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</button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman–Parthian_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman–Parthian_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Roman–Parthian wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman–Parthian_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_Republic_vs._Parthia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Republic_vs._Parthia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Roman Republic vs. Parthia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Republic_vs._Parthia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire_vs._Parthia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire_vs._Parthia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Roman Empire vs. Parthia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire_vs._Parthia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman–Sasanian_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman–Sasanian_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Roman–Sasanian wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman–Sasanian_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Roman–Sasanian_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Roman–Sasanian_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Roman–Sasanian_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine–Sasanian_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine–Sasanian_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Byzantine–Sasanian wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine–Sasanian_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anastasian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anastasian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Anastasian War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anastasian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iberian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iberian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Iberian War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iberian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lazic_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lazic_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Lazic War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lazic_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_for_the_Caucasus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_for_the_Caucasus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 War for the Caucasus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_for_the_Caucasus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.5 Climax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategies_and_military_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategies_and_military_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Strategies and military tactics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategies_and_military_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assessments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assessments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Assessments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assessments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Secondary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Roman–Persian Wars</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" > 46 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misch-Persische_Kriege" title="Römisch-Persische Kriege – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Römisch-Persische Kriege" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="حروب الروم والفرس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حروب الروم والفرس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A7%D5%A1-%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8A%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հռոմէա-պարսկական Պատերազմներ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հռոմէա-պարսկական Պատերազմներ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_romano-sas%C3%A1nides" title="Guerres romano-sasánides – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerres romano-sasánides" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ran%E2%80%93Roma_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99l%C9%99ri" title="İran–Roma müharibələri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İran–Roma müharibələri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3_%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="فارس و روم ساواشلاری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فارس و روم ساواشلاری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Римско-персийски войни – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Римско-персийски войни" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_romano-perses" title="Guerres romano-perses – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerres romano-perses" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsko-persk%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky" title="Římsko-perské války – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římsko-perské války" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misch-Persische_Kriege" title="Römisch-Persische Kriege – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römisch-Persische Kriege" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma-P%C3%A4rsia_s%C3%B5jad" title="Rooma-Pärsia sõjad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma-Pärsia sõjad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Ρωμαιοπερσικοί Πόλεμοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαιοπερσικοί Πόλεμοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_romano-sas%C3%A1nidas" title="Guerras romano-sasánidas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras romano-sasánidas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom-Persaj_Militoj" title="Rom-Persaj Militoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rom-Persaj Militoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar-Persiar_gerrak" title="Erromatar-Persiar gerrak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar-Persiar gerrak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="جنگ‌های ایران و روم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌های ایران و روم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_perso-romaines" title="Guerres perso-romaines – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerres perso-romaines" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinsk-Perzyske_Oarloggen" title="Romeinsk-Perzyske Oarloggen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Romeinsk-Perzyske Oarloggen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88-%ED%8E%98%EB%A5%B4%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="로마-페르시아 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마-페르시아 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1-%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հռոմեա-պարսկական պատերազմներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմեա-պարսկական պատերազմներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko-perzijski_ratovi" title="Rimsko-perzijski ratovi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimsko-perzijski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Romawi%E2%80%93Persia" title="Perang Romawi–Persia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Romawi–Persia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_romano-persiane" title="Guerre romano-persiane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerre romano-persiane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="რომაულ-სპარსული ომები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რომაულ-სპარსული ომები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_inter_Romanos_et_Persas" title="Bella inter Romanos et Persas – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bella inter Romanos et Persas" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C4%97n%C5%B3-pers%C5%B3_karai" title="Romėnų-persų karai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romėnų-persų karai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mai%E2%80%93sz%C3%A1sz%C3%A1nida_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BAk" title="Római–szászánida háborúk – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Római–szászánida háborúk" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeins-Perzische_oorlogen" title="Romeins-Perzische oorlogen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeins-Perzische oorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_romersk-persiske_kriger" title="De romersk-persiske kriger – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="De romersk-persiske kriger" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rras_Persoromanas" title="Guèrras Persoromanas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrras Persoromanas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="رومی ایرانی جنگاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رومی ایرانی جنگاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojny_rzymsko-sasanidzkie" title="Wojny rzymsko-sasanidzkie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Roman–Persian Wars</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>54 BC – 628 AD (681 years)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">Southern Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasus">Transcaucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Inconclusive</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> 54–27 BC <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> 54–27 BC <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 27 BC – 224 AD <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 27 BC – 224 AD <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 224–395 <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 224–395 <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 395–628 <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 395–628 <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Clients/allies</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_influence_in_Caucasian_Albania" title="Roman influence in Caucasian Albania">Albania</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Galatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Galatia">Galatia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germans</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Hatra</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia" title="Kingdom of Iberia">Iberia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kinda" title="Kingdom of Kinda">Kinda</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Tzani" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzani">Tzani</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a> </li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Clients/allies</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Abasgoi" title="Abasgoi">Abasgia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Albania</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Daylamites" title="Daylamites">Daylamites</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hatra" title="Kingdom of Hatra">Hatra</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyar</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia" title="Kingdom of Iberia">Iberia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid_kingdom" title="Lakhmid kingdom">Lakhmids</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Media Atropatene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompeians</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sabir_people" title="Sabir people">Sabirs</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sclaveni" title="Sclaveni">Sclaveni</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Xionites" title="Xionites">Xionites</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Crassus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Balista" title="Balista">Balista</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Justinian_(magister_militum_per_Orientem)" title="Justinian (magister militum per Orientem)">Justinian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_II_Constantine" title="Tiberius II Constantine">Tiberius II Constantine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a></li></ul></div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Clients/allies</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Phasael" title="Phasael">Phasael</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Artavasdes_II_of_Armenia" title="Artavasdes II of Armenia">Artavasdes II of Armenia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_VI_of_Armenia" title="Tigranes VI of Armenia">Tigranes VI of Armenia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_of_Commagene" title="Antiochus IV of Commagene">Antiochus IV of Commagene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Polemon_II_of_Pontus" title="Polemon II of Pontus">Polemon II of Pontus</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Chalcis" title="Aristobulus of Chalcis">Aristobulus of Chalcis</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates of Parthia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Sanatruq_II" title="Sanatruq II">Sanatruq II</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Arshak_II" title="Arshak II">Arshak II of Armenia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Mushegh_I_Mamikonian" title="Mushegh I Mamikonian">Mushegh I Mamikonian</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Pharas_the_Herulian" title="Pharas the Herulian">Pharas the Herulian</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Gubazes_I_of_Lazica" title="Gubazes I of Lazica">Gubazes I of Lazica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Vakhtang_I_of_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Vakhtang I of Iberia">Vakhtang I of Iberia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Jabalah_IV_ibn_al-Harith" title="Jabalah IV ibn al-Harith">Jabalah IV ibn al-Harith</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Gubazes_II_of_Lazica" title="Gubazes II of Lazica">Gubazes II of Lazica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Tzath_I_of_Lazica" title="Tzath I of Lazica">Tzath I of Lazica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Jabalah" title="Al-Harith ibn Jabalah">Al-Harith ibn Jabalah</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_III_ibn_al-Harith" title="Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith">Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Tong_Yabghu_Qaghan" title="Tong Yabghu Qaghan">Ziebel</a> </li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surena" title="Surena">Surena</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Orodes_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Orodes II of Parthia">Orodes II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sanatruces_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanatruces II of Parthia">Sinatruces II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI</a></li></ul></div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Clients/allies</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Labienus" title="Quintus Labienus">Quintus Labienus</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Artavasdes_I_of_Media_Atropatene" title="Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene">Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_I_of_Armenia" title="Tiridates I of Armenia">Tiridates I of Armenia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Monobaz_II" title="Monobaz II">Monobazus II of Adiabene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Meharaspes" title="Meharaspes">Meharaspes of Adiabene</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Mirian_III_of_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirian III of Iberia">Mirian III of Iberia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/%27Amr_ibn_Imru%27_al-Qays" class="mw-redirect" title="'Amr ibn Imru' al-Qays">'Amr ibn Imru' al-Qays</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Grumbates" title="Grumbates">Grumbates</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Urnayr" title="Urnayr">Urnayr of Caucasian Albania</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_I_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man">Al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_III_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man">Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Gubazes_II_of_Lazica" title="Gubazes II of Lazica">Gubazes II of Lazica</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_IV_ibn_al-Mundhir" title="Al-Mundhir IV ibn al-Mundhir">Al-Mundhir IV ibn al-Mundhir</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_I_of_Iberia" title="Stephen I of Iberia">Stephen I of Iberia</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action">†</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_ben_Hushiel" title="Nehemiah ben Hushiel">Nehemiah ben Hushiel</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tiberias" title="Benjamin of Tiberias">Benjamin of Tiberias</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman–Persian_Wars" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Roman–Persian Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Roman–Persian Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Roman–Persian Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman–Persian_Wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman–Persian Wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Carrhae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_Parthian_Empire" title="Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire">Caesar's planned invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">Pompeian–Parthian invasion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cilician_Gates" title="Battle of the Cilician Gates">Cilician Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amanus_Pass" title="Battle of Amanus Pass">Amanus Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Gindarus" title="Battle of Mount Gindarus">Mt Gindarus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Atropatene_campaign" title="Antony's Atropatene campaign">Mark Antony's campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Armenian War of 58–63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">Trajan's Parthian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">Lucius Verus' campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(198)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (198)">2nd Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_war_of_Caracalla" title="Parthian war of Caracalla">Parthian war of Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nisibis_(217)" title="Battle of Nisibis (217)">Nisibis</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Sasanian wars">Roman–Sasanian wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaigns_of_Ardashir_I" title="Mesopotamian campaigns of Ardashir I">Mesopotamia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_campaign_of_Severus_Alexander" title="Sassanid campaign of Severus Alexander">Campaign of Severus Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(235)" title="Siege of Nisibis (235)">Nisibis (235)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Hatra" title="Fall of Hatra">Hatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" title="Battle of Resaena">Resaena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Misiche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(252)" title="Siege of Nisibis (252)">Nisibis (252)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos" title="Battle of Barbalissos">Barbalissos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch_(253)" title="Siege of Antioch (253)">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dura-Europos_(256)" title="Siege of Dura-Europos (256)">Dura-Europos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caesarea_Cappadocia_(260)" title="Siege of Caesarea Cappadocia (260)">Caesarea (260)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(263)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (263)">3rd Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae_(296)" title="Battle of Carrhae (296)">Carrhae (296)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Satala_(298)" title="Battle of Satala (298)">Satala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_wars_of_337%E2%80%93361" title="Perso-Roman wars of 337–361">Perso-Roman wars of 337–361</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singara_(344)" title="Battle of Singara (344)">1st Singara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amida_(359)" title="Siege of Amida (359)">Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Singara_(360)" title="Siege of Singara (360)">2nd Singara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian%27s_Persian_expedition" title="Julian's Persian expedition">Julian's Persian expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pirisabora" title="Siege of Pirisabora">Pirisabora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maiozamalcha" title="Siege of Maiozamalcha">Maiozamalcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maranga" title="Battle of Maranga">Maranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra_(363)" title="Battle of Samarra (363)">Samarra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bagavan" title="Battle of Bagavan">Bagrevand</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sasanian_Wars" title="Byzantine-Sasanian Wars">Byzantine-Sasanian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_421%E2%80%93422" title="Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422">War of 421–422</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_440" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440">War of 440</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasian_War" title="Anastasian War">Anastasian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_War" title="Iberian War">Iberian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazic_War" title="Lazic War">Lazic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_572%E2%80%93591" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591">War of 572–591</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">War of 602–628</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> The Roman–Persian Wars, also known as the Roman–Iranian Wars, were a series of conflicts between states of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> and two successive <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iranian empires</a>: the Parthian and the Sasanian. Battles between the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> began in 54 BC;<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> wars began under the late Republic, and continued through the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman (Byzantine)</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> Empires. A plethora of <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal kingdoms</a> and allied nomadic nations in the form of <a href="/wiki/Buffer_state" title="Buffer state">buffer states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxies</a> also played a role. The wars were ended by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">fall of the Sasanian Empire</a> and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire, shortly after the end of the last war between them. Although warfare between the Romans and Persians continued over seven centuries, the frontier, aside from shifts in the north, remained largely stable. A game of <a href="/wiki/Tug_of_war" title="Tug of war">tug of war</a> ensued: towns, fortifications, and provinces were continually sacked, captured, destroyed, and traded. Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too thin. Both sides did make conquests beyond the border, but in time the balance was almost always restored. Although initially different in military tactics, the armies of both sides gradually adopted from each other and by the second half of the 6th century, they were similar and evenly matched.<a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-2">[2]</a> The expense of resources during the Roman–Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires. The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman–Persian war. Benefiting from their weakened condition, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun armies</a> swiftly <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">conquered</a> the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">entire Sasanian Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">deprived the Eastern Roman Empire</a> of its <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">territories in the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">the Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">rest of North Africa</a>. Over the following centuries, more of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> came under <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslim</a> rule. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical background">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rome-Seleucia-Parthia_200bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Rome-Seleucia-Parthia_200bc.jpg/250px-Rome-Seleucia-Parthia_200bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Rome-Seleucia-Parthia_200bc.jpg/375px-Rome-Seleucia-Parthia_200bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Rome-Seleucia-Parthia_200bc.jpg/500px-Rome-Seleucia-Parthia_200bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1205" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> in 200 BC. Soon both the Romans and the Parthians would invade the Seleucid-held territories, and become the strongest states in western Asia.</figcaption></figure> According to <a href="/wiki/James_Howard-Johnston" title="James Howard-Johnston">James Howard-Johnston</a>, "from the third century BC to the early seventh century AD, the rival players [in the East] were grand polities with imperial pretensions, which had been able to establish and secure stable territories transcending regional divides".<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>. During the 3rd century BC, the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. Although subdued for a time by the Seleucids, in the 2nd century BC they broke away, and established an independent state that steadily expanded at the expense of their former rulers, and through the course of the 2nd and early 1st century BC, they had conquered <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016liii-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Bloisvan_der_Spek2008137-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-BEn-6">[6]</a> Ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Arsacid dynasty</a>, the Parthians fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories, and established several <a href="/wiki/Eponymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Eponymous">eponymous</a> branches in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, namely the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Armenia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Armenia">Arsacid dynasty of Armenia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Iberia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Iberia">Arsacid dynasty of Iberia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Caucasian_Albania" title="Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania">Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania</a>. Meanwhile, the Romans expelled the Seleucids from their territories in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> in the early 2nd century BC, after defeating <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III the Great</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(191_BC)" title="Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)">Thermopylae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Magnesia</a>. Finally, in 64 BC <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> conquered the remaining Seleucid territories in Syria, extinguishing their state and advancing the Roman eastern frontier to the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, where it met the territory of the Parthians.<a href="#cite_note-BEn-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman–Parthian_wars">Roman–Parthian wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman–Parthian wars">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_Republic_vs._Parthia">Roman Republic vs. Parthia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Roman Republic vs. Parthia">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_Parthian_Empire" title="Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire">Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Atropatene_campaign" title="Antony's Atropatene campaign">Antony's Atropatene campaign</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg/150px-Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg/225px-Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg/300px-Sarbaz_Nysa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="353" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian warrior wearing a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic-style helmet</a>, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of <a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa, Turkmenistan</a>, 2nd century BC</figcaption></figure> Parthian enterprise in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a> began in the time of <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> and was revived by <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a>, who negotiated unsuccessfully with <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a> for a Roman–Parthian alliance (c. 105 BC).<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucullus</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Southern Armenia</a> and led an attack against <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes</a> in 69 BC, he corresponded with <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> to dissuade him from intervening. Although the Parthians remained neutral, Lucullus considered attacking them.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In 66–65 BC, <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> reached agreement with Phraates, and Roman–Parthian troops invaded <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a>, but a dispute soon arose over the Euphrates boundary. Finally, Phraates asserted his control over Mesopotamia, except for the western district of <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a>, which became a Roman dependency.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a> general <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a> led an invasion of Mesopotamia in 53 BC with catastrophic results; he and his son <a href="/wiki/Publius_Licinius_Crassus_(son_of_triumvir)" title="Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)">Publius</a> were killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a> by the Parthians under General <a href="/wiki/Surena" title="Surena">Surena</a>;<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> this was the worst Roman defeat since the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arausio" title="Battle of Arausio">battle of Arausio</a>. The Parthians raided Syria the following year, and mounted a major invasion in 51 BC, but their army was caught in an ambush near <a href="/wiki/Antigonia_(Syria)" title="Antigonia (Syria)">Antigonea</a> by the Romans, and they were driven back.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The Parthians largely remained neutral during <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Caesar's Civil War</a>, fought between forces supporting <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and forces supporting <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> and the traditional faction of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. However, they maintained relations with Pompey, and after his defeat and death, a force under <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_I" title="Pacorus I">Pacorus I</a> assisted the Pompeian general <a href="/w/index.php?title=Q._Caecilius_Bassus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Q. Caecilius Bassus (page does not exist)">Q. Caecilius Bassus</a>, who was besieged at <a href="/wiki/Apamea,_Syria" title="Apamea, Syria">Apamea</a> Valley by Caesarian forces. With the civil war over, Julius Caesar <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_Parthian_Empire" title="Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire">prepared a campaign</a> against Parthia, but his assassination averted the war. The Parthians supported <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger">Brutus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Cassius</a> during the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">Liberators' civil war</a> and sent a contingent to fight on their side at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a> in 42 BC.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> After the Liberators' defeat, the Parthians <a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">invaded</a> Roman territory in 40 BC in conjunction with the Roman <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Labienus" title="Quintus Labienus">Quintus Labienus</a>, a former supporter of Brutus and Cassius. They swiftly overran the Roman province of Syria and advanced into <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a>, overthrowing the Roman client <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> and installing his nephew <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus</a>. For a moment, the whole of the Roman East seemed lost to the Parthians or about to fall into their hands. However, the conclusion of the second <a href="/wiki/Roman_civil_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman civil wars">Roman civil war</a> soon revived Roman strength in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> had sent <a href="/wiki/Publius_Ventidius_Bassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Ventidius Bassus">Ventidius</a> to oppose Labienus, who had invaded Anatolia. Soon Labienus was driven back to Syria by Roman forces, and, although reinforced by the Parthians, was defeated, taken prisoner, and killed. After suffering a further defeat near the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Gates">Syrian Gates</a>, the Parthians withdrew from Syria. They returned in 38 BC but were decisively defeated by Ventidius, and Pacorus was killed. In Judaea, Antigonus was ousted with Roman help by <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a> in 37 BC.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> With Roman control of Syria and Judaea restored, Mark Antony led a huge army into <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a>, but his siege train and its escort were isolated and wiped out, while his <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> allies deserted. Failing to make progress against Parthian positions, the Romans withdrew with heavy casualties. Antony was again in Armenia in 33 BC to join with the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median</a> king against <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a> and the Parthians. Other preoccupations obliged him to withdraw, and the whole region came under Parthian control.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_Empire_vs._Parthia">Roman Empire vs. Parthia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roman Empire vs. Parthia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parthia_001ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Parthia_001ad.jpg/250px-Parthia_001ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Parthia_001ad.jpg/375px-Parthia_001ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Parthia_001ad.jpg/500px-Parthia_001ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>Parthia, its subkingdoms, and neighbors in 1 AD</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Roman–Parthian War of 58–63</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">Trajan's Parthian campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">Roman–Parthian War of 161–166</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_war_of_Caracalla" title="Parthian war of Caracalla">Parthian war of Caracalla</a></div> With tensions between the two powers threatening renewed war, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraataces</a> worked out a compromise in 1 AD. According to the agreement, Parthia undertook to withdraw its forces from Armenia and to recognize a <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> Roman protectorate there. Nonetheless, Roman–Persian rivalry over control and influence in Armenia continued unabated for the next several decades.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The decision of the Parthian King <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a> to place his son on the vacant Armenian throne triggered a war with Rome in 36 AD, which ended when Artabanus III abandoned claims to a Parthian sphere of influence in Armenia.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> War erupted in 58 AD, after the Parthian King <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Vologases I">Vologases I</a> forcibly installed his brother <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_I_of_Armenia" title="Tiridates I of Armenia">Tiridates</a> on the Armenian throne.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Roman forces overthrew Tiridates and replaced him with a <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocian</a> prince, triggering an <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">inconclusive war</a>. This came to an end in 63 AD after the Romans agreed to allow Tiridates and his descendants to rule Armenia on condition that they receive the kingship from the Roman emperor.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> A fresh series of conflicts began in the 2nd century AD, during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia. The Emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia during 114 and 115 and annexed them as Roman provinces. He captured the Parthian capital, <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, before sailing downriver to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-S167-20">[20]</a> However, uprisings erupted in 115 AD in the occupied Parthian territories, while a major <a href="/wiki/Kitos_War" title="Kitos War">Jewish revolt</a> broke out in Roman territory, severely stretching Roman military resources. Parthian forces attacked key Roman positions, and the Roman garrisons at <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> were expelled by the local inhabitants. Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia, but having installed the Parthian prince <a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates</a> on the throne as a client ruler, he withdrew his armies and returned to Syria. Trajan died in 117, before he was able to reorganize and consolidate Roman control over the Parthian provinces.<a href="#cite_note-S168-21">[21]</a> Trajan's Parthian War initiated a "shift of emphasis in the 'grand strategy of the Roman empire' ", but his successor, <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, decided that it was in Rome's interest to re-establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control. Hadrian returned to the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo_ante_bellum" title="Status quo ante bellum">status quo ante</a>, and surrendered the territories of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> to their previous rulers and client-kings.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg/220px-Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg/330px-Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg/440px-Septimius_arch_-_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="806" /></a><figcaption>Reliefs depicting war with Parthia on the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a>, built to commemorate the Roman victories</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">War over Armenia</a> broke out again in 161, when <a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a> defeated the Romans there, captured Edessa and ravaged Syria. In 163 a Roman counter-attack under <a href="/wiki/Statius_Priscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Statius Priscus">Statius Priscus</a> defeated the Parthians in Armenia and installed a favored candidate on the Armenian throne. The following year <a href="/wiki/Avidius_Cassius" title="Avidius Cassius">Avidius Cassius</a> invaded Mesopotamia, winning battles at <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a> and Seleucia and sacking Ctesiphon in 165. An epidemic which was sweeping Parthia at the time, possibly of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, spread to the Roman army and forced its withdrawal;<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> this was the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> that raged for a generation throughout the Roman Empire. In 195–197, a Roman offensive under the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> led to Rome's acquisition of northern Mesopotamia as far as the areas around <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singara" title="Singara">Singara</a> and the third sacking of Ctesiphon.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> A final war against the Parthians was launched by the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, who sacked <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Arbela</a> in 216. After his assassination, his successor, <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a>, was defeated by the Parthians near <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nisibis_(217)" title="Battle of Nisibis (217)">Nisibis</a>. In exchange for peace, he was obliged to pay for the damage caused by Caracalla.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman–Sasanian_wars">Roman–Sasanian wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Roman–Sasanian wars">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Roman–Sasanian_conflicts">Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_wars_of_337%E2%80%93361" title="Perso-Roman wars of 337–361">Perso-Roman wars of 337–361</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julian%27s_Persian_expedition" title="Julian's Persian expedition">Julian's Persian expedition</a></div> Conflict resumed shortly after the overthrow of Parthian rule and <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>'s foundation of the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir (r. 226–241) raided Mesopotamia and Syria in 230 and demanded the cession of all the former territories of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> After fruitless negotiations, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a> set out against Ardashir in 232. One column of his army marched into Armenia, while two other columns operated to the south and failed.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In 238–240, towards the end of his reign, Ardashir attacked again, taking several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia, including <a href="/wiki/Carrhae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrhae">Carrhae</a>, Nisibis and <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kazeroun_-_Tange_Chogan_-_panoramio_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kazeroun_-_Tange_Chogan_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/220px-Kazeroun_-_Tange_Chogan_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kazeroun_-_Tange_Chogan_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/330px-Kazeroun_-_Tange_Chogan_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kazeroun_-_Tange_Chogan_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/440px-Kazeroun_-_Tange_Chogan_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bishapur" title="Bishapur">Bishapur</a> Relief II commemorating <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>'s victories on the Western front, depicting him on horseback with a captured <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a>, a dead <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a>, and a kneeling emperor, either <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a> or <a href="/wiki/Uranius" title="Uranius">Uranius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></figcaption></figure> The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir's successor <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>; he invaded Mesopotamia and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Hatra" title="Fall of Hatra">captured Hatra</a>, a buffer state which had recently shifted its loyalty but his forces were defeated at a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" title="Battle of Resaena">battle</a> near <a href="/wiki/Resaena" class="mw-redirect" title="Resaena">Resaena</a> in 243; Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Encouraged by this success, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a> advanced down the Euphrates but was defeated near <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Battle of Misiche</a> in 244. Gordian either died in the battle or was murdered by his own men; <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip</a> became emperor, and paid 500,000 <a href="/wiki/Denarii" class="mw-redirect" title="Denarii">denarii</a> to the Persians in a hastily negotiated peace settlement.