title="Espectroscòpia ultraviolada-visible – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espectroscòpia ultraviolada-visible" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrafialovo-viditeln%C3%A1_spektroskopie" title="Ultrafialovo-viditelná spektroskopie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ultrafialovo-viditelná spektroskopie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV/VIS-Spektroskopie" title="UV/VIS-Spektroskopie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="UV/VIS-Spektroskopie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV/Vis-spektroskoopia" title="UV/Vis-spektroskoopia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="UV/Vis-spektroskoopia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espectroscopia_ultravioleta-visible" title="Espectroscopia ultravioleta-visible – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espectroscopia ultravioleta-visible" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%81%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A6%DB%8C%E2%80%93%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B4" title="طیف‌شناسی مرئی–فرابنفش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="طیف‌شناسی مرئی–فرابنفش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopie_ultraviolet-visible" title="Spectroscopie ultraviolet-visible – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Spectroscopie ultraviolet-visible" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%99%B8%EC%84%A0_%EA%B0%80%EC%8B%9C%EA%B4%91%EC%84%A0_%EB%B6%84%EA%B4%91%EB%B2%95" title="자외선 가시광선 분광법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자외선 가시광선 분광법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spettroscopia_ultravioletta/visibile" title="Spettroscopia ultravioletta/visibile – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spettroscopia ultravioletta/visibile" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV/VIS-spectroscopie" title="UV/VIS-spectroscopie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="UV/VIS-spectroscopie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%AB%E5%A4%96%E5%8F%AF%E8%A6%96%E8%BF%91%E8%B5%A4%E5%A4%96%E5%88%86%E5%85%89%E6%B3%95" title="紫外可視近赤外分光法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="紫外可視近赤外分光法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrafiolett%E2%80%93synlig_spektroskopi" title="Ultrafiolett–synlig spektroskopi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ultrafiolett–synlig spektroskopi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV/VIS-spektroskopi" title="UV/VIS-spektroskopi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="UV/VIS-spektroskopi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spektroskopia_UV-VIS" title="Spektroskopia UV-VIS – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Spektroskopia UV-VIS" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espectroscopia_UV/vis%C3%ADvel" title="Espectroscopia UV/visível – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espectroscopia UV/visível" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Оптическая спектроскопия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Оптическая спектроскопия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_absorption" title="Ultraviolet–visible absorption – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ultraviolet–visible absorption" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ультрафіолетова спектроскопія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ультрафіолетова спектроскопія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1y_quang_ph%E1%BB%95_c%E1%BB%B1c_t%C3%ADm_-_Kh%E1%BA%A3_ki%E1%BA%BFn" title="Máy quang phổ cực tím - Khả kiến – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Máy quang phổ cực tím - Khả kiến" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%AB%E5%A4%96-%E5%8F%AF%E8%A6%8B%E5%88%86%E5%85%89%E5%85%89%E5%BA%A6%E6%B3%95" title="紫外-可見分光光度法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="紫外-可見分光光度法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%AB%E5%A4%96-%E5%8F%AF%E8%A7%81%E5%88%86%E5%85%89%E5%85%89%E5%BA%A6%E6%B3%95" title="紫外-可见分光光度法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="紫外-可见分光光度法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q898426#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Range of spectroscopic analysis</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible+spectroscopy%22">"Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible+spectroscopy%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible+spectroscopy%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible+spectroscopy%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible+spectroscopy%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible+spectroscopy%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg/270px-DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg/405px-DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg/540px-DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3984" data-file-height="2298" /></a><figcaption>Beckman DU640 UV-Vis spectrophotometer</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry</b> (<b>UV–Vis</b> or <b>UV-VIS</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> refers to <a href="/wiki/Absorption_spectroscopy" title="Absorption spectroscopy">absorption spectroscopy</a> or reflectance spectroscopy in part of the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> and the full, adjacent <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible</a> regions of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being relatively inexpensive and easily implemented, this methodology is widely used in diverse applied and fundamental applications. The only requirement is that the sample absorb in the UV-Vis region, i.e. be a <a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">chromophore</a>. Absorption spectroscopy is complementary to <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Fluorescence spectroscopy">fluorescence spectroscopy</a>. Parameters of interest, besides the wavelength of measurement, are absorbance (A) or transmittance (%T) or reflectance (%R), and its change with time.<sup id="cite_ref-PIA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PIA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-RSD_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSD-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <b>UV-Vis spectrophotometer</b> is an analytical instrument that measures the amount of ultraviolet (UV) and visible light that is absorbed by a sample. It is a widely used technique in chemistry, biochemistry, and other fields, to identify and quantify compounds in a variety of samples.