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id="toc-Birth_and_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_and_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Birth and family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_and_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_at_Issy-les-Moulineaux" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_at_Issy-les-Moulineaux"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Study at Issy-les-Moulineaux</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_at_Issy-les-Moulineaux-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study_at_college_of_St_Sulpice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study_at_college_of_St_Sulpice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Study at college of St Sulpice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study_at_college_of_St_Sulpice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Scholarly career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Life_of_Jesus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_of_Jesus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span><i>Life of Jesus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_of_Jesus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continuation_of_scholarly_career:_social_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuation_of_scholarly_career:_social_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Continuation of scholarly career: social views</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuation_of_scholarly_career:_social_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition_of_nationhood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_of_nationhood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Definition of nationhood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_of_nationhood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_scholarly_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_scholarly_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Late scholarly career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_scholarly_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reputation_and_controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reputation_and_controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reputation and controversies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reputation_and_controversies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reputation and controversies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reputation_and_controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Statue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Statue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Views on race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Republican_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republican_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Republican racism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republican_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Honours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archives_and_memorabilia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archives_and_memorabilia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Archives and memorabilia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archives_and_memorabilia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ernest Renan</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="إرنست رينان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إرنست رينان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%84_%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Жазеф Эрнест Рэнан – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жазеф Эрнест Рэнан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ернест Ренан – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ернест Ренан" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%83%CF%84_%CE%A1%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AC%CE%BD" title="Ερνέστ Ρενάν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ερνέστ Ρενάν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ارنست رنان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارنست رنان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%EB%A5%B4%EB%84%A4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8_%EB%A5%B4%EB%82%AD" title="에르네스트 르낭 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에르네스트 르낭" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A8" title="अर्नेस्ट रेनन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अर्नेस्ट रेनन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%98_%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%9F" title="ארנסט רנן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ארנסט רנן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ერნესტ რენანი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ერნესტ რენანი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernestus_Renan" title="Ernestus Renan – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ernestus Renan" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ернест Ренан – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ернест Ренан" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="رينان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رينان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8D%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8A%E3%83%B3" title="エルネスト・ルナン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エルネスト・ルナン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%BC_%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ارنسټ رنان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ارنسټ رنان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ernest Renan" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the ship, see <a href="/wiki/French_cruiser_Ernest_Renan" title="French cruiser Ernest Renan">French cruiser Ernest Renan</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Ernest Renan</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernest_Renan_1876-84.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of Renan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ernest_Renan_1876-84.jpg/220px-Ernest_Renan_1876-84.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ernest_Renan_1876-84.jpg/330px-Ernest_Renan_1876-84.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ernest_Renan_1876-84.jpg/440px-Ernest_Renan_1876-84.jpg 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="1035" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Ernest Renan <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1870s</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Joseph Ernest Renan</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1823-02-28</span>)</span>28 February 1823<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A9guier" title="Tréguier">Tréguier</a>, Kingdom of France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">2 October 1892<span style="display:none">(1892-10-02)</span> (aged 69)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, French Third Republic</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Life of Jesus</i> (1863)<br /> <i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_a_Nation%3F" title="What Is a Nation?">What Is a Nation?</a></i> (1882)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Signature_of_Ernest_Renan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Signature_of_Ernest_Renan.svg/150px-Signature_of_Ernest_Renan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Signature_of_Ernest_Renan.svg/225px-Signature_of_Ernest_Renan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Signature_of_Ernest_Renan.svg/300px-Signature_of_Ernest_Renan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="158" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Joseph Ernest Renan</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʒozɛf<span class="wrap"> </span>ɛʁnɛst<span class="wrap"> </span>ʁənɑ̃]</a></span>; 27 February 1823 – 2 October 1892)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a French <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">Orientalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semitic_studies" title="Semitic studies">Semitic scholar</a>, writing on <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">civilizations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historian_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Historian of religion">historian of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Philologist">philologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_scholar" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical scholar">biblical scholar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">critic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Römer_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Römer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote works on the <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">origins</a> of <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christianity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Römer_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Römer-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and espoused popular political theories especially concerning <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_identity" title="National identity">national identity</a>, and the alleged <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">superiority</a> of White people over other human "races".<sup id="cite_ref-Cesaire1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cesaire1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renan is known as being among the first scholars to advance the debunked<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" title="Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry">Khazar theory</a>, which held that <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> were descendants of the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stampfer_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stampfer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turkic peoples who had <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">adopted the Jewish religion</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and allegedly migrated to central and eastern Europe following the collapse of their <a href="/wiki/Khanate" title="Khanate">khanate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stampfer_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stampfer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_and_family">Birth and family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Birth and family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_Mus%C3%A9e_Ernest_Renan_Tr%C3%A9guier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Maison_Mus%C3%A9e_Ernest_Renan_Tr%C3%A9guier.jpg/220px-Maison_Mus%C3%A9e_Ernest_Renan_Tr%C3%A9guier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Maison_Mus%C3%A9e_Ernest_Renan_Tr%C3%A9guier.jpg/330px-Maison_Mus%C3%A9e_Ernest_Renan_Tr%C3%A9guier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Maison_Mus%C3%A9e_Ernest_Renan_Tr%C3%A9guier.jpg/440px-Maison_Mus%C3%A9e_Ernest_Renan_Tr%C3%A9guier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Ernest Renan birthplace museum in <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A9guier" title="Tréguier">Tréguier</a></figcaption></figure> <p>He was born at <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A9guier" title="Tréguier">Tréguier</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> to a family of fishermen.