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> With the Roman Empire debilitated by Germanic invasions and a series of short-term emperors, Shapur I soon resumed his attacks. In the early 250s, Philip was involved in a struggle over the control of Armenia; Shapur conquered Armenia and killed its king, defeated the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos" title="Battle of Barbalissos">Battle of Barbalissos</a> in 253, then probably took and plundered <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Between 258 and 260, Shapur captured Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> after defeating his army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a>. He advanced into Anatolia but was defeated by Roman forces there; attacks from <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyra</a> forced the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory, surrendering <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In 275 and 282 <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius_Probus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aurelius Probus">Probus</a> respectively planned to invade Persia, but they were both murdered before they were able to fulfil their plans.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In 283 the emperor <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a> launched a successful invasion of Persia, sacking its capital, Ctesiphon; they would probably have extended their conquests if Carus had not died in December of the same year.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> His successor <a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a> was forced by his own army to retreat, being frightened by the belief that Carus had died of a strike of lightning.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> After a brief period of peace during <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>'s early reign, <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> renewed hostilities with the Romans invading Armenia, and defeated <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> not <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae_(296)" title="Battle of Carrhae (296)">far from Carrhae</a> in 296 or 297.<a href="#cite_note-Frye_1968-38">[38]</a> However, in 298 Galerius defeated Narseh at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Satala_(298)" title="Battle of Satala (298)">Battle of Satala</a>, sacked the capital Ctesiphon and captured the Persian treasury and royal harem. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nisibis_(299)" title="Peace of Nisibis (299)">peace settlement</a> gave the Romans control of the area between the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Zab" title="Great Zab">Greater Zab</a>. The Roman victory was the most decisive for many decades: all the territories that had been lost, all the debatable lands, and control of Armenia lay in Roman hands.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Many cities east of the Tigris were given to the Romans including <a href="/wiki/Tigranocerta" title="Tigranocerta">Tigranokert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siirt" title="Siirt">Saird</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silvan,_Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Silvan, Diyarbakır">Martyropolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bitlis" title="Bitlis">Balalesa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bakhchisaray" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakhchisaray">Moxos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duhok,_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Duhok, Iraq">Daudia</a>, and Arzan. Also, control of Armenia was given to the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg/250px-Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg/375px-Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg/500px-Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2580" data-file-height="1684" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>'s unsuccessful campaign in 363 resulted in the loss of the Roman territorial gains under the peace treaty of 299.</figcaption></figure> The arrangements of 299 lasted until the mid-330s, when <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> began a series of offensives against the Romans. Despite a string of victories in battle, culminating in the overthrow of a Roman army led by <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Singara" title="Singara">Singara</a> (348), his campaigns achieved little lasting effect: three Persian sieges of <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>, in that age known as the key to <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELenski2002162-41">[41]</a> were repulsed, and while Shapur succeeded in 359 in successfully <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amida_(359)" title="Siege of Amida (359)">laying siege to Amida</a> and taking Singara, both cities were soon regained by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-Frye_(1993),_130;_Southern_(2001),_242-42">[42]</a> Following a lull during the 350s while Shapur fought off nomad attacks on Persia's eastern and then northern frontiers, he launched a new campaign in 359 with the aid of the eastern tribes which he had meanwhile defeated, and after a difficult siege again <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amida_(359)" title="Siege of Amida (359)">captured</a> Amida (359). In the following year he captured <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_siege_of_Bezabde" title="Shapur II's siege of Bezabde">Bezabde</a> and Singara, and repelled the counter-attack of Constantius II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlockley1997423-43">[43]</a> But the enormous cost of these victories weakened him, and he was soon deserted by his barbarian allies, leaving him vulnerable to the major offensive in 363 by the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>, who advanced down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> with a major army. Despite a tactical victory<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Battle of Ctesiphon</a> before the walls Julian was unable to take the Persian capital or advance any farther and retreated along the Tigris. Harried by the Persians, Julian was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a>, during a difficult retreat along the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>. With the Roman army stuck on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, Julian's successor <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a> made peace, agreeing to major concessions in exchange for safe passage out of Sasanian territory. The Romans surrendered their former possessions east of the Tigris, as well as Nisibis and Singara, and Shapur soon conquered Armenia, abandoned by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In 383 or 384 Armenia again became a bone of contention between the Roman and the Sasanian empires, but hostilities did not occur.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> With both empires preoccupied by barbarian threats from the north, in 384 or 387, <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Acilisene" title="Peace of Acilisene">a definitive peace treaty</a> was signed by <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> dividing Armenia between the two states. Meanwhile, the northern territories of the Roman Empire were <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">invaded</a> by Germanic, Alanic, and Hunnic peoples, while Persia's northern borders were threatened first by a number of Hunnic peoples and then by the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>. With both empires preoccupied by these threats, a largely peaceful period followed, interrupted only by two brief wars, the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_(421%E2%80%93422)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Sasanian War (421–422)">first in 421–422</a> after <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> persecuted high-ranking Persian officials who had converted to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_440" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440">second in 440</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> raided Roman Armenia.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naghsh-e_rostam,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-24,_DD_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/200px-Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/300px-Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/400px-Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7727" data-file-height="4421" /></a><figcaption>A rock-face relief at <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a>, depicting the triumph of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> over the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine–Sasanian_wars">Byzantine–Sasanian wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Byzantine–Sasanian wars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sasanian_Wars" title="Byzantine-Sasanian Wars">Byzantine-Sasanian Wars</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anastasian_War">Anastasian War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anastasian War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anastasian_War" title="Anastasian War">Anastasian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-Persian_Frontier,_5th_century.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png/220px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png/330px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png/440px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_5th_century.png 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Roman–Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sasanides_in_Byzantine_palace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sasanides_in_Byzantine_palace.jpg/220px-Sasanides_in_Byzantine_palace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sasanides_in_Byzantine_palace.jpg/330px-Sasanides_in_Byzantine_palace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Sasanides_in_Byzantine_palace.jpg/440px-Sasanides_in_Byzantine_palace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Relief of a Sasanian delegation in Byzantium, marble, 4th–5th century, <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Archaeological_Museums" class="mw-redirect" title="Istanbul Archaeological Museums">Istanbul Archaeological Museums</a>.</figcaption></figure>The Anastasian War ended the longest period of peace the two powers ever enjoyed. War broke out when the Persian King <a href="/wiki/Kavadh_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kavadh I">Kavadh I</a> attempted to gain financial support by force from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Emperor">Byzantine Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a>; the emperor refused to provide it and the Persian king tried to take it by force.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In 502 AD, he quickly captured the unprepared city of <a href="/wiki/Theodosiopolis_(Armenia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosiopolis (Armenia)">Theodosiopolis</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> and besieged the fortress-city of <a href="/wiki/Amida_(Roman_city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amida (Roman city)">Amida</a> through the autumn and winter (502–503). The siege of the fortress-city proved to be far more difficult than Kavadh expected; the defenders repelled the Persian assaults for three months before they were beaten.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In 503, the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held Amida while Kavadh invaded Osroene and laid siege to Edessa with the same results.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Finally in 504, the Romans gained control through the renewed <a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">investment</a> of Amida, which led to the fall of the city. That year an armistice was reached as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. Although the two powers negotiated, it was not until November 506 that a treaty was agreed to.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In 505, Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a>. At the same time, the dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, <a href="/wiki/Suru%C3%A7" title="Suruç">Batnae</a> and Amida.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work proceeded at Dara. This was because the construction of new fortifications in the border zone by either empire had been prohibited by a treaty concluded some decades earlier. Anastasius pursued the project despite Persian objections, and the walls were completed by 507–508.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Finally in 504, the Romans gained the upper hand with the renewed <a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">investment</a> of Amida, leading to the hand-over of the city. That year an armistice was agreed to as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the <a href="/wiki/Hun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hun">Huns</a> from the Caucasus. Negotiations between the two powers took place, but such was their distrust that in 506 the Romans, suspecting treachery, seized the Persian officials. Once released, the Persians preferred to stay in Nisibis.<a href="#cite_note-Greatrex-Lieu_2002,_II,_77-57">[57]</a> In November 506, a treaty was finally agreed upon, but little is known of what the terms of the treaty were. <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> states that peace was agreed for seven years,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> and it is likely that some payments were made to the Persians.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In 505 Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a>. The dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, Batnac and Amida.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work continued at Dara. This construction project was to become a key component of the Roman defenses, and also a lasting source of controversy with the Persians, who complained that it violated the treaty of 422, by which both empires had agreed not to establish new fortifications in the frontier zone. Anastasius, however, pursued the project, and the walls were completed by 507/508.<a href="#cite_note-Greatrex-Lieu_2002,_II,_77-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iberian_War">Iberian War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Iberian War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iberian_War" title="Iberian War">Iberian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-Empire_477ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Roman-Empire_477ad.jpg/250px-Roman-Empire_477ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Roman-Empire_477ad.jpg/375px-Roman-Empire_477ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Roman-Empire_477ad.jpg/500px-Roman-Empire_477ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption>Roman and Persian Empires in 477, as well as their neighbors.</figcaption></figure> In 524–525 AD, Kavadh proposed that <a href="/wiki/Justin_I" title="Justin I">Justin I</a> adopt his son, <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Khosrau</a>, but the negotiations soon broke down. The proposal was initially greeted with enthusiasm by the Roman emperor and his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a>, but Justin's <a href="/wiki/Quaestor_sacri_palatii" title="Quaestor sacri palatii">quaestor</a>, Proculus, opposed the move, believing that Khosrau's adoption would give him, and by extension Persia, a claim to the Imperial throne.<a href="#cite_note-Gl81-82-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Tensions between the two powers were further heightened by the defection of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberian</a> king Gourgen to the Romans: in 524/525 the Iberians rose in revolt against Persia, following the example of the neighboring Christian kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a>, and the Romans recruited Huns from the north of the Caucasus to assist them.<a href="#cite_note-Gl822-63">[63]</a> To start with, the two sides preferred to wage war by proxy, through <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> allies in the south and <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> in the north.<a href="#cite_note-Gl81-822-64">[64]</a> Overt Roman–Persian fighting had broken out in the <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasus">Transcaucasus</a> region and upper Mesopotamia by 526–527.<a href="#cite_note-Gl84-65">[65]</a> The early years of war favored the Persians: by 527, the Iberian revolt had been crushed, a Roman offensive against Nisibis and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thebetha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thebetha (page does not exist)">Thebetha</a> in that year was unsuccessful, and forces trying to fortify <a href="/wiki/Tell_Tuneinir" title="Tell Tuneinir">Thannuris</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Melabasa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Melabasa (page does not exist)">Melabasa</a> were prevented from doing so by Persian attacks.<a href="#cite_note-Gl83-66">[66]</a> Attempting to remedy the deficiencies revealed by these Persian successes, the new Roman emperor, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>, reorganized the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">eastern armies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In 528 <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> tried unsuccessfully to protect Roman workers in Thannuris, undertaking the construction of a fort right on the frontier.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Damaging raids on Syria by the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> in 529 encouraged Justinian to strengthen his own Arab allies, helping the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghassanid">Ghassanid</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Jabalah" title="Al-Harith ibn Jabalah">Al-Harith ibn Jabalah</a> turn a loose coalition into a coherent kingdom.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 530 a major Persian offensive in Mesopotamia was defeated by Roman forces under Belisarius at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dara" title="Battle of Dara">Dara</a>, while a second Persian thrust in the Caucasus was defeated by Sittas at <a href="/wiki/Satala" title="Satala">Satala</a>. Belisarius was defeated by Persian and <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmid">Lakhmid</a> forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Callinicum" title="Battle of Callinicum">Battle of Callinicum</a> in 531, which resulted in his dismissal. In the same year the Romans gained some forts in Armenia, while the Persians had captured two forts in eastern Lazica.<a href="#cite_note-GL92-96-69">[69]</a> Immediately after the Battle of Callinicum, unsuccessful negotiations between Justinian's envoy, Hermogenes, and Kavadh took place.<a href="#cite_note-GL93-70">[70]</a> A Persian <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Martyropolis_(531)" title="Siege of Martyropolis (531)">siege of Martyropolis</a> was interrupted by Kavadh I's death and the new Persian king, Khosrau I, re-opened talks in spring 532 and finally signed the <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace_(532)" title="Perpetual Peace (532)">Perpetual Peace</a> in September 532, which lasted less than eight years. Both powers agreed to return all occupied territories, and the Romans agreed to make a one-time payment of 110 centenaria (11,000 lb of gold). The Romans recovered the Lazic forts, Iberia remained in Persian hands, and the Iberians who had left their country were given the choice of remaining in Roman territory or returning to their native land.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lazic_War">Lazic War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lazic War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lazic_War" title="Lazic War">Lazic War</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justinian_Byzanz.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Justinian_Byzanz.png/250px-Justinian_Byzanz.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Justinian_Byzanz.png/375px-Justinian_Byzanz.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Justinian_Byzanz.png/500px-Justinian_Byzanz.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>Roman and Sasanian Empires during <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a>'s reign <table style="width:100%;"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Roman (Byzantine) Empire</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Acquisitions by Justinian</div> </td> <td> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Sasanian Empire</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Sasanian vassals</div> </td></tr></tbody></table></figcaption></figure> The Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" in 540 AD, probably in response to the Roman reconquest of much of the former western empire, which had been facilitated by the cessation of war in the East. Khosrau I invaded and devastated Syria, extorting large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia, and systematically looting other cities including <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, whose population was deported to Persian territory.<a href="#cite_note-BrJustFPW-72">[72]</a> The successful campaigns of Belisarius in the west encouraged the Persians to return to war, both taking advantage of Roman preoccupation elsewhere and seeking to check the expansion of Roman territory and resources.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> In 539 the resumption of hostilities was foreshadowed by a Lakhmid raid led by <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mundhir IV">al-Mundhir IV</a>, which was defeated by the Ghassanids under al-Harith ibn Jabalah. In 540, the Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" and Khosrau I invaded Syria, destroying the city of <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> and deporting its population to <a href="/wiki/Weh_Antiok_Khosrow" title="Weh Antiok Khosrow">Weh Antiok Khosrow</a> in Persia; as he withdrew, he extorted large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia and systematically looted the key cities. In 541 he invaded Lazica in the north.<a href="#cite_note-BrJustFPW2-74">[74]</a> Belisarius was quickly recalled by Justinian to the East to deal with the Persian threat, while the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a> in Italy, who were in touch with the Persian King, launched a counter-attack under <a href="/wiki/Totila" title="Totila">Totila</a>. Belisarius took the field and waged an inconclusive campaign against <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nisibis_(541)" title="Battle of Nisibis (541)">Nisibis</a> in 541. In the same year, Lazica switched its allegiance to Persia and Khosrau led an army to secure the kingdom. In 542 Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia and unsuccessfully attempted to capture <a href="/wiki/Resafa" title="Resafa">Sergiopolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius, en route sacking the city of Callinicum.