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>UV-Vis spectrophotometers work by passing a beam of light through the sample and measuring the amount of light that is absorbed at each wavelength. The amount of light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing compound in the sample. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optical_transitions">Optical transitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Optical transitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most molecules and ions absorb energy in the ultraviolet or visible range, i.e., they are <a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">chromophores</a>. The absorbed photon excites an electron in the chromophore to higher energy molecular orbitals, giving rise to an <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pri_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pri-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For organic chromophores, four possible types of transitions are assumed: π–π*, n–π*, σ–σ*, and n–σ*. Transition metal complexes are often colored (i.e., absorb visible light) owing to the presence of multiple electronic states associated with incompletely filled d orbitals.<sup id="cite_ref-RSD_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSD-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bis(triphenylphosphine)_nickel_(II)_chloride_UV-vis.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bis%28triphenylphosphine%29_nickel_%28II%29_chloride_UV-vis.JPG/300px-Bis%28triphenylphosphine%29_nickel_%28II%29_chloride_UV-vis.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bis%28triphenylphosphine%29_nickel_%28II%29_chloride_UV-vis.JPG/450px-Bis%28triphenylphosphine%29_nickel_%28II%29_chloride_UV-vis.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bis%28triphenylphosphine%29_nickel_%28II%29_chloride_UV-vis.JPG/600px-Bis%28triphenylphosphine%29_nickel_%28II%29_chloride_UV-vis.JPG 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="587" /></a><figcaption>An example of a UV-Vis readout</figcaption></figure> <p>UV-Vis can be used to monitor structural changes in DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>UV-Vis spectroscopy is routinely used in <a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">analytical chemistry</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_analysis_(chemistry)" title="Quantitative analysis (chemistry)">quantitative</a> determination of diverse analytes or sample, such as <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metal</a> ions, highly <a href="/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">conjugated</a> <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>, and biological macromolecules. Spectroscopic analysis is commonly carried out in solutions but solids and gases may also be studied. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a>, especially those with a high degree of <a href="/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">conjugation</a>, also absorb light in the UV or visible regions of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>. The solvents for these determinations are often water for water-soluble compounds, or <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> for organic-soluble compounds. (Organic solvents may have significant UV absorption; not all solvents are suitable for use in UV spectroscopy. Ethanol absorbs very weakly at most wavelengths.) Solvent polarity and pH can affect the absorption spectrum of an organic compound. <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyrosine</a>, for example, increases in absorption maxima and molar extinction coefficient when pH increases from 6 to 13 or when solvent polarity decreases.</li> <li>While <a href="/wiki/Charge_transfer_complexes" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge transfer complexes">charge transfer complexes</a> also give rise to colours, the colours are often too intense to be used for quantitative measurement.</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert_law" title="Beer–Lambert law">Beer–Lambert law</a> states that the absorbance of a solution is directly proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species in the solution and the path length.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, for a fixed path length, UV-Vis spectroscopy can be used to determine the concentration of the absorber in a solution. It is necessary to know how quickly the absorbance changes with concentration. This can be taken from references (tables of <a href="/wiki/Molar_extinction_coefficients" class="mw-redirect" title="Molar extinction coefficients">molar extinction coefficients</a>), or more accurately, determined from a <a href="/wiki/Calibration_curve" title="Calibration curve">calibration curve</a>. </p><p>A UV-Vis spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for <a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography"><b>HPLC</b></a>. The presence of an analyte gives a response assumed to be proportional to the concentration. For accurate results, the instrument's response to the analyte in the unknown should be compared with the response to a standard; this is very similar to the use of calibration curves. The response (e.g., peak height) for a particular concentration is known as the <a href="/wiki/Response_factor" title="Response factor">response factor</a>. </p><p>The wavelengths of absorption peaks can be correlated with the types of bonds in a given molecule and are valuable in determining the functional groups within a molecule. The <a href="/wiki/Woodward%E2%80%93Fieser_rules" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodward–Fieser rules">Woodward–Fieser rules</a>, for instance, are a set of empirical observations used to predict λ<sub>max</sub>, the wavelength of the most intense UV-Vis absorption, for conjugated organic compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Diene" title="Diene">dienes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ketone" title="Ketone">ketones</a>. The spectrum alone is not, however, a specific test for any given sample. The nature of the solvent, the pH of the solution, temperature, high electrolyte concentrations, and the presence of interfering substances can influence the absorption spectrum. Experimental variations such as the slit width (effective bandwidth) of the spectrophotometer will also alter the spectrum. To apply UV-Vis spectroscopy to analysis, these variables must be controlled or accounted for in order to identify the substances present.