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His grandfather, having made a small fortune with his fishing <a href="/wiki/Smack_(ship)" title="Smack (ship)">smack</a>, bought a house at Tréguier and settled there, and his father, captain of a small <a href="/wiki/Cutter_(boat)" title="Cutter (boat)">cutter</a> and an ardent <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a>, married the daughter of a Royalist tradesman from the neighbouring town of <a href="/wiki/Lannion" title="Lannion">Lannion</a>. All his life, Renan was aware of the conflict between his father's and his mother's political beliefs. He was five years old when his father died, and his sister, <a href="/wiki/Henriette_Renan" title="Henriette Renan">Henriette</a>, twelve years his senior, became the moral head of the household. Having in vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Tréguier, she departed and went to <a href="/wiki/Paris,_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris, France">Paris</a> as a teacher in a young ladies' boarding-school.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ernest was educated in the ecclesiastical seminary of his native town.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His school reports describe him as "docile, patient, diligent, painstaking, thorough". While the priests taught him mathematics and Latin, his mother completed his education. Renan's mother was half <a href="/wiki/Breton_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton people">Breton</a>. Her paternal ancestors came from <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, and Renan used to say that in his own nature, the <a href="/wiki/Gascony" title="Gascony">Gascon</a> and the Breton were constantly at odds.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the summer of 1838, Renan won all the prizes at the college of Tréguier. His sister told the doctor of the school in Paris where she taught about her brother, and he informed <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Dupanloup" title="Félix Dupanloup">F. A. P. Dupanloup</a>, who was involved in organizing the ecclesiastical college of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Nicolas-du-Chardonnet" title="Saint-Nicolas-du-Chardonnet">Saint-Nicolas-du-Chardonnet</a>, a school in which the young Catholic nobility and the most talented pupils of the Catholic seminaries were to be educated together, with the idea of creating friendships between the aristocracy and the priesthood. Dupanloup sent for Renan, who was then fifteen years old and had never been outside <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>. "I learned with stupor that knowledge was not a privilege of the Church ... I awoke to the meaning of the words talent, fame, celebrity." Religion seemed to him wholly different in Tréguier and in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He came to view Abbé Dupanloup as a father figure.<sup id="cite_ref-Theiss_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theiss-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_at_Issy-les-Moulineaux">Study at Issy-les-Moulineaux</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Study at Issy-les-Moulineaux"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1840, Renan left St Nicholas to study philosophy at the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Sulpice_Seminary_(Issy-les-Moulineaux)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Sulpice Seminary (Issy-les-Moulineaux)">seminary of Issy-les-Moulineaux</a>. He entered with a passion for Catholic <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. Among the philosophers, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a> first attracted him, and, then he turned to <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">J. G. Herder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Theiss_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theiss-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renan began to see a contradiction between the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> which he studied and the faith he professed, but an appetite for verifiable truths restrained his scepticism. "Philosophy excites and only half satisfies the appetite for truth; I am eager for mathematics", he wrote to Henriette. Henriette had accepted in the family of Count <a href="/wiki/Zamoyski" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamoyski">Zamoyski</a> an engagement more lucrative than her former job. She exercised the strongest influence over her brother.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_at_college_of_St_Sulpice">Study at college of St Sulpice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Study at college of St Sulpice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was not mathematics but <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a> which was to settle Renan's gathering doubts. His course completed at Issy, in 1844 he entered the college of St Sulpice in order to take his degree in philology prior to entering the church, and, here, he began the study of Hebrew. He realized that the second part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Book of Isaiah</a></i> differs from the first not only in style but in date, that the grammar and the history of the <i><a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a></i> are later than the time of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, and that the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Book of Daniel</a></i> is clearly written centuries after the time in which it is set. At night he read the new novels of <a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Victor Hugo</a>; by day, he studied Hebrew and Syriac under <a href="/wiki/Arthur-Marie_Le_Hir" title="Arthur-Marie Le Hir">Arthur-Marie Le Hir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Theiss_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theiss-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1845, Renan left St Sulpice for Stanislas, a lay college of the <a href="/wiki/Oratory_(worship)" title="Oratory (worship)">Oratorians</a>. Still feeling too much under the domination of the church, he reluctantly ended the last of his associations with religious life and entered M. Crouzet's school for boys as a teacher.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_career">Scholarly career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Scholarly career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Ernest_Renan,_by_F._Mulnier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Joseph_Ernest_Renan%2C_by_F._Mulnier.jpg/200px-Joseph_Ernest_Renan%2C_by_F._Mulnier.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Joseph_Ernest_Renan%2C_by_F._Mulnier.jpg/300px-Joseph_Ernest_Renan%2C_by_F._Mulnier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Joseph_Ernest_Renan%2C_by_F._Mulnier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Joseph Ernest Renan, by F. Mulnier</figcaption></figure> <p>Renan, educated by priests, was to accept the scientific ideal with an extraordinary expansion of all his faculties. He became ravished by the splendor of the cosmos. At the end of his life, he wrote of <a href="/wiki/Henri-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Amiel" title="Henri-Frédéric Amiel">Amiel</a>, "The man who has time to keep a private diary has never understood the immensity of the universe." The certitudes of physical and natural science were revealed to Renan in 1846 by the chemist <a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Berthelot" title="Marcellin Berthelot">Marcellin Berthelot</a>, then a young man of eighteen, his pupil at M. Crouzet's school. To the day of Renan's death, their friendship continued. Renan was occupied as usher only during evenings. During the daytime, he continued his researches in <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic philology</a>. In 1847, he obtained the <a href="/wiki/Volney_prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Volney prize">Volney prize</a>, one of the principal distinctions awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Inscriptions">Academy of Inscriptions</a>, for the manuscript of his "General History of Semitic Languages." In 1847, he took his degree as <i>Agrégé de Philosophie</i> – that is to say, fellow of the university – and was offered a job as master in the <i>lycée</i> <a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%B4me" title="Vendôme">Vendôme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1856, Renan married in Paris Cornélie Scheffer, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Scheffer" title="Hendrik Scheffer">Hendrik Scheffer</a> and niece of <a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Ary Scheffer</a>, both French painters of Dutch descent. They had two children, <a href="/wiki/Ary_Renan" title="Ary Renan">Ary Renan</a>, born in 1858, who became a painter, and Noémi, born in 1862, who eventually married philologist <a href="/wiki/Yannis_Psycharis" class="mw-redirect" title="Yannis Psycharis">Yannis Psycharis</a>. In 1863, the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> elected him an international Member.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Life_of_Jesus"><i>Life of Jesus</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Life of Jesus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within his lifetime, Renan was best known as the author of the enormously popular <i>Life of Jesus</i> (<i>Vie de Jésus</i>, 1863).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renan attributed the idea of the book to his sister, Henriette, with whom he was traveling in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria and Palestine</a> when, struck with a fever, she died suddenly. With only a <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and copy of <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> as references, he began writing.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book was first translated into English in the year of its publication by <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Wilbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles E. Wilbour">Charles E. Wilbour</a> and has remained in print for the past 145 years.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renan's <i>Life of Jesus</i> was lavished with ironic praise and criticism by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer" title="Albert Schweitzer">Albert Schweitzer</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Quest_of_the_Historical_Jesus" title="The Quest of the Historical Jesus">The Quest of the Historical Jesus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Renan argued Jesus was able to purify himself of "Jewish traits" and that he became an <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a>. His <i>Life of Jesus</i> promoted racial ideas and infused race into theology and the person of Jesus; he depicted Jesus as a <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilean</a> who was transformed from a Jew into a Christian, and that Christianity emerged purified of any Jewish influences.<sup id="cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heschel2008-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book was based largely on the Gospel of John, and was a scholarly work.