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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-Persian_rule-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Persian rule subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Persian_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_fall_of_Lydia_(546_BC)_and_the_Lydian_revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_fall_of_Lydia_(546_BC)_and_the_Lydian_revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The fall of Lydia (546 BC) and the Lydian revolt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_fall_of_Lydia_(546_BC)_and_the_Lydian_revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_subjugation_of_Ionia_and_the_Ionian_Revolt_(500–493_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_subjugation_of_Ionia_and_the_Ionian_Revolt_(500–493_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The subjugation of Ionia and the Ionian Revolt (500–493 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_subjugation_of_Ionia_and_the_Ionian_Revolt_(500–493_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_satrapies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_satrapies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other satrapies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_satrapies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hellespontine_Phrygia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellespontine_Phrygia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Hellespontine Phrygia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellespontine_Phrygia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greater_Phrygia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greater_Phrygia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Greater Phrygia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greater_Phrygia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semi-autonomous_jurisdictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semi-autonomous_jurisdictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Semi-autonomous jurisdictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semi-autonomous_jurisdictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cilicia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cilicia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Cilicia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cilicia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Mysia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Caria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greco-Persian_Wars_499–449_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greco-Persian_Wars_499–449_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Greco-Persian Wars 499–449 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Persian_Wars_499–449_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years:_the_invasion_of_the_Macedonians_358–330_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years:_the_invasion_of_the_Macedonians_358–330_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Final years: the invasion of the Macedonians 358–330 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years:_the_invasion_of_the_Macedonians_358–330_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Hellenistic period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hellenistic_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hellenistic period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alexander_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alexander_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Alexander the Great</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alexander_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_of_the_Diadochi_and_division_of_Alexander's_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_of_the_Diadochi_and_division_of_Alexander's_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Wars of the Diadochi and division of Alexander's empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_of_the_Diadochi_and_division_of_Alexander's_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lysimachian_Empire_301–281_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lysimachian_Empire_301–281_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Lysimachian Empire 301–281 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lysimachian_Empire_301–281_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemaic_Empire_301–30_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemaic_Empire_301–30_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ptolemaic Empire 301–30 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemaic_Empire_301–30_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seleucid_Empire_301–64_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seleucid_Empire_301–64_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Seleucid Empire 301–64 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seleucid_Empire_301–64_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent,_semi-independent_and_client_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent,_semi-independent_and_client_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Independent, semi-independent and client states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent,_semi-independent_and_client_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pontus_291–63_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pontus_291–63_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Pontus 291–63 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pontus_291–63_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mithridatic_wars_88–63_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mithridatic_wars_88–63_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1.1</span> <span>Mithridatic wars 88–63 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mithridatic_wars_88–63_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1.2</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bithynia_326–74_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bithynia_326–74_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.2</span> <span>Bithynia 326–74 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bithynia_326–74_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Galatia_276–64_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Galatia_276–64_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.3</span> <span>Galatia 276–64 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Galatia_276–64_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pergamon_281–133_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pergamon_281–133_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.4</span> <span>Pergamon 281–133 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pergamon_281–133_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cappadocia_323–17_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cappadocia_323–17_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.5</span> <span>Cappadocia 323–17 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cappadocia_323–17_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cilicia_323–67_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cilicia_323–67_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.6</span> <span>Cilicia 323–67 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cilicia_323–67_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armenia_331–1_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenia_331–1_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.7</span> <span>Armenia 331–1 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenia_331–1_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minor_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.8</span> <span>Minor kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sophene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sophene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.8.1</span> <span>Sophene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sophene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commagene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commagene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.8.2</span> <span>Commagene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commagene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.9</span> <span>Rhodes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Roman period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Roman_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Roman period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Roman_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_Republic_190_–_27_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Republic_190_–_27_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Roman Republic 190 – 27 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Republic_190_–_27_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_intervention_in_Anatolia_3rd_–_1st_centuries_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_intervention_in_Anatolia_3rd_–_1st_centuries_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Roman intervention in Anatolia 3rd – 1st centuries BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_intervention_in_Anatolia_3rd_–_1st_centuries_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Punic_(264–146_BC)_and_Macedonian_(214–148_BC)_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Punic_(264–146_BC)_and_Macedonian_(214–148_BC)_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Punic (264–146 BC) and Macedonian (214–148 BC) wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Punic_(264–146_BC)_and_Macedonian_(214–148_BC)_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seleucid_invasion_of_Europe_and_retreat_from_western_Anatolia_196–188_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seleucid_invasion_of_Europe_and_retreat_from_western_Anatolia_196–188_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Seleucid invasion of Europe and retreat from western Anatolia 196–188 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seleucid_invasion_of_Europe_and_retreat_from_western_Anatolia_196–188_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Involvement_with_central_Anatolian_politics_190–17_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Involvement_with_central_Anatolian_politics_190–17_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Involvement with central Anatolian politics 190–17 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Involvement_with_central_Anatolian_politics_190–17_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pontus_and_the_Mithridatic_Wars_89–63_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pontus_and_the_Mithridatic_Wars_89–63_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Pontus and the Mithridatic Wars 89–63 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pontus_and_the_Mithridatic_Wars_89–63_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_war_89–84_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_war_89–84_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4.1</span> <span>First war 89–84 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_war_89–84_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_war_83–81_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_war_83–81_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4.2</span> <span>Second war 83–81 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_war_83–81_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_war_75–63_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_war_75–63_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4.3</span> <span>Third war 75–63 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_war_75–63_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provincialisation_of_Anatolia_133_BC_–_114_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provincialisation_of_Anatolia_133_BC_–_114_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Provincialisation of Anatolia 133 BC – 114 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provincialisation_of_Anatolia_133_BC_–_114_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Trumvirates_and_last_years_of_the_Republic_61–27_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Trumvirates_and_last_years_of_the_Republic_61–27_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>The Trumvirates and last years of the Republic 61–27 BC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Trumvirates_and_last_years_of_the_Republic_61–27_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire_27_BC_–_4th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire_27_BC_–_4th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Roman Empire 27 BC – 4th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire_27_BC_–_4th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Empire:_The_Principate_27_BC_–_193_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Empire:_The_Principate_27_BC_–_193_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>The Empire: The Principate 27 BC – 193 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Empire:_The_Principate_27_BC_–_193_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Julio-Claudian_dynasty_27_BC_–_68_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Julio-Claudian_dynasty_27_BC_–_68_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1</span> <span>Julio-Claudian dynasty 27 BC – 68 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Julio-Claudian_dynasty_27_BC_–_68_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Year_of_Four_Emperors_and_Flavian_dynasty_69–96_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Year_of_Four_Emperors_and_Flavian_dynasty_69–96_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2</span> <span>The Year of Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty 69–96 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Year_of_Four_Emperors_and_Flavian_dynasty_69–96_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nerva-Antonine_dynasty_96–192_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nerva-Antonine_dynasty_96–192_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.3</span> <span>Nerva-Antonine dynasty 96–192 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nerva-Antonine_dynasty_96–192_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Year_of_Five_Emperors_and_Severan_Dynasty_193–235_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Year_of_Five_Emperors_and_Severan_Dynasty_193–235_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.4</span> <span>The Year of Five Emperors and Severan Dynasty 193–235 AD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Year_of_Five_Emperors_and_Severan_Dynasty_193–235_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Empire:_the_years_of_crisis_235–284,_Schism_258–274_and_Gothic_invasion_(255)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Empire:_the_years_of_crisis_235–284,_Schism_258–274_and_Gothic_invasion_(255)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>The Empire: the years of crisis 235–284, Schism 258–274 and Gothic invasion (255)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Empire:_the_years_of_crisis_235–284,_Schism_258–274_and_Gothic_invasion_(255)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persia_and_the_eastern_front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persia_and_the_eastern_front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.1</span> <span>Persia and the eastern front</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persia_and_the_eastern_front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gothic_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gothic_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.2</span> <span>Gothic invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gothic_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schism,_reunification_and_division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schism,_reunification_and_division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.3</span> <span>Schism, reunification and division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schism,_reunification_and_division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Empire:_the_Dominate_284_–_4th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Empire:_the_Dominate_284_–_4th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>The Empire: the Dominate 284 – 4th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Empire:_the_Dominate_284_–_4th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Tetrarchy_and_first_Eastern_Empire_284–324" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Tetrarchy_and_first_Eastern_Empire_284–324"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1</span> <span>The Tetrarchy and first Eastern Empire 284–324</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Tetrarchy_and_first_Eastern_Empire_284–324-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Tetrarchy_293–305" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Tetrarchy_293–305"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1.1</span> <span>First Tetrarchy 293–305</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Tetrarchy_293–305-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Tetrarchy_305–308" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Tetrarchy_305–308"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1.2</span> <span>Second Tetrarchy 305–308</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Tetrarchy_305–308-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Tetrarchy_and_civil_war_308–313" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Tetrarchy_and_civil_war_308–313"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1.3</span> <span>Third Tetrarchy and civil war 308–313</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Tetrarchy_and_civil_war_308–313-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diarchy_313–324" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diarchy_313–324"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.1.4</span> <span>Diarchy 313–324</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diarchy_313–324-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constantinian_dynasty_324–363" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantinian_dynasty_324–363"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.2</span> <span>Constantinian dynasty 324–363</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantinian_dynasty_324–363-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constantine_I_324–337" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantine_I_324–337"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.2.1</span> <span>Constantine I 324–337</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantine_I_324–337-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constantine's_successors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantine's_successors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.2.2</span> <span>Constantine's successors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantine's_successors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jovian_and_the_Valentinians_363–378" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jovian_and_the_Valentinians_363–378"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.3</span> <span>Jovian and the Valentinians 363–378</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jovian_and_the_Valentinians_363–378-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theodosian_dynasty_378–455" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodosian_dynasty_378–455"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8.4</span> <span>Theodosian dynasty 378–455</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodosian_dynasty_378–455-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judaism_and_Christianity_in_Anatolia_during_Roman_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism_and_Christianity_in_Anatolia_during_Roman_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Judaism and Christianity in Anatolia during Roman times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism_and_Christianity_in_Anatolia_during_Roman_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9.1</span> <span>Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9.2</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_1st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_1st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9.2.1</span> <span>The 1st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_1st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reference_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Reference works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Classical period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hellenistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Hellenistic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Persian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Roman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="آناتولی باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آناتولی باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia_Klasik" title="Anatolia Klasik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Anatolia Klasik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="لرغونې اناتولیا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونې اناتولیا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81" title="کلاسیکی اناطولیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کلاسیکی اناطولیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5128252#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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The specific problem is: <b>article full of irrelevant content.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Classical_Anatolia" title="Special:EditPage/Classical Anatolia">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Lead_rewrite plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-lead_rewrite" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may need to be rewritten</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit">improve the lead</a> and read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead layout guide</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg/320px-Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg/480px-Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg/640px-Map_Anatolia_ancient_regions-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>Regions of Anatolia in Classical Antiquity</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Classical Anatolia</b> is <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> during <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>. Early in that period, Anatolia was divided into several <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Iron Age</a> kingdoms, most notably <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> in the west, <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> in the center and <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a> in the east. Anatolia fell under <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Persian</a> rule c. 550 BC. In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>, all of Anatolia remained under Persian control except for the Aegean coast, which was incorporated in the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> in the 470s BC. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> finally wrested control of the whole region from Persia in the 330s BC. After Alexander's death, his conquests were split amongst several of his trusted generals, but were under constant threat of invasion from both the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> and other powerful rulers in <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ptolemaic Egypt">Egypt</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, the largest of Alexander's territories, and which included Anatolia, became involved in a disastrous war with <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome</a> culminating in the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(191_BC)" title="Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)">Thermopylae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Magnesia</a>. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a> in (188 BC) saw the Seleucids retreat from Anatolia. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Pergamum">Kingdom of Pergamum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_(city)" title="Rhodes (city)">Republic of Rhodes</a>, Rome's allies in the war, were granted the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia. Anatolia subsequently became contested between the neighboring rivalling Romans and the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>, which frequently culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a>. </p><p>Anatolia came under <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman rule</a> entirely following the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> of 88–63 BC. Roman control of Anatolia was strengthened by a 'hands off' approach by Rome, allowing local control to govern effectively and providing military protection. In the early 4th century, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> established a new administrative centre at <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and by the end of the 4th century a new <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">eastern empire</a> was established with Constantinople as its capital, referred to by historians as the Byzantine Empire from the original name, <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>. </p><p>In the subsequent centuries up to including the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, the Parthians were succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Persians</a>, who would continue the centuries long rivalry between Rome and Persia, which again culminated <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian wars">in frequent wars</a> on the eastern fringes of Anatolia. <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Byzantine Anatolia</a> came under pressure of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant#Campaigns_in_Armenia_and_Anatolia" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim invasion</a> in the southeast, but most of Anatolia remained under Byzantine control until the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Turkish invasion</a> of the 11th century. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_antiquity">Early antiquity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Iron Age Anatolia</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Median_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Median_Empire.jpg/250px-Median_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Median_Empire.jpg/375px-Median_Empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Median_Empire.jpg/500px-Median_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1306" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Oriental empires c. 600 BC</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> had become the predominant power in western Anatolia by the 7th century BC, although often subject to <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrian</a> control. The Lydian empire gained independence from Assyria by the end of the 7th century. The flourishing of Lydia during the first half of the 6th century BC is also dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Lydian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Lydian Empire">Lydian Empire</a> period. Although the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> peoples had existed in the area south of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Plateau">Iranian Plateau</a>) from pre-historic times, their major influence began when the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> united them in 625 BC allowing them to sweep away the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Empire">Assyrian Empire</a> shortly after, when <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> (625–585 BC) led the invasion in 612 BC. Lydian king <a href="/wiki/Sadyattes" title="Sadyattes">Sadyattes</a> (ruled c. 624/1–610/609 BC) joined forces with Cyaxares the Mede to drive the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a> out of Anatolia. This alliance was short lived, since his successor <a href="/wiki/Alyattes" title="Alyattes">Alyattes</a> (ruled c. 605–560 BC) found himself being attacked by Cyaxares, although the neighbouring king of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> intervened, negotiating a peace in 585 BC, whereby the <a href="/wiki/Halys_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Halys River">Halys River</a> in north central Anatolia was established as the Medes' frontier with Lydia. <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> writes: </p> <dl><dd>"On the refusal of Alyattes to give up his supplicants when Cyaxares sent to demand them of him, war broke out between the Lydians and the Medes, and continued for five years, with various success. In the course of it the Medes gained many victories over the Lydians, and the Lydians also gained many victories over the Medes."</dd></dl> <p>Alyattes issued minted electrum coins, and his successor <a href="/wiki/Croesus" title="Croesus">Croesus</a>, ruling c. 560–546 BC, became known for being the first to issue <a href="/wiki/Gold_coin" title="Gold coin">gold coins</a>. </p><p>The southeast of Anatolia was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrian Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tabal_(state)" title="Tabal (state)">Tabal</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a> speaking <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hittite">Neo-Hittite</a> kingdom of South Central Anatolia which fell under Assyrian rule in 713 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persian_rule">Persian rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Persian rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/250px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/375px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/500px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> at its greatest extent. Anatolia remained, however, under Persian rule until the latter's overthrow by Alexander in the late 4th century BC.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></div> <p>The Medean Empire turned out to be short lived (c. 625 – 549 BC). By 550 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> of eastern Anatolia, which had existed for barely a hundred years, was suddenly torn apart by a Persian rebellion in 553 BC under Cyrus II (<a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> c. 600 BC or 576–530 BC), overthrowing his grandfather <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> (585–550 BC) in 550 BC. The Medes then became subject to the Persians. </p><p>The Persians, who had scant resources for governing their vast empire, ruled relatively benignly as conquerors, attempting to obtain the cooperation of the local elite in governance. They ruled their vassal states by appointing local rulers, or <a href="/wiki/Satraps" class="mw-redirect" title="Satraps">satraps</a> with responsibility for their satrapies (Greek: Satrapeia). However, the Greeks referred to these satraps as 'tyrants', meaning they were neither democratically elected or derived authority from <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> Persian Empire, continued its expansion under <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> (521–486 BC). The <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> system of local governors continued to be used and upgraded and other governmental upgrades were carried out.<sup id="cite_ref-desouza_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-desouza-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anatolia was carved up under Persian <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> into regional administrations (Satrapies or provinces, depending on sources) which replaced the hegemonic kingdoms prior to the conquest. Kings were replaced by Satraps. <i>Satrap</i> and <i>Satrapy</i> corresponding to Governor and Province respectively. The administration was hierarchical, often referred to as Great, Main and Minor Satrapies. The main administrative units in Anatolia were the Great Satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Lydia_(satrapy)" title="Lydia (satrapy)">Sardis (Sparda/Lydia)</a> in the west, Main satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(satrapy)" title="Cappadocia (satrapy)">Cappadocia</a> centrally, Main Satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Orontid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Orontid Dynasty">Armenia</a> in the north-east and Main Satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Assyria</a> in the south-east. These correspond to Herodotus's <a href="/wiki/Districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Districts</a> I-IV. However, the number of satrapies and their boundaries varied over time. </p><p>Within the hierarchical system, Sparda was a Great Satrapy consisting of the Major Satrapies of Sarda (including minor satrapies of <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a>, Greater <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>. Note that <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a> were not considered separate entities by the Persians, while <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> was included in semi-autonomous Caria, and Sparda included the offshore islands. Greater Phrygia included <a href="/wiki/Lycaonia" title="Lycaonia">Lycaonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>. Cappadocia initially included <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>, also known as Cappadocia-beside-the-Taurus, and <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a>. </p><p>Assyria was a Main Satrapy of the Great Satrapy of Babylon, and included Cilicia, while Armenia was a Main Satrapy within the Great Satrapy of Media.<sup id="cite_ref-eias_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eias-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anatolia remained one of the most principal regions of the empire during its entire existence. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a>, which directly linked the city of <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> with the western Anatolian city of <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_fall_of_Lydia_(546_BC)_and_the_Lydian_revolt"><span id="The_fall_of_Lydia_.28546_BC.29_and_the_Lydian_revolt"></span>The fall of Lydia (546 BC) and the Lydian revolt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The fall of Lydia (546 BC) and the Lydian revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lydia_(satrapy)" title="Lydia (satrapy)">Lydia (satrapy)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_Artemis_Sardis_Turkey4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Temple_of_Artemis_Sardis_Turkey4.jpg/200px-Temple_of_Artemis_Sardis_Turkey4.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Temple_of_Artemis_Sardis_Turkey4.jpg/300px-Temple_of_Artemis_Sardis_Turkey4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Temple_of_Artemis_Sardis_Turkey4.jpg/400px-Temple_of_Artemis_Sardis_Turkey4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The archaeological site of <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>, today known as Sart in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By 550 BC Lydia controlled the Greek coastal cities, who paid tribute, and most of Anatolia, except <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>. In 547 BC, King <a href="/wiki/Croesus" title="Croesus">Croesus</a>, who had amassed great wealth and military power, but concerned by the growing Persian power and obvious intent, took advantage of the instability of the Persian revolt and besieged and captured the Persian city of <a href="/wiki/Pteria_(Cappadocia)" title="Pteria (Cappadocia)">Pteria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-desouza_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-desouza-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_The_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus The Great">Cyrus The Great</a> then marched with his army against the Lydians. Although the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pteria" title="Battle of Pteria">Battle of Pteria</a> led to a stalemate, the Lydians were forced to retreat to their capital city of <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>. Some months later the Persian and Lydian kings met at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thymbra" title="Battle of Thymbra">Battle of Thymbra</a>. Cyrus won, capturing Sardis after a 14-day siege, Croesus giving himself up to Cyrus. According to the Greek author <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, Cyrus treated Croesus well and with respect after the battle, but this is contradicted by the Nabonidus Chronicle, one of the Babylonian Chronicles (although whether or not the text refers to Lydia's king or prince is unclear).