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The method is most often used in a quantitative way to determine concentrations of an absorbing species in solution, using the <a href="/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert_law" title="Beer–Lambert law">Beer–Lambert law</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A=\log _{10}(I_{0}/I)=\varepsilon cL}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>log</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>I</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ε</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A=\log _{10}(I_{0}/I)=\varepsilon cL}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eebef83a672e2f0e60a7b76a546c9af62e52dad4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.682ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A=\log _{10}(I_{0}/I)=\varepsilon cL}"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>where <i>A</i> is the measured <a href="/wiki/Absorbance" title="Absorbance">absorbance</a> (formally dimensionless but generally reported in absorbance units (AU)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/893d08e90ea73781dc133414d661529d0651ca80" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.077ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{0}}"></span> is the intensity of the incident light at a given <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/535ea7fc4134a31cbe2251d9d3511374bc41be9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.172ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I}"></span> is the transmitted intensity, <i>L</i> the path length through the sample, and <i>c</i> the <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> of the absorbing species. For each species and wavelength, ε is a constant known as the <a href="/wiki/Molar_absorptivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Molar absorptivity">molar absorptivity</a> or extinction coefficient. This constant is a fundamental molecular property in a given solvent, at a particular temperature and pressure, and has units of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1/M*cm}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>M</mi> <mo>∗</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mi>m</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1/M*cm}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/68e39096a82c0b8b6fa5082ed76d53851111d7e1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.009ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1/M*cm}"></span>. </p><p>The absorbance and extinction <i>ε</i> are sometimes defined in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_logarithm" title="Natural logarithm">natural logarithm</a> instead of the base-10 logarithm. </p><p>The Beer–Lambert law is useful for characterizing many compounds but does not hold as a universal relationship for the concentration and absorption of all substances. A 2nd order polynomial relationship between absorption and concentration is sometimes encountered<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for very large, complex molecules such as <a href="/wiki/Organic_dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic dye">organic dyes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Xylenol_orange" title="Xylenol orange">xylenol orange</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neutral_red" title="Neutral red">neutral red</a>, for example).<sup id="cite_ref-dev_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dev-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>UV–Vis spectroscopy is also used in the semiconductor industry to measure the thickness and optical properties of thin films on a wafer. UV–Vis spectrometers are used to measure the reflectance of light, and can be analyzed via the <a href="/wiki/Forouhi%E2%80%93Bloomer_model" title="Forouhi–Bloomer model">Forouhi–Bloomer dispersion equations</a> to determine the index of refraction (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a601995d55609f2d9f5e233e36fbe9ea26011b3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.395ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n}"></span>) and the extinction coefficient (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}"></span>) of a given film across the measured spectral range.<sup id="cite_ref-Löper2015_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Löper2015-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_considerations">Practical considerations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Practical considerations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Beer–Lambert law has implicit assumptions that must be met experimentally for it to apply; otherwise there is a possibility of deviations from the law.<sup id="cite_ref-dev_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dev-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the chemical makeup and physical environment of the sample can alter its extinction coefficient. The chemical and physical conditions of a test sample therefore must match reference measurements for conclusions to be valid. Worldwide, pharmacopoeias such as the American (USP) and European (Ph. Eur.) pharmacopeias demand that spectrophotometers perform according to strict regulatory requirements encompassing factors such as <a href="#Stray_light">stray light</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and wavelength accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spectral_bandwidth">Spectral bandwidth</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Spectral bandwidth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spectral bandwidth of a spectrophotometer is the range of wavelengths that the instrument transmits through a sample at a given time.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is determined by the light source, the <a href="/wiki/Monochromator" title="Monochromator">monochromator</a>, its physical slit-width and optical dispersion and the detector of the spectrophotometer. The spectral bandwidth affects the resolution and accuracy of the measurement. A narrower spectral bandwidth provides higher resolution and accuracy, but also requires more time and energy to scan the entire spectrum. A wider spectral bandwidth allows for faster and easier scanning, but may result in lower resolution and accuracy, especially for samples with overlapping absorption peaks. Therefore, choosing an appropriate spectral bandwidth is important for obtaining reliable and precise results. </p><p>It is important to have a monochromatic source of radiation for the light incident on the sample cell to enhance the linearity of the response.