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class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Editions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>History of Animals</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_(%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8)" title="تاريخ الحيوانات (كتاب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الحيوانات (كتاب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyvanlar_tarixi_(Aristotel)" title="Heyvanlar tarixi (Aristotel) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Heyvanlar tarixi (Aristotel)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B8" title="হিস্ট্রি অব অ্যানিমেলস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হিস্ট্রি অব অ্যানিমেলস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_dels_animals" title="Història dels animals – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història dels animals" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_animalium" title="Historia animalium – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Historia animalium" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%B1_%CE%B6%CF%8E%CE%B1_%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1%CE%B9" title="Περί τα ζώα ιστορίαι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περί τα ζώα ιστορίαι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_los_animales" title="Historia de los animales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de los animales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalien_historia_(Aristoteles)" title="Animalien historia (Aristoteles) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Animalien historia (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تاریخ حیوانات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ حیوانات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_animaux_(Aristote)" title="Histoire des animaux (Aristote) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des animaux (Aristote)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_dos_animais" title="Historia dos animais – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia dos animais" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Կենդանիների պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենդանիների պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Hewan" title="Sejarah Hewan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Hewan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranns%C3%B3knir_%C3%A1_d%C3%BDrum" title="Rannsóknir á dýrum – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rannsóknir á dýrum" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_animalium" title="Historia animalium – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Historia animalium" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Haiwan" title="Sejarah Haiwan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Haiwan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E8%AA%8C_(%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%86%E3%83%AC%E3%82%B9)" title="動物誌 (アリストテレス) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="動物誌 (アリストテレス)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Animalium" title="Historia Animalium – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Historia Animalium" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_animalium" title="Historia animalium – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia animalium" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Hist%C3%B3ria_dos_Animais" title="Da História dos Animais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Da História dos Animais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85" title="История животных – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История животных" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A4inoppi_(Aristoteles)" title="Eläinoppi (Aristoteles) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Eläinoppi (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayvanlar%C4%B1n_Tarihi_%C3%9Czerine" title="Hayvanların Tarihi Üzerine – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hayvanların Tarihi Üzerine" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Історія тварин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія тварин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E5%BF%97" title="动物志 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="动物志" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E5%BF%97" title="动物志 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="动物志" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1620799#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historia_Animalium&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Animalium">Historia Animalium</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Work by Aristotle</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Historia animalium" redirects here. For the book by Conrad Gessner, see <a href="/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia animalium (Gessner)">Historia animalium (Gessner)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costantinopoli,_aristotele,_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti,_xii_sec.,_pluteo_87,4.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG/330px-Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG" decoding="async" width="330" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG/495px-Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG/660px-Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2778" data-file-height="1974" /></a><figcaption><i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Historia animalium</i></span> et al.</i>, <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, 12th century (<a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Medicea_Laurenziana" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana">Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana</a>, pluteo 87.4)</figcaption></figure> <p> <i><b>History of Animals</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Τῶν περὶ τὰ ζῷα ἱστοριῶν</span>, <i>Ton peri ta zoia historion</i>, "Inquiries on Animals"; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Historia Animalium</i>, "History of Animals") is one of the major <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">texts on biology</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. It was written in sometime between the mid-fourth century BC and Aristotle's death in 322 BC. </p><p>Generally seen as a pioneering work of <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, Aristotle frames his text by explaining that he is investigating the <i>what</i> (the existing facts about animals) prior to establishing the <i>why</i> (the causes of these characteristics). The book is thus an attempt to apply philosophy to part of the <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural world</a>. Throughout the work, Aristotle seeks to identify differences, both between individuals and between groups. A group is established when it is seen that all members have the same set of distinguishing features; for example, that all <a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a> have <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a>, wings, and beaks. This relationship between