<sup id="cite_ref-Botsford_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Botsford-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lydia then became the Persian <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">Satrapy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lydia_(satrapy)" title="Lydia (satrapy)">Sardis</a>, also known as the Satrapy of Lydia and Ionia, although there was an unsuccessful rebellion led by <a href="/wiki/Pactyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pactyas">Pactyas</a> (Pactyes), the leader of the civil administration, against <a href="/wiki/Tabalus" title="Tabalus">Tabalus</a>, the Persian military commander (<a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a>) (546–545 BC), shortly thereafter. Once Lydia had been subdued, Cyrus returned to deal with problems in the East leaving a garrison to assist in the governing of his new acquisition. Almost immediately Pactyas, who had been given the responsibility of raising tributes, raised a mercenary army from neighboring Greek cities and besieged Tabulus in the citadel. Herodotus' account that Cyrus intended to enslave the Lydians seems unsubstantiated. Pactyas soon found that he had no allies and furthermore that Cyrus was acting swiftly to put down the rebellion, sending <a href="/wiki/Mazares" title="Mazares">Mazares</a> (545–544 BC), one of his generals to restore order. Pactyas subsequently fled to the coast and took refuge in the Aeolian city of <a href="/wiki/Cyme_(Aeolis)" title="Cyme (Aeolis)">Cyme</a>. Mazares demanded that Cyme release Pactyas to him. Fearing retribution, the Cymeans sent him to <a href="/wiki/Mytilene" title="Mytilene">Mytilene</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>. On hearing that the Mytilenians were negotiating a price for Pactyas, the destination was changed to <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a>, but they too handed him over to the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brown_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medusa_mosaic_of_Kibyra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Medusa_mosaic_of_Kibyra.jpg/250px-Medusa_mosaic_of_Kibyra.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Medusa_mosaic_of_Kibyra.jpg/375px-Medusa_mosaic_of_Kibyra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Medusa_mosaic_of_Kibyra.jpg/500px-Medusa_mosaic_of_Kibyra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1571" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Medusa" title="Medusa">Medusa</a> head mosaic in <a href="/wiki/Cibyra" title="Cibyra">Cibyra</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Mazares was followed by <a href="/wiki/Harpagus" title="Harpagus">Harpagus</a> (544–530 BC) on his death, and then <a href="/wiki/Oroetus" title="Oroetus">Oroetus</a> (530–520 BC). Oroetus became the first satrap recorded as demonstrating insubordination with respect to the central power of Persia. When <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> (530–522 BC), who succeeded his father Cyrus, died, the Persian Empire was in chaos prior to <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> (522–486 BC) finally securing control. Oroetus defied Darius' orders to assist him, whereupon <a href="/wiki/Bagaeus" title="Bagaeus">Bagaeus</a> (520–517 BC) was sent by Darius to arrange his murder. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_subjugation_of_Ionia_and_the_Ionian_Revolt_(500–493_BC)"><span id="The_subjugation_of_Ionia_and_the_Ionian_Revolt_.28500.E2.80.93493_BC.29"></span>The subjugation of Ionia and the Ionian Revolt (500–493 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The subjugation of Ionia and the Ionian Revolt (500–493 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ionia_(satrapy)" title="Ionia (satrapy)">Ionia (satrapy)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png/250px-Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png/375px-Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png/500px-Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="1645" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The Aegean in 500 BC showing main events of the Ionian Revolt</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> had initially unsuccessfully tried to persuade the <a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionian</a> cities to rebel against <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>. At the time of the fall of Sardis, only one city, <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, had made terms with Cyrus. According to Herodotus, when Lydia fell to Cyrus, the Greek cities begged him to allow them to exist within the former Lydian territories on similar terms to those they had earlier enjoyed, Cyrus pointed out that they were too late, and they started building defensive structures. They appealed to <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> for help, but Sparta refused, instead warning Cyrus not to threaten the Greeks. Cyrus was unimpressed, but nevertheless headed east without bothering them further. This account seems somewhat conjectural.<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-brown_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the defeat of the Lydian revolt, Mazares began to reduce the other cities in the Lydian lands one by one, starting with <a href="/wiki/Priene" title="Priene">Priene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnesia_on_the_Maeander" title="Magnesia on the Maeander">Magnesia</a>. However, Mazares died, and was replaced by another Mede, <a href="/wiki/Harpagus" title="Harpagus">Harpagus</a> (544–530 BC), who completed the subduing of Asia Minor. Some communities, rather than face a siege, chose exile, including <a href="/wiki/Phocaea" title="Phocaea">Phocaea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teos" title="Teos">Teos</a> to <a href="/wiki/Abdera,_Thrace" title="Abdera, Thrace">Abdera</a> in <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>. Although our principal source for this period, <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Halicarnassus" title="Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a>, implies this was a swift process, it is more likely that it took four years to subdue the region completely, and the Ionian colonies on the coastal islands remained largely untouched.<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Botsford_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Botsford-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> V, VI) around 500 BC <a href="/wiki/Aristagoras" title="Aristagoras">Aristagoras</a>, tyrant of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a> approached <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes</a>, satrap of <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> (c. 492 – 480), for assistance in aiding some citizens of <a href="/wiki/Naxos_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxos Island">Naxos</a> who had been forced to flee (C. 502 BC) and seek his help. He planned to annex not only Naxos but also the <a href="/wiki/Cyclades" title="Cyclades">Cyclades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euboea" title="Euboea">Euboea</a>. With the permission of Darius he gathered a force to invade Naxos, but the expedition was a failure. Motivated by fear of the wrath of Darius he prevailed upon those in the expedition to mount an insurrection and subsequently went to <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> (unsuccessfully) and <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> (successfully) for help. The Ionians attacked Sardis in approximately 499 BC, but Artarphernes managed to hold the acropolis, although the lower city was burnt. The Ionians retreated but were defeated by pursuing Persians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ephesus_(498_BC)" title="Battle of Ephesus (498 BC)">Ephesus</a> in 498 BC, whereupon the Athenian ships withdrew. However, over the next two years open rebellion broke out from <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> to <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. Eventually Aristagoras realized the futility of the exercise, as Artaphernes won a number of victories, and fled. Miletus fell to the Persian forces in 494 BC, following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Battle of Lade</a>, who wreaked vengeance. The last pockets of resistance were obliterated by 493 BC. Herodotus depicts these events as the catalyst to the <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Graeco-Persian Wars">Graeco-Persian Wars</a> (499–449 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Herodotus, as is so often our only source, had an agenda in his imprecise accounts, which do not fit well with what is known of the period. It is likely that the affair in Naxos represented a democratic revolt against the tyrants.<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_satrapies">Other satrapies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other satrapies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellespontine_Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hellespontine Phrygia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altikulac_Sarcophagus_Dynast_of_Hellespontine_Phrygia_attacking_a_Greek_psiloi_early_4th_century_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Altikulac_Sarcophagus_Dynast_of_Hellespontine_Phrygia_attacking_a_Greek_psiloi_early_4th_century_BCE.jpg/330px-Altikulac_Sarcophagus_Dynast_of_Hellespontine_Phrygia_attacking_a_Greek_psiloi_early_4th_century_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Altikulac_Sarcophagus_Dynast_of_Hellespontine_Phrygia_attacking_a_Greek_psiloi_early_4th_century_BCE.jpg/495px-Altikulac_Sarcophagus_Dynast_of_Hellespontine_Phrygia_attacking_a_Greek_psiloi_early_4th_century_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Altikulac_Sarcophagus_Dynast_of_Hellespontine_Phrygia_attacking_a_Greek_psiloi_early_4th_century_BCE.jpg/660px-Altikulac_Sarcophagus_Dynast_of_Hellespontine_Phrygia_attacking_a_Greek_psiloi_early_4th_century_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2444" data-file-height="1522" /></a><figcaption>A Greek mercenary (left) in the service of an <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> Dynast of <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a> (center) attacking a Greek <a href="/wiki/Psiloi" title="Psiloi">psiloi</a> (right) at the time of <a href="/wiki/Pharnabazus_II" title="Pharnabazus II">Pharnabazus II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus" title="Altıkulaç Sarcophagus">Altıkulaç Sarcophagus</a>, early 4th century BC<sup id="cite_ref-CBR137_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBR137-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a> lay to the north of the Lydia/Sardis satrapy, incorporating <a href="/wiki/Troad" title="Troad">Troad</a>, semi-autonomous <a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Dascylium" title="Dascylium">Dascylium</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Ergili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergili">Ergili</a>) on the south of the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a>. Previously it was part of the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mitrobates" title="Mitrobates">Mitrobates</a> was a satrap, and one of the officials killed by <a href="/wiki/Oroetus" title="Oroetus">Oroetes</a> (Oroetus), satrap of Sparda (Sardis), in the 520s. Because of its strategic position between Europe and Asia it was the launching pad for expeditions to subdue <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arsites" title="Arsites">Arsites</a> was the last Achaemenid satrap of Dascylium (350–334 BC) according to <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>, committing suicide after the Persian defeat at the battle of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Granicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Granicus">Granicus</a> in 334 BC at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eias_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eias-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greater_Phrygia">Greater Phrygia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Greater Phrygia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Greater <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> was a minor satrapy of Sparda, with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Celaenae" title="Celaenae">Celaenae</a>. It concluded Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semi-autonomous_jurisdictions">Semi-autonomous jurisdictions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Semi-autonomous jurisdictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cilicia">Cilicia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cilicia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> remained a semi-independent minor satrapy under both <a href="/wiki/Croesus" title="Croesus">Croesus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, and under Persian rule, although paying tribute. Similarly <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> remained under petty local dynasts, with allegiance to Persia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mysia">Mysia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mysia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysia</a> was ruled by its own dynasty within the minor satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Caria">Caria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Caria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_head_of_a_goddess,_found_in_the_Hadrianic_Baths,_2nd_century_AD,_Aphrodisias_Museum_(16993498327).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Marble_head_of_a_goddess%2C_found_in_the_Hadrianic_Baths%2C_2nd_century_AD%2C_Aphrodisias_Museum_%2816993498327%29.jpg/220px-Marble_head_of_a_goddess%2C_found_in_the_Hadrianic_Baths%2C_2nd_century_AD%2C_Aphrodisias_Museum_%2816993498327%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Marble_head_of_a_goddess%2C_found_in_the_Hadrianic_Baths%2C_2nd_century_AD%2C_Aphrodisias_Museum_%2816993498327%29.jpg/330px-Marble_head_of_a_goddess%2C_found_in_the_Hadrianic_Baths%2C_2nd_century_AD%2C_Aphrodisias_Museum_%2816993498327%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Marble_head_of_a_goddess%2C_found_in_the_Hadrianic_Baths%2C_2nd_century_AD%2C_Aphrodisias_Museum_%2816993498327%29.jpg/440px-Marble_head_of_a_goddess%2C_found_in_the_Hadrianic_Baths%2C_2nd_century_AD%2C_Aphrodisias_Museum_%2816993498327%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3202" data-file-height="4829" /></a><figcaption>Marble head of a goddess in <a href="/wiki/Aphrodisias" title="Aphrodisias">Aphrodisias</a>, Caria</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Carians" title="Carians">Caria</a></b> was a satrap of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a> which included <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> as well as the islands of <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kos" title="Kos">Cos</a> at times. The appointed local ruler <a href="/wiki/Hecatomnus" title="Hecatomnus">Hecatomnus</a> took advantage of his position. He gained for his family an autonomous hand in control of the province by providing the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persians</a> with regular tribute, avoiding the look of deception. His son <a href="/wiki/Mausolus" title="Mausolus">Mausolus</a> continued in this manner, and expanded upon the groundwork laid by his father. He first removed the official capital of the satrap from <a href="/wiki/Mylasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mylasa">Mylasa</a> to <a href="/wiki/Halicarnassus" title="Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a>, gaining a strategic naval advantage as the new capital was on the ocean. On this land he built a strong fortress and built up a strong navy. He shrewdly used this power to guarantee protection for the citizens of <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kos" title="Kos">Kos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> as they proclaimed independence from <a href="/wiki/Athenian" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian">Athenian</a> Greece. <a href="/wiki/Mausolus" title="Mausolus">Mausolus</a> did not live to see his plans realized fully, and his position went to his widow <a href="/wiki/Artemisia_II_of_Caria" title="Artemisia II of Caria">Artemisia</a>. The local control over Caria remained in <a href="/wiki/Hecatomnus" title="Hecatomnus">Hecatomnus</a>'s family for another 20 years before the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eias_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eias-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bury_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bury-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Persian_Wars_499–449_BC"><span id="Greco-Persian_Wars_499.E2.80.93449_BC"></span>Greco-Persian Wars 499–449 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Greco-Persian Wars 499–449 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persian_Empire,_490_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.png/250px-Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.png/375px-Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.png/500px-Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.png 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>The Persian Empire in 490 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The preceding events of the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> marked the beginning of half a century of conflict between the superpowers that faced each other across the Aegean. The Persians were already in Europe, with a presence in both <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a>, a position they consolidated following the suppression of the revolt between 492 and 486 BC under <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> and later by <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">First Persian invasion of Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/250px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/375px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/500px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>Events of the Greco-Persian Wars</figcaption></figure> <p>From the Greek perspective the first war was when Darius assembled a fleet in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a> under <a href="/wiki/Datis" title="Datis">Datis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes_(son_of_Artaphernes)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)">Artaphernes</a> (son of the satrap <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes</a>) and sailed for <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> in 490 BC, first taking islands such as Naxos which it had failed to capture in 500, in addition to disembarking at <a href="/wiki/Marathon" title="Marathon">Marathon</a> where they were <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">soundly defeated</a>. Greek (Herodotus) and Persian sources (for instance see <a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a> XI 148) differ in terms of the significance of Marathon, great victory or minor skirmish. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a></div> <p>Greece was spared further invasions when an unplanned interbellum (490–480 BC) occurred due to an insurrection in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 486 BC and Darius' illness and death that year. By 480 BC, Darius' successor, his son <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> (485–465 BC) had amassed a huge army, and marched into Europe by crossing the Hellespont by means of <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridges" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontoon bridges">pontoon bridges</a>, meeting and defeating the Greeks at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> later that year and razing Athens. However, the loss of the Persian fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a> gave command of the sea to the Greeks, and Xerxes retreated back to Asia. The following year (479 BC) the Greeks won a decisive land victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Platea" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Platea">Platea</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> was also killed, followed by another naval victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a>. Greece then went on the offensive, capturing <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sestos" title="Sestos">Sestos</a> and thus controlling the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a></div> <p>Following these Persian reverses, the Greek cities of Asia Minor again rebelled. The focus of the war now moved to the Aegean islands with the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> in 477 BC. Over the next 30 years Greek forces continued to harass Persian garrisons, invading Asia Minor in the 460s with an important victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a> c. 469. The wars effectively ended in 449 BC with the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus, a peace being declared, which <a href="/wiki/Diodorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diodorus">Diodorus</a> refers to as the Peace of Callias, although this is debated. </p><p>Skirmishes continued, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor continued to be pawns in the struggles. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/250px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/375px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/500px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Athens and her empire in 431 BC. The Delian League in 431 BC</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_years:_the_invasion_of_the_Macedonians_358–330_BC"><span id="Final_years:_the_invasion_of_the_Macedonians_358.E2.80.93330_BC"></span>Final years: the invasion of the Macedonians 358–330 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Final years: the invasion of the Macedonians 358–330 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_expedition_of_Alexander_the_Great_into_Asia" title="Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia">Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg/250px-Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg/375px-Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg/500px-Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Macedon and the Aegean in 336 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The later years of the Empire were beset by internal turmoil. <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> (358–338 BC) achieved the throne by violent means and was rumored to have been murdered himself. His successor <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_IV_Arses" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes IV Arses">Artaxerxes IV Arses</a> (338–336 BC) also met a violent end, paving the way for the accession of his nephew <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> (336–330), then Satrap of Armenia. Darius proved to be the last king to rule since in the same year <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> became king of neighboring <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a>. Within a year Alexander was in <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, putting down rebellions and securing his northern frontiers. Alexander then turned his attention to the east, landing on the shores of Anatolia near <a href="/wiki/Sestos" title="Sestos">Sestos</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli" title="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</a> peninsula in 334 BC, and soon crossing the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a> into Asia (335 BC). Initially the Persians offered little resistance and Alexander began to liberate Greek city states. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/250px-MacedonEmpire.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/375px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/500px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="951" /></a><figcaption>Alexander's route into Anatolia and beyond 334–323 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Advancing on <a href="/wiki/Dascylium" title="Dascylium">Dascylium</a> he first encountered Persian troops at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Granicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Granicus">Battle of Granicus</a> in 334 BC. This battle occurred on the <a href="/wiki/Granicus_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Granicus River">Granicus</a> (Biga Çayı) river near modern-day <a href="/wiki/Biga,_%C3%87anakkale" title="Biga, Çanakkale">Biga</a> in <a href="/wiki/%C3%87anakkale" title="Çanakkale">Çanakkale</a>, on the south coast of the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a>. The Persians were routed and the Greeks moved down the Aegean coast, taking Sardis, and besieging many cities. From the Aegean they moved east along the Mediterranean coast as far as <a href="/wiki/Side,_Turkey" title="Side, Turkey">Side</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a> (333 BC), securing all of the Anatolian naval bases. From Side they moved north into the interior of <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> before returning through the <a href="/wiki/Cilician_Gates" title="Cilician Gates">Cilician Gates</a> to the Cilician coast, and then east towards the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Issus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf of Issus">Gulf of Issus</a>. It was there they encountered and defeated Darius at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a> (333 BC). </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg/200px-Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg/300px-Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg/400px-Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1557" data-file-height="2213" /></a><figcaption>Alexander before the Battle of Issus, the best representation of his likeness</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a></div> <p>On reaching <a href="/wiki/Nur_Mountains" title="Nur Mountains">Mount Amanus</a>, scouts found the Persians advancing through the plains of <a href="/wiki/Issus_(town)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issus (town)">Issus</a>. Realizing that the terrain at this point favored his smaller army, Alexander attacked the Persians, who were effectively squeezed by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>. Although Darius escaped, back across the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> river, leaving the rest of his family in <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>'s hands, the battle marked the end of Persian hegemony in Anatolia. Alexander then turned his attention to Syria, the eastern Mediterranean coast and Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Bury_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bury-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Darius himself was murdered in 330 BC, and shortly afterwards Alexander routed the remaining Persian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Battle of the Persian Gate</a> and the Achaemenid Empire was over. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hellenistic_period">Hellenistic period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hellenistic period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic civilization</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Alexander the Great"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochi_satraps_babylon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Diadochi_satraps_babylon.png/250px-Diadochi_satraps_babylon.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Diadochi_satraps_babylon.png/375px-Diadochi_satraps_babylon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Diadochi_satraps_babylon.png/500px-Diadochi_satraps_babylon.png 2x" data-file-width="2590" data-file-height="1353" /></a><figcaption>Satrapies in the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> 323 BC</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a> (336–323 BC) succeeded his father King <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip of Macedon</a> (359 BC – 336 BC) on his assassination in 336 BC. Alexander invaded Asia Minor in 335 BC with a combined land and naval force, and by 333 BC had effectively vanquished the <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persians</a> in the Anatolian lands, and ending the Achaemenid Empire by 330 BC. However, he devoted the rest of his life to military conquests further east, dying in 323 BC. Thus he fulfilled his father's ambition of liberating the Greeks of Asia Minor. </p><p>Administratively he continued the <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapy</a> system, his strategy being to respect and win support from the conquered (or liberated) people's, respecting their traditions. He also positioned himself as a crusader for pan-hellenism, rescuing the Greek people of Anatolia from tyrants and <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchs</a>. In addition he colonised the lands he captured with Greek settlers, spreading Greek culture. One of the controversies is the extent to which the Macedonian Empire represented either rupture or continuity. The ascendancy of Greek, and by extension European culture in an area predominantly influenced by Asia to date was to leave a lasting legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-eiag_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eiag-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wars_of_the_Diadochi_and_division_of_Alexander's_empire"><span id="Wars_of_the_Diadochi_and_division_of_Alexander.27s_empire"></span>Wars of the Diadochi and division of Alexander's empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wars of the Diadochi and division of Alexander's empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great">Death of Alexander the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadoch.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Diadoch.png/250px-Diadoch.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Diadoch.png/375px-Diadoch.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Diadoch.png/500px-Diadoch.png 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>The Successor kingdoms before the battle of Ipsus, 303 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochen1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/250px-Diadochen1.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/375px-Diadochen1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/500px-Diadochen1.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption> Kingdoms of the Diadochi c. 301 BC <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#787CAD; color:black;"> </span> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#50A249; color:black;"> </span> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C38833; color:black;"> </span> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C3B933; color:black;"> </span> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#AF3662; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></div> Other <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#A361BD; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#70A9BE; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#85AB54; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonies#Greek_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek colonies">Greek colonies</a></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>In June 323 BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a> died suddenly and unexpectedly in Babylon at the age of 32, leaving a power vacuum in <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a>, putting all he had worked for at risk. His vision of a unified empire proved short lived. He had no heir, and had not made apparent plans for succession. Some classical writers state he wished <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> one of his generals, to take charge, and that Perdiccas envisioned sharing power, as regent, with his then unborn son, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> (323–309 BC). This was not universally accepted, and his half-brother <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Arrhidaeus</a> (323–317 BC) was advanced as a candidate by <a href="/wiki/Meleager_(general)" title="Meleager (general)">Meleager</a>. Eventually Alexander and Philip were made joint monarchs and responsibility for regional administration divided up at the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> (323 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-shipley_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shipley-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip was unable to rule effectively due to a serious disability, and both he and Alexander were soon murdered. Perdiccas himself was assassinated in 321 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-shipley_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shipley-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus" title="Partition of Triparadisus">Partition of Triparadisus</a></div> <p>Power often lay with the Satraps, usually generals. In Anatolia, this initial division of power at Babylon was as follows; <br /> Western Anatolia: <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Leonnatus" title="Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Menander_(general)" title="Menander (general)">Menander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a> by <a href="/wiki/Asander" title="Asander">Asander</a> <br /> Central Anatolia: <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes">Eumenes of Cardia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Philotas_(satrap)" title="Philotas (satrap)">Philotas</a> <br /> Eastern Anatolia: <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_(general)" title="Neoptolemus (general)">Neoptolemus</a> </p><p>However, dissent was endemic, and almost continuous war ensued amongst the Macedonian generals, lasting over 40 years; these wars were referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">wars of the successors</a> (Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, or <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a>) (323–276 BC). Although <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(satrapy)" title="Cappadocia (satrapy)">Cappadocia</a> had been allocated to Eumenes, it had not yet been subdued and had to be put down in 322 BC, in the course of which Antigonus fell out with Perdiccas and fled to Europe from Phrygia, where he initiated a conspiracy (<a href="/wiki/First_War_of_the_Diadochi" class="mw-redirect" title="First War of the Diadochi">First War of the Diadochi</a>). Perdiccas' murder necessitated a further partitioning and appointment of a new regent, <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus" title="Partition of Triparadisus">Triparadisus</a> in 321 BC. Eumenes was condemned and control of Cappadocia passed to <a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(satrap)" title="Nicanor (satrap)">Nicanor</a>, while Lydia was given to <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_White" title="Cleitus the White">Cleitus</a> and Hellespontine Phrygia to <a href="/wiki/Arrhidaeus" title="Arrhidaeus">Arrhidaeus</a>. </p><p>The second partitioning did little to quell the continuing scheming and jockeying for power. Antipater's illness in 320 BC led him to appoint <a href="/wiki/Polyperchon" title="Polyperchon">Polyperchon</a> as regent, passing over his own son <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a>, who now conspired with Antigonus. The result was civil war (<a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_the_Diadochi" title="Second War of the Diadochi">Second War of the Diadochi</a>) with Cassander declaring himself regent in 317 BC and King in 305 BC, having had Alexander IV murdered in 309 BC. </p><p>Meanwhile, Antigonus in Phrygia was expanding east forcing <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a>, Satrap of Babylon, to flee to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a>, Satrap of Egypt and Libya in 315 BC (<a href="/wiki/Third_War_of_the_Diadochi" class="mw-redirect" title="Third War of the Diadochi">Third War of the Diadochi</a>). This aggression brought pressure to bear on Antigonus, who soon found himself under attack in Thrace, Caria and Palestine. As a result, Seleucus was reinstated in 312 BC, and a treaty was arranged in 311 BC between Cassander, <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> Satrap of Thrace, Antigonus, Seleucus and Ptolemy which divided the Empire into four spheres of influence. By 304 BC all of these had proclaimed themselves 'kings' (<a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Basileus</a>: Βασιλεύς), effectively ending the concept of a Macedonian Empire, although it was unclear as to whether all saw themselves as the legitimate heir of the entire empire. It was Antigonus and his son <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius</a> who continued to wage war (<a href="/wiki/Fourth_War_of_the_Diadochi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth War of the Diadochi">Fourth War of the Diadochi</a>). The Fourth War culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a>, Phrygia in 301 BC, in which Antigonus now in his 80s faced the combined forces of Cassander, Lysimachus and Seleucus. Antigonus was killed, and Demetrius fled, allowing his enemies to carry out a third partition, dividing his possessions between them. </p><p>In post-Ipsus Anatolia, Lysimachus held the west and north, Seleucus the east, and Ptolemy the south east. For a while <a href="/wiki/Pleistarchus_(son_of_Antipater)" title="Pleistarchus (son of Antipater)">Pleistarchus</a>, Antipater's son and Cassander's brother ruled Cilicia, before being driven out the following year (300 BC) by Demetrius. The other exception was <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> which under <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates I of Pontus">Mithridates I</a> managed to gain independence. </p><p>The third partition of 301 BC was no more effective at bringing stability to the region than its predecessors. Demetrius, who eventually became King of Macedon (294 BC – 288 BC), was still at large controlling a significant naval force, raiding Lysimachus' territory in Asia Minor. 