<sup id="cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heschel2008-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It depicted Jesus as a man but not God, and rejected the miracles of the Gospel.<sup id="cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heschel2008-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renan believed by humanizing Jesus he was restoring to him a greater dignity.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book's controversial assertions that the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">life of Jesus</a> should be written like the life of any historic person, and that the Bible could and should be subject to the same critical scrutiny as other historical documents caused controversy<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and enraged many Christians<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Jews because of its depiction of Judaism as foolish and absurdly illogical and for its insistence that Jesus and Christianity were superior.<sup id="cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heschel2008-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American historian <a href="/wiki/George_Mosse" title="George Mosse">George Mosse</a>, in <i>Toward the Final Solution. A History of European Racism</i> (pp 88, 129–130) argues that according to Renan, the intolerance would be a Jewish and not a Christian characteristic, but biblical Judaism would have lost its importance even among the Jews themselves as civilization progressed. That is why modern Jews are no longer disadvantaged by their past and are able to make important contributions to modern progress.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continuation_of_scholarly_career:_social_views">Continuation of scholarly career: social views</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Continuation of scholarly career: social views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his book on <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">St. Paul</a>, as in the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a>, he shows his concern with the larger social life, his sense of fraternity, and a revival of the democratic sentiment which had inspired <i>L'Avenir de la Science</i>. In 1869, he presented himself as the candidate of the liberal opposition at the parliamentary election for <a href="/wiki/Meaux" title="Meaux">Meaux</a>. While his temper had become less aristocratic, his liberalism had grown more tolerant. On the eve of its dissolution, Renan was half prepared to accept the Empire, and, had he been elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he would have joined the group of <i>l'Empire liberal</i>, but he was not elected. A year later, war was declared with Germany; the Empire was abolished, and <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon III of France">Napoleon III</a> became an exile. The <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> was a turning-point in Renan's history. Germany had always been to him the asylum of thought and disinterested science. Now, he saw the land of his ideal destroy and ruin the land of his birth; he beheld the German no longer as a priest, but as an invader.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ErnestRenan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/ErnestRenan.jpg/220px-ErnestRenan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/ErnestRenan.jpg/330px-ErnestRenan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/ErnestRenan.jpg/440px-ErnestRenan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>Ernest Renan in his study by <a href="/wiki/Anders_Zorn" title="Anders Zorn">Anders Zorn</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In <i>La Réforme Intellectuelle et Morale</i> (1871), Renan tried to safeguard France's future. Yet, he was still influenced by Germany. The ideal and the discipline which he proposed to his defeated country were those of her conqueror—a feudal society, a monarchical government, an elite which the rest of the nation exists merely to support and nourish; an ideal of honor and duty imposed by a chosen few on the recalcitrant and subject multitude. The errors attributed to the <i>Commune</i> confirmed Renan in this reaction. At the same time, the irony always perceptible in his work grows more bitter. His <i>Dialogues Philosophiques</i>, written in 1871, his <i><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a></i> (1882) and his <i>Antichrist</i> (1876) (the fourth volume of the <i>Origins of Christianity</i>, dealing with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>) are incomparable in their literary genius, but they are examples of a disenchanted and sceptical temper. He had vainly tried to make his country obey his precepts. The progress of events showed him, on the contrary, a France which, every day, left a little stronger, and he roused himself from his disbelieving, disillusioned mood and observed with interest the struggle for justice and liberty of a democratic society. The fifth and sixth volumes of the <i>Origins of Christianity</i> (the Christian Church and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>) show him reconciled with democracy, confident in the gradual ascent of man, aware that the greatest catastrophes do not really interrupt the sure if imperceptible progress of the world and reconciled, also, if not with the truths, at least with the moral beauties of Catholicism and with the remembrance of his pious youth.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Definition_of_nationhood">Definition of nationhood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Definition of nationhood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Renan's definition of a <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation</a> has been extremely influential. This was given in his 1882 discourse <i><a href="/wiki/What_is_a_Nation%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What is a Nation?">Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?</a></i> ("What is a Nation?"). Whereas German writers like <a href="/wiki/Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Fichte">Fichte</a> had defined the nation by <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a> criteria such as a <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a> "sharing common characteristics" (language, etc.), Renan defined it by the desire of a people to live together, which he summarized by a famous phrase, "having done great things together and wishing to do more".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing in the midst of the dispute concerning the <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> region, he declared that the existence of a nation was based on a "daily <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscite</a>." Some authors criticize that definition, based on a "daily plebiscite", because of the ambiguity of the concept. They argue that this definition is an idealization and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it. They say that the arguments used by Renan at the conference <i> What is a Nation? </i> are not consistent with his thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Deutsch" title="Karl Deutsch">Karl Deutsch</a> (in "Nationalism and its alternatives") wrote "'A Nation,' so goes a rueful European saying, 'is a group of persons united by a common error about their ancestry and a common dislike of their neighbors.'"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phrase is frequently, but mistakenly, attributed to Renan himself. He did indeed write that if "the essential element of a nation is that all its individuals must have many things in common", they "must also have forgotten many things. Every French citizen must have forgotten the <a href="/wiki/St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre" title="St. Bartholomew's Day massacre">night of St. Bartholomew</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">massacres in the 13th century in the South</a>." </p><p>Renan believed "Nations are not eternal. They had a beginning and they will have an end. And they will probably be replaced by a European confederation".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Renan's work has especially influenced 20th-century theorist of nationalism <a href="/wiki/Benedict_Anderson" title="Benedict Anderson">Benedict Anderson</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_scholarly_career">Late scholarly career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Late scholarly career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Renan_in_his_Study_in_the_College_of_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Renan_in_his_Study_in_the_College_of_France.jpg/220px-Renan_in_his_Study_in_the_College_of_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Renan_in_his_Study_in_the_College_of_France.jpg/330px-Renan_in_his_Study_in_the_College_of_France.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Renan_in_his_Study_in_the_College_of_France.jpg/440px-Renan_in_his_Study_in_the_College_of_France.jpg 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="1270" /></a><figcaption>Renan in his study in the College of France</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caricature_of_Ernest_Renan,_Vanity_Fair.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Caricature_of_Ernest_Renan%2C_Vanity_Fair.jpg/220px-Caricature_of_Ernest_Renan%2C_Vanity_Fair.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Caricature_of_Ernest_Renan%2C_Vanity_Fair.jpg/330px-Caricature_of_Ernest_Renan%2C_Vanity_Fair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Caricature_of_Ernest_Renan%2C_Vanity_Fair.jpg/440px-Caricature_of_Ernest_Renan%2C_Vanity_Fair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="477" data-file-height="783" /></a><figcaption>Renan caricatured by GUTH in <a href="/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)" title="Vanity Fair (British magazine)">Vanity Fair</a>, 1910</figcaption></figure> <p>Shifting away from his pessimism regarding liberalism's prospects during the 1870s while still believing in the necessity of an intellectual elite to influence democratic society for the good, Renan rallied to support the <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a>, humorously describing himself as a <i>légitimiste</i>, that is, a person who needs "about ten years to accustom myself to regarding any government as legitimate," and adding "I, who am not a republican <i>a priori</i>, who am a simple Liberal quite willing to adjust myself to a constitutional monarchy, would be more loyal to the Republic than newly converted republicans."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The progress of the sciences under the Republic and the latitude given to the freedom of thought that Renan cherished above all had allayed many of his previous fears, and he opposed the deterministic and fatalist theories of philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Hippolyte Taine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As he got older, he contemplated his childhood. He was nearly sixty when, in 1883, he published the autobiographical <i>Souvenirs d'Enfance et de Jeunesse</i> which, after the <i>Life of Jesus</i>, is the work by which he is chiefly known.