<sup id="cite_ref-dev_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dev-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The closer the bandwidth is to be monochromatic (transmitting unit of wavelength) the more linear will be the response. The spectral bandwidth is measured as the number of wavelengths transmitted at half the maximum intensity of the light leaving the monochromator. </p><p>The best spectral <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)#Photonics" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> achievable is a specification of the UV spectrophotometer, and it characterizes how <a href="/wiki/Monochromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic">monochromatic</a> the incident light can be. If this bandwidth is comparable to (or more than) the <a href="/wiki/Spectral_linewidth" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectral linewidth">width</a> of the absorption peak of the sample component, then the measured extinction coefficient will not be accurate. In reference measurements, the instrument bandwidth (bandwidth of the incident light) is kept below the width of the spectral peaks. When a test material is being measured, the bandwidth of the incident light should also be sufficiently narrow. Reducing the spectral bandwidth reduces the energy passed to the detector and will, therefore, require a longer measurement time to achieve the same signal to noise ratio. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wavelength_error">Wavelength error</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wavelength error"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The extinction coefficient of an analyte in solution changes gradually with wavelength. A peak (a wavelength where the absorbance reaches a maximum) in the absorbance curve vs wavelength, i.e. the UV-VIS spectrum, is where the rate of change of absorbance with wavelength is the lowest.<sup id="cite_ref-dev_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dev-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, quantitative measurements of a solute are usually conducted, using a wavelength around the absorbance peak, to minimize inaccuracies produced by errors in wavelength, due to the change of extinction coefficient with wavelength. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stray_light">Stray light</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Stray light"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stray_light" title="Stray light">Stray light</a></div> <p>Stray light<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a UV spectrophotometer is any light that reaches its detector that is not of the wavelength selected by the monochromator. This can be caused, for instance, by scattering of light within the instrument, or by reflections from optical surfaces. </p><p>Stray light can cause significant errors in absorbance measurements, especially at high absorbances, because the stray light will be added to the signal detected by the detector, even though it is not part of the actually selected wavelength. The result is that the measured and reported absorbance will be lower than the actual absorbance of the sample. </p><p>The stray light is an important factor, as it determines the <i>purity</i> of the light used for the analysis. The most important factor affecting it is the <a href="/wiki/Monochromator#Stray_light" title="Monochromator"><i>stray light</i> level of the monochromator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dev_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dev-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Typically a detector used in a UV-VIS spectrophotometer is broadband; it responds to all the light that reaches it. If a significant amount of the light passed through the sample contains wavelengths that have much lower extinction coefficients than the nominal one, the instrument will report an incorrectly low absorbance. Any instrument will reach a point where an increase in sample concentration will not result in an increase in the reported absorbance, because the detector is simply responding to the stray light. In practice the concentration of the sample or the optical path length must be adjusted to place the unknown absorbance within a range that is valid for the instrument. Sometimes an empirical calibration function is developed, using known concentrations of the sample, to allow measurements into the region where the instrument is becoming non-linear. </p><p>As a rough guide, an instrument with a single monochromator would typically have a stray light level corresponding to about 3 Absorbance Units (AU), which would make measurements above about 2 AU problematic. A more complex instrument with a <a href="/wiki/Monochromator#Double_monochromators" title="Monochromator">double monochromator</a> would have a stray light level corresponding to about 6 AU, which would therefore allow measuring a much wider absorbance range. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deviations_from_the_Beer–Lambert_law"><span id="Deviations_from_the_Beer.E2.80.93Lambert_law"></span>Deviations from the Beer–Lambert law</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Deviations from the Beer–Lambert law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At sufficiently high concentrations, the absorption bands will saturate and show absorption flattening. The absorption peak appears to flatten because close to 100% of the light is already being absorbed. The concentration at which this occurs depends on the particular compound being measured. One test that can be used to test for this effect is to vary the path length of the measurement. In the Beer–Lambert law, varying concentration and path length has an equivalent effect—diluting a solution by a factor of 10 has the same effect as shortening the path length by a factor of 10. If cells of different path lengths are available, testing if this relationship holds true is one way to judge if absorption flattening is occurring. </p><p>Solutions that are not homogeneous can show deviations from the Beer–Lambert law because of the phenomenon of absorption flattening. This can happen, for instance, where the absorbing substance is located within suspended particles.