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alexander%27s_Generals" title="Template:Alexander's Generals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alexander%27s_Generals" title="Template talk:Alexander's Generals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alexander%27s_Generals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alexander's Generals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alexander_the_Great&#039;s_Generals" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great's</a> <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Generals</a><br /></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II's Generals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)" title="Attalus (general)">Attalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes">Eumenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes" title="Somatophylakes">The <i>Somatophylakes</i><br />(Alexander's bodyguards)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristonous_of_Pella" title="Aristonous of Pella">Aristonous</a> (to 323 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arybbas_(somatophylax)" title="Arybbas (somatophylax)">Arybbas</a> (to 332 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balacrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Balacrus">Balacrus</a> (to 333 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_(somatophylax)" title="Demetrius (somatophylax)">Demetrius</a> (to 331 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> (to 323 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_(son_of_Seleucus)" title="Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)">Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)</a> (to 333 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peithon" title="Peithon">Peithon</a> (to 323 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a> (to 324 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menes_of_Pella" title="Menes of Pella">Menes</a> (to 330 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonnatus" title="Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a> (to 323 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> (to 323 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> (to 323 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peucestas" title="Peucestas">Peucestas</a> (to 323 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Satraps" class="mw-redirect" title="Satraps">Satraps</a> at the<br /><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a><br />(323 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> (<a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>)</li> <li>Philo (<a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonnatus" title="Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asander" title="Asander">Asander</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_(general)" title="Menander (general)">Menander</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philotas_(satrap)" title="Philotas (satrap)">Philotas<sup>(3)</sup></a> (<a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes">Eumenes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laomedon_of_Mytilene" title="Laomedon of Mytilene">Laomedon of Mytilene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_(general)" title="Neoptolemus (general)">Neoptolemus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peucestas" title="Peucestas">Peucestas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>)</li> <li>Arcesilas (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peithon" title="Peithon">Peithon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlepolemus_(general)" title="Tlepolemus (general)">Tlepolemus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(satrap)" title="Nicanor (satrap)">Nicanor<sup>(2)</sup></a> (<a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenes_(general)" title="Antigenes (general)">Antigenes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Susiana">Susiana</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archon_of_Pella" title="Archon of Pella">Archon</a> (Pelasgia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_(satrap)" title="Philip (satrap)">Philip</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasanor" title="Stasanor">Stasanor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibyrtius" title="Sibyrtius">Sibyrtius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gedrosia" title="Gedrosia">Gedrosia</a>)</li> <li>Amyntas (<a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>)</li> <li>Scythaeus (<a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Satraps" class="mw-redirect" title="Satraps">Satraps</a> at the <br /><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus" title="Partition of Triparadisus">Partition of Triparadisus</a><br />(321 BC)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> (<a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Arrhidaeus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_White" title="Cleitus the White">Cleitus the White</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philoxenus_(general)" title="Philoxenus (general)">Philoxenus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(satrap)" title="Nicanor (satrap)">Nicanor<sup>(2)</sup></a> (<a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laomedon_of_Mytilene" title="Laomedon of Mytilene">Laomedon of Mytilene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peucestas" title="Peucestas">Peucestas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a>)</li> <li>Amphimachus (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peithon" title="Peithon">Peithon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlepolemus_(general)" title="Tlepolemus (general)">Tlepolemus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kerman_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerman Province">Carmania</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_(satrap)" title="Philip (satrap)">Philip</a> (<a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenes_(general)" title="Antigenes (general)">Antigenes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Susiana">Susiana</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasanor" title="Stasanor">Stasanor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasander" title="Stasander">Stasander</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibyrtius" title="Sibyrtius">Sibyrtius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gedrosia" title="Gedrosia">Gedrosia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry Generals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philotas" title="Philotas">Philotas<sup>(4)</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black">Cleitus the Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_(general)" title="Menander (general)">Menander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonnatus" title="Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laomedon_of_Mytilene" title="Laomedon of Mytilene">Laomedon of Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_(general)" title="Neoptolemus (general)">Neoptolemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erigyius" title="Erigyius">Erigyius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aretes" title="Aretes">Aretes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariston_of_Paionia" title="Ariston of Paionia">Ariston of Paionia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry Generals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meleager_(general)" title="Meleager (general)">Meleager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyperchon" title="Polyperchon">Polyperchon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenes_(general)" title="Antigenes (general)">Antigenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coenus_(general)" title="Coenus (general)">Coenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_(son_of_Seleucus)" title="Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)">Ptolemy (son of Seleucus)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Other or unknown<br />command</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcetas" title="Alcetas">Alcetas</a></li> <li>Amphimachus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_(son_of_Andromenes)" title="Amyntas (son of Andromenes)">Amyntas</a></li> <li>Arcesilas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archon_of_Pella" title="Archon of Pella">Archon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asander" title="Asander">Asander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_White" title="Cleitus the White">Cleitus the White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(son_of_Parmenion)" title="Nicanor (son of Parmenion)">Nicanor<sup>(1)</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(satrap)" title="Nicanor (satrap)">Nicanor<sup>(2)</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peithon" title="Peithon">Peithon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peucestas" title="Peucestas">Peucestas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_(satrap)" title="Philip (satrap)">Philip</a></li> <li>Philo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philotas_(satrap)" title="Philotas (satrap)">Philotas<sup>(3)</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philoxenus_(general)" title="Philoxenus (general)">Philoxenus</a></li> <li>Scythaeus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibyrtius" title="Sibyrtius">Sibyrtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasanor" title="Stasanor">Stasanor</a></li> <li>Stasander</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlepolemus_(general)" title="Tlepolemus (general)">Tlepolemus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><sup>(1)</sup> Son of Parmenion, d. 330 BC; to be distinguished from <sup>(2)</sup><br /> <p><sup>(2)</sup> Satrap at Partition of Babylon; possibly <a href="/wiki/Nicanor_of_Stageira" title="Nicanor of Stageira">Nicanor of Stageira</a><br /> <sup>(3)</sup> Satrap at Partition of Babylon<br /> </p> <sup>(4)</sup> Son of Parmenion, d. 330 BC; to be distinguished from <sup>(3)</sup><br /></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_division_of_Alexander&#039;s_empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diadochi" title="Template:Diadochi"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Diadochi" title="Template talk:Diadochi"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diadochi" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diadochi"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_division_of_Alexander&#039;s_empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">The division of Alexander's empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" coords="275,557,367,577" title="Seleucus I Nicator" alt="Seleucus I Nicator" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" coords="605,541,702,562" title="Antiochus I Soter" 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title="Thrace" alt="Thrace" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Peloponnesus" coords="329,200,448,224" title="Peloponnesus" alt="Peloponnesus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Greece" coords="319,153,458,177" title="Greece" alt="Greece" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Macedon" coords="346,106,431,130" title="Macedon" alt="Macedon" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Regent" coords="349,59,428,83" title="Regent" alt="Regent" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Macedon" coords="319,12,458,36" title="Macedon" alt="Macedon" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6.png" /></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lysimachian_Empire_301–281_BC"><span id="Lysimachian_Empire_301.E2.80.93281_BC"></span>Lysimachian Empire 301–281 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lysimachian Empire 301–281 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lysimachia_(Thrace)" title="Lysimachia (Thrace)">Lysimachia (Thrace)</a></div> <p>Of the three empires carved out of Alexander's possessions following the battle of Ipsus, the Lysimachian of Thrace, Western (including Lydia, Ionia, Phrygia) and Northern Asia Minor, was the shortest lived. Lysimachus attempted unsuccessfully to extend his possessions in Europe and Greece. Some of Lysimachus' cruelty, such as the murder of his son <a href="/wiki/Agathocles_(son_of_Lysimachus)" title="Agathocles (son of Lysimachus)">Agathocles</a> in 284 BC engendered both revulsion and revolt. Distrusting Seleucus, Lysimachus had now allied himself with Ptolemy. Seleucus invaded the Lysimachian lands and in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corupedium" title="Battle of Corupedium">Battle of Corupedium</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> in 281 BC, Lysimachus was killed and Seleucus seized control over western Asia Minor.<sup id="cite_ref-shipley_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shipley-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rawlinson_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawlinson-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemaic_Empire_301–30_BC"><span id="Ptolemaic_Empire_301.E2.80.9330_BC"></span>Ptolemaic Empire 301–30 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ptolemaic Empire 301–30 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></div> <p>Of all the major satraps appointed on the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC), <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a> (323–283 BC) settled into his new province of Egypt and Libya with the least difficulty, controlling much of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and at times south-eastern Anatolia. This was confirmed following the third partition following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> in 301 BC. However, a series of <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a> (274–168 BC) between the Ptolomies and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> varied the degree of control they had in Anatolia. The <a href="/wiki/First_Syrian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Syrian War">First Syrian War</a> (274–271 BC) fought by Ptolemy I's son and successor <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> (283–246 BC) resulted in extending these possessions to include <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>, as well as the Aegean islands, only to lose some of them in the second war (260–253 BC). The territorial extent of the Ptolemies reached its zenith under <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> (246–222 BC) and the third (Laodicean) war (246–241 BC). </p><p>Thereafter the Ptolemaic powers declined. <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> (221–179 BC) seized territory in Caria, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> influence steadily increased as it progressively absorbed much of the Greek world. Egypt formed a pact with <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a> and the dynasty eventually came to an end in 30 BC with the death of <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> (51–30 BC). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seleucid_Empire_301–64_BC"><span id="Seleucid_Empire_301.E2.80.9364_BC"></span>Seleucid Empire 301–64 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Seleucid Empire 301–64 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleucusnicatorcoin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Seleucusnicatorcoin.jpg/200px-Seleucusnicatorcoin.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Seleucusnicatorcoin.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="125" /></a><figcaption>Seleucus I Nicator, namesake of the Seleucid Empire</figcaption></figure> <p>On the death of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in 323 BC <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a> (321–281 BC) was appointed to head the elite <a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">cavalry</a> (ἑταῖροι, hetairoi) and a <a href="/wiki/Chiliarch" title="Chiliarch">Chiliarch</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus" title="Partition of Triparadisus">Partition of Triparadisus</a> in 321 BC he was appointed <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">Satrap</a> of <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, but soon found himself involved in the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a>. In particular this involved conflict with <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus</a>, Satrap of <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, to his west, who progressively enlarged his possessions to include all of Asia Minor. Eventually, at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC Antigonus was overthrown and killed, and his lands partitioned. This gave Seleucus control of south eastern Anatolia. In the ensuing years he was in conflict with <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius</a>, Antigonus' son gaining and then losing <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Ciliciain</a> 294 and 286 BC respectively, but then regained it shortly thereafter. His next problem was to deal with <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> who now controlled <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and western Asia Minor. In the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corupedium" title="Battle of Corupedium">Battle of Corupedium</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> in 281 BC, Lysimachus was killed and Seleucus seized control over the remaining lands of Asia Minor. Now reigning over all of Alexander's empire except the Ptolemaic lands in Egypt, his victory was short lived. Immediately moving to take commands of the new lands in Europe, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonia</a> he crossed into <a href="/wiki/Thracian_Chersonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracian Chersonese">Thracian Chersonese</a> when he was assassinated near <a href="/wiki/Lysimachia_(Thrace)" title="Lysimachia (Thrace)">Lysimachia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a>, future king of <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a>. Seleucus was noted for his founding of cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> (one of many cities with that name), named after his father <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_(father_of_Seleucus_I_Nicator)" title="Antiochus (father of Seleucus I Nicator)">Antiochus</a>, and which became the capital of Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-Rawlinson_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawlinson-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the death of Seleucus, the vast and unwieldy empire he left faced many trials, both from internal and external forces. His son <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus I">Antiochus I</a> Soter (281–261 BC) faced the first of many <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a> with the Seleucids southern neighbours, the Ptolomies. He was unable to fulfill his father's ambitions of incorporating Thrace and Macedonia and nor was he able to subdue <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> in Asia Minor. A new threat was incursions by the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> from the north west but they were repelled in 278 BC. Within Asia Minor, the power of Pergamon on the Aegean coast, a <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">remnant</a> of the Lysimachean Empire, was growing. <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_I" title="Eumenes I">Eumenes I</a>, dynast of Pergamon, revolted against Seleucid rule and defeated Antiochus near Sardis in 262 BC, guaranteeing Pergamon's independence. Antiochus died the following year,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Antiochus I Soter was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus II">Antiochus II</a> (261–246 BC) named Theos, or "divine", who conducted the Second Syrian War (260–253 BC). Eventually he was poisoned by his first wife, <a href="/wiki/Laodice_I" title="Laodice I">Laodice I</a> who also poisoned his second wife <a href="/wiki/Berenice_Phernophorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice Phernophorus">Berenice Phernophorus</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> and her infant son. Antiochus II's son by Laodice from his first wife, <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II Callinicus</a> (246–225 BC), was proclaimed by his mother. </p><p>Seleucus II oversaw the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC) with Berenice's brother, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a>. In Asia Minor a rebellion by his younger brother Antiochus Hierax led to Seleucus II leaving the lands beyond the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a> to him following a defeat at Ancyra in 236 BC, although the latter was eventually driven out of Anatolia by Pergamon in 227 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seleucus' sister <a href="/wiki/Laodice_(wife_of_Mithridates_II_of_Pontus)" title="Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus)">Laodice</a> married <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates II of Pontus">Mithridates II</a> in 245 BC and brought with her the lands of <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> as a dowry.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this Mithridates joined Antiochus Hierax against Seleucus. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg/250px-Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg/375px-Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg/500px-Seleucid-Empire_200bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>Middle East 200 BC highlighting Seleucid Empire. Notes: 5. <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, 6. <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, 7. <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, 8. <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the brief reign of Seleucus II's son <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III Ceraunus</a> ( 226–223 BC), his brother <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III the Great</a> (223–187 BC) ascended the throne. By the time Antiochus III became king, the empire had already reached a low point. In the east provinces were breaking away, while in Asia Minor, subject states were becoming increasingly independent, including <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pergamum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pergamum">Pergamum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> (traditionally difficult to subjugate). A new presence was <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>, a 3rd-century settlement of <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> from Thrace in central Anatolia. Antiochus III set about restoring the former glories of the empire, initially campaigning in the east and subduing the independent provinces, before turning his attention to the west. His ambition to fulfill the thwarted dreams of his great great grandfather Seleucus I proved to be his undoing. His initial attempts to regain control of Asia Minor drew the attention of the growing Mediterranean power of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Rome</a> when <a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a> appealed to it for help. He then crossed into Europe in 196 BC and Greece in 192 BC but by 191 BC came up against the Roman legions at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(191_BC)" title="Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)">Battle of Thermopylae</a> where his defeat forced his retreat from Greece. The following year the Romans pursued him into Anatolia inflicting another major victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> in Lydia. Antiochus was forced to sue for peace and by the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a> in 188 BC retreated beyond the Taurus Mountains, dying the following year. Anatolia now lay largely in the hands of the Romans and their allies, at least in the west. Those states that had allied themselves with the Romans were freed while <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a> south of the River <a href="/wiki/Maeander" class="mw-redirect" title="Maeander">Maeander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> were granted to <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>. The balance of Antiochus' lands, the largest share, were granted to Eumenes II of Pergamum. These settlements were made on the understanding that they would all keep the peace in a manner satisfactory to Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_Minor_188_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Asia_Minor_188_BCE.jpg/250px-Asia_Minor_188_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Asia_Minor_188_BCE.jpg/375px-Asia_Minor_188_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Asia_Minor_188_BCE.jpg/500px-Asia_Minor_188_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1045" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>Asia Minor in 188 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Apamea.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Treaty_of_Apamea.png/250px-Treaty_of_Apamea.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Treaty_of_Apamea.png/375px-Treaty_of_Apamea.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Treaty_of_Apamea.png/500px-Treaty_of_Apamea.png 2x" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="891" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a> 188 BC showing redistribution of <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> lands to <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> (dark blue before, light blue after) and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> (dark green before, light green after). Residual Seleucid lands in pink</figcaption></figure> <p>While the Seleucids continued to maintain lands in south eastern Anatolia the empire was progressively weakened on all fronts, and became progressively unstable, torn by civil war in the 2nd century BC. After the death of <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a> (138–129) BC the empire became increasingly diminished and by the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a> (116–96 BC) there was little left outside Antioch and Syria. The invasion of Syria by <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> (95–55 BC) in 83 BC virtually extinguished the empire, a process completed when <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> made <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Province">Roman Province</a> in 64 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent,_semi-independent_and_client_states"><span id="Independent.2C_semi-independent_and_client_states"></span>Independent, semi-independent and client states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Independent, semi-independent and client states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pontus_291–63_BC"><span id="Pontus_291.E2.80.9363_BC"></span>Pontus 291–63 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Pontus 291–63 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_the_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of the Pontus">List of kings of the Pontus</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PonticKingdom.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/PonticKingdom.png/250px-PonticKingdom.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/PonticKingdom.png/375px-PonticKingdom.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/PonticKingdom.png/500px-PonticKingdom.png 2x" data-file-width="1551" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>Kingdom of Pontus before the reign of Mithridates VI (120 BC, Dark Purple), after his early conquests (Light Purple), and his conquests in the first Mithridatic wars (88 BC, Pink). Armenia is in Green</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a> lay on the north west <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast, stretching from <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a> and bordered to the south by <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>. Its mountain ranges were divided by river valleys including the <a href="/wiki/Halys_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Halys River">Halys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iris_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Iris River">Iris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lycus_(river_of_Pontus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycus (river of Pontus)">Lycus</a>, parallel to the coast. Its main centres were on the Lycus and Iris rivers including the royal centre of <a href="/wiki/Amaseia" class="mw-redirect" title="Amaseia">Amaseia</a>. </p><p>Pontus was founded by <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates I of Pontus">Mithridates I</a> (302 – 266 BC) in 291 BC, who assumed the title of king in 281 BC. Its capital was Sinope, now the Turkish town of <a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinop</a>. Originally he had inherited <a href="/wiki/Cius" title="Cius">Cius</a> to the west in Bithynia, but fled from <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_Monophthalmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonus Monophthalmos">Antigonus Monophthalmos</a> to form a new dynasty in nearby <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a> states that he was directly descended from the Persian Satrap of Pontus. he consolidated his kingdom seeking alliances from neighbouring peoples, including the Gauls, as protection form the larger powers of the region. </p><p>His grandson, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates II of Pontus">Mithridates II</a> (c. 250–210 BC) married into the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> line, acquiring Phrygia as a dowry from <a href="/wiki/Laodice_(wife_of_Mithridates_II_of_Pontus)" title="Laodice (wife of Mithridates II of Pontus)">Laodice</a>, sister of <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucus II">Seleucus II</a>. Later he was part of an alliance that defeated Seleucus at <a href="/wiki/Ancyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancyra">Ancyra</a> in 239 BC. However, the alliance between the dynasties was further consolidated when he gave his daughter, <a href="/wiki/Laodice_III" title="Laodice III">Laodice III</a> in marriage to <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus III">Antiochus III</a>, and another daughter to Antiochus'cousin, <a href="/wiki/Achaeus_(general)" title="Achaeus (general)">Achaeus</a>. </p><p>Mithridates II's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharnaces I">Pharnaces I</a> (c. 190 – c. 155 BC) waged war on many of his neighbours including <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a> of Pergamon and <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariarathes IV">Ariarathes IV</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> (220 BC – 163 BC) as well as <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> in 181 BC. Ultimately he gained little, although the Romans attempted to intercede. He also continued alliances with the Seleucids, marrying <a href="/wiki/Nysa_(wife_of_Pharnaces_I_of_Pontus)" title="Nysa (wife of Pharnaces I of Pontus)">Nysa</a> who was the daughter of his cousins <a href="/wiki/Laodice_IV" title="Laodice IV">Laodice IV</a> and crown prince <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_(son_of_Antiochus_III_the_Great)" title="Antiochus (son of Antiochus III the Great)">Antiochus</a>. He was succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates IV of Pontus">Mithridates IV</a> (c. 155 – c. 150 BC) who allied himself with Rome and her allies, including Pergamon. </p><p>Mithridates IV was succeeded by his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_Euergetes" title="Mithridates V Euergetes">Mithridates V</a> (c. 150 – 120 BC), son of Pharnaces I. He assisted the Romans in suppressing the revolt by the pretender of Pergamon, <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a>. In exchange he received <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> from the Romans. He allied himself with Cappadocia by marrying his daughter <a href="/wiki/Laodice_of_Cappadocia" title="Laodice of Cappadocia">Laodice</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VI_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia</a>. </p><p>His son, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates VI</a> (120 – 63 BC) reversed earlier policies of friendship with the growing power of Rome, engaging in a series of wars that now bear his name, the <a href="/wiki/Mithradatic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithradatic wars">Mithradatic wars</a> (88–63 BC), and which ultimately led to the end of his kingdom and dynasty. Mithridates was ambitious and planned to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Litoral" class="mw-redirect" title="Litoral">litoral</a> of the Black Sea. His first campaign was against <a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a> on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, and then extended as far north as <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Mithridatic_wars_88–63_BC"><span id="Mithridatic_wars_88.E2.80.9363_BC"></span>Mithridatic wars 88–63 BC</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mithridatic wars 88–63 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a></div> <p>He next turned his attention to Anatolia where he sought to partition <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> with King <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_III_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes III of Bithynia">Nicomedes III of Bithynia</a> (127 – 94 BC) in 108 BC also acquiring Galatia and Armenia Minor but soon fell out with him over control of <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and by extension his ally Rome setting the scene for the subsequent series of Mithridatic Wars (88–63 BC). Relations between the adjacent states of Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia and Armenia were complex. Mithridates' sister, <a href="/wiki/Laodice_of_Cappadocia" title="Laodice of Cappadocia">Laodice</a> was queen of Cappadocia, being married to <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VI_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VI</a> (130 – 116 BC). Mithridates had his brother in law Ariarathes murdered, whereupon Laodice married Nicomedes III of Bithynia. Pontus and Bithynia then went to war over Cappadocia, and Mithridates had his nephew and new king, <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VII_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VII</a> (116 – 101 BC) killed. Ariarethes' brother <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VIII_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VIII</a> (101 – 96 BC) ruled for a brief period before being replaced by Mithridates with his own son <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IX_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia">Ariarathes IX</a> (101 – 96 BC). The Roman Senate then had Ariarathes replaced by <a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes I</a> (95 – c. 63 BC). Mithrodates then dragged his eastern neighbour <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> into the fray, since <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> (95–55 BC) was his son in law. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_IV_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes IV of Bithynia">Nicomedes IV of Bithynia</a> (94 – 74 BC) declared war on Pontus aided by Roman legions in 89 BC launching the <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First Mithridatic War</a> (89–84 BC). During this period, Mithridates swept through Asia Minor occupying most of it except <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> by 88 BC, before Roman retaliation forced his retreat and abandonment of all the occupied territory. Mithridates still controlled his own Pontine lands and a <a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">second war</a> by Rome (83–81 BC) was rather inconclusive and failed to dislodge him. In the meantime the Roman presence in Anatolia was steadily growing. As with <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> Nicomedes who had no heirs, bequeathed Bithynia to Rome. This provided the opportunity for Mithridates to invade Bithynia and precipitated the <a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third Mithridatic War</a> (74–63 BC). Mithridates' position was considerably weakened following the fall of Armenia to Rome in 66 BC. <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> had dislodged Mithridates from Pontus by 65 BC, who now retreated to his northern domains but was defeated by rebellion in his own family and died, possibly by suicide, ending the Pontine Kingdom as it then existed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The lands were divided with the western part including the capital being absorbed into the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia_et_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bithynia et Pontus">Bithynia et Pontus</a>, while the east was divided into client kingdoms including Pontus, with Mithridates' son <a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces II of Pontus">Pharnaces II</a> (63–47 BC) as king. However, he attempted to take advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Roman civil war between Caesar and Pompey</a> (49–45 BC) but was driven back by Caesar at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zela" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Zela">Zela</a> in 47 BC. Many of the centres brought into the Roman province reverted under <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Anthony</a>, but were eventually returned to the provincial fold, forming part of the province of <a href="/wiki/Galatia_(Roman_province)" title="Galatia (Roman province)">Galatia</a> as the districts of <a href="/wiki/Pontus_Galaticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontus Galaticus">Pontus Galaticus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pontus_Polemoniacus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontus Polemoniacus">Pontus Polemoniacus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pontus continued under client kings, initially descended from Pharnaces. <a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon I</a> ruled from 38 to 8 BC, followed by his widow <a href="/wiki/Pythodorida_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythodorida of Pontus">Pythodorida</a> (8 BC – 38 AD), and after her death her son <a href="/wiki/Polemon_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemon II">Polemon II</a> (38–62 AD). Pythidora joined her kingdom to <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> by marrying <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia" title="Archelaus of Cappadocia">Archelaus</a> until his he was deposed in 17 BC by the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68 AD), while Polemon II was also king of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> where he continued as king after losing Pontus which then also became a Roman province. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bithynia_326–74_BC"><span id="Bithynia_326.E2.80.9374_BC"></span>Bithynia 326–74 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Bithynia 326–74 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bithynia" title="Kingdom of Bithynia">Kingdom of Bithynia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Bithynia" title="List of rulers of Bithynia">List of rulers of Bithynia</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> was an area in north west Anatolia, south of the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a>. It was originally just part of the <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon peninsula</a> but was extended to include <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cius" title="Cius">Prusa</a> and the cities of the coast, east towards <a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a>, and south across the <a href="/wiki/Propontis" class="mw-redirect" title="Propontis">Propontis</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mysian_Olympus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mysian Olympus">Mysian Olympus</a>. </p><p>Bithynians were of Thracian origin. There is some evidence that even before the invasion of Alexander the Great, Bithynia enjoyed some independence.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Alexander's death, <a href="/wiki/Zipoetes_I_of_Bithynia" title="Zipoetes I of Bithynia">Zipoetes I</a> (326–278 BC) had himself proclaimed king in 297 BC, waging war against both <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a>. Zipoetes was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_I_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes I of Bithynia">Nicomedes I</a> (278 – 255 BC) who was instrumental in inviting aid from the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a>, who having entered Anatolia settled in <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> were to prove a source of problems in Bithynian affairs. Like the other Anatolian states Bithynia was torn by disputes within the ruling family and civil war. They formed various judicious alliances and marriages against the Seleucids and Heraclea and were often at war with neighbouring states. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Prusias_II_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias II of Bithynia">Prusias II</a> (156–154 BC) joined <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> in a war against <a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_I_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces I of Pontus">Pharnaces I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> (181–179 BC) but then attacked Pergamon (156–154 BC) with disastrous consequences. His son <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_II_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes II of Bithynia">Nicomedes II</a> (149 – 127 BC) sided with Rome in putting down the revolt by <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a> (133–129 BC), the pretender of Pergamon. His son <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_III_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes III of Bithynia">Nicomedes III</a> (127 – 94 BC) became entangled in the complex intermarriages of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>, attempted to annex Paphlagonia and claim Cappadocia. He was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_IV_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes IV of Bithynia">Nicomedes IV</a> (94 – 74 BC) who bequeathed the kingdom to Rome, precipitating the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> between Rome and Pontus who claimed Bithynia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Galatia_276–64_BC"><span id="Galatia_276.E2.80.9364_BC"></span>Galatia 276–64 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Galatia 276–64 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Galatia" title="List of kings of Galatia">List of kings of Galatia</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dying_gaul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg/200px-Dying_gaul.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg/300px-Dying_gaul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg/400px-Dying_gaul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1458" data-file-height="1186" /></a><figcaption><i>The <a href="/wiki/Dying_Gaul" title="Dying Gaul">Dying Gaul</a></i> c.230 BC, commemorating victory of Pergamon over Galatia Copy of original by <a href="/wiki/Epigonus" title="Epigonus">Epigonus</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> was an area in central Anatolia, situated in northern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>, east and west of <a href="/wiki/Ancyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancyra">Ancyra</a> (Ankara). It was settled by Gauls who were originally invited to Anatolia by <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_I_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes I of Bithynia">Nicomedes I of Bithynia</a> around 278 BC to aid his campaigns but remained and settled in an adjacent area over the next decade, with Ancyra as its capital city. They frequently raided surrounding lands and were hired as mercenaries in the continuing struggles between the Anatolian states. They were defeated by <a href="/wiki/Attalus_I" title="Attalus I">Attalus I</a> of Pergamon c. 230 BC. Subsequently, the theme of the <a href="/wiki/Dying_Gaul" title="Dying Gaul">Dying Gaul</a>, a statue displayed in Pergamon, was a favorite in Hellenistic art. Rome launched a campaign against them in 189 BC, defeating them in the <a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a>. At times part of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>, they became independent again in the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a>. They controlled territory from the <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylian</a> coast to <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trapezus</a>. </p><p>The Gauls retained traditional <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> models of governance with tribes and cantons, whose rulers were described by the Greeks as <a href="/wiki/Tetrachy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrachy">Tetrachs</a>. The territory was divided between three tribes, the <a href="/wiki/Tolistobogii" title="Tolistobogii">Tolistobogii</a> in the west, the <a href="/wiki/Tectosages" title="Tectosages">Tectosages</a> around Ancyra, and the <a href="/wiki/Trocmi" title="Trocmi">Trocmi</a> in the east around <a href="/wiki/Tavium" title="Tavium">Tavium</a>. Of these we know more about <a href="/wiki/Deiotarus" title="Deiotarus">Deiotarus</a> (c. 105 – 42 BC) than many others. As chief tetrach of the Tolistobogii he was eventually granted the title of King of Galatia by <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, having allied himself with Rome against Pontus in the Mithridatic Wars. The title came with part of the Pontic lands, specifically <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Armenia" title="Lesser Armenia">Lesser Armenia</a> in the east. Deiotarus was adroit at manoeuvering between the various internal struggles of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> surviving to an advanced age. He formed a political alliance with Pergamon by marrying Berenice, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Attalus_III" title="Attalus III">Attalus III</a> (138–133 BC) the last king of Pergamon. </p><p>In 64 BC Galatia became a client state of Rome and a <a href="/wiki/Galatia_(Roman_province)" title="Galatia (Roman province)">Roman province</a> in 25 BC following the reign of <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_of_Galatia" title="Amyntas of Galatia">Amyntas</a> (36–25 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pergamon_281–133_BC"><span id="Pergamon_281.E2.80.93133_BC"></span>Pergamon 281–133 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pergamon 281–133 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid dynasty</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> an Ionian city state close to the Aegean coast, in <a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysia</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Rump_state" title="Rump state">remnant</a> of the Lysimachean Empire, which was destroyed in 281 BC. Today it is at the modern town of <a href="/wiki/Bergama" title="Bergama">Bergama</a>. The site formed a natural fortress of strategic importance, guarding the <a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%AFcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Caïcus">Caïcus</a> plains. Capital of the Attalid dynasty, it was one of the three major cities of Asia Minor.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Philetaerus" title="Philetaerus">Philetaerus</a> who had served under Lysimachus was the ruler of Pergamon, Lysimachus' treasury, at that time, exercised some autonomy under the Seleucids who seized Lysimachus' lands, ruling from 282–263 BC. The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">dynasty</a> was named Attalid, in honour of Philetaerus'father Attalis. On his death he was succeeded by his nephew <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_I" title="Eumenes I">Eumenes I</a> (263–241 BC), who revolted against Seleucid rule and defeated Antiochus near Sardis in 262 BC, guaranteeing Pergamon's independence. Eumenes enlarged Pergamon to include parts of <a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a>, and held tightly onto the ports of <a href="/wiki/Elaea_(Aeolis)" title="Elaea (Aeolis)">Elaia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitane_(Aeolis)" title="Pitane (Aeolis)">Pitane</a>. Eumenes was succeeded by his nephew <a href="/wiki/Attalus_I" title="Attalus I">Attalus I</a> (241–197 BC) who was the first dynast of Pergamon to assume the title of 'king'. He succeeded in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Caecus_River" title="Battle of the Caecus River">defeating</a> the plundering <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatian</a> Gauls, who had become an increasing problem in Anatolia, in 230 BC. <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> Nikephorus's (The Victory Bearer) temple was decorated with <a href="/wiki/Epigonus" title="Epigonus">Epigonus</a>' famous statues of the defeated Galatians. Attalus protected the Greek cities of Anatolia but harassed the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a> on the mainland, allying himself with Rome during the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a>. A series of wars against <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Hierax" title="Antiochus Hierax">Antiochus Hierax</a> gave Pergamon control over much of Seleucid territory north of the Taurus Mountains, only to lose it under Antiochus III.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dealings with <a href="/wiki/Attalus_I" title="Attalus I">Attalus</a> proved to be the last time the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> had any meaningful success in Anatolia as the Roman Empire lay on the horizon. After that victory, <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucus III">Seleucus's</a> heirs would never again expand their empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attalus also had to fight off neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, under King <a href="/wiki/Prusias_I_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias I of Bithynia">Prusias</a> (228 – 182 BC). </p><p>Attalus' son, <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a> (197–159 BC) also collaborated with Rome to defeat Antiochus the Great at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> in 190 BC. In the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Apamea" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Apamea">Peace of Apamea</a> two years later he received <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> from the former Seleucid possessions. He subsequently enlarged and adorned the city, building amongst other things the Great Altar. His brother <a href="/wiki/Attalus_II_Philadelphus" title="Attalus II Philadelphus">Attalus II Philadelphus</a> (c. 160–138 BC) fought with the Romans against Galatia and Bithynia and founded the cities of <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_(Alasehir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia (Alasehir)">Philadelphia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Attalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalia">Attalia</a>. </p><p>The last of the Attalid kings was <a href="/wiki/Attalus_III" title="Attalus III">Attalus III</a> (138–133 BC), son of Eumenes II, who bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic. However, a <a href="/wiki/Pretender" title="Pretender">pretender</a>, calling himself <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a> briefly seized the throne until captured by the Romans in 129 BC. The lands occupied by Pergamon were divided up between <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> while the rest came directly under Rome. Pergamon had acted as a <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> to Rome after <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Apamea</a>, but after the death of Attalus III became the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a> (Asiana).<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_East_50-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Roman_East_50-en.svg/250px-Roman_East_50-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Roman_East_50-en.svg/375px-Roman_East_50-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Roman_East_50-en.svg/500px-Roman_East_50-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2717" data-file-height="1595" /></a><figcaption>Roman client states Eastern Anatolia c. 50 AD</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cappadocia_323–17_BC"><span id="Cappadocia_323.E2.80.9317_BC"></span>Cappadocia 323–17 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Cappadocia 323–17 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Cappadocia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Cappadocia">List of rulers of Cappadocia</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> is a mountainous district in central Anatolia, north of the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a>, and west of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Highlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Highlands">Armenian Highlands</a>. It was bordered by <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> in the North and <a href="/wiki/Lycaonia" title="Lycaonia">Lycaonia</a> to the west. At one time it included the area from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Tatta">Lake Tatta</a> to the Euphrates and from the Black Sea to Cilicia. The northern portion, known as Cappadocia Pontus, became <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>, while the centre and south was known as Greater Cappadocia, predominated by a plateau. At times the northern section constituted <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a>. It was strategically situated on the overland route between Syria and the Seleucid territories in western Asia Minor, and hence important to maintain access. Even as a <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(satrapy)" title="Cappadocia (satrapy)">Persian satrapy</a> it had retained a degree of autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time of the conquest by Alexander the Great, the Persian satrap was <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes I of Cappadocia">Ariarathes I</a> of Cappadocia (331–322 BC), and had himself proclaimed king. Ariarathes I refused to submit to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> and remained unsubdued by the time of Alexander's death. Cappadocia was then given to <a href="/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes">Eumenes</a> (323–321 BC) to govern, who had Ariarthes killed. Eumenes was replaced in 321 BC by <a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(satrap)" title="Nicanor (satrap)">Nicanor</a> (321–316 BC). However, despite these Greek appointments Cappadocia continued to be governed by local rulers. Ariarthes had adopted his nephew <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariarathes II">Ariarthes II</a> (301 – 280 BC), who fled to Armenia but then reconquered Cappadocia killing the local Macedonian satrap <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amyntas_(Antigonid_general)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amyntas (Antigonid general) (page does not exist)">Amyntas</a> in 301 BC. Nevertheless, he was permitted to continue to reign as a vassal of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a>. Ariarthes's son <a href="/wiki/Ariamnes_of_Cappadocia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariamnes of Cappadocia">Ariamnes</a> (280 – 230 BC) continued the policy of increasing independence. His son in turn, <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_III_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes III of Cappadocia">Ariarathes III</a> (255 – 220 BC) adopted the title of king, and sided with <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Hierax" title="Antiochus Hierax">Antiochus Hierax</a> against the Seleucid Empire and expanded his frontiers to include <a href="/wiki/Cataonia" title="Cataonia">Cataonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ariarathes III's son, <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IV_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia">Ariarathes IV</a> (220 – 163 BC) consolidated his power by marrying into the Seleucid dynasty, taking <a href="/wiki/Antiochis" title="Antiochis">Antiochis</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus the Great">Antiochus the Great</a> (222–187 BC) as his wife, and assisting him against the Romans. Although the Romans proved victorious at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> (190 BC) Ariarathes had another alliance which spared Cappadocia following the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a> (188 BC). His daughter <a href="/wiki/Stratonice_of_Pergamon" title="Stratonice of Pergamon">Stratonice</a> married <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a> of Pergamon (197–159 BC), a Roman ally. In this role he joined Eumenes in his struggle against <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>. His son, <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_V_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes V of Cappadocia">Ariarathes V</a> (163 – 130 BC) found himself in conflict with the Seleucid Emperor, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I Soter</a> (161–150 BC) who attempted to replace him with his brother <a href="/wiki/Orophernes_of_Cappadocia" title="Orophernes of Cappadocia">Orophernes</a> forcing him to flee to Rome. The Romans restored him as a joint king with Orophernes in 157 BC by dividing the kingdom. Orophernes was reluctant to cede territory and with the support of <a href="/wiki/Attalus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalus II">Attalus II</a> of Pergamon (160–138 BC) Ariarathes was victorious in 156 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then allied himself with Attalus II against <a href="/wiki/Prusias_II_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias II of Bithynia">Prusias II</a> of Bithynia (182–149 BC). He died in 130 BC assisting the Romans in putting down the pretender <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a> of Pergamon. His efforts were rewarded by the granting of <a href="/wiki/Lycaonia" title="Lycaonia">Lycaonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> to his family. </p><p>The Cappadocian monarchy then fell victim to the ambitions of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>. Ariarathes' son, <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VI_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VI</a> (130–116 BC) was related to the Pontine monarchy through his mother <a href="/wiki/Nysa_of_Cappadocia" title="Nysa of Cappadocia">Nysa of Cappadocia</a>. His uncle, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_Euergetes" title="Mithridates V Euergetes">Mithridates V</a> of Pontus (150–120 BC) had the young king married to his daughter <a href="/wiki/Laodice_of_Cappadocia" title="Laodice of Cappadocia">Laodice</a> in order to bring Cappadocia under his control. Mithridates V's son, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates VI</a> (120–63 BC) then had Ariarathes murdered. Cappadocia was then briefly ruled by <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_III_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes III of Bithynia">Nicomedes III</a> of Bithynia (127–94 BC), marrying Ariarathenes's widow, Laodice. Mithridates VI then ousted Nicomedes, replacing him with Aríarathes VI's son <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariarathes VII">Ariarathes VII</a> (116–101 BC), his mother Laodice acting as regent. Mithridates also had him killed and replaced with Mithridates own son, as <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IX_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia">Ariarathes IX</a> (101–96 BC). In 97 BC there was a rebellion against this proxy monarchy and Ararathes VII's brother known as <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VIII_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia">Ariarathes VIII</a> was called upon but swiftly dealt with by Mithridates. The death of both of the sons of Ariarthanes VI effectively extinguished the dynasty. This turmoil then prompted Nicomedes to attempt to insert a pretender claiming to be a third brother. At this point Rome intervened, Mithridates withdrew, Ariarathes IX was deposed yet again and the Cappadocians were allowed to choose a new king, <a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes I</a> (95-c. 63 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By this stage Cappadocia was effectively a Roman <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> and Ariobarzanes required regular intervention from Rome to protect him from the incursions of <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> (95–55 BC). However, siding with Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third Mithridatic War</a> against Pontus he was able to enlarge his domains before abdicating in favour of his son, <a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_II_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes II</a> (c.63–c.51 BC). Although Cappadocia continued as an independent state longer than its neighbours, it continued to require help from Rome to maintain its borders. Rome also controlled the succession. Ariobarzanes II married <a href="/wiki/Athenais_Philostorgos_II" title="Athenais Philostorgos II">Athenais Philostorgos II</a>, daughter of Mithridates VI and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_III_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes III of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes III</a> (51–c.42 BC) who added <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Armenia" title="Lesser Armenia">Lesser Armenia</a> to his territory but was executed by the Romans for opposing their control, being succeeded by his brother <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_X_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariarathes X of Cappadocia">Ariarathes X</a> (42–36 BC) who fared little better being executed by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Anthony</a> and replaced with <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia" title="Archelaus of Cappadocia">Archelaus</a> (38 BC – 17 AD) a Cappadocian nobleman. Archelaus survived by switching allegiance from Mark Anthony to <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a>, later Emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> (31 BC) gaining <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>. He also united Cappadocia with Pontus by marrying with Augustus' blessing, the client queen <a href="/wiki/Pythodorida_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythodorida of Pontus">Pythodorida</a> of Pontus (8 BC – 38 AD). In 17 BC he was summoned to Rome by the new Emperor, Tiberius (14–37 AD) whom he had angered by supporting a rival, and Tiberius declared Cappadocia a <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">Roman Province</a> ending the kingdom. Pythodorida returned to Pontus, Lesser Armenia was given to his step-son <a href="/wiki/Artaxias_III" title="Artaxias III">Artaxias III</a> (18–35 AD), and the remaining territories to his son. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cilicia_323–67_BC"><span id="Cilicia_323.E2.80.9367_BC"></span>Cilicia 323–67 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Cilicia 323–67 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> lay at the eastern end of the Mediterranean coast, just north of <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. It was separated from the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolian Plateau">Anatolian Plateau</a> to the north and west by the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a>, connected only by a narrow pass, the <a href="/wiki/Cilician_Gates" title="Cilician Gates">Cilician Gates</a>. To the west lay <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>, to the east the <a href="/wiki/Amanus_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Amanus Mountains">Amanus Mountains</a> separated it from <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. In ancient times Cilicia was naturally divided into two areas, <i>Cilicia Trachaea</i> (Κιλικία Τραχεία; Rugged or Rough Cilicia), a mountainous area in the west and <i>Cilicia Pedias</i> (Κιλικία Πεδιάς; Flat Cilicia, also Kilikia Leia or Smooth Cilicia), the flat plains to the east divided by the River Lamus, now called <a href="/wiki/Limonlu_%C3%87ay%C4%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Limonlu Çayı">Limonlu Çayı</a>. A major east-west trading route passed through it exiting through the Cilician Gates.<sup id="cite_ref-briant_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-briant-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cilicia had historically been ruled by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Syennesis_(dynasty)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Syennesis (dynasty) (page does not exist)">Syennesis</a> dynasty, with their seat at Tarsus.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even as a <a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia (satrapy)">Persian satrapy</a> for some of the time, Cilicia was ruled by tributary kings. Following the division of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s empire Cilicia was governed by <a href="/wiki/Philotas_(satrap)" title="Philotas (satrap)">Philotas</a> (323–321 BC), then <a href="/wiki/Philoxenus_(general)" title="Philoxenus (general)">Philoxenus</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> in 301 BC Cilicia became a battleground between the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic</a> empires in their <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a>. Following the partition of 301 BC after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> <a href="/wiki/Pleistarchus_(son_of_Antipater)" title="Pleistarchus (son of Antipater)">Pleistarchus</a> the son of <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> and brother of <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> ruled it separately, but he was almost immediately expelled by <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius</a> the son of <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I</a> the following year. Cilicia had a habit of changing hands frequently, Demetrius losing it in 286 BC and then regaining it. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a> in 188 BC, between the Romans and the Seleucid <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus III">Antiochus III</a>, Cilicia was left to Antiochus, despite losing most lands west of there.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 2nd century BC, Cilicia was notorious for the pirates based along the southern Tracheian coast. After the death of <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII</a> Sidetes (138–129) the Seleucid Empire had become reduced to Syria and adjacent Cilicia. At one stage the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> was divided with <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I</a> (95–84 BC) ruling in Cilicia while his twin <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus IX</a> ruled in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the rise of more independent states in Asia Minor, Cilicia came under the hegemony of various surrounding kingdoms, sometimes partitioned. during the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> (88–63 BC) between Rome and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> and their ally <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> of Armenia (95–55 BC) that state vastly expanded its borders at the expense of the Seleucids, and incorporated Cilicia c. 80 BC, until forced to retreat from the advancing Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roman influence was being felt in Cilicia as early as 116 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 67 BC Pompey who had suppressed the pirates created the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a> as the second province in Asia Minor, eventually stretching between the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a> to the west and <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> in the east, adding Cicilia Pedias in 63 BC. By the time of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Augustus</a> (27 BC – 14 AD) Cicilia had been dismembered, divided between the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Galatia_(Roman_province)" title="Galatia (Roman province)">Galatia</a> and Syria and client rulers in Cilicia Trachea.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1st century BC Cilicia was tied to Pontus. <a href="/wiki/Darius_of_Pontus" title="Darius of Pontus">Darius of Pontus</a> being replaced by Rome with <a href="/wiki/Polemon_I_of_Pontus" title="Polemon I of Pontus">Polemon I</a> in 37 BC. When Polemon died in 8 BC, his widow <a href="/wiki/Pythodorida_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythodorida of Pontus">Pythodorida</a> ruled Cilicia and Pontus. She was succeeded by her son <a href="/wiki/Polemon_II_of_Pontus" title="Polemon II of Pontus">Polemon II</a> (38 BC – 74 AD) on her death, although he lost the Pontian throne in 62 AD. </p><p>Cilicia was a very diverse area, both geographically and demographically and parts of it remained difficult for any occupying power to subdue.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, minor dynasts existed within Cilicia such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zenophanes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zenophanes (page does not exist)">Zenophanes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Olba_(ancient_city)" title="Olba (ancient city)">Olba</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Antipater_of_Derbe" title="Antipater of Derbe">Antipater of Derbe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isauria</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tarcondimotus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tarcondimotus (page does not exist)">Tarcondimotus</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Amanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Amanus">Amanus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armenia_331–1_BC"><span id="Armenia_331.E2.80.931_BC"></span>Armenia 331–1 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Armenia 331–1 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">History of Armenia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Armenian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Armenian kings">List of Armenian kings</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yervanduni_Armenia,_IV-II_BC.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yervanduni_Armenia%2C_IV-II_BC.gif/250px-Yervanduni_Armenia%2C_IV-II_BC.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yervanduni_Armenia%2C_IV-II_BC.gif/375px-Yervanduni_Armenia%2C_IV-II_BC.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Yervanduni_Armenia%2C_IV-II_BC.gif/500px-Yervanduni_Armenia%2C_IV-II_BC.gif 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="457" /></a><figcaption>Armenia in the 4th and 3rd century BC</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_(English).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg/250px-Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg/375px-Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg/500px-Map_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes_%28English%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption>Armenian expansion in 1st century BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armenian_Empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Armenian_Empire.png/250px-Armenian_Empire.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Armenian_Empire.png/375px-Armenian_Empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Armenian_Empire.png/500px-Armenian_Empire.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>Armenia at its greatest extent under <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> 95–66 BC</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> lay to the north-east of the Anatolian region, on the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_highlands" title="Armenian highlands">Armenian highlands</a> to the south and west of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. Its boundaries fluctuated during the 1st millennium BC but at times extended from the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. </p><p>Armenia in the 1st century BC formed a mountainous region in eastern Anatolia, bounded to the south by Syria and Mesopotamia and to the east by that part of <a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Media</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Media_Atropatene" class="mw-redirect" title="Media Atropatene">Media Atropatene</a>, which represents modern day <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> River. To the west lay Cappadocia and Commagene. It included the area around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Van" title="Lake Van">Lake Van</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aras_(river)" title="Aras (river)">Araxes</a> valley (emptying into the Caspian Sea), and reached north to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Sevan" title="Lake Sevan">Lake Sevan</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Iberia">Iberia</a> in the lower <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. The Armenian highlands were geographically separated from the Mesopotamian plains, and was approached through Sophene to the south west and across the Euphrates at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tomisa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tomisa (page does not exist)">Tomisa</a> in Cappadocia. The horses bred on the Armenian lands made it attractive to its neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A satrapy under the Persians, it was largely ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Orontid_dynasty" title="Orontid dynasty">Orontid dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mithrenes" title="Mithrenes">Mithrenes</a> (331–333 BC), the local Persian commander surrendered to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Granicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Granicus">Battle of Granicus</a> (334 BC) and was appointed to be the local satrap as had been his father <a href="/wiki/Orontes_II" title="Orontes II">Orontes II</a> (336–331 BC). With the death of Alexander and subsequent division of the empire in 323 BC, Armenia was granted to <a href="/wiki/Neoptolemus_(general)" title="Neoptolemus (general)">Neoptolemus</a> (323–321 BC). Neoptolemus, however, conspired and was killed in battle with <a href="/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes">Eumenes</a> in 321 BC. With the subsequent fall of Eumenes, Mithrenes re-assumed power (321–317 BC) and declared himself king. He was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Orontes_III" title="Orontes III">Orontes III</a> (317–260 BC) and relative stability apart from his unsuccessful struggles with the minor kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a> on his south-western frontier. During this time the capital was moved from <a href="/wiki/Armavir,_Armenia" title="Armavir, Armenia">Armavir</a> to <a href="/wiki/Yervandashat_(ancient_city)" title="Yervandashat (ancient city)">Yervandashat</a> in 302 BC. During this time Armenia fell under the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> in the tripartite division. However, the degree of control of the Seleucids, who were constantly at war, over Armenia varied. Under subsequent monarchs, including Orontes' son <a href="/wiki/Sames_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="Sames of Commagene">Sames</a> (260 BC) and grandson <a href="/wiki/Arsames_I" title="Arsames I">Arsames I</a> (260–228 BC) that grip was loosened further allowing Armenia to acquire not only Sophene but <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a>, the next minor kingdom to the west, bordering on Cilicia and Cappadocia. However, the enlarged kingdom became divided in the next generation, <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes of Armenia">Xerxes</a> (228–212 BC) ruling Sophene and Commagene, while his brother <a href="/wiki/Orontes_IV" title="Orontes IV">Orontes IV</a> (212–200 BC) ruled Armenia. </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus the Great">Antiochus the Great</a>, the Seleucid King (223–187 BC), led the last expansion of his kingdom, overthrowing and killing Orontes IV and bringing Armenia directly under Seleucid control in 212 BC, and appointing two satraps (<a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a>), Artaxias (Artaxerxes) and <a href="/wiki/Zariadres" title="Zariadres">Zariadris</a>. The retreat of the Seleucid forces from Europe and their defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> (190 BC) allowed Armenia to throw off Seleucid rule, the satraps assuming kingship under a new <a href="/wiki/Artaxiad_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxiad Dynasty">Artaxiad</a> dynasty (189 BC – 12 AD). Zariadris took the south (Sophene) following Xerxes' assassination. <a href="/wiki/Artaxias_I" title="Artaxias I">Artaxias I</a> (190–160 BC) led a revolt against Antiochus.