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They showed the blasé modern reader that a world no less poetic, no less primitive than that of the <i>Origins of Christianity</i> still existed within living memory on the northwestern coast of France. It has the <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celtic</a> magic of ancient romance and the simplicity, the naturalness, and the veracity which the 19th century prized so highly. But his <i>Ecclesiastes</i>, published a few months earlier, his <i>Drames Philosophiques</i>, collected in 1888, give a more adequate image of his fastidious critical, disenchanted, yet optimistic spirit. They show the attitude towards uncultured Socialism of a philosopher liberal by conviction, by temperament an aristocrat. We learn in them how <a href="/wiki/Caliban_(character)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliban (character)">Caliban</a> (democracy), the mindless brute, educated to his own responsibility, makes after all an adequate ruler; how <a href="/wiki/Prospero" title="Prospero">Prospero</a> (the aristocratic principle or the mind) accepts his dethronement for the sake of greater liberty in the intellectual world, since Caliban proves an effective policeman and leaves his superiors a free hand in the laboratory; how <a href="/wiki/Ariel_(Shakespeare)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariel (Shakespeare)">Ariel</a> (the religious principle) acquires a firmer hold on life and no longer gives up the ghost at the faintest hint of change. Indeed, Ariel flourishes in the service of Prospero under the external government of the many-headed brute. Religion and knowledge are as imperishable as the world they dignify. Thus, out of the depths rises unvanquished the essential <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> of Renan.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Renan was prolific. At sixty years of age, having finished the <i>Origins of Christianity</i>, he began his <i>History of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></i>, based on a lifelong study of the <i><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></i> and on the <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Semiticarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum</a></i>, published by the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie des Inscriptions">Académie des Inscriptions</a> under Renan's direction from the year 1881 till the end of his life. The first volume of the <i>History of Israel</i> appeared in 1887; the third, in 1891; the last two posthumously. As a history of facts and theories, the book has many faults; as an essay on the evolution of the religious idea, it is (despite some passages of frivolity, irony, or incoherence) of extraordinary importance; as a reflection of the mind of Renan, it is the most lifelike of images. In a volume of collected essays, <i>Feuilles Détachées</i>, published also in 1891, we find the same mental attitude, an affirmation of the necessity of <a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">piety</a> independent of <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>. During his last years, he received many honors, and was made an administrator of the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a> and grand officer of the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Legion of Honor">Legion of Honor</a>. Two volumes of the <i>History of Israel</i>, his correspondence with his sister Henriette, his <i>Letters to M. Berthelot</i>, and the <i>History of the Religious Policy of <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philippe-le-Bel</a></i>, which he wrote in the years immediately before his marriage, all appeared during the last eight years of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Renan died after a few days' illness in 1892 in Paris,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_9-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was buried in the <a href="/wiki/Cimeti%C3%A8re_de_Montmartre" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimetière de Montmartre">Cimetière de Montmartre</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Montmartre_Quarter" class="mw-redirect" title="Montmartre Quarter">Montmartre Quarter</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reputation_and_controversies">Reputation and controversies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Reputation and controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hugely influential in his lifetime, Renan was eulogised after his death as the embodiment of the progressive spirit in western culture. <a href="/wiki/Anatole_France" title="Anatole France">Anatole France</a> wrote that Renan was the incarnation of modernity. Renan's works were read and appreciated by many of the leading literary figures of the time, including <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edith_Wharton" title="Edith Wharton">Edith Wharton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Augustin_Sainte-Beuve" title="Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve">Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of his greatest admirers was <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Prada" title="Manuel González Prada">Manuel González Prada</a> in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> who took the <i>Life of Jesus</i> as a basis for his anticlericalism. In his 1932 document "<a href="/wiki/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism" title="The Doctrine of Fascism">The Doctrine of Fascism</a>", Italian dictator <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> also applauded perceived "prefascist intuitions" in a section of Renan's "Meditations" that argued against democracy and individual rights as "<a href="/wiki/Chimera_(mythology)" title="Chimera (mythology)">chimerical</a>" and intrinsically opposed to "nature's plans".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statue">Statue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Statue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Renan12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Renan12.jpg/170px-Renan12.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Renan12.jpg/255px-Renan12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Renan12.jpg/340px-Renan12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="989" data-file-height="1665" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Ernest Renan in Tréguier town square</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1903 a major controversy accompanied the installation of a monument in Tréguier designed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Boucher_(artist)" title="Jean Boucher (artist)">Jean Boucher</a>. Placed in the local cathedral square, it was interpreted as a challenge to Catholicism, and led to widespread protests, especially because the site was normally used for the temporary pulpit erected at the traditional Catholic festival of the <a href="/wiki/Pardon_(ceremony)" title="Pardon (ceremony)">Pardon of St Yves</a>. It also included the Greek goddess <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> raising her arm to crown Renan gesturing in apparent challenge towards the cathedral.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The local clergy organised a protest <a href="/wiki/Calvary_(sculpture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvary (sculpture)">calvary sculpture</a> designed by <a href="/wiki/Yves_Hernot" title="Yves Hernot">Yves Hernot</a> as "a symbol of the triumphant <a href="/wiki/Ultramontane" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultramontane">ultramontaine</a> church." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_race">Views on race</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Views on race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Renan believed that racial characteristics were instinctual and <a href="/wiki/Deterministic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">deterministic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heschel20081_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heschel20081-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renan believed that the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Semitic race">Semitic race</a> was inferior to the <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renan claimed that the Semitic mind was limited by dogmatism and lacked a cosmopolitan conception of civilisation.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Renan, Semites were "an incomplete race."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors argue that Renan developed his antisemitism from <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire's</a> anti-Judaism.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He did not regard the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> of Europe as being a Semitic people. Renan is acknowledged for launching the so-called <a href="/wiki/Khazar_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar theory">Khazar theory</a>. This theory states that Ashkenazim had their origin in Turkic refugees that had converted to Judaism and later migrated from the collapsed <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khanate">Khazar Khanate</a> westward into the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, and exchanged their native <a href="/wiki/Khazar_language" title="Khazar language">Khazar language</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish language</a> while continuing to practice the Jewish religion. In his 1883 lecture "Le Judaïsme comme race et comme religion" he disputed the concept that <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jewish people</a> constitute a unified racial entity in a <i>biological</i> sense,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which made his views unpalatable within <a href="/wiki/Racial_antisemitism" title="Racial antisemitism">racial antisemitism</a>. Renan was also known for being a strong critic of <a href="/wiki/German_ethnic_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="German ethnic nationalism">German ethnic nationalism</a>, with its antisemitic undertones.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His notions of race and ethnicity were completely at odds with the European antisemitism of the 19th and 20th centuries. </p><p>Renan wrote the following about the long history of <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">persecution of Jews</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>When all nations and all ages have persecuted you, there must be some motive behind it all. The Jew, up to our own time, insinuated himself everywhere, claiming the protection of the common law; but, in reality, remaining outside the common law. He retained his own status; he wished to have the same guarantees as everyone else, and, over and above that, his own exceptions and special laws. He desired the advantages of the nations without being a nation, without helping to bear the burdens of the nations. No people has ever been able to tolerate this. The nations are military creations founded and maintained by the sword; they are the work of peasants and soldiers; towards establishing them the Jews have contributed nothing. Herein is the great fallacy inspired in Israelite pretensions. The tolerated alien can be useful to a country, but only on condition that the country does not allow itself to be invaded by him. It is not fair to claim family rights in a house which one has not built, like those birds which come and take up their quarters in a nest which does not belong to them, or like the crustaceans which steal the shell of another species.