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed and the Persian general Mihr-Mihroe was defeated and captured at <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Troglita" title="John Troglita">John Troglita</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> An invasion of Armenia in 543 by the Roman forces in the East, numbering 30,000, against the capital of Persian Armenia, <a href="/wiki/Dvin_(ancient_city)" title="Dvin (ancient city)">Dvin</a>, was defeated by a meticulous ambush by a small Persian force at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anglon" title="Battle of Anglon">Anglon</a>. Khosrau <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Edessa_(544)" title="Siege of Edessa (544)">besieged Edessa</a> in 544 without success and was eventually bought off by the defenders.<a href="#cite_note-GL1132-78">[78]</a> The Edessenes paid five centenaria to Khosrau, and the Persians departed after nearly two months.<a href="#cite_note-GL1132-78">[78]</a> In the wake of the Persian retreat, two Roman envoys, the newly appointed magister militum, Constantinus, and Sergius proceeded to Ctesiphon to arrange a truce with Khosrau.<a href="#cite_note-GL113Pr2-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-GL113Pr-80">[80]</a> (The war dragged on under other generals and was to some extent hindered by the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>, because of which Khosrau temporarily withdrew from Roman territory)<a href="#cite_note-BrJustFPWGL-81">[81]</a> A five-year truce was agreed to in 545, secured by Roman payments to the Persians.<a href="#cite_note-EvJuPrGr-82">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG/220px-ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG/330px-ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG/440px-ChosroesHuntingScene.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>Hunting scene showing king Khosrau I (7th century <a href="/wiki/Persian-Sassanid_art_patterns" title="Persian-Sassanid art patterns">Sasanian art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_des_Medailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet des Medailles">Cabinet des Medailles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-Persian_Frontier,_565_AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_565_AD.png/220px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_565_AD.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_565_AD.png/330px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_565_AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_565_AD.png/440px-Roman-Persian_Frontier%2C_565_AD.png 2x" data-file-width="838" data-file-height="775" /></a><figcaption>The Eastern Roman–Persian border at the time of Justinian's death in 565, with Lazica in Eastern Roman (Byzantine) hands</figcaption></figure> Early in 548, King <a href="/wiki/Gubazes_II_of_Lazica" title="Gubazes II of Lazica">Gubazes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a>, having found Persian protection oppressive, asked Justinian to restore the Roman protectorate. The emperor seized the chance, and in 548–549 combined Roman and Lazic forces with the <a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">magister militum</a> of Armenia <a href="/wiki/Dagisthaeus" title="Dagisthaeus">Dagistheus</a> won a series of victories against Persian armies, although they <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petra_(549)" title="Siege of Petra (549)">failed</a> to take the key garrison of <a href="/wiki/Petra,_Lazica" title="Petra, Lazica">Petra</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Tsikhisdziri" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsikhisdziri">Tsikhisdziri</a>).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In 551 AD, general <a href="/wiki/Bessas_(magister_militum)" title="Bessas (magister militum)">Bessas</a> who replaced Dagistheus put <a href="/wiki/Abasgia" title="Abasgia">Abasgia</a> and the rest of Lazica under control, and finally subjected Petra <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petra_(550%E2%80%93551)" title="Siege of Petra (550–551)">after fierce fighting</a>, demolishing its fortifications.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In the same year a Persian offensive led by <a href="/wiki/Mihr-Mihroe" title="Mihr-Mihroe">Mihr-Mihroe</a> occupied eastern Lazica.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The truce that had been established in 545 was renewed outside Lazica for a further five years on condition that the Romans pay 2,000 lb of gold each year.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The Romans failed to completely expel the Sasanians from Lazica, and in 554 AD Mihr-Mihroe launched <a href="/wiki/Mihr-Mihroe%27s_campaign_of_554" title="Mihr-Mihroe's campaign of 554">a new attack</a>, dislodging a newly arrived Byzantine army from Telephis.<a href="#cite_note-F236-87">[87]</a> In Lazica the war dragged on inconclusively for several years, with neither side able to make any major gains. Khosrau, who now had to deal with the <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">White Huns</a>, renewed the truce in 557, this time without excluding Lazica; negotiations continued for a definite peace treaty.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Finally, in 562, the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau – <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Patrician" title="Peter the Patrician">Peter the Patrician</a> and Izedh Gushnap – put together the <a href="/wiki/Fifty-Year_Peace_Treaty" title="Fifty-Year Peace Treaty">Fifty-Year Peace Treaty</a>. The Persians agreed to evacuate Lazica and received an annual subsidy of 30,000 <a href="/wiki/Nomismata" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomismata">nomismata</a> (solidi).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Both sides agreed not to build new fortifications near the frontier and to ease restrictions on diplomacy and trade.<a href="#cite_note-EvJu-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_for_the_Caucasus">War for the Caucasus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: War for the Caucasus">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_572%E2%80%93591" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591</a></div> War broke again shortly after Armenia and Iberia revolted against Sasanian rule in 571 AD, following clashes involving Roman and Persian proxies <a href="/wiki/Abyssinian%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian–Persian wars">in Yemen</a> (between the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Axum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Axum">Axumites</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarites</a>) and the Syrian desert, and after Roman negotiations for an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a> against Persia.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a> brought Armenia under his protection, while Roman troops under Justin's cousin <a href="/wiki/Marcian_(cousin_of_Justin_II)" title="Marcian (cousin of Justin II)">Marcian</a> raided <a href="/wiki/Arzanene" title="Arzanene">Arzanene</a> and invaded Persian Mesopotamia, where they defeated local forces.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Marcian's sudden dismissal and the arrival of troops under Khosrau resulted in a ravaging of Syria, the failure of the Roman siege of Nisibis and the fall of Dara.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> At a cost of 45,000 <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidi</a>, a one-year truce in Mesopotamia (eventually extended to five years)<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> was arranged, but in the Caucasus and on the desert frontiers the war continued.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In 575, Khosrau I attempted to combine aggression in Armenia with discussion of a permanent peace. He invaded Anatolia and sacked Sebasteia, but to take Theodosiopolis, and after a clash near <a href="/wiki/Malatya" title="Malatya">Melitene</a> the army suffered heavy losses while fleeing across the Euphrates under Roman attack and the Persian royal baggage was captured.<a href="#cite_note-TW95-96">[96]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persia_600ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Persia_600ad.jpg/250px-Persia_600ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Persia_600ad.jpg/375px-Persia_600ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Persia_600ad.jpg/500px-Persia_600ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1098" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption>The Sasanian Empire and its neighbors (including the Eastern Roman Empire) in 600 AD</figcaption></figure> The Romans exploited Persian disarray as general <a href="/wiki/Justinian_(magister_militum_per_Orientem)" title="Justinian (magister militum per Orientem)">Justinian</a> invaded deep into Persian territory and raided <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TW95-96">[96]</a> Khosrau sought peace but abandoned this initiative when Persian confidence revived after <a href="/wiki/Tamkhusro" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamkhusro">Tamkhusro</a> won a victory in Armenia, where Roman actions had alienated local inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-TW96-97">[97]</a> In the spring of 578 the war in Mesopotamia resumed with Persian raids on Roman territory. The Roman general <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> retaliated by raiding Persian Mesopotamia, capturing the stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Aphumon" title="Aphumon">Aphumon</a>, and sacking Singara. Khosrau again opened peace negotiations but he died early in 579 and his successor <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> (r. 578–590) preferred to continue the war.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/250px-Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/375px-Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg/500px-Roman-Persian_Frontier_in_Late_Antiquity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2710" data-file-height="1740" /></a><figcaption>The Roman-Persian frontier in the 4th to 7th centuries</figcaption></figure> In 580, Hormizd IV abolished the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Caucasian Iberian</a> monarchy, and turned Iberia into <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Iberia" title="Sasanian Iberia">a Persian province</a> ruled by a <a href="/wiki/Marzpan" class="mw-redirect" title="Marzpan">marzpan</a> (governor).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuny199425-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015529-100">[100]</a> During the 580s, the war continued inconclusively with victories on both sides. In 582, Maurice won a battle at Constantia over Adarmahan and Tamkhusro, who was killed, but the Roman general did not follow up his victory; he had to hurry to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> to pursue his imperial ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Another Roman victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Solachon" title="Battle of Solachon">Solachon</a> in 586 likewise failed to break the stalemate.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The Persians captured <a href="/wiki/Silvan,_Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Silvan, Diyarbakır">Martyropolis</a> through treachery in 589, but that year the stalemate was shattered when the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a>, having been dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd IV, raised a rebellion. Hormizd was overthrown in a palace coup in 590 and replaced by his son <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a>, but Bahram pressed on with his revolt regardless and the defeated Khosrau was soon forced to flee for safety to Roman territory, while Bahram took the throne as Bahram VI. With support from Maurice, Khosrau raised a rebellion against Bahram, and in 591 the combined forces of his supporters and the Romans defeated Bahram at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blarathon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Blarathon">Battle of Blarathon</a> and restored Khosrau II to power. In exchange for their help, Khosrau not only returned Dara and Martyropolis but also agreed to cede the western half of Iberia and more than half of Persian Armenia to the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg/220px-Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg/330px-Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg/440px-Hexagram-Constans_II_and_Constantine_IV-sb0995.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>Late Roman silver coin showing the words Deus adiuta Romanis ("May God help the Romans")</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245.jpg/220px-Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245.jpg/330px-Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245.jpg/440px-Cherub_plaque_Louvre_MRR245.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2210" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cherub" title="Cherub">Cherub</a> and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross (<a href="/wiki/Champlev%C3%A9" title="Champlevé">Champlevé</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">enamel</a> over gilt copper, 1160–1170, <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png/350px-Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png/525px-Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png/700px-Byzantine_and_Sassanid_Empires_in_600_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine and Sasanian Empires in 600 AD</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png/220px-SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png/330px-SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png/440px-SassanianEmpireHistoryofIran.png 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 620 AD</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Climax">Climax</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Climax">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">Siege of Constantinople (626)</a></div>In 602 the Roman army <a href="/wiki/Maurice%27s_Balkan_campaigns" title="Maurice's Balkan campaigns">campaigning in the Balkans</a> mutinied under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a>, who succeeded in seizing the throne and then killed Maurice and his family. Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext for war and reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In the early years of the war the Persians enjoyed overwhelming and unprecedented success. They were aided by Khosrau's use of a pretender claiming to be Maurice's son, and by the revolt against Phocas led by the Roman general Narses.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> In 603 Khosrau defeated and killed the Roman general Germanus in Mesopotamia and laid siege to Dara. Despite the arrival of Roman reinforcements from Europe, he won another victory in 604, while Dara fell after a nine-month siege. Over the following years the Persians gradually overcame the fortress cities of Mesopotamia by siege, one after another.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> At the same time they won a string of victories in Armenia and systematically subdued the Roman garrisons in the Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Phocas' brutal repression sparked a succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew <a href="/wiki/Nicetas_(cousin_of_Heraclius)" title="Nicetas (cousin of Heraclius)">Nicetas</a> to attack <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, enabling his younger son <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>, to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was eventually deposed by Heraclius, having sailed from <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Around the same time, the Persians completed their conquest of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia, occupying <a href="/wiki/Kayseri" title="Kayseri">Caesarea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Having expelled the Persians from Anatolia in 612, Heraclius launched a major counter-offensive in Syria in 613. He was decisively defeated outside Antioch by <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shahin_Vahmanzadegan" title="Shahin Vahmanzadegan">Shahin</a>, and the Roman position collapsed.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and several other islands in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a>, as well as to devastate Anatolia.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016223-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston200633-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Avar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Avar Khaganate">Avars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sclaveni" title="Sclaveni">Slavs</a> took advantage of the situation to overrun the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> During these years, Heraclius strove to rebuild his army, slashing non-military expenditures, devaluing the currency and melting down Church plate, with the backing of <a href="/wiki/Sergius_I_of_Constantinople" title="Sergius I of Constantinople">Patriarch Sergius</a>, to raise the necessary funds to continue the war.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor and, after conducting exercises to revive their morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a <a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">holy war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> In the Caucasus he inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Following a lull in 623, while he negotiated a truce with the Avars, Heraclius resumed his campaigns in the East in 624 and routed an army led by Khosrau at <a href="/wiki/Ganzak" title="Ganzak">Ganzak</a> in Atropatene.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> In 625 he defeated the generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin and <a href="/wiki/Shahraplakan" title="Shahraplakan">Shahraplakan</a> in Armenia, and in a surprise attack that winter he stormed Shahrbaraz's headquarters and attacked his troops in their winter billets.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, together with the Avars and Slavs, the three unsuccessfully <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">besieged Constantinople in 626</a>,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg/220px-The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg/330px-The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg/440px-The_assassination_of_Chosro%C3%ABs_Parvez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="734" /></a><figcaption>The assassination of <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a>, in a manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp" title="Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp">Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp</a> made by <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Samad" title="Abd al-Samad">Abd al-Samad</a> c. 1535. <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian</a> poems are from <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a>.</figcaption></figure> Meanwhile, Heraclius formed an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a>, who took advantage of the dwindling strength of the Persians to <a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">ravage their territories</a> in the Caucasus.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Late in 627, Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent that had accompanied him, he defeated the Persians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">Battle of Nineveh</a>. Continuing south along the Tigris, he sacked Khosrau's great palace at Dastagird and was prevented from attacking Ctesiphon only by the destruction of the bridges on the <a href="/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal" title="Nahrawan Canal">Nahrawan Canal</a>. Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son <a href="/wiki/Kavadh_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kavadh II">Kavadh II</a>, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Heraclius restored the <a href="/wiki/True_Cross" title="True Cross">True Cross</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> with a majestic ceremony in 629.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:274px;max-width:274px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:626Byzantium.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/626Byzantium.JPG/270px-626Byzantium.JPG" decoding="async" width="270" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/626Byzantium.JPG/405px-626Byzantium.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/626Byzantium.JPG/540px-626Byzantium.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="370" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Byzantine Empire (green) by 626 under Heraclius; striped areas are lands still threatened by the Sasanians.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:272px;max-width:272px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/270px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/405px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/540px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="879" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Byzantine Empire (orange) by 650. By this point the Sasanian Empire had fallen to the Arab Muslim <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> as well as Byzantine Syria, Palestine and Egypt.</div></div></div></div></div> The devastating impact of this last war, added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, left both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The Sasanians were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the <a href="/wiki/Dehqan" title="Dehqan">provincial landholders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Additionally, Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions; the Empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> (newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami".<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The Sasanian Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely conquered. During the Byzantine–Arab wars, the exhausted Roman Empire's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Armenia" title="Muslim conquest of Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">North Africa</a> were also lost, reducing the Empire to a territorial rump consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks, marking the transition from classical urban civilization to a more rural, medieval form of society. However, unlike Persia, the Roman Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital in <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">674–678</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">717–718</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The Roman Empire also lost its territories in <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">southern Italy to the Arabs</a> in later conflicts, though these too were <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Arab_wars_(780%E2%80%931180)" title="Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)">ultimately recovered</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategies_and_military_tactics">Strategies and military tactics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Strategies and military tactics">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox collapsible collapsed" style="font-size:90%;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:95%;line-height:1.3em;white-space:nowrap;"> Timeline of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman–Persian Wars</a></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddf;"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">BC</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">69</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">First Roman-<a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> contacts, when <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucullus</a> invades <a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">southern Armenia</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">66–65</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Dispute between <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> over <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> boundary.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">53</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Roman defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">42–37</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">A great <a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">Pompeian–Parthian invasion of the Levant and Anatolia</a> is defeated.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">36–33</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Antony's Parthian War">Mark Antony's unsuccessful campaign</a> against Parthia. Subsequent campaign in Armenia successful, but followed by withdrawal. Parthians take control of whole region.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">20</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Settlement with the Parthians by <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>; return of the captured <a href="/wiki/Aquila_(Roman)" title="Aquila (Roman)">Roman standards</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">AD</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">36</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Defeated by the Romans, <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> renounces his claims to Armenia.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">58–63</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Roman invasion of Armenia</a>; arrangements made with Parthians over its kingship.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">114–117</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">Major campaign of Trajan</a> against Parthia. Trajan's conquests later abandoned by <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">161–165</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">After initial Parthian successes, war over Armenia (161–163) ended by a Roman victory. <a href="/wiki/Avidius_Cassius" title="Avidius Cassius">Avidius Cassius</a> sacks Ctesiphon in 165.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">195–197</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">An offensive under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> leads to the Roman acquisition of northern Mesopotamia.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;"><div style="padding-bottom:1.0em;">216–217</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><div style="padding-bottom:1.0em;"><a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> launches <a href="/wiki/Parthian_war_of_Caracalla" title="Parthian war of Caracalla">a new war</a> against the Parthians. His successor <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a>, however, is defeated by them near <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nisibis_(217)" title="Battle of Nisibis (217)">Nisibis</a> in 217.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddf;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian wars">Roman–Sasanian Wars</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;"><div style="padding-top:0.5em;"">230–232</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><div style="padding-top:0.5em;""><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> raids Mesopotamia and Syria, but is eventually repulsed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">238–244</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Ardashir's invasion of Mesopotamia and Persian defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" title="Battle of Resaena">Battle of Resaena</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a> advances along the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> but is repelled near Ctesiphon at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Battle of Misiche</a> in 244.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">253</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Roman defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos" title="Battle of Barbalissos">Battle of Barbalissos</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 258–260</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> defeats and captures <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">283</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a> sacks Ctesiphon.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">296–298</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Roman defeat at Carrhae in 296 or 297. <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> defeats the Persians in 298.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">363</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">After an initial victory <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">outside Ctesiphon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> is killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">384</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> divide Armenia between them.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">421–422</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Roman retaliation against <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram</a>'s persecution of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christian Persians</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">440</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> raids Roman Armenia.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">502–506</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a> refuses to support the Persians financially, triggering the <a href="/wiki/Anastasian_War" title="Anastasian War">Anastasian War</a>. Ends with a seven-year peace treaty.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">526–532</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_War" title="Iberian War">Iberian War</a>. Romans victorious at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dara" title="Battle of Dara">Dara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satala" title="Satala">Satala</a> but defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Callinicum" title="Battle of Callinicum">Callinicum</a>. Ends with the treaty of "<a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace_(532)" title="Perpetual Peace (532)">Perpetual Peace</a>".</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">540–561</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Lazic_War" title="Lazic War">Lazic War</a> begins after Persians break the "Eternal Peace" by invading Syria. Ends with the Roman acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a> and the signing of a <a href="/wiki/Fifty-Year_Peace_Treaty" title="Fifty-Year Peace Treaty">fifty-year peace treaty</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">572–591</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_572%E2%80%93591" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591">War for the Caucasus</a> breaks out when Armenians revolt against Sasanian rule. In 589, the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a> raises a rebellion against <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a>. Restoration of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a>, Hormizd's son, by Roman and Persian forces and restoration of Roman rule in northern Mesopotamia (<a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silvan,_Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Silvan, Diyarbakır">Martyropolis</a>) followed by expansion into <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Iberia">Iberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia" title="Sasanian Armenia">Armenia</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">602</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Khosrow II conquers Mesopotamia after <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> is assassinated.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">611–623</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Persians gradually conquer Syria, <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and enter <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">626</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Unsuccessful <a href="/wiki/Avars_(Carpathians)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avars (Carpathians)">Avar</a>–Persian–<a href="/wiki/Sclaveni" title="Sclaveni">Slav</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">siege of Constantinople</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">627</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">Persian defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">Nineveh</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.3em;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.5em;">629</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left;line-height:1.3em;">The Persians assassinate Khosrow II and agree to withdraw from all occupied territories. <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> restores the <a href="/wiki/True_Cross" title="True Cross">True Cross</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars_timeline" title="Template:Roman–Persian Wars timeline"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars_timeline" title="Template talk:Roman–Persian Wars timeline"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman–Persian Wars timeline"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> When the Roman and Parthian Empires first collided in the 1st century BC, it appeared that Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> and the Mediterranean. However, the Romans repulsed the great <a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">invasion of Syria and Anatolia</a> by Pacorus and Labienus, and were gradually able to take advantage of the weaknesses of the Parthian military system, which, according to <a href="/wiki/George_Rawlinson" title="George Rawlinson">George Rawlinson</a>, was adapted for national defense but ill-suited for conquest. The Romans, on the other hand, were continually modifying and evolving their "<a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">grand strategy</a>" from <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>'s time onwards, and were by the time of Pacorus able to take the offensive against the Parthians.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Like the Sasanians in the late 3rd and 4th centuries, the Parthians generally avoided any sustained defense of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> against the Romans. However, the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> never fell, as the Roman expeditions had always exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia, and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks.<a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_(2007),_259-135">[135]</a> From the 4th century AD onwards, the Sasanians grew in strength and adopted the role of aggressor. They considered much of the land added to the Roman Empire in Parthian and early Sasanian times to rightfully belong to the Persian sphere.<a href="#cite_note-Fr473-136">[136]</a> Everett Wheeler argues that "the Sassanids, administratively more centralized than the Parthians, formally organized defense of their territory, although they lacked a <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a> until <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Khosrau I</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Wheeler_(2007),_259-135">[135]</a> In general, the Romans regarded the Sasanians as a more serious threat than the Parthians, while the Sasanians regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy par excellence.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Proxy_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Proxy warfare">Proxy warfare</a> was employed by both Byzantines and the Sasanians as an alternative to direct confrontation, particularly through Arab kingdoms in the south and nomadic nations in the north. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg/220px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg/330px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg/440px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_equestrian_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="692" /></a><figcaption>Statue of a <a href="/wiki/Aswaran" title="Aswaran">Sasanian cavalryman</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taq-e_Bostan" title="Taq-e Bostan">Taq-e Bostan</a>, equipped with both lance and archery equipment. Both rider and horse are fully armored.</figcaption></figure> Militarily, the Sasanians continued the Parthians' heavy dependence on cavalry troops: a combination of <a href="/wiki/Horse-archer" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse-archer">horse-archers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphracts</a>; the latter were <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy armored cavalry</a> provided by the aristocracy. They added a contingent of <a href="/wiki/Persian_war_elephants" title="Persian war elephants">war elephants</a> obtained from the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a>, but their <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> quality was inferior to that of the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> The combined forces of horse archers and heavy cavalry inflicted several defeats on the Roman foot-soldiers, including those led by Crassus <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">in 53 BC</a>,<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Mark Antony <a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Antony's Parthian War">in 36 BC</a>, and Valerian <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">in 260 AD</a>. The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cataphractarii" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataphractarii">cataphractarii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clibanarii" title="Clibanarii">clibanarii</a> units were introduced into the Roman army;<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> as a result, heavily armed cavalry grew in importance in both the Roman and Persian armies after the 3rd century AD and until the end of the wars.<a href="#cite_note-Fr473-136">[136]</a> The Roman army also gradually incorporated horse-archers (Equites <a href="/wiki/Sagittarii" title="Sagittarii">Sagittarii</a>), and by the 5th century AD they were no longer a mercenary unit, and were slightly superior individually in comparison to the Persian ones, as Procopius claims; however, the Persian horse-archer units as a whole always remained a challenge for the Romans, which suggests the Roman horse-archers were smaller in numbers.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> By the time of Khosrow I the composite cavalrymen (<a href="/wiki/Aswaran" title="Aswaran">aswaran</a>) appeared, who were skilled in both archery and the use of lance.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_siege_machines.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Roman_siege_machines.gif/300px-Roman_siege_machines.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Roman_siege_machines.gif/450px-Roman_siege_machines.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Roman_siege_machines.gif 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Roman siege engines</a></figcaption></figure> On the other hand, the Persians adopted war engines from the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-2">[2]</a> The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in <a href="/wiki/Siege_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">siege warfare</a> and had developed a range of <a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">siege machines</a>. On the other hand, the Parthians were inept at besieging; their cavalry armies were more suited to the <a href="/wiki/Hit-and-run_tactics" title="Hit-and-run tactics">hit-and-run tactics</a> that destroyed Antony's siege train in 36 BC. The situation changed with the rise of the Sasanians, when Rome encountered an enemy equally capable in siege warfare. The Sasanians mainly used mounds, rams, mines, and to a lesser degree siege towers, artillery,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Elton-145">[145]</a> and also <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapons">chemical weapons</a>, such as in <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dura-Europos_(256)" title="Siege of Dura-Europos (256)">Dura-Europos (256)</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petra_(550-551)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Petra (550-551)">Petra (550–551)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Elton-145">[145]</a> Use of complex torsion equipment was rare, since traditional Persian expertise in archery reduced their apparent benefits.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Elephants were employed (e.g. as siege towers) where the terrain was unfavorable for machines.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Recent assessments comparing the Sasanians and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sasanian siegecraft, <a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">military engineering</a>, and organization,<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> as well as ability to build defensive works.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> By the beginning of Sasanian rule, a number of buffer states existed between the empires. These were absorbed by the central state over time, and by the 7th century the last buffer state, the Arab <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a>, was annexed to the Sasanian Empire. Frye notes that in the 3rd century AD such client states played an important role in Roman–Sasanian relations, but both empires gradually replaced them by an organized <a href="/wiki/Defence_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence line">defense system</a> run by the central government and based on a line of fortifications (the <a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">limes</a>) and the fortified frontier cities, such as <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fr_139-153">[153]</a> Towards the end of the 1st century AD, Rome organized the protection of its eastern frontiers through the limes system, which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century after improvements by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Like the Romans, the Sasanians <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_defence_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian defence lines">constructed defensive walls</a> opposite the territory of their opponents. According to R. N. Frye, it was under <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> that the Persian system was extended, probably in imitation of Diocletian's construction of the limes of the Syrian and Mesopotamian frontiers of the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The Roman and Persian border units were known as <a href="/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei">limitanei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marzban" title="Marzban">marzoban</a>s, respectively.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Sasanians, and to a lesser extent the Parthians, practiced mass <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportations</a> to new cities as a tool of policy, not just the prisoners-of-war (such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a>), but also the cities they captured, such as the deportation of the <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>'s people to <a href="/wiki/Weh_Antiok_Khosrow" title="Weh Antiok Khosrow">Weh Antiok Khosrow</a>, which led to the decline of the former. These deportations also initiated the spread of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christianity in Persia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The Persians seem to have been reluctant to resort to naval action.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> There was some minor <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_navy" title="Sasanian navy">Sasanian naval</a> action <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">in 620–23</a>, and the only major <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a>'s action was during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">Siege of Constantinople (626)</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assessments">Assessments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Assessments">edit</a>]</div> The Roman–Persian Wars have been characterized as "futile" and too "depressing and tedious to contemplate".<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Prophetically, <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> noted their "never-ending cycle of armed confrontations" and observed that "it is shown by the facts themselves that [Severus'] conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us. For it yields very little and uses up vast sums; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of the Medes and the Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, fighting the battles of those peoples."<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> In the long series of wars between the two powers, the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant. Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable, although Nisibis, Singara, Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time, and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other. As Frye states:<a href="#cite_note-Fr_139-153">[153]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World War.</blockquote> <table class="toccolours" style="background:#c6dbf7; float:left; font-size:85%; margin-left:1em; margin-right:2em; max-width:27%; text-align:left; width:30em;"> <tbody><tr> <td>"How could it be a good thing to hand over one's dearest possessions to a stranger, a barbarian, the ruler of one's bitterest enemy, one whose good faith and sense of justice were untried, and, what is more, one who belonged to an alien and heathen faith?" </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Agathias" title="Agathias">Agathias</a> (Histories, 4.26.6, translated by Averil Cameron) about the Persians, a judgment typical of the Roman view.