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He reunited Armenian-speaking peoples in the region, often divided by surrounding states. In this context, the Armenian lands to the west of the Euphrates were known as Armenia Minor (<a href="/wiki/Lesser_Armenia" title="Lesser Armenia">Lesser Armenia</a>), as opposed to Greater Armenia to the east. Artaxias also moved the capital again, this time to <a href="/wiki/Artashat_(ancient_city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artashat (ancient city)">Artashat</a> (Artaxata). He was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Artavasdes_I_of_Armenia" title="Artavasdes I of Armenia">Artavasdes I</a> (160–115 BC) whose major problem was incursions by <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthian Kingdom">Parthians</a> to the east. </p><p>The period of greatest Armenian expansion occurred with <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigranes II">Tigranes II</a> (The Great; 95–55 BC) who made it the most powerful state east of Rome, as the various kingdoms of western Anatolia were absorbed into the Roman sphere of influence. He consolidated his influence within Armenia, once again taking over Sophene after deposing Artanes he king. This was the period of the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> (88–63 BC) between <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>, his north western neighbour, and Rome. He formed an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates VI</a> of Pontus (120–63 BC), marrying his daughter <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_of_Pontus" title="Cleopatra of Pontus">Cleopatra</a>. By acquiring <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> he effectively reduced the Seleucid empire to a rump state. The aggressive behaviour of both Pontus and Armenia inevitably and fatally brought them into conflict with the eastward Roman expansion with the Armenians suffering a decisive defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tigranocerta" title="Battle of Tigranocerta">Battle of Tigranocerta</a> (69 BC). By 67 BC <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> had arrived in eastern Anatolia with the express purpose of crushing these two states. Tigranes surrendered in 66 BC, and Armenia became a client state. The remaining members of the dynasty, which eventually petered out in 1 BC, had an uneasy relationship with both Rome to the west and <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> to the east. Rome saw Armenia as a buffer state in relation to Parthia, requiring frequent interventions by the Romans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Minor_kingdoms">Minor kingdoms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Minor kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a> were among minor Anatolian states that at times were independent kingdoms and at others were annexed to surrounding territories. Both lay to the west of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> proper, adjoining <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>, from north to south. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Sophene">Sophene</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sophene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sophene" title="Kingdom of Sophene">Kingdom of Sophene</a></div> <p>Sophene had been a province of ancient Armenia but became independent following the division of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s empire. At times it incorporated Commagene. It was nominally part of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid empire">Seleucid empire</a> at least after 200 BC but with the weakening of that empire by the Romans after 190 BC it again became independent under Roman influence with <a href="/wiki/Zariadres" title="Zariadres">Zariadres</a> declaring himself king, before being annexed by <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> of Armenia (c. 80 BC). It later became a <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a>. The capital city was Carcathiocerta, near <a href="/wiki/E%C4%9Fil" title="Eğil">Eğil</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Commagene">Commagene</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Commagene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Commagene, a country on the west bank of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> was at times part of Sophene and of Armenia. As with Sophene it came more firmly under Seleucid control in the <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochian</a> expansion until 163 BC when <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaeus_of_Commagene" title="Ptolemaeus of Commagene">Ptolemaeus</a> (163–130 BC) revolted and established an independent state. <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Theos_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus I Theos of Commagene">Antiochus I Theos</a> (70–38 BC) submitted to Pompey in 64 BC during his campaign against Armenia and Pontus, and allied Commagene with the Romans for which part of Mesopotamia was added to the kingdom. He managed to keep Commagene relatively independent until he was deposed by Mark Antony in 38 BC. <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a> annexed Commagene to the province of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> in 17 AD. Its capital was at <a href="/wiki/Samosata" class="mw-redirect" title="Samosata">Samosata</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rhodes">Rhodes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Rhodes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></div> <p>The island of <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, off the southwestern tip of Anatolia is not technically part of Anatolia, but formed an important strategic role in Anatolian history, formed alliances, and also ruled areas of southwestern Anatolia for a time. Under Persian rule Rhodes fell under the same satrap as the adjacent mainland areas. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a> in (188 BC) established Roman control over western Anatolia and the retreat of the Seleucids from this area. The Republic of Rhodes, as an ally of Rome in the war, was granted former Seleucid lands sharing western Anatolia with Pergamon including <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a>, referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Per%C3%A6a_Rhodiorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Peræa Rhodiorum">Peræa Rhodiorum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These lands were subsequently lost to Rome in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_period">Roman period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Roman period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Provinces">Roman Provinces</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Republic_190_–_27_BC"><span id="Roman_Republic_190_.E2.80.93_27_BC"></span>Roman Republic 190 – 27 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Roman Republic 190 – 27 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatolia_264.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Anatolia_264.jpg/250px-Anatolia_264.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Anatolia_264.jpg/375px-Anatolia_264.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Anatolia_264.jpg/500px-Anatolia_264.jpg 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Anatolia 264 BC – 180 AD showing Roman possessions by; <span style="color:#FBEC5D; background:#000000"><b>Yellow</b></span>: 133 BC; <span style="color:#50C878"><b>Green</b></span>: 44 BC (Death of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>); <span style="color:#E5AA70"><b>Brown</b></span>: 14 AD (Death of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>); <span style="color:#DA70D6"><b>Pink</b></span>: 180 AD (Death of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>). Provincial names underlined in <span style="color:#778899"><b>Grey</b></span> (solid Imperial, dotted Senatorial).... boundaries prior to <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> revisions c. 293 AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>By 282 BC Rome had subdued northern Italy, and as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a> (280–275 BC) established supremacy over the Greek colonies of southern Italy. Shortly afterwards the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> became embroiled in the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> (264–146 BC) BC with <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in the western Mediterranean. As a result of these wars Rome found itself with overseas colonies and was now an imperial power. The next encounter with the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Greeks</a> arose from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> expansion and consequent <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> (214–148 BC). Direct invasion of Anatolia did not occur until the Seleucid Empire expanded its frontiers into Europe, and was crushed by Rome and its allies in 190 BC, forcing it to retreat to the eastern part of the region. Following this the major powers of western and central Anatolia (Pergamon, Bithynia, Pontus and Cappadocia) were frequently at war, with increasing Roman intervention politically and militarily. The Roman presence increased from sporadic intervention, to creating <a href="/wiki/Client_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Client states">client states</a> to direct rule by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Provinces">provincilisation</a>. </p><p>Part of Roman foreign policy was the declaration of foreign states as <i>socius et amicus populi romani</i> (ally and friend of the Roman people) by treaty agreements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_intervention_in_Anatolia_3rd_–_1st_centuries_BC"><span id="Roman_intervention_in_Anatolia_3rd_.E2.80.93_1st_centuries_BC"></span>Roman intervention in Anatolia 3rd – 1st centuries BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Roman intervention in Anatolia 3rd – 1st centuries BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rule of Rome in Anatolia was unlike any other part of their empire because of their light hand with regards to government and organization. Controlling unstable elements within the region was made simpler by the bequeathal of both <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> to the Romans by their kings.<sup id="cite_ref-OCD_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OCD-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Punic_(264–146_BC)_and_Macedonian_(214–148_BC)_wars"><span id="Punic_.28264.E2.80.93146_BC.29_and_Macedonian_.28214.E2.80.93148_BC.29_wars"></span>Punic (264–146 BC) and Macedonian (214–148 BC) wars</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Punic (264–146 BC) and Macedonian (214–148 BC) wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Punic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic wars">Punic wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian wars">Macedonian wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png/250px-Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png/375px-Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png/500px-Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Western Anatolia, the Aegean and the Aetolian League in 200 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>, Rome had suffered in Spain, Africa, and Italy because of the impressive strategies of <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a> general. When Hannibal entered into an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> (221–179 BC) in 215 BC, Rome used a small naval force with the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> to help ward off Hannibal in the east and to prevent <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonian</a> expansion in western Anatolia. <a href="/wiki/Attalus_I" title="Attalus I">Attalus I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> (241–197 BC) the dominant western Anatolian power, traveled to Rome along with <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and helped convince the Romans that war against <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> was necessary. The Roman general <a href="/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus" title="Titus Quinctius Flamininus">Titus Quinctius Flamininus</a> not only soundly defeated <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip's</a> army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae" title="Battle of Cynoscephalae">Battle of Cynoscephalae</a> in 197 BC, but also brought further hope to the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> when he said that an autonomous Greece and Greek cities in Anatolia was what Rome desired.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seleucid_invasion_of_Europe_and_retreat_from_western_Anatolia_196–188_BC"><span id="Seleucid_invasion_of_Europe_and_retreat_from_western_Anatolia_196.E2.80.93188_BC"></span>Seleucid invasion of Europe and retreat from western Anatolia 196–188 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Seleucid invasion of Europe and retreat from western Anatolia 196–188 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the period just after Rome's victory, the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> desired some of the spoils left in the wake of <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip's</a> defeat, and requested a shared expedition with the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus III">Antiochus III</a> (223–187 BC) to obtain it. Despite warnings by Rome, Antiochus entered <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> in 196 BC, and crossed into Greece by 192 BC, deciding to ally himself with the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">League</a>. This was intolerable for Rome, and they soundly defeated him in <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> at <a href="/wiki/Thermopylae" title="Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a> in 191 BC, forcing his retreat to <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combining forces with the Romans, <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a> (197–159 BC) of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> met Antiochus in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> in 189 BC. There Antiochus was overwhelmed by an intensive cavalry charge by the Romans and an outflanking maneuver by Eumenes. Because of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a> the following year, <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> was granted all of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid">Seleucid</a> lands north of the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Taurus mountains">Taurus mountains</a> (Phrygia, Lydia, Pisidia, Pamphylia, and parts of Lycia) and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> was given all that remained (part of Lycia and Caria). </p><p>A stronger Pergamon suited Roman interests as a buffer state between the Aegean and the Seleucid Empire. However, Rome needed to intervene on a number of occasions to ensure the integrity of the enlarged territory, including wars against <a href="/wiki/Prusias_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Prusias I">Prusias I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> (187–183 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharnaces I">Pharnaces I</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> (183–179 BC). Following Eumenes' support for Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a> (170 – 168 BC) Macedon's power had been crushed and Rome no longer felt the need for such a strong Pergamon, and the Senate set about weakening it, negotiating with Eumenes' brother <a href="/wiki/Attalus_II_Philadelphus" title="Attalus II Philadelphus">Attalus II Philadelphus</a> (c. 160–138 BC) and Prusias while declaring the recently defeated <a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Galatians</a> (184 BC) free. By the time his brother Attalus II succeeded him, Pergamonian power was on the decline, and the last dynast <a href="/wiki/Attalus_III" title="Attalus III">Attalus III</a> (138–133 BC) bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. After a brief revolt by <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a> 133–129 BC, it became the <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Province of Asia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Roman consul</a> <a href="/wiki/Manius_Aquillius_(129_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Manius Aquillius (129 BC)">Aquillius Manius the Elder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OCD_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OCD-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_minor_Mithridates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Asia_minor_Mithridates.jpg/250px-Asia_minor_Mithridates.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Asia_minor_Mithridates.jpg/375px-Asia_minor_Mithridates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Asia_minor_Mithridates.jpg/500px-Asia_minor_Mithridates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1043" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridatic War">Mithridatic War</a>, 90 BC</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Involvement_with_central_Anatolian_politics_190–17_BC"><span id="Involvement_with_central_Anatolian_politics_190.E2.80.9317_BC"></span>Involvement with central Anatolian politics 190–17 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Involvement with central Anatolian politics 190–17 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The interior of Anatolia had been relatively stable despite occasional incursions by the <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatians</a> until the rise of the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> in the 2nd century BC. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariarathes IV">Ariarathes IV</a> (220 – 163 BC) was initially allied with the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> in their war against Rome. However, Ariarathes changed alliances following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> (190 BC), becoming Rome's friend, and joined <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> against <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a>. His son, <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariarathes V">Ariarathes V Philopator</a> (163 – 130 BC), continued his father's policy of alliance with Rome, joining Rome and <a href="/wiki/Attalus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalus II">Attalus II</a> of Pergamon (160–138 BC) in 154 BC in a war against <a href="/wiki/Prusias_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Prusias II">Prusias II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> (182–149 BC). He died assisting Rome overcoming the pretender Eumenes III of Pergamon (133–129 BC) in 131 BC. His reign was marked by internal conflict that required Rome to intervene to restore him. From this stage onward Rome increasingly intervened in Cappadocian affairs, assisting it against Pontus and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, creating a client state in 95 BC, and a <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">province</a> in 17 BC. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> had been an independent kingdom since the rule of <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates I of Pontus">Mithridates</a> (302 – 266 BC) when the threat of <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> had been removed. Pontus maintained an uneasy alliance with the Seleucids and was involved in a number of regional wars, particularly under <a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces II of Pontus">Pharnaces I</a> (c. 190 – c. 155 BC) some of which attracted Roman intervention. There was a brief period of collaboration with Rome under <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates V of Pontus">Mithridates V</a> (c. 150 – 120 BC) assisting the Romans in suppressing a revolt by the pretender of Pergamon, Eumenes III. This all changed under <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI of Pontus">Mithridates VI</a> (120 – 63 BC) whose aggressive expansionist powers swept through Anatolia but soon brought him into direct conflict with Rome and the ultimately fatal <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> (88–63 BC). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, the other major kingdom in western Anatolia, had varying relations with Rome, and in particular its ally Pergamon. The last monarch, Nicomedes IV (94 – 74 BC) bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, precipitating the Mithridatic Wars between Rome when Pontus claimed Bithynia.<sup id="cite_ref-Rawlinson_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawlinson-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pontus_and_the_Mithridatic_Wars_89–63_BC"><span id="Pontus_and_the_Mithridatic_Wars_89.E2.80.9363_BC"></span>Pontus and the Mithridatic Wars 89–63 BC</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Pontus and the Mithridatic Wars 89–63 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI of Pontus">Mithridates VI of Pontus</a> (120–63 BC) quickly set about creating his own empire. In his first thrust to extend his frontiers along the Black Sea litoral he avoided drawing the attention of Rome. Rome was preoccupied with other issues that precluded it paying attention to events east of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Asia">Province of Asia</a>. This included the <a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthan</a> 111–104 BC and <a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbric Wars</a> (113–101 BC) as well as dealing with the <a href="/wiki/Scordisci" title="Scordisci">Scordisci</a>. </p><p>Rome, however, noticed once Mithridates turned his eye west in 108 BC, partitioning <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_III_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes III of Bithynia">Nicomedes III of Bithynia</a> (127–94 BC). They not only ignored Roman orders to withdraw but marched into <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>. Next was <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>, where Mithridates installed a nephew, <a href="/wiki/Ariarathes_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariarathes VII">Ariarathes VII</a> (116–101 BC), whom he had assassinated shortly afterwards. About this time he sent envoys to Rome to elicit support for his claims, but was not successful and instead rome dispatched <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a> in c. 99 BC to take him to task. Amongst further turmoil in that kingdom, he again sent to Rome for support of his latest candidate as did his rival. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> promptly ordered Mithridates out of Cappadocia (and Nicomedes out of Paphlagonia). Mithridates appears to have withdrawn by 89 BC, while <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> the Governor of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> was dispatched to install a new Cappadocian king (<a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes I (95–c.63 BC)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 91 BC Rome was again distracted by war, this time against <a href="/wiki/Italian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian people">Italian</a> rebels known as the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social War (91–88 BC)">Social War (91–88 BC)</a>, when two critical events occurred. <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> (95–55 BC) ascended the throne of Armenia in 95 BC and allied himself to Mithridates through marriage, while Nicomedes died in 94 BC leaving his kingdom to his young son <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicomedes IV">Nicomedes IV</a> (94–74 BC), creating a potential opportunity for territorial expansion. Tigranes marched into Cappadocia, Ariobarzanes fled to Rome and Nicomedes was expelled. Rome became alarmed, ordered the restoration of both monarchs and sent <a href="/wiki/Manius_Aquillius_(consul_101_BC)" title="Manius Aquillius (consul 101 BC)">Manius Aquillius</a> and Manlius Maltimus to deal with the problem, and Pontus and Armenia drew back.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="First_war_89–84_BC"><span id="First_war_89.E2.80.9384_BC"></span>First war 89–84 BC</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: First war 89–84 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First Mithridatic War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg/220px-1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg/330px-1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg/440px-1stMithritadicwar89BC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>Asia minor 89 BC at outset of first Mithridatic war</figcaption></figure> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="First_Mithridatic_War" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_First_Mithridatic_War" title="Template:Campaignbox First Mithridatic War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_First_Mithridatic_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox First Mithridatic War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_First_Mithridatic_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox First Mithridatic War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="First_Mithridatic_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War"><span class="wrap">First Mithridatic War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_River_Amnias" title="Battle of the River Amnias">River Amnias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Scorobas" title="Battle of Mount Scorobas">Mount Scorobas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Protopachium" title="Battle of Protopachium">Protopachium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rhodes_(88_BC)" title="Siege of Rhodes (88 BC)">Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delos" title="Battle of Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Athens_and_Piraeus_(87%E2%80%9386_BC)" title="Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC)">Athens and Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(86_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (86 BC)">Chaeronea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tenedos_(86_BC)" title="Battle of Tenedos (86 BC)">Tenedos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Orchomenus" title="Battle of Orchomenus">Orchomenus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>By now both Bithynia and Cappadocia were ruled by Roman protégés and were indebted to Rome who urged them to invade Pontus, a fatal miscalculation. Nicomedes invaded Pontus, Mithridates complained to Rome, boasted of his power and allies and unwisely hinted that Rome was vulnerable. The Roman Commissioners declared a state of war and the <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First Mithridatic War</a> (89–84 BC) was launched.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The war went well initially for the allies during 89–88 BC, since Rome was still involved in the Social War, taking Phrygia, Mysia, Bithynia, parts of the Aegean Ccoast, Paphlagonia, Caria, Lycea, Lycaonia and Pamphylia. Aquillius was defeated in the first direct engagement with the Romans, in Bithynia although the troops were actually raised locally. The other Roman commander was C. Cassius, governor of Asia, whose seat was at <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, and as Mithridates overran the province, both fled from the mainland. Aquillius was handed back to Mithridates who executed him. Roman rule in Anatolia had been crushed, although a few areas of Asia Minor managed to hold out. </p><p>Although Sulla was then appointed to deal with Mithridates, events moved very slowly. However, worse was to come later in 88 BC. the '<a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Vespers" title="Asiatic Vespers">Asiatic (or 'Ephesian') Vespers</a>', was the slaughter of tens of thousands of Romans and Italians ordered by Mithridates.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having cleansed Asia Minor of Romans, Mithridates looked further afield, his next victim that year being <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, but it held out, and he moved on to the Aegean islands, taking <a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a>. A number of mainland Greek states welcomed the advance of the Pontian monarch, Sulla not having set out for Greece from Italy until 87 BC. Meanwhile, Mithridates had overcome the Roman army in Macedonia. When the two armies finally met, Sulla inflicted two defeats on the Pontic forces at the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(86_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (86 BC)">Chaeronea</a> (86 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Orchomenus" title="Battle of Orchomenus">Orchomenus</a> (85 BC) restoring Roman rule to Greece. Pontus sued for peace, faced with widespread revolts in Anatolia. Mithridates was to give up Asia and Paphlagonia, to hand back Bithynia to Nicomedes and Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes. In return he was allowed to continue ruling in Pontus as an ally of Rome, having abandoned all territories south and west of the <a href="/wiki/Halys_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Halys River">Halys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mithridates' problems were further complicated by a 'rogue' Roman army dispatched by Sulla's enemies in Rome, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Valerius_Flaccus_(consul_86_BC)" title="Lucius Valerius Flaccus (consul 86 BC)">Flaccus</a> and then by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Flavius_Fimbria_(cavalry_prefect)" title="Gaius Flavius Fimbria (cavalry prefect)">Gaius Flavius Fimbria</a> which crossed from Macedonia through Thrace to <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and ravaged western Asian Minor before inflicting a defeat on the Pontic forces on the <a href="/wiki/Rhyndacus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhyndacus">Rhyndacus</a> river. This finally led Mithridates to accept Sulla's terms (<a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dardanos" title="Treaty of Dardanos">Treaty of Dardanos</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sulla set about re-organising the Roman administration in Western anatolia until 84 BC. Those cities that had resisted Mithridates were rewarded, for instance Rhodes regained the Peraea lost in the Macedonian wars. Those that had collaborated were forced to pay reparations. The combined effects of the war and aftermath were ruinous for the region and piracy abounded. Mithradates himself faced internal problems </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Second_war_83–81_BC"><span id="Second_war_83.E2.80.9381_BC"></span>Second war 83–81 BC</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Second war 83–81 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Mithridatic war">Second Mithridatic war</a></div> <p>Given that many Romans thought that Mithridates had got off rather lightly following the first war, provocation was almost inevitable. Sulla left <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a> in 84 BC to return to Rome and <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">make war on his enemies</a>, where he would eventually become dictator. He left <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Licinius_Murena_(praetor_88_BC)" title="Lucius Licinius Murena (praetor 88 BC)">Lucius Licinius Murena</a> to govern the <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">province of Asia</a>. Murena proceeded to intervene in Cappadocia in 83 BC, where Mithrodates was also interfering with the recently restored <a href="/wiki/Ariobarzanes_I_of_Cappadocia" title="Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia">Ariobarzanes I</a> (95–63 BC). After two further raids with less justifiable pretexts, Mithridates retaliated, pursuing Murena and inflicting a number of defeats on Murena until Sulla (who had less territorial ambition than Murena) intervened and both antagonists withdrew to their former positions. </p><p>Murena had refused to recognise the treaty on a technicality and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> refused to ratify it despite Mithridates' efforts. Mithridates realised Rome would remain a potential threat but nevertheless continued to respect the treaty, but made military preparations for the possibility of a third war. The next step by Rome was to restore control over the areas to the south east which they had lost in the first war (<a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lycaonia" title="Lycaonia">Lycaonia</a>). So the area was brought under provincial administration by creating <a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a> (which technically included none of the historical <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilician</a> territory further east) under <a href="/wiki/Publius_Servilius_Vatia_Isauricus_(consul_79_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 79 BC)">Publius Servilius</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Pro-Consul" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-Consul">pro-Consul</a> (78–74 BC). Servilius set about cleansing the Pamphylian coast of pirates before subduing Pisidia and <a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isauria</a>. The building of military roads through Cilicia now created a new potential threat to Mithridates and Pontus. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_Minor_Map,_Classical_Atlas,_1886,_Keith_Johnston.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Asia_Minor_Map%2C_Classical_Atlas%2C_1886%2C_Keith_Johnston.jpg/250px-Asia_Minor_Map%2C_Classical_Atlas%2C_1886%2C_Keith_Johnston.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Asia_Minor_Map%2C_Classical_Atlas%2C_1886%2C_Keith_Johnston.jpg/375px-Asia_Minor_Map%2C_Classical_Atlas%2C_1886%2C_Keith_Johnston.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Asia_Minor_Map%2C_Classical_Atlas%2C_1886%2C_Keith_Johnston.jpg/500px-Asia_Minor_Map%2C_Classical_Atlas%2C_1886%2C_Keith_Johnston.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3669" data-file-height="2824" /></a><figcaption>Regions of Asia Minor in Classical Period</figcaption></figure><p><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Third_war_75–63_BC"><span id="Third_war_75.E2.80.9363_BC"></span>Third war 75–63 BC</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Third war 75–63 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Mithridatic war">Third Mithridatic war</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Third_Mithridatic_War" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Third Mithridatic War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Third Mithridatic War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Third Mithridatic War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Third_Mithridatic_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War"><span class="wrap">Third Mithridatic War</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chalcedon_(74_BC)" title="Battle of Chalcedon (74 BC)">Chalcedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyzicus" title="Siege of Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Rhyndacus_(72_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Rhyndacus (72 BC)">Rhyndacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lemnos_(73_BCE)" title="Battle of Lemnos (73 BCE)">Lemnos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Heraclea" title="Siege of Heraclea">Heraclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cabira" title="Battle of Cabira">Cabira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tigranocerta" title="Battle of Tigranocerta">Tigranocerta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artaxata" title="Battle of Artaxata">Artaxata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zela_(67_BC)" title="Battle of Zela (67 BC)">Zela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lycus" title="Battle of the Lycus">Lycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Pelorus" title="Battle of the Pelorus">Pelorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Abas" title="Battle of the Abas">Abas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(63_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)">Jerusalem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_IV_of_Bithynia" title="Nicomedes IV of Bithynia">Nicomedes IV of Bithynia</a> (94–74 BC) died, leaving his kingdom to Rome, he created not only a potential power vacuum, but further encircled Pontus. The Senate had instructed the <a href="/wiki/Propraetor" class="mw-redirect" title="Propraetor">propraetor</a> of the province of Asia to take over <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>. This coincided with the death of Servilius' successor as proconsul of Cilicia, which then came under the command of <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucius Licinius Lucullus</a>, while Bithynia was assigned to <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Cotta_(consul_74_BC)" title="Marcus Aurelius Cotta (consul 74 BC)">Marcus Aurelius Cotta</a>. Both consuls were instructed to prepare to pursue Mithridates, by <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>. </p><p>By the time Lucullus arrived in 73 BC, Mithridates was anticipating him. Lucullus was assembling his legions in northern Phrygia, when Mithridates advanced rapidly through Paphlagonia into Bithynia, where he joined his naval forces and defeated the Roman fleet commanded by Cotta at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chalcedon_(74_BC)" title="Battle of Chalcedon (74 BC)">Battle of Chalcedon</a>. Having besieged Cotta in <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a>, Mithridates continued west towards <a href="/wiki/Cyzicus" title="Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysia</a>. Lucullus went to relieve Cotta and then moved on to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyzicus" title="Siege of Cyzicus">Cyzicus, which Mithridates was besieging.