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, during the 1880s, Renan shifted away from these views. In a lecture on "Judaism as a Race and as a Religion", he stated: </p> <blockquote><p>When, in 1791, the National Assembly decreed the emancipation of the Jews, it concerned itself very little with race. It considered that men ought to be judged, not by the blood that runs in their veins, but by their moral and intellectual value. It is the glory of France to take these questions by their human side. The work of the nineteenth century is to tear down every ghetto, and I have no praise for those who seek to rebuild them. The Israelite race has in the past rendered the greatest services to the world. Blended with the different nations, in harmony with the diverse national unities of Europe, it will continue to do in the future what it has done in the past. By its collaboration with all the liberal forces of Europe, it will contribute eminently to the social progress of humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gidley_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gidley-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> In the aforementioned 1882 conference on <i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_a_Nation%3F" title="What Is a Nation?">What Is a Nation?</a></i>, Renan had spoken out against the theories that were based on race: </p><blockquote><p>Both the principle of nations is right and legitimate, as that of the primordial right of races is wrong and full of dangers for true progress … The truth is that pure race does not exist and that to base politics on ethnographic analysis means to base it on a chimera.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>And in 1883, in a lecture called "The Original Identity and Gradual Separation of Judaism and Christianity": </p> <blockquote><p>Judaism, which has served so well in the past, will still serve in the future. It will serve the true cause of liberalism, of the modern spirit. Every Jew is a liberal ... The enemies of Judaism, however, if you only look at them more closely, you will see that they are the enemies of the modern spirit in general.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Other comments on race, have also proven controversial, especially his belief that political policy should take into account supposed racial differences: </p> <blockquote><p>Nature has made a race of workers, the Chinese race, who have wonderful manual dexterity and almost no sense of honor... A race of tillers of the soil, the Negro; treat him with kindness and humanity, and all will be as it should; a race of masters and soldiers, the European race. Reduce this noble race to working in the <a href="/wiki/Ergastula" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergastula">ergastulum</a> like Negroes and Chinese, and they rebel... But the life at which our workers rebel would make a Chinese or a <a href="/wiki/Fellaheen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellaheen">fellah</a> happy, as they are not military creatures in the least. Let each one do what he is made for, and all will be well.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This passage, among others, was cited by <a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a> in his <i>Discourse on Colonialism</i>, as evidence of the alleged hypocrisy of Western humanism and its "sordidly racist" conception of the rights of man.<sup id="cite_ref-Cesaire1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cesaire1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_racism">Republican racism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Republican racism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the arising of racism theories around Europe and specifically in <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a>, Renan had an important influence on the matter. He was a defender of people's <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> concept,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but on the other hand was in fact convinced of a "racial hierarchy of peoples" that he said was "established".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discursively, he subordinated the principle of self-determination of peoples to a racial hierarchy,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> i.e. he supported the colonialist expansion and the racist view of the Third Republic because he believed the French to be hierarchically superior (in a racial matter) to the African nations.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This subtle racism, called by <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Manceron" class="extiw" title="fr:Gilles Manceron">Gilles Manceron</a> "Republican racism",<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was common in France during the Third Republic and was also a well-known defensing discourse in politics. Supporters of colonialism used the concept of cultural superiority, and described themselves as "protectors of civilization" to justify their colonial actions and territorial expansion. There was also another motivation for his support of colonialism, Renan wrote that "a nation which does not colonize is irrevocably doomed to socialism, to the war between rich and poor".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honours">Honours</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Honours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The armoured cruiser <i><a href="/wiki/French_cruiser_Ernest_Renan" title="French cruiser Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a></i>, launched in 1906, was named in his honour.</li> <li>The community of <a href="/wiki/Renan,_Virginia" title="Renan, Virginia">Renan, Virginia</a> was named after him.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archives_and_memorabilia">Archives and memorabilia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Archives and memorabilia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Vie_romantique" title="Musée de la Vie romantique">Musée de la Vie romantique</a>, Hôtel Scheffer-Renan, Paris</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li>(1848). <i>De l'orinine du langage</i>.</li> <li>(1852). <i>Averroës et l'averroïsme</i>.</li> <li>(1852). <i>De Philosophia Peripatetica, apud Syros</i>.</li> <li>(1854). <i>L'Âme bretonne</i>.</li> <li>(1855). <i>Histoire générale et systèmes comparés des langues sémitiques</i>.</li> <li>(1857). <i>Études d'histoire religieuse</i>.</li> <li>(1858). <i>Le Livre de Job</i>.</li> <li>(1859). <i>Essais de morale et de critique</i>.</li> <li>(1860). <i>Le Cantique des cantiques</i>.</li> <li>(1862). <i>Henriette Renan, souvenir pour ceux qui l'ont connue</i>.</li> <li>(1863–1881). <i>Histoire des origines du christianisme</i>: <ul><li>(1863). <i>Vie de Jésus</i>.</li> <li>(1866). <i>Les Apôtres</i>.</li> <li>(1869). <i>Saint Paul</i>.</li> <li>(1873). <i>L'Antéchrist</i>.</li> <li>(1877). <i>Les Évangiles et la seconde génération chrétienne</i>.</li> <li>(1879). <i>L'Église chrétienne</i>.</li> <li>(1882). <i>Marc-Aurèle ou la Fin du monde antique</i>.</li> <li>(1883). <i>Index</i>.</li></ul></li> <li>(1864). <a href="/wiki/Mission_de_Ph%C3%A9nicie_(1865%E2%80%931874)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission de Phénicie (1865–1874)">Mission de Phénicie (1865–1874)</a></li> <li>(1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lexilogos.com/document/renan/acropole.htm"><i>Prière sur l'Acropole</i></a>.</li> <li>(1865). <i>Histoire littéraire de la France au XIVe siècle</i> [with Victor Le Clerc].</li> <li>(1868). <i>Questions contemporaines</i>.</li> <li>(1871). <i>La Réforme intellectuelle et morale de la France</i>.</li> <li>(1876). <i>Dialogues et fragments philosophiques</i>.</li> <li>(1878). <i>Mélanges d'histoire et de voyages</i>.</li> <li>(1878–1886). <i>Drames philosophiques</i>: <ul><li>(1878). <i>Caliban</i>.</li> <li>(1881). <i>L'Eau de jouvance</i>.</li> <li>(1885). <i>Le Prêtre de Némi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>(1886). <i>L'Abbesse de Jouarre</i>.</li></ul></li> <li>(1880). <i>Conférences d'Angleterre</i>.</li> <li>(1881). <i>L'Ecclésiaste</i>.</li> <li>(1882). <a href="/wiki/What_Is_a_Nation%3F" title="What Is a Nation?"><i>Qu'est-ce qu'une Nation?</i></a></li> <li>(1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mcgill.ca/islamicstudies/files/islamicstudies/renan_islamism_cversion.pdf">Islam and Science: A lecture presented at La Sorbonne, 29 March 1883</a>.<i><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i></li> <li>(1883). <i>Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse</i>.</li> <li>(1884). <i>Nouvelles études d'histoire religieuse</i>.</li> <li>(1884). <i>Le Bouddhisme</i>.</li> <li>(1887). <i>Discours et conférences</i>.</li> <li>(1887–1893). <i>Histoire du peuple d'Israël</i> [5 volumes].</li> <li>(1889). <i>Examen de conscience philosophique</i>.</li> <li>(1890). <i>L'Avenir de la science, pensées de 1848</i>.</li> <li>(1892). <i>Feuilles détachées</i>.</li> <li>(1899). <i>Études sur la politique religieuse du règne de Philippe le Bel</i>.</li> <li>(1904). <i>Mélanges religieux et historiques</i>.</li> <li>(1908). <i>Patrice</i>.</li> <li>(1914). <i>Fragments intimes et romanesques</i>.</li> <li>(1921). <i>Essai psycologique sur Jésus-Christ</i>.</li> <li>(1928). <i>Voyages: Italie, Norvège</i>.</li> <li>(1928). <i>Sur Corneille, Racine et Bossuet</i>.</li> <li>(1945). <i>Ernest Renan et l'Allemagne</i>.</li></ul> <p><b>Works in English translation</b> </p> <ul><li>(1862). <i>An Essay on the Age and Antiquity of the Book of Nabathaean Agriculture</i>. London: Trübner & Co.</li> <li>(1864). <i>Studies of Religious History and Criticism</i>. New York: Carleton Publisher.</li> <li>(1864). <i>The Life of Jesus</i>. London: Trübner & Co.</li> <li>(1866). <i>The Apostles</i>. New York: Carleton Publisher.</li> <li>(1868). <i>Saint Paul</i>. London: The Temple Company.</li> <li>(1871). <i>Constitutional Monarchy in France</i>. Boston: Robert Brothers.</li> <li>(1885). <i>Lectures on the Influence of the Institutions, Thought and Culture of Rome, on Christianity and the Development of the Catholic Church</i>. London: Williams & Norgate (<a href="/wiki/Hibbert_Lectures" title="Hibbert Lectures">The Hibbert Lectures</a>). <ul><li>(1888). <i>English Conferences of Ernest Renan</i>. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company.</li></ul></li> <li>(1888–1895). <i>History of the People of Israel</i>. London: Chapman & Hall [5 vols.]</li> <li>(1888). <i>Marcus-Aurelius</i>. London: Mathieson & Company.</li> <li>(1888). <i>The Abbess of Jouarre</i>. New York: G.W. Dillingham.</li> <li>(1889). <i>The Gospels</i>. London: Mathieson & Company.</li> <li>(1890). <i>The Antichrist</i>. London: Mathieson & Company.</li> <li>(1890). <i>Cohelet; or, the Preacher</i>. London: Mathieson & Company.</li> <li>(1891). <i>The Future of Science</i>. London: Chapman & Hall.</li> <li>(1891). <i>The Song of Songs</i>. London: W.M. Thomson.</li> <li>(1892). <i>Recollections and Letters of Ernest Renan</i>. New York: Cassell Publishing Company.</li> <li>(1893). <i>The Book of Job</i>. London: W.M. Thomson.</li> <li>(1895). <i>My Sister Henrietta</i>. Boston: Robert Brothers.</li> <li>(1896). <i>Brother and Sister: A Memoir and the Letters of Ernest & Henriette Renan</i>. London: William Heinemann.</li> <li>(1896). <i>Caliban: A Philosophical Drama</i>. London: The Shakespeare Press.</li> <li>(1896). <i>The Poetry of the Celtic Races, and Other Essays</i>. London: The Walter Scott Publishing Co.</li> <li>(1904). <i>Renan's Letters from the Holy Land</i>. New York: Doubleday, Page & Company.