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals in both active and reactive ways. According to the <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Tansar" title="Letter of Tansar">Letter of Tansar</a> and the Muslim writer <a href="/wiki/Al-Tha%27alibi" title="Al-Tha'alibi">Al-Tha'alibi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_I" title="Pacorus I">Pacorus I</a>'s invasions, respectively, of Roman territories, were to avenge <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia</a>, which was thought to be the cause of the subsequent Iranian disarray;<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> this is matched by the notion imitatio Alexandri cherished by the Roman emperors Caracalla, Alexander Severus,<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> and Julian.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Roman sources reveal long-standing prejudices with regard to the Eastern powers' customs, religious structures, languages, and forms of government. <a href="/wiki/John_F._Haldon" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Haldon">John F. Haldon</a> underscores that "although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier, yet there was always a religious-ideological element present". From the time of Constantine on, Roman emperors appointed themselves as the protectors of Christians of Persia.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> This attitude created intense suspicions of the loyalties of Christians living in Sasanian Iran and often led to Roman–Persian tensions or even military confrontations<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> (e.g. in <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_421%E2%80%93422" title="Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422">421–422</a>). A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict, when what had begun in 611–612 as a raid was soon transformed into a war of conquest, was the pre-eminence of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory and of the strong religious element in the Roman imperial propaganda; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God, and authors of the 6th and 7th centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg/220px-HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg/330px-HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg/440px-HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="839" data-file-height="877" /></a><figcaption>The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur (<a href="/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Younger" title="Hans Holbein the Younger">Hans Holbein the Younger</a>, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, <a href="/wiki/Kunstmuseum_Basel" title="Kunstmuseum Basel">Kunstmuseum Basel</a>)</figcaption></figure> The sources for the history of Parthia and the wars with Rome are scant and scattered. The Parthians followed the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> tradition and favored oral <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, which assured the corruption of their history once they had been vanquished. The main sources of this period are thus <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Roman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marius_Maximus" title="Marius Maximus">Marius Maximus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiography">Greek historians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>). The 13th book of the <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Oracles" title="Sibylline Oracles">Sibylline Oracles</a> narrates the effects of the Roman–Persian Wars in Syria from the reign of Gordian III to the domination of the province by Odaenathus of Palmyra. With the end of Herodian's record, all contemporary chronological narratives of Roman history are lost, until the narratives of <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> at the beginning of the 4th century, both from a Christian perspective.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The principal sources for the early Sasanian period are not contemporary. Among them the most important are the Greeks <a href="/wiki/Agathias" title="Agathias">Agathias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Malalas">Malalas</a>, the Persian Muslims <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>, the Armenian <a href="/wiki/Agathangelos" title="Agathangelos">Agathangelos</a>, and the Syriac Chronicles of <a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_Edessa" title="Chronicle of Edessa">Edessa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_Arbela" title="Chronicle of Arbela">Arbela</a>, most of whom depended on late Sasanian sources, especially <a href="/wiki/Khwaday-Namag" title="Khwaday-Namag">Khwaday-Namag</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Augustan_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustan History">Augustan History</a> is neither contemporary nor reliable, but it is the chief narrative source for Severus and Carus. The trilingual (Middle Persian, Parthian, Greek) <a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_inscriptions" title="List of Sasanian inscriptions">inscriptions of Shapur</a> are primary sources.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> These were isolated attempts at approaching written historiography however, and by the end of the 4th century AD, even the practice of carving rock reliefs and leaving short inscriptions was abandoned by the Sasanians.<a href="#cite_note-Iranica-171">[171]</a> For the period between 353 and 378, there is an eyewitness source to the main events on the eastern frontier in the Res Gestae of <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>. For the events covering the period between the 4th and the 6th century, the works of <a href="/wiki/Sozomenus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sozomenus">Sozomenus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a> are especially valuable.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> The single most important source for Justinian's Persian wars up to 553 is <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>. His continuators <a href="/wiki/Agathias" title="Agathias">Agathias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Menander_Protector" title="Menander Protector">Menander Protector</a> offer many important details as well. <a href="/wiki/Theophylact_Simocatta" title="Theophylact Simocatta">Theophylact Simocatta</a> is the main source for the reign of Maurice,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale" title="Chronicon Paschale">Chronicon Paschale</a> and the poems of <a href="/wiki/George_of_Pisidia" title="George of Pisidia">George of Pisidia</a> are useful sources for the last Roman–Persian war. In addition to Byzantine sources, two Armenian historians, <a href="/wiki/Sebeos" title="Sebeos">Sebeos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Movses_Khorenatsi" title="Movses Khorenatsi">Movses</a>, contribute to the coherent narrative of Heraclius' war and are regarded by Howard-Johnston as "the most important of extant non-Muslim sources".<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agathias" title="Agathias">Agathias</a>, Histories. Book 4.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a>, Liber de Caesaribus. See original text in the Latin Library.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, Roman History. Book LXXX. Translated by Earnest Cary.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale" title="Chronicon Paschale">Chronicon Paschale</a>. See the original text in Google Books<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corippus" title="Corippus">Corippus</a>, Johannis<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Book I.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a>, Abridgment of Roman History. Book IX. Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a>, History of the Roman Empire. Book VI. Translated by Edward C. Echols.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></li> <li>John of Epiphania. History<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_the_Stylite" title="Joshua the Stylite">Joshua the Stylite</a>, Chronicle. Translated by William Wright.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>, Historiarum Philippicarum. Book XLI. See original text in the Latin Library.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>, De Mortibus Persecutorum. See original text in the Latin Library.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives/Antony" class="extiw" title="s:Lives/Antony">Antony</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives/Crassus" class="extiw" title="s:Lives/Crassus">Crassus</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives/Sylla" class="extiw" title="s:Lives/Sylla">Sylla</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a>, History of the Wars, Book II. Translated by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16764">H. B. Dewing</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Oracles" title="Sibylline Oracles">Sibylline Oracles</a>. Book XIII. Translated by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sib/">Milton S. Terry</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a>, Ecclesiastical History, Book II. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Chester_D._Hartranft" class="mw-redirect" title="Chester D. Hartranft">Chester D. Hartranft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Schaff" title="Philip Schaff">Philip Schaff</a> and Henry Wace.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/15px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/23px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/30px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)">The Annals</a>. Translation based on Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a>. Chronicle. See original text in Documenta Catholica Omnia. (PDF)<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophylact_Simocatta" title="Theophylact Simocatta">Theophylact Simocatta</a>. History. Books I and V. Translated by Michael and Mary Whitby. (PDF)<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetius" title="Vegetius">Vegetius</a>. <a href="/wiki/De_Re_Militari" class="mw-redirect" title="De Re Militari">Epitoma Rei Militaris</a>. Book III. See original text in the Latin Library.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zacharias_Rhetor" title="Zacharias Rhetor">Zacharias Rhetor</a>. 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Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-992-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-992-6"><bdi>0-86078-992-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Rome%2C+Sasanian+Persia+And+the+End+of+Antiquity%3A+Historiographical+And+Historical+Studies&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-86078-992-6&rft.aulast=Howard-Johnston&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1U4rUaLdYnQC%26q%3DHoward-Johnston%2C%2BEast%2BRome%2C%2BSasanian%2BPersia%2Band%2Bthe%2BEnd%2Bof%2BAntiquity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaak1998" class="citation book cs1">Isaak, Benjamin H. 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Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-374-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-374-3"><bdi>1-85285-374-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+Rome&rft.btitle=Warhorse%2C+Cavalry+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-85285-374-3&rft.aulast=Sidnell&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDP2EHwdMnq4C%26q%3DParthian%2C%2BSassanid%2C%2BRoman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2001" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Pat (2001). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23943-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23943-5"><bdi>0-415-23943-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+Eastern+Frontiers&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+from+Severus+to+Constantine&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-23943-5&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDWiyzw91atgC%26q%3DSeverus%2C%2BArdashir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowardWhitby,_MichaelWhitby,_Mary" class="citation web cs1">Soward, Warren; Whitby, Michael; Whitby, Mary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610155131/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">"Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians"</a> (PDF). Sasanika. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2008-04-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Theophylact+Simocatta+and+the+Persians&rft.pub=Sasanika&rft.aulast=Soward&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft.au=Whitby%2C+Michael&rft.au=Whitby%2C+Mary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanities.uci.edu%2Fsasanika%2Fpdf%2FTheophylact.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeck1984" class="citation book cs1">Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance". Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4). 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Stanford, California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2630-2"><bdi>0-8047-2630-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Byzantine+State+and+Society&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2630-2&rft.aulast=Treadgold&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnYbnr5XVbzUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerbruggenWillard,_SumnerSouthern,_R._W.1997" class="citation book cs1">Verbruggen, J. 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Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-570-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-570-7"><bdi>0-85115-570-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historiographical+Problems&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Warfare+in+Western+Europe+During+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-85115-570-7&rft.aulast=Verbruggen&rft.aufirst=J.+F.&rft.au=Willard%2C+Sumner&rft.au=Southern%2C+R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-qH1u1Ca-1IC%26q%3DRoman%2C%2BSassanid%2C%2BParthian%2C%2Bequipment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagstaff1985" class="citation book cs1">Wagstaff, John (1985). "Hellenistic West and Persian East". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tcPWhU10mGMC&q=limes,+Rome,+Parthian,+Sasanian">The Evolution of Middle Eastern Landscapes: An Outline to A.D. 1840</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-389-20577-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-389-20577-X"><bdi>0-389-20577-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hellenistic+West+and+Persian+East&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Middle+Eastern+Landscapes%3A+An+Outline+to+A.D.+1840&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-389-20577-X&rft.aulast=Wagstaff&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtcPWhU10mGMC%26q%3Dlimes%2C%2BRome%2C%2BParthian%2C%2BSasanian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheeler2007" class="citation book cs1">Wheeler, Everett (2007). "The Army and the Limes in the East". 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Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2153-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-2153-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Army+and+the+Limes+in+the+East&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Roman+Army&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2153-8&rft.aulast=Wheeler&rft.aufirst=Everett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhR73TNL7YMAC%26q%3DRoman-Persian%2BWars%2C%2Bassessment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitby2000" class="citation book cs1">Whitby, Michael (2000). "The Army, c. 420–602". 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-2591-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-2591-2"><bdi>978-0-5213-2591-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Army%2C+c.+420%E2%80%93602&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%2C+Volume+XIV%3A+Late+Antiquity%3A+Empire+and+Successors%2C+A.D.+425%E2%80%93600&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-2591-2&rft.aulast=Whitby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQf8mrHjfZRoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitby2000" class="citation book cs1">Whitby, Michael (2000). 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-2591-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-2591-2"><bdi>978-0-5213-2591-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Successors+of+Justinian&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%2C+Volume+XIV%3A+Late+Antiquity%3A+Empire+and+Successors%2C+A.D.+425%E2%80%93600&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-2591-2&rft.aulast=Whitby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQf8mrHjfZRoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsFriell,_Gerald1999" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerald (1999). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-15403-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-15403-0"><bdi>0-415-15403-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+Wealth+and+Expenditure&rft.btitle=The+Rome+that+Did+Not+Fall%3A+The+Survival+of+the+East+in+the+Fifth+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-415-15403-0&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Friell%2C+Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM_SfLnZt68QC%26q%3DEast%2C%2Bimportance%2Bto%2BRome%2C%2Btrade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtisStewart2010" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (March 24, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XvVHBAAAQBAJ&q=first++war++Roman++Parthians+++Crassus++54&pg=PT66">The Age of the Parthians – Google Knihy</a>. I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-18-4511-406-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-18-4511-406-0"><bdi>978-18-4511-406-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2019-06-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Parthians+%E2%80%93+Google+Knihy&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2010-03-24&rft.isbn=978-18-4511-406-0&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Vesta+Sarkhosh&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXvVHBAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfirst%2B%2Bwar%2B%2BRoman%2B%2BParthians%2B%2B%2BCrassus%2B%2B54%26pg%3DPT66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-iranicaonline.org-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFelectricpulp.com" class="citation web cs1">electricpulp.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/byzantine-iranian-relations">"Byzantine–Iranian Relations – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 31 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=Byzantine%E2%80%93Iranian+Relations+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.au=electricpulp.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbyzantine-iranian-relations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Howard-Johnston (2006), 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016liii-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016liii_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, p. liii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Bloisvan_der_Spek2008137-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Bloisvan_der_Spek2008137_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDe_Bloisvan_der_Spek2008">De Blois & van der Spek 2008</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-BEn-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BEn_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BEn_6-1">b</a> Ball (2000), 12–13; Dignas–Winter (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/49258/excerpt/9780521849258_excerpt.pdf">9</a> (PDF) </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Plutarch, Sulla, 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html">3–6</a> * Mackay (2004), 149; Sherwin-White (1994), 262 </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Bivar (1993), 46 * Sherwin-White (1994), 262–263 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Sherwin-White (1994), 264 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Plutarch, Crassus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html">23–32</a> * Mackay (2004), 150 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Bivar (1993), 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Parthian.html">4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511193856/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Parthian.html">Archived</a> 2008-05-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> * Bivar (1993), 56–57 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Bivar (1993), 57 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Parthian.html">4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511193856/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Parthian.html">Archived</a> 2008-05-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> ; Plutarch, Antony, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html">33–34</a> * Bivar (1993), 57–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Cassius Dio, Roman History, XLIX, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/49*.html">27–33</a> * Bivar (1993), 58–65 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Sicker (2000), 162 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Sicker (2000), 162–163 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Tacitus, Annals, XII. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_12#50" class="extiw" title="s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 12">50–51</a> * Sicker (2000), 163 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Tacitus, Annals, XV. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_15#27" class="extiw" title="s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15">27–29</a> * Rawlinson (2007), 286–287 </li> <li id="cite_note-S167-20"><a href="#cite_ref-S167_20-0">^</a> Sicker (2000), 167 </li> <li id="cite_note-S168-21"><a href="#cite_ref-S168_21-0">^</a> Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXVIII, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/68*.html">33</a> * Sicker (2000), 167–168 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Lightfoot (1990), 115: "Trajan succeeded in acquiring territory in these lands with a view to annexation, something which had not seriously been attempted before ... Although Hadrian abandoned all of Trajan's conquests ... the trend was not to be reversed. Further wars of annexation followed under Lucius Verus and Septimius Severus."; Sicker (2000), 167–168 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Sicker (2000), 169 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Herodian, Roman History, III, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre309.html">9.1–12</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141107203339/http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre309.html">Archived</a> 2014-11-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Campbell (2005), 6–7; Rawlinson (2007), 337–338 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Herodian, Roman History, IV, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre410.html">10.1–15.9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150504210816/http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre410.html">Archived</a> 2015-05-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Campbell (2005), 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Herodian, Roman History, VI, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre602.html">2.1–6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141105134422/http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre602.html">Archived</a> 2014-11-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXXX, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/80*.html">4.1–2</a> * Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Herodian, Roman History, VI, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre605.html">5.1–6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150403113808/http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre605.html">Archived</a> 2015-04-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> * Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 24–28; Frye (1993), 124 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Frye (1993), 124–125; Southern (2001), 234–235 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverlaet2009" class="citation journal cs1">Overlaet, Bruno (30 June 2009). "A Roman Emperor at Bishapur and Darabgird". Iranica Antiqua. 44: 461–530. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2143%2FIA.44.0.2034386">10.2143/IA.44.0.2034386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranica+Antiqua&rft.atitle=A+Roman+Emperor+at+Bishapur+and+Darabgird&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=461-530&rft.date=2009-06-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2143%2FIA.44.0.2034386&rft.aulast=Overlaet&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverlaet2017" class="citation web cs1">Overlaet, Bruno (3 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/shapur-I-rock-reliefs">"Šāpur I: Rock Reliefs"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a>. Retrieved 25 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.atitle=%C5%A0%C4%81pur+I%3A+Rock+Reliefs&rft.date=2017-11-03&rft.aulast=Overlaet&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fshapur-I-rock-reliefs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Frye (1968), 125 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/victor.caes.html#27">7–8</a>; Sibylline Oracles, XIII, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sib/sib13.htm">13–20</a> <ul><li>Frye (1968), 125; Southern (2001), 235</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Frye (1993), 125; Southern (2001), 235–236 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/lactantius/demort.shtml">5</a>; Sibylline Oracles, XIII, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sib/sib13.htm">155–171</a> * Frye (1993), 126; Southern (2001), 238 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 108–109, 112; Southern (2001), 241 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 38. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/victor.caes.html#38">2–4</a>; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031222152525/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#18">18.1</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a> <ul><li>Frye (1968), 128; Southern (2001), 241</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), 114 </li> <li id="cite_note-Frye_1968-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Frye_1968_38-0">^</a> Frye (1968), 130; Southern (2001), 242 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/victor.caes.html#39">33–36</a>; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031222152525/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#18">24–25.1</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a> * Frye (1993), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/victor.caes.html#39">33–36</a>; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031222152525/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#18">24–25.1</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a> <ul><li>Frye (1968), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELenski2002162-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELenski2002162_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLenski2002">Lenski 2002</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-Frye_(1993),_130;_Southern_(2001),_242-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Frye_(1993),_130;_Southern_(2001),_242_42-0">^</a> Frye (1993), 130; Southern (2001), 242 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlockley1997423-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlockley1997423_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlockley1997">Blockley 1997</a>, p. 423. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Frye (1993), 137 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Browning, Robert The Emperor Julian University of California Press (1978) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03731-1">978-0-520-03731-1</a> p. 243 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Wacher, J.S. The Roman World, Volume 1 Routledge; 2 edition (2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26315-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26315-3">978-0-415-26315-3</a> p. 143 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Frye (1993), 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Frye (1968), 141 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Bury (1923), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/14*.html">XIV.1</a>; Frye (1968), 145; Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Procopius, Wars, I.7.1–2 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm">XLIII</a> * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, VII, 3–4 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 63 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I I, 69–71 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Procopius, Wars, I.9.24 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm">XC</a> * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm">XCIII–XCIV</a> * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 </li> <li id="cite_note-Greatrex-Lieu_2002,_II,_77-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Greatrex-Lieu_2002,_II,_77_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Greatrex-Lieu_2002,_II,_77_57-1">b</a> Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> On Procopius, see Henning Börm: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9077244/Procopius_and_the_East_in_M_Meier_F_Montinaro_eds_A_Companion_to_Procopius_of_Caesarea_Leiden_Boston_Brill_2022_pp_310ff_uncorrected_proofs_">Procopius and the East</a>. In: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mischa_Meier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mischa Meier (page does not exist)">Mischa Meier</a>, Federico Montinaro: A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea. Brill, Boston 2022, pp. 310 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Procopius, Wars, I.9.24 <ul><li>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Joshua the Stylite, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/joshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm">XC</a> <ul><li>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 74</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gl81-82-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Gl81-82_61-0">^</a> Procopius, Wars, I.11.23–30 * Greatrex (2005), 487; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 81–82 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProcopiusDewingKaldellēsProcopius2014" class="citation book cs1">Procopius; Dewing, H. B.; Kaldellēs, Antōnios Emm; Procopius; Procopius (2014). The wars of Justinian. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62466-170-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62466-170-9"><bdi>978-1-62466-170-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+wars+of+Justinian&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company%2C+Inc&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62466-170-9&rft.au=Procopius&rft.au=Dewing%2C+H.+B.&rft.au=Kaldell%C4%93s%2C+Ant%C5%8Dnios+Emm&rft.au=Procopius&rft.au=Procopius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gl822-63"><a href="#cite_ref-Gl822_63-0">^</a> Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 82 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gl81-822-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Gl81-822_64-0">^</a> Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 81–82 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gl84-65"><a href="#cite_ref-Gl84_65-0">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gl83-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Gl83_66-0">^</a> Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, IX, 2 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 83, 86 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 86 </li> <li id="cite_note-GL92-96-69"><a href="#cite_ref-GL92-96_69-0">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 92–96 </li> <li id="cite_note-GL93-70"><a href="#cite_ref-GL93_70-0">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 93 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Evans (2000), 118; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 96–97 </li> <li id="cite_note-BrJustFPW-72"><a href="#cite_ref-BrJustFPW_72-0">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 102; see H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum", Chiron 36 (2006), 299ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 102 </li> <li id="cite_note-BrJustFPW2-74"><a href="#cite_ref-BrJustFPW2_74-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-3802">Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars</a>" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Procopius, Wars, II.20.17–19 <ul><li>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 109–110</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Procopius, Wars, II.21.30–32 <ul><li>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Corripus, Johannidos, I.68–98 <ul><li>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 111</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-GL1132-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GL1132_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GL1132_78-1">b</a> Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113 </li> <li id="cite_note-GL113Pr2-79"><a href="#cite_ref-GL113Pr2_79-0">^</a> Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11 <ul><li>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-GL113Pr-80"><a href="#cite_ref-GL113Pr_80-0">^</a> Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11 * Greatrex (2005), 489; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 </li> <li id="cite_note-BrJustFPWGL-81"><a href="#cite_ref-BrJustFPWGL_81-0">^</a> Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110; "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-3802">Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars</a>" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. </li> <li id="cite_note-EvJuPrGr-82"><a href="#cite_ref-EvJuPrGr_82-0">^</a> Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11 * Evans, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm">Justinian (527–565 AD)</a>; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Treadgold (1997), 204–205 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Treadgold (1997), 205–207 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Treadgold (1997), 204–207 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Treadgold (1997), 209 </li> <li id="cite_note-F236-87"><a href="#cite_ref-F236_87-0">^</a> Farrokh (2007), 236 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Greatrex (2005), 489; Treadgold (1997), 211 </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Menander Protector, History, frag. 6.1. According to Greatrex (2005), 489, to many Romans this arrangement "appeared dangerous and indicative of weakness". </li> <li id="cite_note-EvJu-90"><a href="#cite_ref-EvJu_90-0">^</a> Evans, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-emperors.org/justinia.htm">Justinian (527–565 AD)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_of_Epiphania" title="John of Epiphania">John of Epiphania</a>, History, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/1048936">2 AncientSites.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110621222019/http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/1048936">Archived</a> 2011-06-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> gives an additional reason for the outbreak of the war: "[The Medians'] contentiousness increased even further ... when Justin did not deem to pay the Medians the five hundred pounds of gold each year previously agreed to under the peace treaties and let the Roman State remain forever a tributary of the Persians." See also, Greatrex (2005), 503–504 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Treadgold (1997), 222 </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> The great bastion of the Roman frontier was in Persian hands for the first time (Whitby [2000], 92–94). </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 152; Louth (2005), 113 </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 246.11–27 * Whitby (2000), 92–94 </li> <li id="cite_note-TW95-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TW95_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TW95_96-1">b</a> Theophylact, History, I, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">9.4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610155131/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-06-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF) Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95 </li> <li id="cite_note-TW96-97"><a href="#cite_ref-TW96_97-0">^</a> Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95–96 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Soward, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610155131/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-06-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF); Treadgold (1997), 225; Whitby (2000), 96 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuny199425-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuny199425_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSuny1994">Suny 1994</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015529-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015529_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMikaberidze2015">Mikaberidze 2015</a>, p. 529. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Soward, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610155131/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-06-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF); Treadgold (1997), 226; Whitby (2000), 96 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 168-169 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Theophylact, V, History, I, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">3.11</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610155131/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-06-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081002222116/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">15.1</a> (PDF) * Louth (2005), 115; Treadgold (1997), 231–232 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Foss (1975), 722 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 290–293 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 183–184 </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 292–293 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 185–186 </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 186–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Haldon (1997), 41; Speck (1984), 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 188–189 </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 189–190 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 190–193, 196 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> The mint of <a href="/wiki/Nicomedia" title="Nicomedia">Nicomedia</a> ceased operating in 613, and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> fell to the invaders in 622–623 (Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 193–197). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKia2016223-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKia2016223_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKia2016">Kia 2016</a>, p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston200633-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoward-Johnston200633_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoward-Johnston2006">Howard-Johnston 2006</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoss1975">Foss 1975</a>, p. 725 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Howard-Johnston (2006), 85 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 196 </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 303–304, 307 * Cameron (1979), 23; Grabar (1984), 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 304.25–306.7 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 306–308 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199–202 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 308–312 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 202–205 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 316 * Cameron (1979), 5–6, 20–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 315–316 McBride (2005), 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 209–212 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Theophanes, Chronicle, 317–327 * Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227 </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), passim; Speck (1984), 178 </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Howard-Johnston (2006), 9: "[Heraclius'] victories in the field over the following years and its political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old Zoroastrian rival." </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Haldon (1997), 43–45, 66, 71, 114–15 </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of <a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">miaphysites</a> may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion (Haldon [1997], 49–50). </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Foss (1975), 746–47; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Liska (1998), 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Haldon (1997), 49–50 </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Haldon (1997), 61–62; Howard-Johnston (2006), 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Rawlinson (2007), 199: "The Parthian military system had not the elasticity of the Romans ... However loose and seemingly flexible, it was rigid in its uniformity; it never altered; it remained under the thirtieth Arsaces such as it had been under the first, improved in details perhaps, but essentially the same system." According to Michael Whitby (2000), 310, "the eastern armies preserved the Roman military reputation through to the end of the 6th century by capitalizing on available resources and showing a capacity to adapt to a variety of challenges". </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheeler_(2007),_259-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_(2007),_259_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler_(2007),_259_135-1">b</a> Wheeler (2007), 259 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fr473-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fr473_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fr473_136-1">b</a> Frye (2005), 473 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Greatrex (2005), 478; Frye (2005), 472 </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Cornuelle, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20080630041355/http://www.derafsh-kaviyani.com/english/sassanian.html">An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military</a>; Sidnell (2006), 273 </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> According to Reno E. Gabba, the Roman army was reorganized over time after the impact of the Battle of Carrhae (Gabba [1966], 51–73). </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-history-of-iran/cultural-relations-between-parthia-and-rome/0E259A85489548072E86D3F0AD8A9182/">The Cambridge History of Iran</a> : "The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire. The ancient Persian tradition of large-scale hydraulic engineering was thus combined with the unique Roman experience in masonry. The Greco-Roman picture of the Persians as a nation of fierce and indomitable warriors contrasts strangely with another stereotype, the Persians as past masters of the art of refined living, of luxuriose vivere. The Persian influence on Roman religion would be enormous, were people allowed to call Mithraism a Persian religion." </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Vegetius, III, Epitoma Rei Militaris, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/vegetius3.html">26</a> * Verbruggen–Willard–Southern (1997), 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaldon1999" class="citation book cs1">Haldon, John F. (31 March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5G1rV7tS79sC&pg=PA195">Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565-1204</a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781857284959" title="Special:BookSources/9781857284959"><bdi>9781857284959</bdi></a>. Retrieved 31 March 2018 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare%2C+State+and+Society+in+the+Byzantine+World%2C+565-1204&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1999-03-31&rft.isbn=9781857284959&rft.aulast=Haldon&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5G1rV7tS79sC%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrokh2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaveh_Farrokh" title="Kaveh Farrokh">Farrokh, Kaveh</a> (2012). Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224–642. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78200-848-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78200-848-4"><bdi>978-1-78200-848-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sassanian+Elite+Cavalry+AD+224%E2%80%93642&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-78200-848-4&rft.aulast=Farrokh&rft.aufirst=Kaveh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Campbell–Hook (2005), 57–59; Gabba (1966), 51–73 </li> <li id="cite_note-Elton-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elton_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elton_145-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton2018" class="citation book cs1">Elton, Hugh (2018). The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History. 