</a> The city held out and Mithridates withdrew suffering heavy losses at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Rhyndacus_(72_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Rhyndacus (72 BC)">Battles of the Rhyndacus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Granicus_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Granicus River">Granicus</a> in 72 BC. After a series of naval defeats Mithridates fell back to Pontus. He had also sent troops into Lycaonia and the southern regions of Asia to create support amongst Pisidians and Isaurians, but these were now repelled by the Galatians, under <a href="/wiki/Deiotarus" title="Deiotarus">Deiotarus</a>. </p><p>Lucullus then resumed his original plan and advanced through Galatia and Paphlagonia to Pontus in 72 BC. By 71 BC he was through the Iris and Lycus valleys and into Pontus where he engaged Mithridates at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cabira" title="Battle of Cabira">Cabira</a>. The result was disastrous for the Pontic forces, and Mithridates fled to Armenia. The Romans then set about subduing Pontus and Lesser Armenia while trying to persuade Mithridates, now the guest of <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> to surrender. Tigranes spurned the Roman overtures and indicated he was prepared to fight, so Lucullus prepared to invade Armenia in 70 BC. In 69 he marched through Cappadocia to the Euphrates, crossing it at Tomisa and entering Sophene and the lands which Tigranes had recently acquired from the Seleucids and heading for the new imperial capital of <a href="/wiki/Tigranocerta" title="Tigranocerta">Tigranocerta</a>. There Tigranes found him besieging the city, and in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tigranocerta" title="Battle of Tigranocerta">battle</a>, was routed, fleeing northwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To proceed further required ensuring the neutrality of the next empire, the Parthians whom Tigranes had also wooed. In 68 BC Lucullus made some advances into northern Armenia but was hampered by the weather and wintered in the south. His strategy had been to dismember Armenia into its former kingdoms. By 67 BC the Roman forces in Pontus were coming increasingly under attack by Mithridates who scored a major victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zela_(67_BC)" title="Battle of Zela (67 BC)">Zela</a>. Lucullus' troops were also tiring and becoming dissatisfied. Lucullus withdrew from Armenia but not in time to prevent the defeat at Zela.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The failure of <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucius Licinius Lucullus</a> to rid Rome once and for all of <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates</a> brought a lot of opposition at home, some fueled by the great Roman consul <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>. Lucullus was formally replaced in 67 BC by <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Marcius_Rex_(consul_68_BC)" title="Quintus Marcius Rex (consul 68 BC)">Marcius Rex</a>, ordered to deal with the Cilician pirate problem, that was threatening the Roman food supply in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manius_Acilius_Glabrio_(consul_67_BC)" title="Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 67 BC)">Acilius Glabrio</a> to take over the eastern command. Lucullus withdrew back to Galatia and Mithridates promptly recovered all his lost territory. Meanwhile, the republic was changing the administrative governance of Anatolia to the <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetorian</a> model in 68 BC. </p><p>The piracy strategy initiated by Servilius in 78–75 BC was suspended during the years of fighting Mithridates. Roman naval forces were defeated in 70 BC attempting to deal with the Cretan pirates, and the problem spread to Italy itself. A <a href="/wiki/Lex_Gabinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Gabinia">new model</a> was proposed in 67 BC by <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gabinius" title="Aulus Gabinius">Aulus Gabinius</a> that overarched the provincial commands, under <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> as proconsul. These extraordinary powers were further extended in the next year by the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Manilia" title="Lex Manilia">Lex Manilia</a>. In took him only three months during 67 BC to clear the seas. Meanwhile, apprised of the disaster at Zela, there were plans to transfer the command in Anatolia to Pompey, initiated by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Manilius" title="Gaius Manilius">Gaius Manilius</a> (ably assisted by the oratory of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>). The Lex Manilia essentially set aside the new commands of Marcius Rex and Acilius Glabrio. Pompey was granted considerable resources and explicit powers that Lucullus had never had, and command over the entire Anatolian region. </p><p>Pompey's first move was to persuade the Parthians to harass Tigranes' eastern flank. Following Roman tradition he offered Mithridates terms, but he rejected these. consequently Pompey engaged him at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lycus" title="Battle of the Lycus">Battle of Lycus</a> in 66 BC inflicting great losses. Subsequently, Mithridates discovering that Tirganes would no longer support him, fled to <a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a>. Pompey, rather than pursue him, turned his attention to Tigranes, who pursued by Parthians surrendered promptly and was granted his inherited but not acquired lands, becoming a <a href="/wiki/Client_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Client kingdom">client kingdom</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates</a> either committed suicide or was assassinated in 63 BC and Rome added <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> as a protectorate along with <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a> as a Roman province.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the subdual of Armenia Pompey moved on to the Caucasus and the extreme end of Anatolia including <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Iberia">Iberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Albania</a>. By 65 BC he had concluded a truce with the Albanians before sweeping through Iberia and Colchis. He was later to be criticised for not eliminating Mithridates, who had taken refuge in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Peninsula">Crimea</a>. He then completed the subdual of Albania before returning to Pontus and Lesser Armenia where he set about organising the <a href="/wiki/Bithynia_et_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bithynia et Pontus">Province of Pontus and Bithynia</a> and the subordinate Anatolian kingdoms during 65–64 BC. During 64 BC he marched south through Cappadocia and Cilicia to Syria meeting little opposition except briefly at Commagene. He then annexed <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> as a province, effectively ending the Seleucid Empire now based in Antioch.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomanPowerAsiaMinor63BCE.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/RomanPowerAsiaMinor63BCE.JPG/250px-RomanPowerAsiaMinor63BCE.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/RomanPowerAsiaMinor63BCE.JPG/375px-RomanPowerAsiaMinor63BCE.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/RomanPowerAsiaMinor63BCE.JPG/500px-RomanPowerAsiaMinor63BCE.JPG 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> as divided by <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, 63 BC</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provincialisation_of_Anatolia_133_BC_–_114_AD"><span id="Provincialisation_of_Anatolia_133_BC_.E2.80.93_114_AD"></span>Provincialisation of Anatolia 133 BC – 114 AD</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Provincialisation of Anatolia 133 BC – 114 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman provinces">Roman provinces</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/250px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/375px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg/500px-Impero_romano_sotto_Ottaviano_Augusto_30aC_-_6dC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption>Roman Empire under <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus Caesar">Augustus Caesar</a> (31 BC – 6 AD) <span style="color:yellow"><b>Yellow</b></span>: 31 BC. <span style="color:#00FF00"><b>Dark green</b></span> 31–19 BC, <span style="color:#BFFF00"><b>Light green</b></span> 19–9 BC, <span style="color:#A3BFA3"><b>Pale green</b></span> 9–6 BC. <span style="color:#DF73FF"><b>Mauve</b></span>: Client states</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>'s policy regarding expansion and overseas territory was frequently conflicted. There were those who were satisfied with diplomacy, creating allies on its borders that acted as buffer states against more distant threats. On the other hand, there were those who saw opportunities for glory and riches. central government in rome was often far from civil and military commanders in the field, and local ambitions often dragged Rome into expanding its frontiers. The military exploits of <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucullus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> towards the end of the Mithridatic wars created an eastern expansion far beyond the vision of the Senate. </p><p>Policy in Anatolia had consisted of trade, influence and diplomacy with occasional military interventions to maintain the status quo when local kingdoms and empires became expansionist. That influence grew as Rome became the new superpower of the Mediterranean, and repeated interventions reduced many of the kingdoms in Anatolia to client state status. Sometimes Roman rule was forced on the republic by local events such as the bequeathing of kingdoms to Rome. Annexation of territory to form provinces was based on whether there was a trustworthy effective ruler who could rule in the interests of Rome or not.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Formal Roman rule began when <a href="/wiki/Attalus_III" title="Attalus III">Attalus III of Pergamon</a> (138–133 BC) left his kingdom to Rome and it became the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Asia">Province of Asia</a>, briefly lost during the rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_III" title="Eumenes III">Eumenes III</a> (133–129 BC) and the early Mithridatic wars (89–85 BC), its frontiers were strengthened by creating the neighbouring province of <a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a> to its east along the southwestern Mediterranean coast in 78 BC. A further bequest by <a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicomedes IV">Nicomedes IV</a> of Bithynia (94–74 BC) added a neighbour to the northeast along the Black Sea coast, although it took another war before this could be settled properly and combined with its eastern neighbour Pontus to form <a href="/wiki/Bithynia_et_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bithynia et Pontus">Bithynia et Pontus</a> in 64 BC. <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> annexed <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> in the east later that year to provide Roman rule over nearly all the southern coast. Once military conquest had been achieved Pompey set about re-organising internal government within Anatolia,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the all-important collection of taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He left Anatolia at the end of 62 BC, returning to Rome in triumph the next year. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Galatia" title="List of kings of Galatia">List of kings of Galatia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Galatia" title="List of kings of Galatia">List of kings of Galatia</a></div> <p>Thus by Pompey's time the Roman provinces covered the west, north and south of Anatolia. In the centre <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> were ruled by <a href="/wiki/Brogitarus" title="Brogitarus">Brogitarus</a> (63–50 BC) initially as coruler with his father in law, <a href="/wiki/Deiotarus" title="Deiotarus">Deiotarus</a> (105–40 BC), and then his son <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_of_Galatia" title="Amyntas of Galatia">Amyntas</a> (36–25 BC) as a client state. Amyntas initially possessed <a href="/wiki/Lycaonia" title="Lycaonia">Lycaonia</a> and successively added <a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isauria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>. In 25 BC, <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_of_Galatia" title="Amyntas of Galatia">Amyntas</a> died while pursuing enemies in the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Taurus mountains">Taurus mountains</a>, and Rome claimed his lands as a <a href="/wiki/Galatia_(Roman_province)" title="Galatia (Roman province)">new province</a>, leaving western and central Anatolia completely in Roman hands. In the East the former Armenian kingdoms remained under local rule.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While much of Pontus ended up in the new province of Bithynia et Pontus, the east was divided into client kingdoms including Pontus, which continued until the last king, <a href="/wiki/Polemon_II_of_Pontus" title="Polemon II of Pontus">Polemon II</a> (38–64 AD) was deposed by the Emperor Nero and Pontus became absorbed into the provincial system. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Cappadocia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Cappadocia">List of rulers of Cappadocia</a></div> <p>Cappadocia continued as an independent client, at one point being united with Pontus, until the Emperor Tiberius deposed the last monarch <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia" title="Archelaus of Cappadocia">Archelaus</a> (36 BC – 17 AD), creating a <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">province of the same name.</a> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Armenian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Armenian kings">List of Armenian kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Armenian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Armenian kings">List of Armenian kings</a></div> <p>Armenia continued as a client state after the Mithridatic wars, torn between Rome and Parthia, eventually becoming a <a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">province</a> under the Emperor Trajan in 114 AD. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a> was for a short time a separate province (64–47 BC) before becoming absorbed into <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria.</a> Pompey had enlarged it to include the western <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus</a> range and the coastal plains beyond it as far as the <a href="/wiki/Amanus_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Amanus Mountains">Amanus Mountains</a> that separate it from Syria. There remained, however, troublesome tribes in the northern mountains that no power had succeeded in subduing.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> in the extreme southwest remained independent until 43 AD when it became a province, and was then merged with the <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylian</a> region of Galatia to form <a href="/wiki/Lycia_et_Pamphylia" title="Lycia et Pamphylia">Lycia et Pamphylia</a>. </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Provinces_of_Roman_Anatolia_prior_to_reforms_of_Diocletian_(284-305)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Provinces_of_Roman_Anatolia" title="Template:Provinces of Roman Anatolia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Provinces_of_Roman_Anatolia" title="Template talk:Provinces of Roman Anatolia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Provinces_of_Roman_Anatolia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Provinces of Roman Anatolia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_Roman_Anatolia_prior_to_reforms_of_Diocletian_(284-305)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Provinces of Roman Anatolia prior to reforms of Diocletian (284-305)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bithynia_et_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bithynia et Pontus">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia_(Roman_province)" title="Galatia (Roman province)">Galatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycia_et_Pamphylia" title="Lycia et Pamphylia">Lycia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Trumvirates_and_last_years_of_the_Republic_61–27_BC"><span id="The_Trumvirates_and_last_years_of_the_Republic_61.E2.80.9327_BC"></span>The Trumvirates and last years of the Republic 61–27 BC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: The Trumvirates and last years of the Republic 61–27 BC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the year's following Pompey's departure the Roman administration in Anatolia kept a wary and at times fearful eye on <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> on its eastern borders, while the central government in Rome was focussed on <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and the events in Western Europe. There followed <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">two centuries of conflict</a>. In 53 BC <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a> led an expedition from Syria into <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> which proved disastrous, the Parthians inflicting huge losses at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a> in which he was killed. Sporadic raids by the Parthians against Syria continued, but were repelled and suffered a major reversal in 51 BC. However, Crassus' death unbalanced the <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a> of which he was a member, leading to the progressive difficulties between Pompey and Caesar. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>'s preoccupation with <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">civil war</a> between Pompey and Caesar (49–45 BC) provided opportunity for further instability in Anatolia. <a href="/wiki/Pharnaces_II_of_Pontus" title="Pharnaces II of Pontus">Pharnaces II of Pontus</a> (63–47 BC) saw an opportunity to expand his realms in violation of his agreement with Pompey, moving into <a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Armenia" title="Lesser Armenia">Lesser Armenia</a>, then part of <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>. The Galatians appealed to Caesar, but Pharnaces had already overrun a Roman army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a> in 48 BC, occupying all of Pontus. Caesar, returning from his Egyptian campaign, landed at Antioch and met Pharnaces's forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zela" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Zela">Zela</a> in 47 BC and inflicted heavy losses on him, before returning to Rome, uttering the legendary <i><a href="/wiki/Veni,_vidi,_vici" title="Veni, vidi, vici">Veni, vidi, vici</a></i>. Pontus continued under client kings until 17 BC, and Galatia until 25 BC. </p><p>Meanwhile, Caesar was planning to return to the east and deal with the Parthians who were once again harassing Syria, and avenge Crassius. Plans that were cut short by his <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">assassination</a> in 44 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Donations_of_Alexandria_34BC.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Donations_of_Alexandria_34BC.gif/250px-Donations_of_Alexandria_34BC.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Donations_of_Alexandria_34BC.gif/375px-Donations_of_Alexandria_34BC.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Donations_of_Alexandria_34BC.gif/500px-Donations_of_Alexandria_34BC.gif 2x" data-file-width="761" data-file-height="490" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Donations_of_Alexandria" title="Donations of Alexandria">Donations of Alexandria</a> 34 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>With his death, Rome lapsed into yet another war, the <a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">Liberators' civil war</a> (43–42 BC). The conspirators (<i><a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">Liberatores</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" title="Marcus Junius Brutus">Marcus Junius Brutus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Gaius Cassius Longinus</a> seized all the eastern provinces. However, their combined forces were destroyed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a> on the Greek mainland in 42 BC, by those of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>) 43–33 BC. Following this war Antony remained to govern in the east. There he found himself faced with further Parthian incursions, who had occupied Syria. Between 40 and 38 BC, the parthians penetrated as far as Caria.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Parthians were beaten back following both their <a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Antony's Parthian War">40 and 38 BC invasions</a>. However, when Antony himself decided to invade Parthian territory in 33 BC the result was a disaster, although he made two further expeditions into Armenia. In 34 BC Antony and Cleopatra decided to distribute the eastern lands between their children (<a href="/wiki/Donations_of_Alexandria" title="Donations of Alexandria">Donations of Alexandria</a>), precipitating yet <a href="/wiki/Final_War_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Final War of the Roman Republic">another civil war</a> (32–30 BC) and the end of the triumvirate. </p><p>Armenia was granted to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Helios" title="Alexander Helios">Alexander Helios</a> and Syria and Cilicia to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Philadelphus_(son_of_Cleopatra)" title="Ptolemy Philadelphus (son of Cleopatra)">Ptolemy Philadelphus</a>, while Antony retained Western Anatolia. Antony was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> in 31 BC, and died the following year. </p><p>Of the surviving client kingdoms, Cappadocia was the most prominent but was plagued by internal unrest requiring frequent Roman intervention, sometimes for lack of cooperation. At various times it acquired lesser Armenia and parts of Cilicia, and was unified with Pontus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Empire_27_BC_–_4th_century"><span id="Roman_Empire_27_BC_.E2.80.93_4th_century"></span>Roman Empire 27 BC – 4th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Roman Empire 27 BC – 4th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History of the Roman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">List of Roman emperors</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Empire:_The_Principate_27_BC_–_193_AD"><span id="The_Empire:_The_Principate_27_BC_.E2.80.93_193_AD"></span>The Empire: The Principate 27 BC – 193 AD</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: The Empire: The Principate 27 BC – 193 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GateOfAugustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/GateOfAugustus.jpg/200px-GateOfAugustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/GateOfAugustus.jpg/300px-GateOfAugustus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/GateOfAugustus.jpg/400px-GateOfAugustus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>The Gate of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> was built to honor the Emperor Augustus and his family. It led to the commercial area where goods were sold.</figcaption></figure> <p>With Antony dead, and Lepidus marginalised, the second triumvirate was effectively dissolved, leaving Octavian as the sole power. Thus the republic came to and end. Octavian's powers progressively increased, he was granted the title <i>Augustus</i> by the Senate and adopted the title <i>princeps senatus</i> in 27 BC although technically a <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a>, and shortly after <i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></i> in effect Emperor and the first phase of the Roman Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> (27 BC – 284 AD) was born. In exchange for this redistribution of powers, a long history of civil wars came to an end, replaced by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">Augustan age</a> (27 BC – 14 AD). The endless wars had been devastating for Asia Minor.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Julio-Claudian_dynasty_27_BC_–_68_AD"><span id="Julio-Claudian_dynasty_27_BC_.E2.80.93_68_AD"></span>Julio-Claudian dynasty 27 BC – 68 AD</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Julio-Claudian dynasty 27 BC – 68 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a></div> <p>Under Augustus, Galatia became a formal province in 25 BC strengthening direct Roman rule in western Anatolia, while in 27 BC Cilicia had been absorbed into Syria. Meanwhile, Cappadocia and Armenia continued as client states. A truce of sorts was worked out in 1 AD between the Romans and the Parthians. Augustus and his descendants formed the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> (27 BC – 68 AD). <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a> (14–37) formed the province of <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">Cappadocia</a> in 17, on the death of the last king, <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_of_Cappadocia" title="Archelaus of Cappadocia">Archelaus</a> (38 BC – 17 AD). <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> (41–54) dissolved the Lycaean league and organised <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> into a province in 43. <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68) organised the remaining eastern portion of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> into a province, after deposing the last king, <a href="/wiki/Polemon_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Polemon II">Polemon II</a> (38–62). Polemon continued as King of Cilicia until his death. Pontus consisted of three districts: <i>Pontus Galaticus</i> in the west, bordering on Galatia which was incorporated into that territory; <i>Pontus Polemoniacus</i> in the centre, so called from its capital <a href="/wiki/Fatsa" title="Fatsa">Polemonium</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Ye%C5%9Fil%C4%B1rmak_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeşilırmak River">Iris</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pharnacia" title="Pharnacia">Pharnacia</a>, annexed into Bithynia et Pontus; and <i>Pontus Cappadocicus</i> in the east, bordering on Cappadocia (Armenia Minor), was incorporated into that territory.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Armenia continued to be a <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">flashpoint between the Romans and Parthians</a>. War erupted again in 36, <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">and again in 58</a> under <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68). After a disastrous battle of Rhandeia in 62. A compromise was worked out with a Parthian on the Armenian throne subject to Roman approval. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Year_of_Four_Emperors_and_Flavian_dynasty_69–96_AD"><span id="The_Year_of_Four_Emperors_and_Flavian_dynasty_69.E2.80.9396_AD"></span>The Year of Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty 69–96 AD</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: The Year of Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty 69–96 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_69.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Roman_Empire_69.svg/250px-Roman_Empire_69.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Roman_Empire_69.svg/375px-Roman_Empire_69.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Roman_Empire_69.svg/500px-Roman_Empire_69.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2228" data-file-height="1675" /></a><figcaption>The Roman Empire 69 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The Julio-Claudian dynasty ended with Nero's suicide, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">a period of instability</a> in 69 until Vespasian (69–79) ascended, founding the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a>. In 72 Vespasian united all the disparate elements of Cilicia into the Roman province, many of which had remained petty dynasties. Vespasian also created a new composite province of <a href="/wiki/Lycia_et_Pamphylia" title="Lycia et Pamphylia">Lycia et Pamphylia</a> in 72, out of Claudius' province of <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a> region of the province of <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nerva-Antonine_dynasty_96–192_AD"><span id="Nerva-Antonine_dynasty_96.E2.80.93192_AD"></span>Nerva-Antonine dynasty 96–192 AD</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Nerva-Antonine dynasty 96–192 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Nerva–Antonine dynasty</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RomanEmpire_117.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/250px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/375px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/500px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>Roman Empire 117 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> (81–96), the Empire passed into the hands of Nerva (96–98). The <a href="/wiki/Nerva-Antonine_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerva-Antonine Emperors">Nerva-Antonines</a> presided over a period of relative peace and prosperity and its greatest territorial extent.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (98–117) finally achieved provincialisation of the troubled region of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> in 114, albeit for only four years. War with Parthia broke out once again in the 2nd century, generally in Rome's favour. Parthia had broken with previous agreements of choosing Armenian kings subject to approval of Rome. Trajan's policy was to depart from previous policy, invading Armenia, during which the Parthian monarch of Armenia, <a href="/wiki/Parthamasiris_of_Armenia" title="Parthamasiris of Armenia">Parthamasiris</a>, was killed, and going on to create provinces in Mesopotamia and Assyria, and capturing the Parthian capital of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>. Armenia was now no longer a buffer state. However, the victory was short-lived, Trajan being forced to withdraw to Antioch, and dying shortly afterwards in 117 AD. </p><p>Trajan's successor, <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (117–138), decided not to persist with the eastern provinces, and Armenia continued to be a source of conflict in this period. <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (161–180) was faced with yet <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">another invasion by Parthia</a> on assuming the Imperial office. The war lasted five years and again the Parthian capital was sacked. A new threat was the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> (165–180), which severely affected Asia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Year_of_Five_Emperors_and_Severan_Dynasty_193–235_AD"><span id="The_Year_of_Five_Emperors_and_Severan_Dynasty_193.E2.80.93235_AD"></span>The Year of Five Emperors and Severan Dynasty 193–235 AD</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: The Year of Five Emperors and Severan Dynasty 193–235 AD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five Emperors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Nerva-Antonine_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerva-Antonine dynasty">Nerva-Antonine dynasty</a> ended with the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> (177–192). Commodus' reign ended a period of good government, known as the Five Good Emperors, and is credited with being the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</a>, following the era of the <i>High Empire</i> (70–192 AD).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There followed another period of instability, the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of Five Emperors</a>, until <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> (193–211) became Emperor, initiating the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a> (193–235). </p><p>In 193, the province of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> was divided by Severus into two sections, Syria Coele in the north, and Syria Phoenicia in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-ocd_18-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocd-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Armenia and the Parthians continued to be a problem in the east, with neither side gaining ground in the long term. This time Septimius Severus invaded Mesopotamia in 195 AD, sacking Ctesiphon again (197). <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> (198–217) had some successes, but these were lost under his successor <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> (217–218). However, the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> itself was about to come to an end, being overthrown in 224 by the resurgent <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, a new threat to the eastern empire. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Empire:_the_years_of_crisis_235–284,_Schism_258–274_and_Gothic_invasion_(255)"><span id="The_Empire:_the_years_of_crisis_235.E2.80.93284.2C_Schism_258.E2.80.93274_and_Gothic_invasion_.28255.29"></span>The Empire: the years of crisis 235–284, Schism 258–274 and Gothic invasion (255)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: The Empire: the years of crisis 235–284, Schism 258–274 and Gothic invasion (255)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/250px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/375px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg/500px-Map_of_Ancient_Rome_271_AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="1213" /></a><figcaption>Roman Empire 271 AD, after the schism</figcaption></figure> <p>The assassination of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a> (222–235), the last of the Severans, brought to an end the Augustan <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, and the empire descended into its <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">third crisis</a>, this time lasting nearly fifty years. Twenty five emperors obtained power in the space of forty-nine years, with at least fifty one claiming it. Most were either murdered or died in military campaigns against Rome's enemies that were now pressing hard on her frontiers.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to instability in governance and civil war the crisis years were marked by <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation">hyperinflation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian" title="Plague of Cyprian">plague</a> and the first schism within the empire. The profound changes between the preceding Principate and succeeding <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>, coincide with a shift from <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> to <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>. It was also an era in which might of the far flung Roman Empire was now beginning to experience increasing pressure on its eastern and northern borders, whereas previously the balance of military power had concentrated on defending the eastern border. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persia_and_the_eastern_front">Persia and the eastern front</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Persia and the eastern front"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the crisis the eastern provinces felt they were on their own, and were not inclined to help prop up Rome against foreign attacks. The <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Parthian wars">Roman–Parthian wars</a> were now the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Sassanid wars</a>. A Persian invasion starting in 236 in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a> (238–244) prompted Roman retaliation, but in the ensuing battle to secure the eastern borders, the young Gordian was killed, and amongst the terms made was the ceding of Armenia to Persia. Persia again attacked in 251, annexing Armenia and invading Syria in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> (251–253) but was eventually beaten off by the local Roman forces towards the end of his reign. </p><p>The capture of <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> forced <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (253–260) to move his main troop deployments to Cappadocia, weakening his efforts to contain the Sassanid threat. In the course of these latter campaigns, Valerian became the first Roman emperor to be captured by enemy forces, in 260. The Sassanid forces penetrated as far west as Isauria and Cappadocia. The major part of the Roman response fell to the forces in Syrian outpost, Valerian's successor, <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (260–268), being preoccupied in the west. Asia Minor then experienced the combined attacks of the Danubian Goths in the Balkans pouring into Thrace, while their Black Sea relatives ravaged coastal cities. A later emperor, <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a> (282–284), led an expedition east to restore Roman rule in Armenia and reverse earlier losses by taking on the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanids</a>, but died on the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gothic_invasion">Gothic invasion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Gothic invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg/250px-Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg/375px-Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg/500px-Gothic_raids_in_the_3rd_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5120" data-file-height="3938" /></a><figcaption>Gothic raids in the 3rd century</figcaption></figure> <p>A new problem for Anatolia emerged during this period, with the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> during the 3rd century. Since the roads to central Europe through <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy_(Roman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italy (Roman Empire)">Italy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a> were all defended successfully by the Romans, the Goths found Anatolia to be irresistible due to its wealth and deteriorating defenses. Using a captured fleet of ships from the Bosphorus and flat-bottomed boats to cross the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, they sailed from Black Sea bases (Black Sea Goths) in 255 during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (253–260) around the eastern shores, landing in the coastal city of <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trebizond</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a>. What ensued was a huge embarrassment for <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a>- the wealth of the city was absconded, a larger number of ships were confiscated, and they entered the interior without much resistance. A second invasion of Anatolia through <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> brought even more terror inland and wanton destruction. They entered the city of <a href="/wiki/Chalcedon" title="Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a>, using it as a base by which to expand their operations, sacking <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Prusa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apamea_(Phrygia)" title="Apamea (Phrygia)">Apamea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a> in turn.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only the turn of the weather as winter approached kept them from penetrating further into Anatolia. However, the Goths continued their seaborn attacks not only around the coastline of Anatolia, but in Greece and Italy as well. Amongst their raids was the destruction of the Temple of Diana in <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a> and the city itself in 263. <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Tacitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Claudius Tacitus">Tacitus</a> (275–276) successfully took on the Gothic invaders of Anatolia, and this was continued by a subsequent emperor, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Probus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aurelius Probus">Probus</a> (276–82).<sup id="cite_ref-Gibbon_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibbon-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schism,_reunification_and_division"><span id="Schism.2C_reunification_and_division"></span>Schism, reunification and division</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Schism, reunification and division"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 258 the empire was breaking up with the defection of the western <a href="/wiki/Roman_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman provinces">provinces</a>, to form the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic Empire</a>. In 260 the provinces in the east including <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> broke away to form the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> (260–273). This stretched all the way to Ancyra, and even attempted to annex Bithynia. <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (270–275), one of the <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_emperors" title="Illyrian emperors">Illyrian emperors</a>, was an exception to the general pattern in this era, succeeding in re-uniting the empire by 274.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time of Carus, the idea of two empires, west and east was emerging. Carus appointed one of his sons, <a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a> (282–285) as co-emperor for the western empire, while he and his other son, <a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a> (283–284) concerned themselves with the east. Numerian died before returning west leaving Carinus to face a newly proclaimed emperor, <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, who subsequently triumphed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Empire:_the_Dominate_284_–_4th_century"><span id="The_Empire:_the_Dominate_284_.E2.80.93_4th_century"></span>The Empire: the Dominate 284 – 4th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: The Empire: the Dominate 284 – 4th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor_(Dominate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor (Dominate)">Roman Emperor (Dominate)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Tetrarchy_and_first_Eastern_Empire_284–324"><span id="The_Tetrarchy_and_first_Eastern_Empire_284.E2.80.93324"></span>The Tetrarchy and first Eastern Empire 284–324</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: The Tetrarchy and first Eastern Empire 284–324"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetrachy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrachy">Tetrachy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetrarchy_map3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tetrarchy_map3.jpg/250px-Tetrarchy_map3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tetrarchy_map3.jpg/375px-Tetrarchy_map3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tetrarchy_map3.jpg/500px-Tetrarchy_map3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>Roman Empire under the First Tetrarchy showing the three Dioceses of the Eastern Empire</figcaption></figure> <p>Order and stability was restored when <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (284–305) obtained power following the death of the last Crisis Emperors, <a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a> (282–284), and overcoming his brother <a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a>, ushering in the next and final phase of the Roman Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>. </p><p>Diocletian managed to secure the frontiers and instituted sweeping administrative reforms that affected all the <a href="/wiki/Roman_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman provinces">provinces</a>, preparing them for the new millennia and the transition to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>. He continued Carus' tradition by instituting a system of <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrarchs">Tetrarchs</a>, and dividing the responsibility for the empire between them. The term <i><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus (honorific)">Augustus</a></i> became the name of senior emperors, while junior emperors were known as <i><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></i>. In the initial arrangement, or <a href="/wiki/Diarchy" title="Diarchy">Diarchy</a>, Diocletian entrusted the west to his junior Caesar (later Augustus) <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> while he took charge of the east. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="First_Tetrarchy_293–305"><span id="First_Tetrarchy_293.E2.80.93305"></span>First Tetrarchy 293–305</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: First Tetrarchy 293–305"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This evolved into a tetrachy in 293, the empire being divided into four, but each Caesar reporting to an Augustus. The new co-emperors were Galerius and <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius</a>, forming the First Tetrarchy (293–305). Thus Diocletian and Maximian were the <i>Augusti</i> (senior emperors) with Galerius and Constantius as <i>Caesares</i> (junior emperors). </p><p>There were now four Tetrarchic Capitals, with the east being governed from <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bithynia_et_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bithynia et Pontus">Bithynia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Izmit" class="mw-redirect" title="Izmit">Izmit</a>), where he had originally been proclaimed emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This became the base for defence against invasion from the Balkans and Persia's <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> and Diocletian's capital. </p><p>In the Diocletian reforms provinces were divided into smaller units, almost doubling the total number soon after 293, replicating the original regions of Asia Minor. Asia was divided into seven smaller provinces, and Bithynia three (Bithynia, Honorias and Paphlagonia). Galatia lost its northern and southern parts to the new provinces of Paphlagonia and Lycaonia, respectively. Lycia et Pamphylia was once again split into its two constituent units. Cappadocia lost its Pontic and Lesser Armenian territories. Another innovation was the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">Dioceses</a>, an intermediate administrative structure that combined together several provinces, although <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> used the term when he was governor of Cilicia (51 BC). Anatolia was restructured into three dioceses, which were eventually grouped under the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_the_East" title="Praetorian prefecture of the East">Praetorian Prefecture of the East</a> (<i>praefectura praetorio Orientis</i>); <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Asia" title="Diocese of Asia">Asia (Asiana)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Pontus" title="Diocese of Pontus">Pontus (Pontica)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">East (Oriens)</a>. (<i>see navbox below</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Armenia returned to the Roman sphere in 287 as a vassal state under <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Armenia" title="Tiridates III of Armenia">Tiridates III</a> (287–330) and more formally as protectorate in 299. On the eastern front, Persia renewed hostilities in 296, inflicting losses on Galerius' forces, until Diocletian brought in new troops from further west the following year and clashed with the Persians in lesser Armenia, and pursued them all the way to <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> in 298, effectively ending the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Second_Tetrarchy_305–308"><span id="Second_Tetrarchy_305.E2.80.93308"></span>Second Tetrarchy 305–308</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Second Tetrarchy 305–308"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 305, both <i>Augusti</i> stepped down, an unprecedented constitutional step, the agreement being that both <i>Caesares</i> would be promoted to <i>Augusti</i>, and new <i>Caesares</i> appointed. This happened but the expected new <i>Caesares</i> were not, as expected, the sons of former emperors, <a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a> (son of the now retired <i>Augustus</i> Maximian) and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a> (son of the new <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> Constantius), but rather <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Valerius_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Valerius Severus">Flavius Valerius Severus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximinus II">Maximinus</a>. Galerius was now Augustus of the East and the Second Tetrarchy was formed with Constantius and Galerius as <i>Augusti</i> and Severus and Maximinus as Caesares, and heirs apparent. This oversight was to prove fatal to Diocletian's vision of a tetrarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Constantius died in 306 and Galerius raised Severus to <i>Augustus</i> as expected. However, Constantine, who would have been eligible for the vacant role of <i>Caesar</i>, was elected as Augustus by his troops, in competition with Severus, while Maxentius the other overlooked candidate for <i>Caesar</i> simultaneously challenged Severus and indeed deposed and murdered him, declaring himself Augustus, while his father Maximian also attempted to return to power and take the role of <i>Augustus</i>. This left multiple candidates for the Tetrarchical roles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Third_Tetrarchy_and_civil_war_308–313"><span id="Third_Tetrarchy_and_civil_war_308.E2.80.93313"></span>Third Tetrarchy and civil war 308–313</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Third Tetrarchy and civil war 308–313"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_wars_of_the_Tetrarchy" title="Civil wars of the Tetrarchy">Civil wars of the Tetrarchy</a></div> <p>In 308 Galerius and Diocletian attempted a diplomatic solution, summoning an Imperial Conference that elected <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> as Augustus of the West, with Constantine as his <i>Caesar</i>, while the incumbents, Galerius and Maximinus continued in the east, as a Third Tetrarchy. this proved unworkable and both Maxentius and Constantine, originally overlooked as <i>Caesares</i> continued to stake their claims, and by 309 they became full <i>Augusti</i> and the empire dissolved into civil war between 309 and 313. </p><p>Relative to the western parts of the empire, the eastern empire was stable. The transition from Diocletian to Galerius proceeded smoothly in 305. Upon assuming the role of <i>Augustus</i>, Galerius assigned Maximinus to Egypt and Syria. On Galerius'death in 311, Maximinus divided the east seizing Asia Minor, with Licinius as western <i>Augustus</i>. When Maximinus fell out with Licinius, he crossed the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a>, took <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> and engaged the latter in 313 at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tzirallum" title="Battle of Tzirallum">Tzirallum</a> in Thrace, at which he was routed, but was pursued across Asia Minor to <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin" title="Tarsus, Mersin">Tarsus</a> by Licinius. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Diarchy_313–324"><span id="Diarchy_313.E2.80.93324"></span>Diarchy 313–324</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Diarchy 313–324"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the end of the wars there remained two empires and two emperors. Constantine had disposed of Maxentius in 312 and agreed to repartition the empire, with Constantine in the west and Licinius in the East. Licinius was immediately engaged in dealing with the Persian situation. By the following year (314) the two emperors were at war, which simmered over a decade. Constantine eventually besieged Licinius in Byzantium in 324, defeated his fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Battle of Hellespont</a>. Licinius fell back on Bithynia, where he surrendered at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chrysopolis" title="Battle of Chrysopolis">Battle of Chrysopolis</a>. Constantine then declared himself sole emperor of a reunited empire (324–337). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constantinian_dynasty_324–363"><span id="Constantinian_dynasty_324.E2.80.93363"></span>Constantinian dynasty 324–363</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Constantinian dynasty 324–363"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></div> <p>At the end of the 3rd century, the vast empire was beset by administrative and fiscal problems, and much of the power lay in the hands of the military, while there was no clear principle of succession and dynasties were short lived, their fate often determined by force of arms rather than legitimacy. The empire was divided culturally with Latin predominating in the west, and Greek in the east, while eastern ideas, such as <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a> were spreading (including Constantine and his family). Another increasing cultural force was the Palestinian religion of Christianity, although demonstrating considerable heterogeneity of orthodoxy. Diocletian had carried out major reforms after the years of crisis, but the empire slipped into chaos once again on his abdication and it fell to Constantine to restore stability and continue the process of reform. From the time of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>'s accession in 324 to the death of <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a> in 363, the empire was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a> (Neo-flavians).<sup id="cite_ref-sr_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Constantine_I_324–337"><span id="Constantine_I_324.E2.80.93337"></span>Constantine I 324–337</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Constantine I 324–337"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>, later referred to as <i>Constantine the Great</i>, ruled from 324 to 337 and his career was dominated by two considerations, the role of religion in the empire and the need for an Eastern capital. Because his reign coincided with the spread of Christianity his life has been obscured by legend as the first Christian emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Diocletian's reign, Constantine was a regular visitor to the court at Nicomedia, and again under Galerius. At the end of the civil wars in 324 he once again found himself in Bithynia. Successive Roman emperors were becoming dissatisfied with Rome as an administrative centre, with its traditions which were at odds with their new more Eastern ways, and far from the theatres of war that consumed them. Many of them had spent little time in Rome and had created centres for themselves elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-sr_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helena_of_Constantinople_(Cima_da_Conegliano).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Helena_of_Constantinople_%28Cima_da_Conegliano%29.jpg/200px-Helena_of_Constantinople_%28Cima_da_Conegliano%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Helena_of_Constantinople_%28Cima_da_Conegliano%29.jpg/300px-Helena_of_Constantinople_%28Cima_da_Conegliano%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Helena_of_Constantinople_%28Cima_da_Conegliano%29.jpg/400px-Helena_of_Constantinople_%28Cima_da_Conegliano%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5964" data-file-height="7437" /></a><figcaption>Helena of Constantinople by <a href="/wiki/Cima_da_Conegliano" title="Cima da Conegliano">Cima da Conegliano</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Constantine considered a number of candidate cities as a new eastern capital, before deciding on <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> in 330, initially designated <i>Nova Roma</i> (New Rome), but then <a href="/wiki/Constantinopolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantinopolis">Constantinopolis</a> in Constantine's honour (although its official title remained <i>Nova Roma Constantinopolitana</i>). Byzantium had long been considered of strategic importance, guarding the access from the Black Sea to the Aegean. Various emperors had either fortified or dismantled its fortifications depending on which power was using it and for what. Byzantium featured in Constantine's last war against Licinius in which Constantine had besieged the city, and after the war was over he further investigated its potential. He set about renewing the city almost immediately, inaugurating it in 330. This is a year sometimes picked as the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. The new capital was to be distinguished from the old by being simultaneously Christian and Greek (although was initially mainly Latin speaking like its Balkan hinterland) and a centre of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-sr_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Constantine's major contribution to religion in the empire was to summon the elders of the Christian world to the great <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Council of Nicaea</a> in 325 to resolve differences and establish orthodoxy, such as the date of Easter.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other great influence was his mother, <a href="/wiki/Helena_(Empress)" class="mw-redirect" title="Helena (Empress)">Helena</a> who set about re-establishing the sacred sites of Palestine. </p><p>Constantine's administrative reforms included restructuring of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetorian prefectures">Praetorian prefectures</a>. Under Diocletian, there were two prefectures, one per <i>Augustus</i>, as their Grand Vizier, or Chief of Staff. In the civil wars that followed with multiple competing emperors, they proliferated. Constantine divided the civil duties of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">prefect</a> from the military, by creating separate offices of <i><a href="/wiki/Magister_peditum" class="mw-redirect" title="Magister peditum">magister peditum</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">magister equitum</a></i> as well as <i><a href="/wiki/Magister_officiorum" title="Magister officiorum">magister officiorum</a></i>. The prefect was now purely a civil administrator. By 332 there were five prefectures, anticipating he division of the empire after his death. Some provincial boundaries were changed. In c. 330 <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> lost its eastern portions which became two components of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Lesser Armenia</a>, namely Armenia prima and Armenia secunda. </p><p>During his reign, conflict with the Persians over Armenia persisted and he was planning a major campaign at the time of his death. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png/250px-Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png/375px-Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png/500px-Impero_Romano_da_maggio_a_settembre_337.png 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption>Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, <a href="/wiki/Constans_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constans I">Constans I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatius" title="Dalmatius">Dalmatius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Constantine's_successors"><span id="Constantine.27s_successors"></span>Constantine's successors</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Constantine's successors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Constantine I's succession was complicated being succeeded by three of his sons simultaneously; <a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a> (337–340), <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> (337–361) and <a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Constans</a> (337–350). They immediately set about carving up Constantine's empire, together with their cousin <a href="/wiki/Dalmatius" title="Dalmatius">Dalmatius</a>, Anatolia falling to Constantius II. Constantius rarely visited Constantinople being preoccupied with the eastern front, amongst other wars. During Constantius' reign the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_the_East" title="Praetorian prefecture of the East">Praetorian prefecture of the East</a> was established, incorporating the eastern dioceses, with its headquarters in Constantinople, </p><p>By 350 both of Constantius II's brothers had died and the empire was reunited under him. Constantius continued the tradition of appointing <i>Caesares</i>, from his cousins. Of those <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Gallus" title="Constantius Gallus">Gallus</a> was appointed to rule the eastern provinces (351–354) until Constantius had him killed. The other was <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a> who was acclaimed emperor in 360 in competition with Constantius. However, the latter died before overt conflict broke out, and Julian ascended the throne (361–363). Although Julian's reign was relatively brief, his desire to return the empire to traditional gods earned him the nickname of <a href="/wiki/Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostate">Apostate</a>. He was also noted for his purging of the civil service. He died campaigning in the east. With Julian's death, the short Constantinian dynasty came to an end. Very few Roman dynasties lasted more than three generations. </p><p>These were turbulent times, but from the rule of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (27 BC – 14 AD) until that of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> (306–337 AD), Anatolia enjoyed relative peace that allowed itself to grow as a region. <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> removed all debts owed to the Roman Empire by the provinces and protectorates, making advanced progress possible. Roads were built to connect the larger cities in order to improve trade and transportation, and the abundance of high outputs in agricultural pursuits made more money for everyone involved. Settlement was encouraged, and local governors did not place a heavy burden upon the people with regards to taxation. The wealth gained from peace and prosperity prevented great tragedy as powerful earthquakes tore through the region, and help was given from the Roman government and other parties. It was also an age that produced some of the most respected scientific men of the classical period including the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio</a> of Bithynia, the physician <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, and the historians <a href="/wiki/Memnon_of_Heraclea" title="Memnon of Heraclea">Memnon of Heraclea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jovian_and_the_Valentinians_363–378"><span id="Jovian_and_the_Valentinians_363.E2.80.93378"></span>Jovian and the Valentinians 363–378</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Jovian and the Valentinians 363–378"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_dynasty" title="Valentinian dynasty">Valentinian dynasty</a></div> <p>Upon Julian's death, a military commander in his army, <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a> (363–364) was chosen as the new emperor. He was not connected to Constantine's family and his brief reign was notable for re-establishing Christianity and for making a settlement with the Persians that was very much in their favour. He in turn was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a> (364–375), another soldier and founder of the <a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a>, who almost immediately divided the empire again, moving to the west leaving the east in the hands of his brother <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> (364–378). Valens preoccupied himself with the east only to discover a Constatinian usurper <a href="/wiki/Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a> had declared himself emperor resulting in a civil war. In the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thyatira" title="Battle of Thyatira">Battle of Thyatira</a> in <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> in 366, Procopius was captured and killed. </p><p>Valens was faced with war on two fronts, with the Goths in the Balkans with whom he made a hasty peace in 369, so he could deal with the Persian attacks on Armenia. His problems were compounded by a revolt in <a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isauria</a>, attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Saracens" class="mw-redirect" title="Saracens">Saracens</a> on Syria, and having to send troops to help with the wars against the <a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">Barbarians</a> in the west. He had made his capital, Antioch, but found conditions in the East deteriorating again with the Goths pouring into Thrace. In 378 Valens decided to confront them without waiting for reinforcements from the west meeting the invading army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a>. At the end of the battle Valens and much of his army lay dead. </p><p>Valens split Cappadocia, already much diminished into two provinces, Cappadocia prima in the north and Cappadocia secunda in the southwest around <a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tyana</a>. </p><p>For a brief time the empire was reunited (378–379) under the western emperor <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> (375–383), son of Valentinian I and nephew of Valens, before he realised he needed someone to rule in the east separately, dispatching his brother in law, <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (379–395), to Constantinople. In the west the Valentinians continued in power until the death of <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> (425–455). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theodosian_dynasty_378–455"><span id="Theodosian_dynasty_378.E2.80.93455"></span>Theodosian dynasty 378–455</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Theodosian dynasty 378–455"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png/250px-Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png/375px-Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png/500px-Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>Roman Empire at final division 395 AD, showing Prefectures</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dioecesis_Asiana_400_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Dioecesis_Asiana_400_AD.png/250px-Dioecesis_Asiana_400_AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Dioecesis_Asiana_400_AD.png/375px-Dioecesis_Asiana_400_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Dioecesis_Asiana_400_AD.png/500px-Dioecesis_Asiana_400_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="609" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>Diocese of Asia 400 AD</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png/250px-Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png/375px-Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png/500px-Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>Diocese of Pontus 400 AD</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png/250px-Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png/375px-Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png/500px-Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="671" /></a><figcaption>Diocese of the East 400 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Since Theodosius I (379–395) was only related to the Valentinians through marriage, he is regarded as the founder of a separate <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a>. Like Constantine he is remembered in history as both <i>Great</i> and <i>Saint</i>. He was also the last emperor to rule over both east and west. He continued the tradition of co-rulers, appointing his son <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> as co-ruler (383–395). </p><p>The situation in the west was extremely complex. On the death of Valentinian I in 375, <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> (375–383) his son acceded to the throne but Valentinian I's generals proclaimed his four-year-old brother <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a> (375–392) necessitating a further division of the western empire. Gratian was killed in 383, by the usurper Magnus Maximus (383–388). Once Theodosius had disposed of him in 388, he was again sole ruler (388–393), Valentinian II only being 17, but technically a co-ruler with a guardian. However, he died in 392, whereupon another usurper, <a href="/wiki/Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a> appeared (392–394). Theodosius then appointed another son <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> (394–423) in the place of Valentinian, although he was only eight years old. Theodosius then disposed of Eugenius at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frigidus" title="Battle of the Frigidus">Battle of the Frigidus</a> in 394. </p><p>Theodosius's major problems were with the Goths and his western frontier, which kept him away from Constantinople. He became notorious for his perpetration of the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Thessalonica" title="Massacre of Thessalonica">Massacre of Thessalonica</a> in 390, and had to deal with all the problems going on in the west (see above). On the eastern front he came to an arrangement with the <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassenids</a> in 384 over <a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia</a> establishing a firm frontier, but essentially agreeing to give up most of Greater Armenia. This arrangement proved relatively stale over a long time. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-Persian_Frontier,_5th_century.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png/250px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png/375px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png/500px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>The Eastern frontier with Persia in 384 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite all these events he was able to contribute considerably to Anatolian life. The great <a href="/wiki/Obelisk_of_Theodosius" title="Obelisk of Theodosius">obelisk</a> that he had transported from <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> to Constantinople in 390 still stands today. He rebuilt Constantine's great <a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Theodosius" title="Forum of Theodosius">Forum</a> in 393 and today it also bears his name. He also played a part in religious life, issuing an <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">edict</a> in 380 that established the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria as the official version of Christianity, that was still very heterogeneous. He was baptised and appointed the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch of Constantinople</a>. Then in 381 he continued Constantine's work in Nicaea by calling a new <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">ecumenical council in Constantinople</a> to entrench orthodoxy and repair relations with Rome. </p><p>During the 4th century, most of the provinces making up the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Diocese of the East</a> were split in two, e.g. Cilicia I, Cilicia II. The Armenian situation was complex. In the west (west of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>) lay the older territory of <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Armenia" title="Lesser Armenia">Lesser Armenia</a>, within the Diocese of Pontus, being lands most recently acquired from Cappadocia, and forming two provinces, Armenia prima and Armenia secunda. In the east there were also two territories. In the North lay Armenia maior had provincial status, while the southern part consisted of a federation of six <a href="/wiki/Satrapies" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapies">satrapies</a> or principalities (<a href="/wiki/Angeghtun" title="Angeghtun">Ingilene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anzitene" class="mw-redirect" title="Anzitene">Anzitene</a>, Asthianene, <a href="/wiki/Sophanene" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophanene">Sophanene</a> and Balabitene) allied to the empire. </p><p>Theodosius died in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> in 395, and was buried in Constantinople. His sons <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> divided the empire between them and it was never again to be united. Thus the Eastern Empire was finally established by the beginning of the 5th century, as it entered the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, while the west was to decay and Rome to be sacked under Honorius. The west limped on under a series of short lived emperors and progressively shrinking empire, in which the east frequently intervened, effectively ending with <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> (474–475). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judaism_and_Christianity_in_Anatolia_during_Roman_times">Judaism and Christianity in Anatolia during Roman times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Judaism and Christianity in Anatolia during Roman times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> grew geographically it became increasingly diverse and the influence of many religions beyond the traditional Roman values was increasingly felt. Slowly a movement for religious tolerance developed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Judaism">Judaism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></div> <p>Jewish legend describes <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish dispersion</a> from as early as the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a> and the time of <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>. Although there may have been some settlement in the 4th century BC this was substantial before the time of the Seleucids. In about 210 BC, <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus III">Antiochus III</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> relocated 2,000 families of Jews from <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a>, and this migration continued throughout the remainder of the Empire's existence.