</li> <li>(1935). <i>The Memoirs of Ernest Renan</i>. London: G. Bles.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Notes</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">avoir fait de grandes choses ensemble, vouloir en faire encore</i>"</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Citations</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernest Renan. "<a href="/wiki/What_is_a_Nation%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What is a Nation?">What is a Nation?</a>", 1882; cf. Chaim Gans, <i>The Limits of Nationalism</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 42/December 1892/Notes & Obituary Notes"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_42/December_1892/Notes_%26_Obituary_Notes">"Notes & Obituary Notes" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular Science Monthly">Popular Science Monthly</a></i>. Vol. 42. December 1892. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370">0161-7370</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science+Monthly&rft.atitle=Notes+%26+Obituary+Notes&rft.volume=42&rft.date=1892-12&rft.issn=0161-7370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Römer-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Römer_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Römer_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRömer2012" class="citation speech cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_R%C3%B6mer" title="Thomas Römer">Römer, Thomas</a> (11 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.college-de-france.fr/site/en-colloque-2012/symposium-2012-10-11-16h00.htm"><i>Homage to Ernest Renan: Renan's historical and critical exegesis of the Bible</i></a> (Speech). Symposium. Amphithéâtre Marguerite de Navarre-Marcelin Berthelot: <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Homage+to+Ernest+Renan%3A+Renan%27s+historical+and+critical+exegesis+of+the+Bible&rft.place=Amphith%C3%A9%C3%A2tre+Marguerite+de+Navarre-Marcelin+Berthelot&rft.pub=Coll%C3%A8ge+de+France&rft.date=2012-10-11&rft.aulast=R%C3%B6mer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.college-de-france.fr%2Fsite%2Fen-colloque-2012%2Fsymposium-2012-10-11-16h00.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cesaire1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cesaire1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cesaire1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Césaire, Aimé (2000). <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Colonialism" title="Discourse on Colonialism">Discourse on Colonialism</a></i>, Joan Pinkham, trans. New York: Monthly Review Press, pp. 37–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.huji.ac.il/en/article/22007">"Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism? New Research Says 'No'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>en.huji.ac.il</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem" title="Hebrew University of Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>. 26 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.huji.ac.il&rft.atitle=Did+the+Khazars+Convert+to+Judaism%3F+New+Research+Says+%27No%27&rft.date=2014-06-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.huji.ac.il%2Fen%2Farticle%2F22007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stampfer-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stampfer_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stampfer_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStampfer2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shaul_Stampfer" title="Shaul Stampfer">Stampfer, Shaul</a> (Summer 2013). "Did the Khazars Convert to Judaism?". <i>Jewish Social Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Bloomington,_Indiana" title="Bloomington, Indiana">Bloomington, Indiana</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2Fjewisocistud.19.3.1">10.2979/jewisocistud.19.3.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161320785">161320785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Social+Studies&rft.atitle=Did+the+Khazars+Convert+to+Judaism%3F&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2Fjewisocistud.19.3.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161320785%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stampfer&rft.aufirst=Shaul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2023" class="citation book cs1">Feldman, Alex Mesibov (2023). "Chapter 4: Khazaria: The Exception Which Proves the Rules". In Raffensperger, Christian (ed.). <i>How Medieval Europe was Ruled</i>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">41–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003213239-4">10.4324/9781003213239-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1032100166" title="Special:BookSources/978-1032100166"><bdi>978-1032100166</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Khazaria%3A+The+Exception+Which+Proves+the+Rules&rft.btitle=How+Medieval+Europe+was+Ruled&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003213239-4&rft.isbn=978-1032100166&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Alex+Mesibov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann, Alfred (1924). "Renan: The Man," <i>The Catholic Historical Review</i>, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 388–398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_9-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuclaux1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Frances_Duclaux" title="Agnes Mary Frances Duclaux">Duclaux, Agnes Mary Frances</a> (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Renan,_Ernest" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Renan, Ernest">Renan, Ernest</a>". In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">93–</span>95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Renan%2C+Ernest&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Duclaux&rft.aufirst=Agnes+Mary+Frances&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loth, Joseph (1892). "Renan au Collège de Tréguier," <i>Annales de Bretagne</i> <b>8</b> (1), pp. 124–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Galand" title="René Galand">Galand, René</a> (1959). <i>L'Âme Celtique de Renan</i>. Presses Universitaires de France.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Theiss-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Theiss_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Theiss_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Theiss_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210926140416/https://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/pale-galilean-ernest-renan-jesus-modern-history/">"Theiss, Will. "The Pale Galilean: Ernest Renan, Jesus, and Modern History", <i>Marginalia</i>, Los Angeles Review of Books, March 16, 2018"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/pale-galilean-ernest-renan-jesus-modern-history/">the original</a> on 26 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Theiss%2C+Will.+%22The+Pale+Galilean%3A+Ernest+Renan%2C+Jesus%2C+and+Modern+History%22%2C+Marginalia%2C+Los+Angeles+Review+of+Books%2C+March+16%2C+2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmarginalia.lareviewofbooks.org%2Fpale-galilean-ernest-renan-jesus-modern-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Ernest+Renan&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"Joseph Ernest Renan"</a>. <i>American Philosophical Society Member History Database</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Philosophical+Society+Member+History+Database&rft.atitle=Joseph+Ernest+Renan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3DErnest%2BRenan%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Terence R. (1994). "The Letter and the Spirit: Deconstructing Renan's "Life of Jesus" and the Assumptions of Modernity," <i>Religion & Literature</i>, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 55–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pitt, Alan (2000). "The Cultural Impact of Science in France: Ernest Renan and the Vie de Jésus," <i>The Historical Journal</i>, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 79–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hammerton, J. A. (1937). <i>Outline of Great Books</i>, New York: Wise & Co., p. 998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As of this writing, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24540192/editions?editionsView=true&start_edition=1&se=yr&sd=asc&qt=sort_yr_asc">WorldCat reports 115 different editions</a> of the book <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24540192&referer=brief_results">in 1426 different libraries</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baird, William (1992). <i>History of New Testament Research: From Deism to Tubingen</i>. Augsburg: Fortress Press, p. 382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heschel2008-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heschel2008_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusannah_Heschel2008" class="citation book cs1">Susannah Heschel (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fiCJeNJIhoAC&pg=PA34"><i>The Aryan Jesus: christian theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 34–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12531-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12531-2"><bdi>978-0-691-12531-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aryan+Jesus%3A+christian+theologians+and+the+Bible+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.pages=34-&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12531-2&rft.au=Susannah+Heschel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfiCJeNJIhoAC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chadbourne, Richard M. (1968). <i>Ernest Renan</i>. New York: Twayne Publishers, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/dublinreview27unkngoog#page/n396/mode/2up">"Renan's 'Vie de Jesus',"</a> <i>The Dublin Review</i> <b>2</b>, January/April 1864, pp. 386–419.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jules Théodose Loyson <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uneprtenduevied00loysgoog">Une prétendue Vie de Jésus, ou M. Ernest Renan, historien, philosophe et poëte</a></i> (Paris, Douniol, 1863)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cochin, Augustin (1863). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quelquesmotssur00cochgoog">Quelques mots sur la Vie de Jésus de M. Ernest Renan</a></i>. Paris: Douniol.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instructionpast00plangoog">Instruction pastorale de Monseigneur l'évêque de Nîmes au clergé de son diocèse contre un ouvrage intitulé "Vie de Jésus" par Ernest Renan</a></i> (1863)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Several of the books of <a href="/wiki/Henri-Joseph_Crelier" title="Henri-Joseph Crelier">Henri-Joseph Crelier</a> have polemical titles naming Renan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMosse1980" class="citation book cs1">Mosse, George (1980). <i>Toward the Final Solution. A History of European Racism</i>. Harper & Row. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+the+Final+Solution.