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Retrieved 31 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tertullian.org&rft.atitle=Joshua+the+Stylite%2C+Chronicle+composed+in+Syriac+in+AD+507+%281882%29+pp.+1-76&rft.aulast=Stylite&rft.aufirst=Joshua+the&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tertullian.org%2Ffathers%2Fjoshua_the_stylite_02_trans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/justin/41.html">"Justin XLI"</a>. www.thelatinlibrary.com. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freewebs.com/vitaphone1/history/sozomen.html">the original</a> on May 22, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freewebs.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freewebs.com%2Fvitaphone1%2Fhistory%2Fsozomen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0700-0800,_Theophanes_Abbas_Confessor,_Chronographia_(CSHB_Classeni_Recensio),_GR.pdf">DocumentaCatholicaOmnia.eu</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610155131/http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">"Humanities.uci.edu"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanities.uci.edu/sasanika/pdf/Theophylact.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2008-04-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Humanities.uci.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanities.uci.edu%2Fsasanika%2Fpdf%2FTheophylact.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/vegetius3.html">"Vegetius Liber III"</a>. www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 31 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thelatinlibrary.com&rft.atitle=Vegetius+Liber+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fvegetius3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndres2022" class="citation book cs1">Andres, Hansjoachim (2022). Bruderzwist. Strukturen und Methoden der Diplomatie zwischen Rom und Iran von der Teilung Armeniens bis zum Fünfzigjährigen Frieden. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-13363-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-13363-0"><bdi>978-3-515-13363-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bruderzwist.+Strukturen+und+Methoden+der+Diplomatie+zwischen+Rom+und+Iran+von+der+Teilung+Armeniens+bis+zum+F%C3%BCnfzigj%C3%A4hrigen+Frieden&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-515-13363-0&rft.aulast=Andres&rft.aufirst=Hansjoachim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlockley1992" class="citation book cs1">Blockley, Roger C. (1992). East Roman Foreign Policy. Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius (ARCA 30). Leeds: Francis Cairns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-905205-83-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-905205-83-9"><bdi>0-905205-83-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Roman+Foreign+Policy.+Formation+and+Conduct+from+Diocletian+to+Anastasius+%28ARCA+30%29&rft.place=Leeds&rft.pub=Francis+Cairns&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-905205-83-9&rft.aulast=Blockley&rft.aufirst=Roger+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBörm2007" class="citation book cs1">Börm, Henning (2007). Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-09052-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-09052-0"><bdi>978-3-515-09052-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prokop+und+die+Perser.+Untersuchungen+zu+den+R%C3%B6misch-Sasanidischen+Kontakten+in+der+ausgehenden+Sp%C3%A4tantike&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-515-09052-0&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6rm&rft.aufirst=Henning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBörm2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Börm, Henning (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1012246">""Es war allerdings nicht so, dass sie es im Sinne eines Tributes erhielten, wie viele meinten ..." Anlässe und Funktion der persischen Geldforderungen an die Römer"</a>. Historia (in German). 57: 327–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25162%2Fhistoria-2008-0019">10.25162/historia-2008-0019</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252458547">252458547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=%22Es+war+allerdings+nicht+so%2C+dass+sie+es+im+Sinne+eines+Tributes+erhielten%2C+wie+viele+meinten+...%22+Anl%C3%A4sse+und+Funktion+der+persischen+Geldforderungen+an+die+R%C3%B6mer&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=327-346&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25162%2Fhistoria-2008-0019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252458547%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6rm&rft.aufirst=Henning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1012246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreatrex1998" class="citation book cs1">Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0RoMAAAACAAJ&q=Greatrex,+Rome+and+Persia+at+War">Rome and Persia at War, 502–532</a>. Rome: Francis Cairns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-905205-93-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-905205-93-6"><bdi>0-905205-93-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+and+Persia+at+War%2C+502%E2%80%93532&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Francis+Cairns&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-905205-93-6&rft.aulast=Greatrex&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0RoMAAAACAAJ%26q%3DGreatrex%2C%2BRome%2Band%2BPersia%2Bat%2BWar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaac1998" class="citation book cs1">Isaac, Benjamin (1998). "The Eastern Frontier". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zdoUNivK_hsC&q=East,+Rome,+Persia">The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425 XIII</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-30200-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-30200-5"><bdi>0-521-30200-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Eastern+Frontier&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%3A+The+Late+Empire%2C+A.D.+337%E2%80%93425+XIII&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-30200-5&rft.aulast=Isaac&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzdoUNivK_hsC%26q%3DEast%2C%2BRome%2C%2BPersia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaegi2003" class="citation book cs1">Kaegi, Walter E. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&q=Kaegi,+Heraclius">Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-81459-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-81459-6"><bdi>0-521-81459-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heraclius%2C+Emperor+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-81459-6&rft.aulast=Kaegi&rft.aufirst=Walter+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtlNlFZ_7UhoC%26q%3DKaegi%2C%2BHeraclius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKettenhofen1982" class="citation book cs1">Kettenhofen, Erich (1982). Die Römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka'be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ). Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients B 55. Wiesbaden.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+R%C3%B6misch-persischen+Kriege+des+3.+Jahrhunderts.+n.+Chr.+Nach+der+Inschrift+S%C4%81hpuhrs+I.+an+der+Ka%27be-ye+Zarto%C5%A1t+%28%C5%A0KZ%29.+Beihefte+zum+T%C3%BCbinger+Atlas+des+Vorderen+Orients+B+55&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Kettenhofen&rft.aufirst=Erich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillar1982" class="citation book cs1">Millar, Fergus (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604055953/http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-roman-near-east-31-bc-ad-337-by-fergus-millar.jsp">The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/the-roman-near-east-31-bc-ad-337-by-fergus-millar.jsp">the original</a> on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2017-09-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Near+East%2C+31+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+337&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Flibrary%2Fbook%2Fthe-roman-near-east-31-bc-ad-337-by-fergus-millar.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2006" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Stephen B. (2006). A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0857-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0857-6"><bdi>1-4051-0857-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire%2C+AD+284%E2%80%93641&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4051-0857-6&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Stephen+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2004" class="citation book cs1">Potter, David S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qDVXRO1CFXAC&q=Potter,+The+Roman+Empire+at+Bay">The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395</a>. London und New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-10058-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-10058-5"><bdi>0-415-10058-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+at+Bay%3A+AD+180%E2%80%93395&rft.place=London+und+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-10058-5&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqDVXRO1CFXAC%26q%3DPotter%2C%2BThe%2BRoman%2BEmpire%2Bat%2BBay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitby1988" class="citation book cs1">Whitby, Michael (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VAcAJfJP9KUC&q=Whitby,+The+Emperor+Maurice+and+his+Historian">The Emperor Maurice and his Historian</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822945-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822945-3"><bdi>0-19-822945-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor+Maurice+and+his+Historian&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-19-822945-3&rft.aulast=Whitby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVAcAJfJP9KUC%26q%3DWhitby%2C%2BThe%2BEmperor%2BMaurice%2Band%2Bhis%2BHistorian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Persian-Roman_wars" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Persian-Roman wars">Persian-Roman wars</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6339742/Cataphracts_and_Siegecraft_Adapting_to_the_Enemy_in_the_Sassanid_Wars">Cataphracts and Siegecraft</a> – Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlemani" class="citation web cs1">Alemani, Agustí. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/alemany.pdf">"Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World"</a> (PDF). Ēran ud Anērān. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. Retrieved 2008-05-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%C4%92ran+ud+An%C4%93r%C4%81n&rft.atitle=Sixth+Century+Alania%3A+between+Byzantium%2C+Sasanian+Iran+and+the+Turkic+World&rft.aulast=Alemani&rft.aufirst=Agust%C3%AD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transoxiana.org%2FEran%2FArticles%2Falemany.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=war_roman_parthian">"Rome and Parthia at War"</a>. History Articles – Classical Europe and Mediterranean. All Empires – Online History Community. Retrieved 2008-05-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Articles+%E2%80%93+Classical+Europe+and+Mediterranean&rft.atitle=Rome+and+Parthia+at+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allempires.com%2Farticle%2Findex.php%3Fq%3Dwar_roman_parthian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=sassanids_byzantines">"Sassanids vs Byzantines"</a>. History Articles – Medieval Europe. All Empires – Online History Community. Retrieved 2008-05-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Articles+%E2%80%93+Medieval+Europe&rft.atitle=Sassanids+vs+Byzantines&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.allempires.com%2Farticle%2Findex.php%3Fq%3Dsassanids_byzantines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman%E2%80%93Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_wars" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Roman_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Roman Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">Ancient Roman wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the Roman Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest of Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Etruscan_Wars" title="Roman–Etruscan Wars">Roman–Etruscan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Aequian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Aequian wars">Roman-Aequian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Latin_wars" title="Roman–Latin wars">Roman–Latin wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Hernici" title="Roman conquest of the Hernici">Roman–Hernician wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Volscian_wars" title="Roman–Volscian wars">Roman–Volscian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sabine_wars" title="Roman–Sabine wars">Roman–Sabine wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnite_Wars" title="Samnite Wars">Samnite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Gallic_wars" title="Roman–Gallic wars">Roman–Gallic wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyro-Roman_Wars" title="Illyro-Roman Wars">Illyro-Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_war" title="Roman–Seleucid war">Roman–Seleucid war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula">Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_Wars" title="Celtiberian Wars">Celtiberian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_War" title="Lusitanian War">Lusitanian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numantine_War" title="Numantine War">Numantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertorian_War" title="Sertorian War">Sertorian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_Wars" title="Cantabrian Wars">Cantabrian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugurthine_War" title="Jugurthine War">Jugurthine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_War" title="Cimbrian War">Cimbrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servile_Wars" title="Servile Wars">Servile Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Servile_War" title="First Servile War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Servile_War" title="Second Servile War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Octavianum" title="Bellum Octavianum">Bellum Octavianum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Mutina" title="War of Mutina">War of Mutina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">Liberators' civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Bellum Siculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perusine_War" title="Perusine War">Perusine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Wars of the Roman Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_warfare_between_the_Romans_and_Germanic_peoples" title="Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples">Germanic wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_Wars" title="Marcomannic Wars">Marcomannic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boudican_revolt" title="Boudican revolt">Boudican revolt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Civil war of 69</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian%27s_Dacian_War" title="Domitian's Dacian War">Domitian's Dacian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Trajan's Dacian Wars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Civil wars of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">Military history of ancient Rome</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Iranian_wars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Iranian_wars" title="Template:Ancient Iranian wars"><abbr title="View this 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title="Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)">Fall of Nineveh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eclipse" title="Battle of the Eclipse">Battle of the Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medo-Persian_conflict" title="Medo-Persian conflict">Medo-Persian conflict (Persian Revolt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hyrba" title="Battle of Hyrba">Battle of Hyrba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Border" title="Battle of the Persian Border">Battle of the Persian Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes#Rise_and_fall" title="Medes">Siege of Pasargadae Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Battle of Pasargadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes#Rise_and_fall" title="Medes">Fall of Ecbatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)" title="Siege of Sardis (547 BC)">Conquest of Asia Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelusium" title="Battle of Pelusium">First conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great#Military_campaigns" title="Darius the Great">Revolts against Darius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">Scythian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Invasions of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">2nd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Revolt of Cyrus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadusian_campaign_of_Artaxerxes_II" title="Cadusian campaign of Artaxerxes II">Cadusian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdashtart_I#Revolt_against_the_Achaemenid_Empire" title="Abdashtart I">Abdashtart I' revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Persia" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parni_conquest_of_Parthia" title="Parni conquest of Parthia">Parni conquest of Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian%E2%80%93Bactrian_War" title="Parthian–Bactrian War">Bactrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scythian%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scythian–Parthian Wars (page does not exist)">Scythian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian–Parthian War">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hormozdgan" title="Battle of Hormozdgan">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sassanid_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sassanid Wars">Against Byzantine Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sasanian%E2%80%93Kushan_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sasanian–Kushan War (page does not exist)">Kushan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_Arab_campaign" title="Shapur II's Arab campaign">Against Arab tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" title="Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars">Hephthalite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Avarayr" title="Battle of Avarayr">Armenian revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_reconquest_of_Yemen" title="Sasanian reconquest of Yemen">Annexation of Yemen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_589%E2%80%93591" title="Sasanian civil war of 589–591">Civil war of 589–591</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk–Persian wars">Göktürk Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Perso-Turkic War">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Perso-Turkic War">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">3rd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dhi_Qar" title="Battle of Dhi Qar">Battle of Dhi Qar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Civil war of 628–632</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Sasanian_Empire&#124;link=Sasanian_Empire_Sasanian_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sasanian_Empire" title="Template:Sasanian Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sasanian_Empire" title="Template talk:Sasanian Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Sasanian_Empire&#124;link=Sasanian_Empire_Sasanian_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire"><img alt="Sasanian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/15px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire">List of monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Timeline of the Sasanian Empire">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynasty</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Sasan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Sasan">House of Sasan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_family_tree" title="Sasanian family tree">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">Seven Great Houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kayus" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kayus">Kayus</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Senmurv.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/100px-Senmurv.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/150px-Senmurv.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/200px-Senmurv.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="645" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_coinage" title="Sasanian coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_crowns" title="Sasanian crowns">Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dress" title="Sasanian dress">Dressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_glass" title="Sasanian glass">Glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_inscriptions" title="List of Sasanian inscriptions">Inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_literature" title="Middle Persian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment_in_Sasanian_culture" title="Punishment in Sasanian culture">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Women in the Sasanian Empire">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Military of the Sasanian Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_navy" title="Sasanian navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_defense_lines" title="Sasanian defense lines">Defense lines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_Arab_campaign" title="Shapur II's Arab campaign">Arab tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" title="Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars">Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk–Persian wars">Göktürk–Persian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite–Persian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars">Revolts and civil wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Descendants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_al-Munajjim" title="Banu al-Munajjim">Banu al-Munajjim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikalids" title="Mikalids">Mikalids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_roads" title="Sasanian roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_economy" title="Sasanian economy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_(word)" title="Iran (word)">ērān</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aneran" title="Aneran">anērān</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sasanian_Empire" title="Category:Sasanian Empire">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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