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principal centres were <a href="/wiki/Apamea_(Phrygia)" title="Apamea (Phrygia)">Apamea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laodicea_on_the_Lycus" title="Laodicea on the Lycus">Laodicea on the Lycus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hierapolis_Euphratensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierapolis Euphratensis">Hierapolis Euphratensis</a>. Additional clues to the size of the Jewish influence in the area were provided by <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, who noted that a fellow Roman governor had halted the tribute sent to <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> by Jews in 66 BC, and the record of <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, where the people urged <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Agrippa</a> to expel Jews because they were not active in their religious activities. The Romans provided some protection to Jewish communities after they occupied Anatolia in 188 BC. The existing Hellenistic communities were not favourably disposed to the distinct culture in their midst and initiated discriminatory measures. In contrast the emperors promised freedom of religious practice. Jewish communities in the area collected monies to send to Jerusalem. There was more assimilation and even hybrid religious practices. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a> (AD) the Jewish communities were more accepted in the Hellenistic world, but (other than in Cappadocia) the ties with <a href="/wiki/Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaea">Judaea</a> were weakening. Christianity made little impact on Judaism in Anatolia before the making of it a state religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramsay_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramsay-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity">Christianity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Early centers of Christianity</a></div> <p>We have very little information regarding the spread of Christianity from the events recorded in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gospels" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospels">gospels</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavians</a> (69–96 AD), other than the life and works of <a href="/wiki/St_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="St Paul">St Paul</a> recorded in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_1st_century">The 1st century</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: The 1st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">Christianity in the 1st century</a></div> <p>Paul came originally from <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin" title="Tarsus, Mersin">Tarsus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>, but spent much of his early life in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. Early accounts suggest a community practising in <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, and likely elsewhere in Syria and neighbouring Palestine, where Paul spent some time.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following was predominantly an urban phenomenon. The <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a>, our primary source suggests that converts were predominantly amongst the Jewish population, the Gentile following in Syria being the exception.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the account of the Acts of the Apostles, we must rely on the various <a href="/wiki/Letters_of_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Letters of Paul">letters of Paul</a> included in the New Testament, of which a number were to Anatolian churches (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Galatians" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter to the Galatians">Galatians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ephesians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephesians">Ephesians</a>). From sources such as the <a href="/wiki/Letter_to_the_Galatians" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter to the Galatians">Letter to the Galatians</a> we learn that Paul spent a considerable time in the vicinity of his home town of Tarsus in Cilicia and that the church there was linked to the Syrian churches. Put together these various Pauline sources suggest considerable missionary activity by Paul and Barnabas throughout Anatolia, and adherence to the new faith in both Jewish and hellenised Gentile society. He appears to have made <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, the metropolis of the province of Asia, his headquarters (54-56AD).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another New Testament source, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Churches_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Churches of Asia">Seven Churches of Asia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyatira" title="Thyatira">Thyatira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ala%C5%9Fehir" title="Alaşehir">Philadelphia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laodicea_on_the_Lycus" title="Laodicea on the Lycus">Laodicea</a>), a list which includes not only large urban centres but also smaller towns. Certainly Asia Minor appears to have been the centre of Christianity at least until the late 40s, before spreading across the Aegean and eventually Rome itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Ramsay_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramsay-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Paul noted that "all they which dwelt in Asia heard the word" and verified the existence of a church in <a href="/wiki/Colossae" title="Colossae">Colossae</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Troad" title="Troad">Troas</a>. Later he received letters from <a href="/wiki/Magnesia_on_the_Maeander" title="Magnesia on the Maeander">Magnesia</a><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tralleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tralleis">Tralleis</a>, both of which already had churches, bishops, and official representatives who supported <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a> in the 2nd century.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even other non-Christians started to take notice of the new religion. In 112 the Roman governor in <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a> writes to the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> that so many different people are flocking to Christianity, leaving the temples vacated.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Greece" title="Category:History of Greece">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History of <span class="fn org label">Greece</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Greece,_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli;_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Greece, drawn in 1791 by William Faden, at the scale of 1,350,000"><img alt="Map of Greece, drawn in 1791 by William Faden, at the scale of 1,350,000" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg/250px-Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg/375px-Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg/500px-Map_of_Greece%2C_Archipelago_and_part_of_Anadoli%3B_Louis_Stanislas_d%27Arcy_Delarochette_1791.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9411" data-file-height="6605" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Greece" title="Neolithic Greece">Neolithic Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelasgians" title="Pelasgians">Pelasgians</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Aegean_civilization" title="Aegean civilization">Greek Bronze Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helladic_chronology" title="Helladic chronology">Helladic chronology</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic</a> <small>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100–1000</span> BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a> <small>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100–1100</span> BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenean</a> <small>(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1750–1050</span> BC)</small></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> <small>(1100 BC–750 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a> <small>(800 BC–480 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> <small>(500 BC–323 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a> <small>(323 BC–31 BC)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman Greece</a> <small>(146 BC–330 AD)</small></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greece" title="Medieval Greece">Medieval Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine Greece</a><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankish and Latin states</a> <small>(1204-1579)</small><br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Candia" title="Kingdom of Candia">Venetian Crete</a> <small>(1205-1667)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_rule_in_the_Ionian_Islands" title="Venetian rule in the Ionian Islands">Venetian Ionian Islands</a> <small>(1363-1797)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman Greece</a> <small>(1371-1912)</small><br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Greece" title="History of modern Greece">Modern Greece</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septinsular_Republic" title="Septinsular Republic">Septinsular Republic</a> <small>(1800-1807)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">War of Independence</a> <small>(1821-1829)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Hellenic_Republic" title="First Hellenic Republic">First Hellenic Republic</a> <small>(1822-1832)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Kingdom of Greece</a> <small>(1832-1924, 1935-1973)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Schism" title="National Schism">National Schism</a> <small>(1914/15-1917)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hellenic_Republic" title="Second Hellenic Republic">Second Hellenic Republic</a> <small>(1924-1935)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_of_August_Regime" title="4th of August Regime">4th of August Regime</a> <small>(1936-1941)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">Axis occupation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_State_(1941%E2%80%931944)" title="Hellenic State (1941–1944)">Collaborationist regime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_Committee_of_National_Liberation" title="Political Committee of National Liberation">Free Greece</a>) <small>(1941-1944)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Civil War</a> <small>(1946-1949)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Military Junta</a> <small>(1967-1974)</small><br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Hellenic_Republic" title="Third Hellenic Republic">Third Hellenic Republic</a> <small>(1974-)</small><br /></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">History by topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="History of agriculture in Greece">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_art" title="Greek art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Greece#History" title="Church of Greece">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history_of_Greece" title="Constitutional history of Greece">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Greece_and_the_Greek_world" title="Economic history of Greece and the Greek world">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Greeks" title="Names of the Greeks">Ethnonyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek" title="History of Greek">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek_music" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Greek music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece" title="Military history of Greece">Military</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/16px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/24px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/32px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Greece" title="Portal:Greece">Greece portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Greece" title="Template:History of Greece"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Greece" title="Template talk:History of Greece"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Turkey" title="Category:History of Turkey">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:transparent"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">History of <span class="fn org label">Turkey</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;padding-bottom:0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Turkey in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, 1921"><img alt="Turkey in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, 1921" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg/250px-W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg/375px-W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg/500px-W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4676" data-file-height="3626" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Prehistory of Anatolia</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia#Paleolithic" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Palaeolithic Anatolia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500,000– <br />10,000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia#Mesolithic" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Mesolithic Anatolia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> c. 11,000– <br />9,000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia#Neolithic" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Neolithic Anatolia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> c. 8,000– <br />5,500 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 3000–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 2500–2000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 2400–2150 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Luwians" title="Luwians">Luwians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 2300–1400 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1950–1750 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kussara" title="Kussara">Kussara</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1780–1680 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Achaeans_(Homer)" title="Achaeans (Homer)">Achaeans (Homer)</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1700–1300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kizzuwatna" title="Kizzuwatna">Kizzuwatna</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1650–1450 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1680–1220 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Arzawa" title="Arzawa">Arzawa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1500–1320 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1500–1300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hayasa-Azzi" title="Hayasa-Azzi">Hayasa-Azzi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1500–1290 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1450–350 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Assuwa" title="Assuwa">Assuwa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1300–1250 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Diauehi" title="Diauehi">Diauehi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Neo-Hittites</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1150–547 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tuwanuwa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–545 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 859–595/585 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Diauehi" title="Diauehi">Diauehi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Neo-Hittites</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1200–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1150–547 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1100–560 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–560 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tuwanuwa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–700 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 1000–545 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 859–595/585 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 678–549 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 685–547 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Classical Anatolia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Thracians#Classical_period" title="Thracians">Classical Thrace</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 559–331 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Kingdom of Alexander the Great</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 334–301 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 322–130 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 306–168 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 305–64 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 305–30 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 302–64 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 297–74 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Attalid_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid kingdom">Attalid kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 282–129 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 281–64 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 190 BC–428 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 133–27 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 163 BC–72 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 133 BC-27 BC–330 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;"> 224–651 AD (briefly in Anatolia)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval Age</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Anatolia">Medieval Anatolia</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (330–1453; 1204-1261 in exile as <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Empire of Nicaea</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (637–656)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1037–1194)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Danishmends" class="mw-redirect" title="Danishmends">Danishmends</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1071–1178)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Sultanate of Rum</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1077–1307)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1078–1375)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">Anatolian beyliks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1081–1423)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1098–1150)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Artuqids" title="Artuqids">Artuqids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1101–1409)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1204–1461)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1204–1261)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Karamanids" title="Karamanids">Karamanids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1250–1487)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1256–1335)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kara_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1375–1468)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Ak Koyunlu</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1378–1501)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Era</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">Periods of Ottoman Empire</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1299–1453)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1453–1566)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1566–1703)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Old Regime</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1703–1789)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1828%E2%80%931908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire (1828–1908)">Decline and modernization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1789–1908)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Defeat_and_dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1908%E2%80%931922)" class="mw-redirect" title="Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922)">Defeat and dissolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1908–1922)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="History of the Republic of Turkey">Periods of Turkey</a></li></ul></div> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">War of Independence</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1919–1922)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Grand_National_Assembly" title="Government of the Grand National Assembly">Provisional government</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1920–1923)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/One-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="One-party period of the Republic of Turkey">One-party period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1923–1930)<br />(1930–1945)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Multi-party_period_of_the_Republic_of_Turkey" title="Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey">Multi-party period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;line-height:1.2em;font-size:88%;"> (1945–present)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.3em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turkic migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">Turkification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Anatolia" title="List of ancient peoples of Anatolia">Ancient peoples of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia" title="History of Anatolia">History of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thrace">History of Thrace</a></li> <li><a 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title="History of Anatolia">History of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Anatolia" title="Prehistory of Anatolia">Prehistory of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_regions_of_Anatolia" title="Ancient regions of Anatolia">Ancient regions of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_kingdoms_of_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia">Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_states_in_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval states in Anatolia">Medieval states in Anatolia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-desouza-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-desouza_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-desouza_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDe_Souza2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">De Souza, Philip (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V5BeCF82gwUC"><i>The Greek and Persian Wars 499–386 BC</i></a>. Vol. 36 of Essential histories. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781841763583" title="Special:BookSources/9781841763583"><bdi>9781841763583</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+and+Persian+Wars+499%E2%80%93386+BC&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781841763583&rft.aulast=De+Souza&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV5BeCF82gwUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-briant-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-briant_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC"><i>From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Pierre Briant</a>, Eisenbrauns: 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-031-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-031-6">978-1-57506-031-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eias-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eias_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eias_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eias_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-satrapies">Encyclopaedia Iranica: Achaemanid Satrapies</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Botsford-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Botsford_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Botsford_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotsford1922" class="citation book cs1">Botsford, George Willis (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hellenichistory00botsuoft"><i>Hellenic History</i></a>. The Macmillan Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenic+History&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Botsford&rft.aufirst=George+Willis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhellenichistory00botsuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brown-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brown_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brown_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/293869">Aristodicus of Cyme and the Branchidae. Truesdell S. Brown. The American Journal of Philology Vol. 99, No. 1 (Spring, 1978), pp. 64–78</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8173275">"The Works of Herodotus"</a>. MIT. 2006-11-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-10-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Works+of+Herodotus&rft.date=2006-11-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fdisplaystory.cfm%3Fstory_id%3D8173275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CBR137-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CBR137_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose2014" class="citation book cs1">Rose, Charles Brian (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9gaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137"><i>The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Troy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521762076" title="Special:BookSources/9780521762076"><bdi>9780521762076</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Greek+and+Roman+Troy&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780521762076&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Charles+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY9gaAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bury-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bury_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bury_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury1913" class="citation book cs1">Bury, John Bagnell (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201878"><i>A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great</i></a>. Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Greece+to+the+Death+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=John+Bagnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.201878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eiag-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eiag_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alexander-the-great-356-23-BC">Encyclopaedia Iranica: Alexander the Great</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ista.univ-fcomte.fr/publications/iso_album/82_briant_81.pdf">Briant, P. "Des Achéménides aux rois hellénistiques: continuités et ruptures," <i>Annali della Scuola di Pisa</i> 9/4, 1979, pp. 1375–414)</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2019">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shipley-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shipley_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shipley_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shipley_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HPAOAAAAQAAJ">Shipley, Graham (2000) <i>The Greek World After Alexander</i>. Routledge History of the Ancient World. (Routledge, New York)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freeman-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Freeman (1999).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rawlinson-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rawlinson_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rawlinson_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rawlinson_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawlinson1900" class="citation book cs1">Rawlinson, George (1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancienthistoryfr00rawluoft"><i>Ancient History: From the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Western Empire</i></a>. 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M.</a> (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180419183150/https://philologos.org/__eb-lttsc/"><i>The Letters to the </i>Seven Churches of Asia<i><span></span></i></a>. Hodder & Stoughton. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philologos.org/__eb-lttsc/">the original</a> on 2018-04-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letters+to+the+Seven+Churches+of+Asia&rft.pub=Hodder+%26+Stoughton&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Ramsay&rft.aufirst=W.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilologos.org%2F__eb-lttsc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tyndalehouse.com/tynbul/library/tynbull_2003_54_1_02_wilson_ciliciachurchesanatolia.pdf">Wilson, Michael. Cilicia:The First Christian Churches in Anatolia. Tyndale Bulletin 54.1 (2003) 15–30.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5789-ephesus">Ephesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2010-asia-minor">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cambridge Ancient History</i> vol. x 851</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cambridge Ancient History</i> vol. x 853</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cambridge Ancient History</i> vol. x 855</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cambridge Ancient History</i> vol. x 857</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cambridge Ancient History</i> vol. x 858</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/magnesians.html">Early Christian Writings: Ignatius – The Epistle to the Magnesians</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cambridge Ancient History</i> vol. x 853, 858</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation book cs1">Herbermann, Charles George (1913). <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Robert Appleton Co. pp. 788–789.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=788-789&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Co.&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Herbermann&rft.aufirst=Charles+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_works">Reference works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Reference works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110103125533/http://histories.cambridge.org/collection?id=set_cambridge_ancient_history">Cambridge Ancient History Online 14 vols. 1970–2000</a><br /> <i>Note: The original 11 vol. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Ancient_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Ancient History">Cambridge Ancient History</a> 1928–36 is now <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalbookindex.com/_search/search010hstancienta.asp">available as free ebooks</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/ca/knowledge/series/series_display/item3936908/?site_locale=en_CA">Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World. 10 vols.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-WC7UgQHQlcC">Hastings, James. <i>A Dictionary of the Bible: Dealing with Its Language, Literature, and Contents, Including the Biblical Theology</i>. Volume III: (Part I: Kir—Nympha). Minerva 2004 (reprinted from 1898).</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781410217264" title="Special:BookSources/9781410217264">9781410217264</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxford-classicaldictionary3.com/LOGIN?sessionid=dd91b80e0d2f090eec04e7117c80a3a1&authstatuscode=400">Hornblower, Simon; Antony Spawforth (1996). <i>The Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>. Oxford University Press</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160309230957/http://oxford-classicaldictionary3.com/login?authstatuscode=400&sessionid=dd91b80e0d2f090eec04e7117c80a3a1">Archived</a> 2016-03-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i_F5e3lnUjsC">John Lemprière. A classical dictionary, containing a copious account of all the proper names mentioned in antient authors... 1839</a></li> <li>McEvedy, Colin (1967). <i>The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History</i>. Penguin.</li> <li>Marek, Christian (2010), <i>Geschichte Kleinasiens in der Antike</i> C. H. Beck, Munich, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-59853-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-59853-1">978-3-406-59853-1</a> (review: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101012222832/http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010-08-13.html">M. Weiskopf, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.08.13</a>).</li> <li>Smith W (ed.), <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Geography" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography">Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography</a> Walton and Maberly, London 1854. 2 vols. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0064">Direct Link to Online Version</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyantiquit07duncgoog">Duncker, Max (1879). <i>The History of Antiquity, Volume III</i>. Richard Bentley & Son.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuthan2009–2014" class="citation web cs1">Suthan, Resat (2009–2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientanatolia.com/historical/">"Travels around Asia Minor 1976–2002. Anatoliaa: Historical"</a>. Thracian Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Travels+around+Asia+Minor+1976%E2%80%932002.+Anatoliaa%3A+Historical&rft.pub=Thracian+Ltd.&rft.date=2009%2F2014&rft.aulast=Suthan&rft.aufirst=Resat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ancientanatolia.com%2Fhistorical%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassical+Anatolia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_period">Classical period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Classical period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Freeman_(historian)" title="Charles Freeman (historian)">Freeman, Charles</a> (1999). <i>Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-872194-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-872194-3">0-19-872194-3</a>.</li> <li>Ramsay, W.M. (1904). <i>The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia</i>. Hodder & Stoughton.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HPAOAAAAQAAJ">Shipley, Graham (2000) <i>The Greek World After Alexander</i>. Routledge History of the Ancient World. (Routledge, New York)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Hellenistic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bevan, Edwyn Robert (1902). <i>The House of Seleucus</i>. E. Arnold.</li> <li>Botsford, George Willis (1922). <i>Hellenic History</i>. The Macmillan Company.</li> <li>Bury, John Bagnell (1913). <i>A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great</i>. Macmillan.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persian">Persian</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Persian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Pierre Briant</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC"><i>From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire</i></a>, Eisenbrauns: 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-031-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-031-6">978-1-57506-031-6</a> Originally published in French as <i>Histoire de l'Empire perse</i>, Fayard, Paris, 1996</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dascylium">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XWbhmebyhxAC">Amélie Kuhrt. <i>The Persian Empire</i></a>. Routledge, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-43628-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-43628-1">0-415-43628-1</a>, 9780415436281</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V5BeCF82gwUC">Philip De Souza. <i>The Greek and Persian Wars 499–386 BC</i></a>, Volume 36 of Essential histories. Osprey Publishing, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781841763583" title="Special:BookSources/9781841763583">9781841763583</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman">Roman</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Roman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Mommsen, Theodor (1906). <i>The History of Rome: The Provinces, from Caesar to Diocletian.</i> Charles Scribner's Sons.</li> <li>Runciman, Steven (1933). <i>Byzantine Civilization</i>. Methuen, London.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Anatolia&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a 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/></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historical_regions_of_Anatolia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:paleturquoise"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historical_regions_of_Anatolia" title="Template:Historical regions of Anatolia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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