+A+History+of+European+Racism&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Mosse&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi, Joxe</a> <i>. Historia, arraza, nazioa </i>. Donostia: Elkar, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8">978-84-9027-297-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutsch1969" class="citation book cs1">Deutsch, Karl (1969). <i>Nationalism and Its Alternatives</i>. USA: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+and+Its+Alternatives&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Deutsch&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mondediplo.com/1999/06/05thiesse">"Inventing national identity"</a>. June 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inventing+national+identity&rft.date=1999-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmondediplo.com%2F1999%2F06%2F05thiesse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1996" class="citation book cs1">Lee, David C. J. (1996). <i>Ernest Renan</i>. Ardent Media. pp. <span class="nowrap">97–</span>99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ernest+Renan&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E97-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=David+C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1996" class="citation book cs1">Lee, David C. J. (1996). <i>Ernest Renan</i>. Ardent Media. p. 96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ernest+Renan&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=David+C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingley2003" class="citation journal cs1">Singley, Carol J. (2003). "Race, culture, nation: Edith Wharton and Ernest Renan". <i>Twentieth Century Literature</i>. <b>49</b> (1): 32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F0041462X-2003-2003">10.1215/0041462X-2003-2003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Twentieth+Century+Literature&rft.atitle=Race%2C+culture%2C+nation%3A+Edith+Wharton+and+Ernest+Renan&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F0041462X-2003-2003&rft.aulast=Singley&rft.aufirst=Carol+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1988" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Richard (1988). <i>James Joyce and Sexuality</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Joyce+and+Sexuality&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm">The Doctrine of Fascism by Benito Mussolini</a> Complete text of the essay "<i>Dottrina</i>" (Doctrines).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeanboucher.net/?d=monuments&p=ernest_renan">Ernest Renan à Tréguier</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Catalogue, <i>Ernest Renan (1823–1892) un Celte en Orient</i>, Musée d'Art et d'histoire, Musée de Bretagne, 1992, Ville de Saint-Brieuc, Ville de Rennes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Olender" title="Maurice Olender">Olender, Maurice</a> (1992). <i>The Languages of Paradise: Race, Religion, and Philology in the Nineteenth Century</i>. Harvard University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heschel20081-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heschel20081_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusannah_Heschel2008" class="citation book cs1">Susannah Heschel (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fiCJeNJIhoAC&pg=PA34"><i>The Aryan Jesus: christian theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 30–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12531-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12531-2"><bdi>978-0-691-12531-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aryan+Jesus%3A+christian+theologians+and+the+Bible+in+Nazi+Germany&rft.pages=30-&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12531-2&rft.au=Susannah+Heschel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfiCJeNJIhoAC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"I am therefore the first to recognize that the Semitic race, compared to the Indo-European race, truly represents an inferior combination of human nature."—Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). <i>Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science</i>. University of Chicago Press, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Racial Motif in Renan's Attitude to Jews and Judaism", in: S. Almog (ed.), <i>Antisemitism Through the Ages</i>, Oxford, 1988, pp. 255–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1603&letter=A#4621">Anti-Semitism, by Gotthard Deutsch, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi, Joxe</a> (2014). <i>Historia, arraza, nazioa. Renan eta nazionalismoaren inguruko topiko batzuk </i> (History, race, nation. Renan and some clichés about nationalism). Donostia: Elkar. pp. 177–186. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8">978-84-9027-297-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lejudasmecommer00renagoog#page/n9/mode/2up"><i>Le Judaïsme comme Race et comme Religion: Conférence faite au Cercle Saint-Simon</i></a>. Paris: Calmann Lévy, 1883.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mian, Aristide (1945–46). "Renan on War and Peace," <i>The American Scholar</i>, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 90–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/renansantichrist00renaiala#page/n3/mode/2up"><i>Antichrist</i></a>. London: Walter Scott, Ltd., 1900, pp. 126–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose2013" class="citation journal cs1">Rose, Paul Lawrence (2013). "Renan versus Gobineau: Semitism and Antisemitism, Ancient Races and Modern Liberal Nations". <i>History of European Ideas</i>. <b>39</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">528–</span>540. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01916599.2012.724549">10.1080/01916599.2012.724549</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145204339">145204339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+European+Ideas&rft.atitle=Renan+versus+Gobineau%3A+Semitism+and+Antisemitism%2C+Ancient+Races+and+Modern+Liberal+Nations&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E528-%3C%2Fspan%3E540&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01916599.2012.724549&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145204339%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Paul+Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gidley-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gidley_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGidley2011" class="citation journal cs1">Gidley, Ben (2011). "On the Nation and the 'Jewish People'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Ethnic and Racial Studies</i>. <b>35</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">782–</span>783. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01419870.2011.643817">10.1080/01419870.2011.643817</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145721356">145721356</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnic+and+Racial+Studies&rft.atitle=On+the+Nation+and+the+%27Jewish+People%27&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E782-%3C%2Fspan%3E783&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01419870.2011.643817&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145721356%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gidley&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Based on these quotes, J. V. Dagon in <i>Ernest Renan and The Question of Race</i> argues that Renan cannot be considered a follower of French racist diplomat <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Gobineau</a>, as instead <a href="/wiki/Tzvetan_Todorov" title="Tzvetan Todorov">Todorov</a> affirms. For Gobineau the main responsible for the decadence of civilization is the mixing of races. Furthermore, according to Gobineau, morality and intelligence are determined by human physiology. Renan, on the contrary, does not speak of superior and inferior races based on biological criteria, and he clearly states that "a pure race does not exist". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDagon1999" class="citation book cs1">Dagon, Jane Victoria (1999). <i>Ernest Renan and The Question of Race</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University. p. 74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ernest+Renan+and+The+Question+of+Race&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Dagon&rft.aufirst=Jane+Victoria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrawny2015" class="citation journal cs1">Trawny, Peter (2015). "Heidegger, "World Judaism," and Modernity". <i>Gatherings: The Heidegger Circle Annual</i>. <b>5</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fgatherings201551">10.5840/gatherings201551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gatherings%3A+The+Heidegger+Circle+Annual&rft.atitle=Heidegger%2C+%22World+Judaism%2C%22+and+Modernity&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fgatherings201551&rft.aulast=Trawny&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraetz1996" class="citation book cs1">Graetz, Michael (1996). <i>The Jews in Nineteenth-century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israélite Universelle</i>. Stanford University Press. p. 212.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+in+Nineteenth-century+France%3A+From+the+French+Revolution+to+the+Alliance+Isra%C3%A9lite+Universelle&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Graetz&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From Ernest Renan, "La Reforme Intellectuelle et Morale". Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1929.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/poetryofcelticra00renauoft#page/60/mode/2up">"What is a Nation?"</a> In: <i>The Poetry of the Celtic Races, and Other Essays</i>. London: The Walter Scott Publishing Co., 1896, pp. 61–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Preface to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/futureofsciencei00rena#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The Future of Science</i></a>. London: Chapman & Hall, 1891.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/futureofsciencei00rena#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The Future of Science</i></a>. London: Chapman & Hall, 1891.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manceron, Gilles (2005). <i>Marianne et les Colonies: Une Introduction à l'Histoire Coloniale de la France</i>. Éditions La Découverte.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manceron (2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Reparation, Restitution, and the Politics of Memory</i>. <a href="/wiki/De_Gruyter" title="De Gruyter">De Gruyter</a>. 2023. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reparation%2C+Restitution%2C+and+the+Politics+of+Memory&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AErnest+Renan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Renan considers the problem of a rational transformation by High Priest <a href="/wiki/Antistia_gens" title="Antistia gens">Antistius</a> of the practice of human sacrifice into "a more humane, spiritual, and scientific form." See <i>Brieux and Contemporary French Society</i>, by William H. Scheifley, 408. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_dIaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408&lpg=PA408">https://books.google.com/books?id=_dIaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA408&lpg=PA408</a> Accessed 27 February 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">English translation 2nd ed (2011), S.P. Ragep. Montréal, Canada: McGill University</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Alaya, Flavia M. (1967). "Arnold and Renan on the Popular Uses of History," <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 551–574.