the birds and their features is recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universal</a>. </p><p>The <i>History of Animals</i> contains many accurate eye-witness observations, in particular of the <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine biology</a> around the island of <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>, such as that the <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a> had colour-changing abilities and a sperm-transferring tentacle, that the young of <a href="/wiki/Mustelus_canis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustelus canis">a dogfish</a> grow inside their mother's body, or that the male of <a href="/wiki/Silurus_aristotelis" class="mw-redirect" title="Silurus aristotelis">a river catfish</a> guards the eggs after the female has left. Some of these were long considered fanciful before being rediscovered in the nineteenth century. Aristotle has been accused of making errors, but some are due to misinterpretation of his text, and others may have been based on genuine observation. He did however make somewhat uncritical use of evidence from other people, such as travellers and beekeepers. </p><p>The <i>History of Animals</i> had a powerful influence on zoology for some two thousand years. It continued to be a primary source of knowledge until zoologists in the sixteenth century, such as <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a>, all influenced by Aristotle, wrote their own studies of the subject. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Context">Context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Image of mosaic from a villa in Roman Pompeii, showing Plato's Academy in ancient Athens, with men in robes, some seated on a bench under a tree" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/220px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/330px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/440px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1614" data-file-height="1652" /></a><figcaption>Aristotle spent many years at <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's academy">Plato's academy</a> in Athens (<a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaic</a>, 1st century, <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC) studied at <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Academy">Plato's Academy</a> in Athens, remaining there for some 17 years. Like <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, he sought universals in his philosophy, but unlike Plato he backed up his views with detailed observation, notably of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> of the island of <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine life</a> in the island's lagoon at Pyrrha. This study made him the earliest natural historian whose written work survives. No similarly detailed work on <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a> was attempted until the sixteenth century; accordingly Aristotle remained highly influential for some two thousand years. His writings on zoology form about a quarter of his surviving work.<sup id="cite_ref-Lennox_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lennox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle's pupil <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> later wrote a similar book on botany, <a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)"><i>Enquiry into Plants</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Book">Book</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Book"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approach">Approach</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>History of Animals</i>, Aristotle sets out to investigate the existing facts (Greek "hoti", what), prior to establishing their causes (Greek "dioti", why).<sup id="cite_ref-Lennox_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lennox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book is thus a defence of his method of investigating <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>. Aristotle investigates four types of differences between animals: differences in particular body parts (Books I to IV); differences in ways of life and types of activity (Books V, VI, VII and IX); and differences in specific characters (Book VIII).<sup id="cite_ref-Lennox_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lennox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To illustrate the philosophical method, consider one grouping of many kinds of animal, '<a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a>': all members of this group possess the same distinguishing features—feathers, wings, beaks, and two bony legs. This is an instance of a <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universal</a>: if something is a bird, it has <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">wings</a>; if something has feathers and wings, that also implies it is a bird, so the reasoning here is bidirectional. On the other hand, some animals that have red <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a> have <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>; other red-blooded animals (such as fish) have <a href="/wiki/Gills" class="mw-redirect" title="Gills">gills</a>. This implies, in Aristotle's reasoning, that if something has lungs, it has red blood; but Aristotle is careful not to imply that all red-blooded animals have lungs, so the reasoning here is not bidirectional.<sup id="cite_ref-Lennox_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lennox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While there is consensus that the <i>History of Animals</i> was aimed mostly at describing attributes of animals, there is a debate about whether or not it suggests that Aristotle was also interested in producing a taxonomy. Most philosophers who have studied the <i>History of Animals</i> and Aristotle's other writings suggest that Aristotle was not trying to produce a taxonomy,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but more recent studies by biologists reach different conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FH08_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FH08-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contents">Contents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristoteles_%E2%80%93_Historia_animalium,_1619_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4533413.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Aristoteles_%E2%80%93_Historia_animalium%2C_1619_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4533413.jpg/170px-Aristoteles_%E2%80%93_Historia_animalium%2C_1619_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4533413.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Aristoteles_%E2%80%93_Historia_animalium%2C_1619_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4533413.jpg/255px-Aristoteles_%E2%80%93_Historia_animalium%2C_1619_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4533413.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Aristoteles_%E2%80%93_Historia_animalium%2C_1619_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4533413.jpg/340px-Aristoteles_%E2%80%93_Historia_animalium%2C_1619_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4533413.