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deviations will be most noticeable under conditions of low concentration and high absorbance. The last reference describes a way to correct for this deviation. </p><p>Some solutions, like copper(II) chloride in water, change visually at a certain concentration because of changed conditions around the coloured ion (the divalent copper ion). For copper(II) chloride it means a shift from blue to green,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which would mean that monochromatic measurements would deviate from the Beer–Lambert law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Measurement_uncertainty_sources">Measurement uncertainty sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Measurement uncertainty sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The above factors contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty" title="Measurement uncertainty">measurement uncertainty</a> of the results obtained with UV-Vis <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometry</a>. If UV-Vis spectrophotometry is used in quantitative chemical analysis then the results are additionally affected by uncertainty sources arising from the nature of the compounds and/or solutions that are measured. These include spectral interferences caused by absorption band overlap, fading of the color of the absorbing species (caused by decomposition or reaction) and possible composition mismatch between the sample and the calibration solution.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ultraviolet–visible_spectrophotometer"><span id="Ultraviolet.E2.80.93visible_spectrophotometer"></span>Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">Spectrophotometry</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Measuring_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Measuring instrument">instrument</a> used in ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy is called a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. It measures the intensity of light after passing through a sample (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/535ea7fc4134a31cbe2251d9d3511374bc41be9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.172ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I}"></span>), and compares it to the intensity of light before it passes through the sample (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c462307420358828e01df3a8b777bc2fb54f5c0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.053ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{o}}"></span>). The ratio <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7be65973588bbef2bf950d4891665a142fd7bb50" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.387ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}"></span> is called the <i>transmittance</i>, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%T). The <a href="/wiki/Absorbance" title="Absorbance">absorbance</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span>, is based on the transmittance: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A=-\log(\%T/100\%)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>100</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">%</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A=-\log(\%T/100\%)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6ef8f7511506c23e59105ba3d5a21084bd2dea97" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:21.976ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A=-\log(\%T/100\%)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The UV–visible spectrophotometer can also be configured to measure reflectance. In this case, the spectrophotometer measures the intensity of light reflected from a sample (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/535ea7fc4134a31cbe2251d9d3511374bc41be9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.172ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I}"></span>), and compares it to the intensity of light reflected from a reference material (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c462307420358828e01df3a8b777bc2fb54f5c0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.053ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{o}}"></span>) (such as a white tile). The ratio <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7be65973588bbef2bf950d4891665a142fd7bb50" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.387ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I/I_{o}}"></span> is called the <i>reflectance</i>, and is usually expressed as a percentage (%R). </p><p>The basic parts of a spectrophotometer are a light source, a holder for the sample, a <a href="/wiki/Diffraction_grating" title="Diffraction grating">diffraction grating</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prism</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Monochromator" title="Monochromator">monochromator</a> to separate the different wavelengths of light, and a detector. The radiation source is often a <a href="/wiki/Halogen_lamp" title="Halogen lamp">tungsten</a> filament (300–2500 nm), a <a href="/wiki/Deuterium_arc_lamp" title="Deuterium arc lamp">deuterium arc lamp</a>, which is continuous over the ultraviolet region (190–400 nm), a <a href="/wiki/Xenon_arc_lamp" title="Xenon arc lamp">xenon arc lamp</a>, which is continuous from 160 to 2,000 nm; or more recently, light emitting diodes (LED)<sup id="cite_ref-PIA_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PIA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the visible wavelengths. The detector is typically a <a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">photomultiplier tube</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">photodiode</a>, a photodiode array or a <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD). Single photodiode detectors and photomultiplier tubes are used with scanning monochromators, which filter the light so that only light of a single wavelength reaches the detector at one time. The scanning monochromator moves the diffraction grating to "step-through" each wavelength so that its intensity may be measured as a function of wavelength. Fixed monochromators are used with CCDs and photodiode arrays. As both of these devices consist of many detectors grouped into one or two dimensional arrays, they are able to collect light of different wavelengths on different pixels or groups of pixels simultaneously. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simplified_UV-vis_diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Simplified_UV-vis_diagram.png/500px-Simplified_UV-vis_diagram.