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi, Joxe</a> (2003): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jakingunea.com/show/7cfa07935d56f2a6d280b600564ea5694499e1d0">Humboldt eta Renanen nazio kontzeptua</a>, <i>RIEV</i>, Vol. 48, No. 1, 91–124.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi, Joxe</a> (2014): <i>Historia, arraza, nazioa. Renan eta nazionalismoaren inguruko topiko batzuk</i>, Donostia: Elkar. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-9027-297-8">978-84-9027-297-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Babbitt" title="Irving Babbitt">Babbitt, Irving</a> (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/mastersofmodernf00babbiala#page/256/mode/2up">"Renan."</a> In: <i>The Masters of Modern French Criticism</i>. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.</li> <li>Bancquart, Marie-Claire (1994). "Renan, Maître de la Violence Sceptique," <i>Revue d'Histoire Littéraire de la France</i>, 94e Année, No. 1, pp. 48–58.</li> <li>Barry, William (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/nationalreview2918unse#page/556/mode/2up">"Newman and Renan,"</a> <i>The National Review,</i> Vol. XXIX, pp. 557–576.</li> <li>Barry, William Francis (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ernestrenan00barr#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Ernest Renan</i></a>. London: Hodder and Stoughton.</li> <li>Bazouge, Francis (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/revuedumondecath100savauoft#page/n9/mode/2up">"Ernest Renan,"</a> <i>Revue du Monde Catholique</i>, Vol. C, pp. 5–26.</li> <li>Bierer, Dora (1953). "Renan and His Interpreters: A Study in French Intellectual Warfare," <i>The Journal of Modern History</i>, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 375–389.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Brandes" title="Georg Brandes">Brandes, Georg</a> (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924027150519#page/n171/mode/2up">"Ernest Renan."</a> In: <i>Eminent Authors of the Nineteenth Century.</i> New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company.</li> <li>Chadbourne, Richard M. (1949). "Renan, or the Contemptuous Approach to Literature," <i>Yale French Studies</i>, No. 3, Criticism and Creation, pp. 96–104.</li> <li>Chadbourne, Richard M. (1951). "Renan's Revision of His Liberté de Penser Articles," <i>PMLA</i>, Vol. 66, No. 6, pp. 927–950.</li> <li>DiVanna, Isabel (2010). <i>Writing History in the Third Republic</i>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Writing-History-Republic-Isabel-Noronha-Divanna/dp/1443819344/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Espinasse" title="Francis Espinasse">Espinasse, Francis</a> (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lifeofernestrena00espirich#page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Life and Writings of Ernest Renan</i></a>. London: The Walter Scott Publishing Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Grant_Duff" title="M. E. Grant Duff">Grant Duff, Mountstuart E.</a> (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ernestrenaninmem00granuoft#page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Ernest Renan, in Memoriam</i></a>. London: Macmillan & Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_L%C3%A9on_Gu%C3%A9rard" title="Albert Léon Guérard">Guérard, Albert Léon</a> (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/frenchprophetsof00gueruoft#page/224/mode/2up">"Ernest Renan."</a> In: <i>French Prophets of Yesterday</i>. London: T. Fisher Unwin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Ingersoll" title="Robert G. Ingersoll">Ingersoll, Robert G.</a> (1892). "Ernest Renan," <i>The North American Review</i>, Vol. CLV, No. 432, pp. 608–622.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Jules Lemaître">Lemaître, Jules</a> (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/literaryimpressi00lemauoft#page/80/mode/2up">"Ernest Renan."</a> In: <i>Literary Impressions.</i> London: Daniel O'Connor, pp. 80–107.</li> <li>Lenoir, Raymond (1925). "Renan and the Study of Humanity," <i>American Journal of Sociology</i>, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 289–317.</li> <li>Mott, Lewis F. (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2915405">"Renan and Matthew Arnold,"</a> <i>Modern Language Notes</i>, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 65–73.</li> <li>Mott, Lewis F. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ernestrenan00mottiala#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Ernest Renan</i></a>. New York: D. Appleton and Company.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_William_Henry_Myers" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic William Henry Myers">Myers, F.W.H.</a> (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/essaysmodern00myeriala#page/162/mode/2up">"Ernest Renan."</a> In: <i>Essays</i>. London: Macmillan & Co.</li> <li>Neubauer, A. (1893). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1449860">"M. Ernest Renan,"</a> <i>The Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 200–211.</li> <li>Priest, Robert D. "Ernest Renan's Race Problem." <i>The Historical Journal</i> 58.1 (2015): 309–330. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/ws/files/23439247/HJ_Renan_and_Race.pdf">online</a>, examines the polarized debate on whether or not Renan was racist.</li> <li>Priest, Robert D. (2015). <i>The Gospel According to Renan: Reading, Writing, and Religion in Nineteenth-Century France</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Richard, Edouard (1996). <i>Ernest Renan Penseur Traditionaliste?</i> Presses Universitaires d'Aix-Marseille.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Frances_Duclaux" title="Agnes Mary Frances Duclaux">Robinson, Agnes Mary Frances</a> (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lifeofernestrena00robiuoft#page/n7/mode/2up"><i>The Life of Ernest Renan</i></a>. London: Methuen & Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romain_Rolland" title="Romain Rolland">Rolland, Romain</a> (1925). "A Conversation with Ernest Renan," <i>The Century Magazine</i>, Vol. CIX, No. 4, pp. 435–439.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Saintsbury" title="George Saintsbury">Saintsbury, George</a> (1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/miscellaneousess00sain#page/114/mode/2up">"Ernest Renan."</a> In: <i>Miscellaneous Essays</i>. London: Percival & Co.</li> <li>Shapiro, Gary (1982). "Nietzsche Contra Renan," <i>History and Theory</i>, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 193–222.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Renan&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a 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href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Renan%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Ernest%20Renan%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Renan%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ernest%20Renan%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Renan%2C%20E%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Ernest%20Renan%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Renan%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Ernest%20Renan%22%29%20OR%20%28%221823-1892%22%20AND%20Renan%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Ernest Renan</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?filter=&Search=Search&wc=on&Query=au:%22Ernest+Renan%22&si=1">Works by Ernest Renan</a> at <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110827065548/http://www.cooper.edu/humanities/core/hss3/e_renan.html"><i>What is a Nation?</i> – Renan's most famous lecture in English translation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlxs2.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=cdl;idno=cdl064">The history of the origins of Christianity</a> Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. {Reprinted by} <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1429740108/">Cornell University Library Digital Collections</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ernest-renan.fr/">Société des Études renaniennes</a> (Ernest Renan's Society website)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/014425">Newspaper clippings about Ernest Renan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/20th_Century_Press_Archives" title="20th Century Press Archives">20th Century Press Archives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_National_Library_of_Economics" title="German National Library of Economics">ZBW</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" title="List of members of the Académie française">seat 29</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bardin" title="Pierre Bardin">Pierre Bardin</a> (1634)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Bourbon_(the_younger)" title="Nicholas Bourbon (the younger)">Nicholas Bourbon</a> (1637)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Henri_Salomon_de_Virelade" title="François-Henri Salomon de Virelade">François-Henri Salomon de Virelade</a> (1644)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Quinault" title="Philippe Quinault">Philippe Quinault</a> (1670)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Calli%C3%A8res" title="François de Callières">François de Callières</a> (1688)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Hercule_de_Fleury" title="André-Hercule de Fleury">André-Hercule de Fleury</a> (1717)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_d%27Albert_de_Luynes" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul d'Albert de Luynes">Paul d'Albert de Luynes</a> (1743)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Claris_de_Florian" title="Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian">Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian</a> (1788)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Cailhava" title="Jean-François Cailhava">Jean-François Cailhava</a> (1803)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fran%C3%A7ois_Michaud" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph François Michaud">Joseph François Michaud</a> (1813)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Pierre_Flourens" title="Jean Pierre Flourens">Jean Pierre Flourens</a> (1840)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Bernard" title="Claude Bernard">Claude Bernard</a> (1868)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ernest Renan</a> (1878)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul-Armand_Challemel-Lacour" title="Paul-Armand Challemel-Lacour">Paul-Armand Challemel-Lacour</a> (1893)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Hanotaux" title="Gabriel Hanotaux">Gabriel Hanotaux</a> (1897)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Siegfried" title="André Siegfried">André Siegfried</a> (1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_de_Montherlant" title="Henry de Montherlant">Henry de Montherlant</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Amin_Maalouf" title="Amin Maalouf">Amin Maalouf</a> (2011)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy103" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000122834194">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/100170528">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/580160310476058300006">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/42249/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJkT8RVpfWxMddtVb7Ytrq">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118744496">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external 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