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Simplified_UV-vis_diagram.png/750px-Simplified_UV-vis_diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Simplified_UV-vis_diagram.png/1000px-Simplified_UV-vis_diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="3304" data-file-height="1058" /></a><figcaption>Simplified schematic of a double beam UV–visible spectrophotometer</figcaption></figure> <p>A spectrophotometer can be either <i>single beam</i> or <i>double beam</i>. In a single beam instrument (such as the <a href="/wiki/Spectronic_20" title="Spectronic 20">Spectronic 20</a>), all of the light passes through the sample cell. <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{o}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{o}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c462307420358828e01df3a8b777bc2fb54f5c0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.053ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{o}}"></span> must be measured by removing the sample. This was the earliest design and is still in common use in both teaching and industrial labs. </p><p>In a double-beam instrument, the light is split into two beams before it reaches the sample. One beam is used as the reference; the other beam passes through the sample. The reference beam intensity is taken as 100% Transmission (or 0 Absorbance), and the measurement displayed is the ratio of the two beam intensities. Some double-beam instruments have two detectors (photodiodes), and the sample and reference beam are measured at the same time. In other instruments, the two beams pass through a <a href="/wiki/Optical_chopper" title="Optical chopper">beam chopper</a>, which blocks one beam at a time. The detector alternates between measuring the sample beam and the reference beam in synchronism with the chopper. There may also be one or more dark intervals in the chopper cycle. In this case, the measured beam intensities may be corrected by subtracting the intensity measured in the dark interval before the ratio is taken. </p><p>In a single-beam instrument, the cuvette containing only a solvent has to be measured first. Mettler Toledo developed a single beam array spectrophotometer that allows fast and accurate measurements over the UV-Vis range. The light source consists of a Xenon flash lamp for the ultraviolet (UV) as well as for the visible (VIS) and near-infrared wavelength regions covering a spectral range from 190 up to 1100 nm. The lamp flashes are focused on a glass fiber which drives the beam of light onto a cuvette containing the sample solution. The beam passes through the sample and specific wavelengths are absorbed by the sample components. The remaining light is collected after the cuvette by a glass fiber and driven into a spectrograph. The spectrograph consists of a diffraction grating that separates the light into the different wavelengths, and a CCD sensor to record the data, respectively. The whole spectrum is thus simultaneously measured, allowing for fast recording.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Samples for UV-Vis spectrophotometry are most often liquids, although the absorbance of gases and even of solids can also be measured. Samples are typically placed in a <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transparency (optics)">transparent</a> cell, known as a <a href="/wiki/Cuvette" title="Cuvette">cuvette</a>. Cuvettes are typically rectangular in shape, commonly with an internal width of 1 cm. (This width becomes the path length, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle L}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>L</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle L}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/103168b86f781fe6e9a4a87b8ea1cebe0ad4ede8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.583ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle L}"></span>, in the Beer–Lambert law.) <a href="/wiki/Test_tube" title="Test tube">Test tubes</a> can also be used as cuvettes in some instruments. The type of sample container used must allow radiation to pass over the spectral region of interest. The most widely applicable cuvettes are made of high quality <a href="/wiki/Fused_silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Fused silica">fused silica</a> or <a href="/wiki/Quartz_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartz glass">quartz glass</a> because these are transparent throughout the UV, visible and near infrared regions. Glass and plastic cuvettes are also common, although glass and most plastics absorb in the UV, which limits their usefulness to visible wavelengths.<sup id="cite_ref-PIA_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PIA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Specialized instruments have also been made. These include attaching spectrophotometers to telescopes to measure the spectra of astronomical features. UV–visible microspectrophotometers consist of a UV–visible <a href="/wiki/Optical_microscope" title="Optical microscope">microscope</a> integrated with a UV–visible spectrophotometer. </p><p>A complete spectrum of the absorption at all wavelengths of interest can often be produced directly by a more sophisticated spectrophotometer. In simpler instruments the absorption is determined one wavelength at a time and then compiled into a spectrum by the operator. By removing the concentration dependence, the extinction coefficient (ε) can be determined as a function of wavelength. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microspectrophotometry">Microspectrophotometry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Microspectrophotometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>UV–visible spectroscopy of microscopic samples is done by integrating an optical microscope with UV–visible optics, white light sources, a <a href="/wiki/Monochromator" title="Monochromator">monochromator</a>, and a sensitive detector such as a <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) or <a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier" title="Photomultiplier">photomultiplier</a> tube (PMT). As only a single optical path is available, these are single beam instruments. Modern instruments are capable of measuring UV–visible spectra in both reflectance and transmission of micron-scale sampling areas. The advantages of using such instruments is that they are able to measure microscopic samples but are also able to measure the spectra of larger samples with high spatial resolution. As such, they are used in the forensic laboratory to analyze the dyes and pigments in individual textile fibers,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> microscopic paint chips<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the color of glass fragments. They are also used in materials science and biological research and for determining the energy content of coal and petroleum source rock by measuring the <a href="/wiki/Vitrinite" title="Vitrinite">vitrinite</a> reflectance. Microspectrophotometers are used in the semiconductor and micro-optics industries for monitoring the thickness of thin films after they have been deposited. In the semiconductor industry, they are used because the critical dimensions of circuitry is microscopic. A typical test of a semiconductor wafer would entail the acquisition of spectra from many points on a patterned or unpatterned wafer. The thickness of the deposited films may be calculated from the <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_interference" title="Thin-film interference">interference pattern</a> of the spectra. In addition, ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry can be used to determine the thickness, along with the refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin films.<sup id="cite_ref-Löper2015_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Löper2015-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A map of the film thickness across the entire wafer can then be generated and used for quality control purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_applications">Additional applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Additional applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>UV-Vis can be applied to characterize the rate of a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a>. Illustrative is the conversion of the yellow-orange and blue isomers of mercury dithizonate. This method of analysis relies on the fact that concentration is linearly proportional to concentration. In the same approach allows determination of equilibria between chromophores.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the spectrum of burning gases, it is possible to determine a chemical composition of a fuel, temperature of gases, and air-fuel ratio.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_spectroscopy" title="Applied spectroscopy">Applied spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benesi%E2%80%93Hildebrand_method" title="Benesi–Hildebrand method">Benesi–Hildebrand method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a> – Vis spectroscopy with the human eye</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_modulation_spectroscopy" title="Charge modulation spectroscopy">Charge modulation spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer" title="DU spectrophotometer">DU spectrophotometer</a> – first UV–Vis instrument</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourier-transform_spectroscopy" title="Fourier-transform spectroscopy">Fourier-transform spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">Infrared spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman spectroscopy</a> are other common spectroscopic techniques, usually used to obtain information about the structure of compounds or to identify compounds. Both are forms of <a href="/wiki/Vibrational_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibrational spectroscopy">vibrational spectroscopy</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isosbestic_point" title="Isosbestic point">Isosbestic point</a> – a wavelength where absorption does not change as the reaction proceeds. Important in kinetics measurements as a control.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Near-infrared spectroscopy">Near-infrared spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_spectroscopy" title="Rotational spectroscopy">Rotational spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slope_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Slope spectroscopy">Slope spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy_of_stereoisomers" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy of stereoisomers">Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy of stereoisomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrational_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibrational spectroscopy">Vibrational spectroscopy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFColeLevine2020" class="citation cs2">Cole, Kenneth; Levine, Barry S. 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James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesinstru00dasc"><i>Principles of Instrumental Analysis</i></a></span> (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesinstru00dasc/page/n182">169</a>–173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01201-6"><bdi>978-0-495-01201-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Instrumental+Analysis&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pages=169-173&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Thomson+Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-495-01201-6&rft.aulast=Skoog&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rft.au=Holler%2C+F.+James&rft.au=Crouch%2C+Stanley+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesinstru00dasc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUltraviolet%E2%80%93visible+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged March 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RSD-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RSD_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSD_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._S._Drago1992" class="citation book cs1">R. 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(March 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy_Basics/The_Beer-Lambert_Law">"The Beer-Lambert Law"</a>. <i>Chemistry LibreTexts</i>. 3 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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But it is also worth noting that what is usually measured is percent transmission (%T), a linear ratio, which is converted to the logarithm by the instrument for presentation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBozdoğan2022" class="citation journal cs1">Bozdoğan, Abdürrezzak E. 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molecules">Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_infrared_spectroscopy" title="Thermal infrared spectroscopy">Thermal infrared spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ultraviolet–visible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Fluorescence spectroscopy">Fluorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_vapour_atomic_fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy">Cold vapour atomic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibronic_spectroscopy" title="Vibronic spectroscopy">Vibronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Near-infrared spectroscopy">Near-infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonance-enhanced_multiphoton_ionization" title="Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization">Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization</a> (REMPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherent_anti-Stokes_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy">Coherent anti-Stokes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_optical_activity" title="Raman optical activity">Raman optical activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-induced_breakdown_spectroscopy" title="Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy">Laser-induced breakdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_spectroscopy" title="Atomic spectroscopy">Atomic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_emission_spectroscopy" title="Atomic emission spectroscopy">emission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glow-discharge_optical_emission_spectroscopy" title="Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy">Glow-discharge optical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">absorption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_ring-down_spectroscopy" title="Cavity ring-down spectroscopy">Cavity ring-down spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturated_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Saturated absorption spectroscopy">Saturated absorption spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">X-ray and Gamma ray</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy" title="X-ray spectroscopy">X-ray</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy-dispersive_X-ray_spectroscopy" title="Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy">Energy-dispersive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_emission_spectroscopy" title="X-ray emission spectroscopy">Emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_X-ray_absorption_fine_structure" title="Extended X-ray absorption fine structure">Extended X-ray absorption fine structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">Gamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_electron_M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy">Conversion electron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electron</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Photoemission spectroscopy">Photoelectron/photoemission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy">X-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy">UV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle-resolved_photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy">Angle-resolved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-photon_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="Two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy">Two-photon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auger_electron_spectroscopy" title="Auger electron spectroscopy">Auger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_phenomenological_spectroscopy" title="Electron phenomenological spectroscopy">phenomenological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">paramagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta spectroscopy">Beta spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nucleon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-particle_spectroscopy" title="Alpha-particle spectroscopy">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inelastic_neutron_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Inelastic neutron scattering">Inelastic neutron scattering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_spin_echo" title="Neutron spin echo">Neutron spin echo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiowave</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two-dimensional_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">2D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terahertz_spectroscopy_and_technology" title="Terahertz spectroscopy and technology">Terahertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">ESR/EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetic_resonance" title="Ferromagnetic resonance">Ferromagnetic resonance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data collection, processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourier-transform_spectroscopy" title="Fourier-transform spectroscopy">Fourier-transform spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging" title="Hyperspectral imaging">Hyperspectral imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">Spectrophotometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_stretch_analog-to-digital_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Time stretch analog-to-digital converter">Time-stretch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-resolved_spectroscopy" title="Time-resolved spectroscopy">Time-resolved spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_spectroscopy" title="Video spectroscopy">Video spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measured phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Acoustic resonance spectroscopy">Acoustic resonance spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_dichroism" title="Circular dichroism">Circular dichroism spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-level_transient_spectroscopy" title="Deep-level transient spectroscopy">Deep-level transient spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry" title="Dual-polarization interferometry">Dual-polarization interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadron_spectroscopy" title="Hadron spectroscopy">Hadron spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inelastic_electron_tunneling_spectroscopy" title="Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy">Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_spectroscopy" title="Scanning tunneling spectroscopy">Scanning tunneling spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoacoustic_spectroscopy" title="Photoacoustic spectroscopy">Photoacoustic spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photothermal_spectroscopy" title="Photothermal spectroscopy">Photothermal spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump%E2%80%93probe_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pump–probe spectroscopy">Pump–probe spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">Astronomical spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_spectroscopy" title="Force spectroscopy">Force spectroscopy</a> (a misnomer)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Spectroscopy" title="Category:Spectroscopy">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Spectroscopy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Spectroscopy">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_chemistry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Template talk:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> 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