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1956" data-file-height="2881" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scaliger" title="Scaliger">Scaliger</a>'s edition with his commentary, <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>, 1619</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Book I</b> The grouping of animals and the parts of the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a>. Aristotle describes the parts that the human body is made of, such as the skull, <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, face, eyes, ears, nose, tongue, thorax, belly, <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viscera" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscera">viscera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitalia">genitalia</a>, and limbs. </p><p><b>Book II</b> The different parts of red-blooded animals. Aristotle writes about limbs, the teeth of dogs, horses, man, and elephant; the elephant's tongue; and of animals such as the <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">apes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleon</a>, birds especially the <a href="/wiki/Wryneck" title="Wryneck">wryneck</a>, fishes and snakes. </p><p><b>Book III</b> The internal organs, including generative system, veins, sinews, bone etc. He moves on to the <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> including <a href="/wiki/Rennet" title="Rennet">rennet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semen" title="Semen">semen</a>. </p><p><b>Book IV</b> Animals without blood (<a href="/wiki/Invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrates">invertebrates</a>) – <a href="/wiki/Cephalopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalopods">cephalopods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustaceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustaceans">crustaceans</a>, etc. In chapter 8, he describes the <a href="/wiki/Sense_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sense organ">sense organs</a> of animals. Chapter 10 considers sleep and whether it occurs in fish. </p><p><b>Books V and VI</b> Reproduction, spontaneous and sexual of marine invertebrates, birds, quadrupeds, snakes, fish, and terrestrial arthropods including ichneumon wasps, bees, ants, scorpions, spiders, and grasshoppers. </p><p><b>Book VII</b> Reproduction of man, including puberty, conception, pregnancy, lactation, the embryo, labour, milk, and diseases of infants. </p><p><b>Book VIII</b> The character and habits of animals, food, migration, health, animal diseases including bee parasites, and the influence of climate. </p><p><b>Book IX</b> Social behaviour in animals; signs of intelligence in animals such as sheep and birds. </p><p>A tenth book is included in some versions, dealing with the causes of barrenness in women, but is generally regarded as not being by Aristotle. In the preface to his translation, <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Wentworth_Thompson" title="D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson">D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson</a> calls it "spurious beyond question".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observations">Observations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Observations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">Aristotle's biology</a></div> <p>The <i>History of Animals</i> contains a large number of eye-witness observations, in particular of <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine biology</a>, in sharp contrast to Plato's "symbolic zoology". Aristotle's style and precision can be seen in the passage where he discusses the behaviour and anatomy of the cephalopods, mentioning the <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation#Distraction" title="Anti-predator adaptation">use of ink against predators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signalling</a>. This is D'Arcy Thompson's translation:<sup id="cite_ref-Camouflage_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Camouflage-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Octopus_macropus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Octopus_macropus.jpg/170px-Octopus_macropus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Octopus_macropus.jpg/255px-Octopus_macropus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Octopus_macropus.jpg/340px-Octopus_macropus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Aristotle observed that the <a href="/wiki/Octopus_macropus" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus macropus">octopus</a> can <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">change colour when disturbed</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Of molluscs the <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">sepia</a> is the most cunning, and is the only species that employs its dark liquid for the sake of <a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation#Distraction" title="Anti-predator adaptation">concealment as well as from fear</a>: the octopus and <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">calamary</a> make the discharge solely from fear. These creatures never discharge the pigment in its entirety; and after a discharge the pigment accumulates again. The sepia, as has been said, often uses its <a href="/wiki/Sepia_(color)" title="Sepia (color)">colouring pigment</a> for concealment; it shows itself in front of the pigment and then retreats back into it; it also hunts with its long tentacles not only little fishes, but oftentimes even mullets. The octopus is a stupid creature, for it will approach a man's hand if it be lowered in the water; but it is neat and thrifty in its habits: that is, it lays up stores in its nest, and, after eating up all that is eatable, it ejects the shells and sheaths of crabs and shell-fish, and the skeletons of little fishes. It seeks its prey by so <a href="/wiki/Active_camouflage" title="Active camouflage">changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it</a>; it does so also <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">when alarmed</a>.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Historia Animalium IX.621b–622a</cite></div></blockquote> <p>His observations were almost all accurate, according to the philosopher Anthony Preus, though <a href="/wiki/Mario_Vegetti" title="Mario Vegetti">Mario Vegetti</a> argues that Aristotle sometimes let theory cloud observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell2014_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell2014-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scyliorhinus_retifer_embryo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Scyliorhinus_retifer_embryo.JPG/220px-Scyliorhinus_retifer_embryo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Scyliorhinus_retifer_embryo.JPG/330px-Scyliorhinus_retifer_embryo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Scyliorhinus_retifer_embryo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Aristotle recorded that the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mustelus_canis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustelus canis">a dogfish</a> was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac).</figcaption></figure> <p>Some of Aristotle's observations were not taken seriously by science until they were independently rediscovered in the 19th century. For example, he recorded that male octopuses have a <a href="/wiki/Hectocotylus" title="Hectocotylus">hectocotylus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tentacle" title="Tentacle">tentacle</a> which stores <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> and which can transfer it into the female's body; sometimes it snaps off during mating.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The account was dismissed as fanciful until the French naturalist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> described it in his 1817 <i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allaby_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allaby-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle also noted that the young of the <a href="/wiki/Mustelus_canis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustelus canis">dogfish</a> grow inside their mother's body attached by a cord to something like a <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a> (a yolk sac). This was confirmed in 1842 by the German zoologist <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Peter_M%C3%BCller" title="Johannes Peter Müller">Johannes Peter Müller</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allaby_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allaby-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle noted, too, that <a href="/wiki/Silurus_aristotelis" class="mw-redirect" title="Silurus aristotelis">a river catfish</a> which he called the <i>glanis</i> cares for its young, as the female leaves after giving birth; the male guards the eggs for forty or fifty days, chasing off small fish which threaten the eggs, and making a murmuring noise. The Swiss American zoologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> found the account to be correct in 1890.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle's methods of observation included <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissection</a> (Aristotle's lost companion work, <i>The Dissections</i>, contained illustrations of these<sup id="cite_ref-Haworth_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haworth-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), so he observed animal <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> directly, though his interpretations of the functions of the structures he observed were subject to error. Like other classical authors such as <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, Aristotle also gathered evidence from travellers and people with specialised knowledge, such as fishermen and <a href="/wiki/Beekeeper" title="Beekeeper">beekeepers</a>, without much attempt to corroborate what they said.<sup id="cite_ref-Lang2015_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lang2015-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apparent_errors">Apparent errors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Apparent errors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ephemerellidae_sp_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ephemerellidae_sp_01.jpg/220px-Ephemerellidae_sp_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ephemerellidae_sp_01.jpg/330px-Ephemerellidae_sp_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ephemerellidae_sp_01.jpg/440px-Ephemerellidae_sp_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2529" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mayfly" title="Mayfly">Mayflies</a> walk on four legs, as Aristotle stated.</figcaption></figure> <p>The text contains some claims that appear to be errors. Aristotle asserted in book II that female humans, sheep, goats, and swine have a smaller number of teeth than the males. This apparently false claim could have been a genuine observation, if as Robert Mayhew suggests<sup id="cite_ref-Mayhew_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mayhew-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> women at that time had a poorer diet than men; some studies have found that wisdom teeth erupt in men more often than women after age 25.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the claim is not true of other species either. Thus, Philippa Lang argues, Aristotle may have been <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a>, but he was quite <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> about observation, "because [he] was not expecting nature to be misleading".<sup id="cite_ref-Lang2015_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lang2015-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In other cases, errors may have been wrongly attributed to Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilkins_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilkins-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Katrin Weigmann wrote "[Aristotle's] statement that flies have four legs was repeated in natural history texts for more than a thousand years despite the fact that a little counting would have proven otherwise."<sup id="cite_ref-Weigmann_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weigmann-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the historian and philosopher of biology John S. Wilkins notes that Aristotle did not say "all flies have four legs"; he wrote that one particular animal, the <i>ephemeron</i> or <a href="/wiki/Mayfly" title="Mayfly">mayfly</a>, "moves with four feet and four wings: and, I may observe in passing, this creature is exceptional not only in regard to the duration of its existence, whence it receives its name, but also because though a quadruped it has wings also." Mayflies do in fact walk on four legs, the front pair not being adapted for walking, so, Wilkins concludes, Aristotle was correct.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilkins_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilkins-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More generally, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology#System" title="Aristotle's biology">Aristotle's biology</a>, described across the five books sometimes called <i>On Animals</i> and some of his minor works, the <i><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></i>, defines what in modern terms is a set of models of metabolism, temperature regulation, information processing, inheritance, and embryogenesis. All of these are wrong in the sense that modern science has replaced them with different models, but they were <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific</a> in that they attempted to explain observed phenomena, proposed mechanisms, and made testable predictions.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translations">Translations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Jahiz_-_pages_from_Kitaab_al_Hayawaan_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Al-Jahiz_-_pages_from_Kitaab_al_Hayawaan_3.jpg/170px-Al-Jahiz_-_pages_from_Kitaab_al_Hayawaan_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Al-Jahiz_-_pages_from_Kitaab_al_Hayawaan_3.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="294" /></a><figcaption>Page from the medieval Arabic translation, <i><a href="/wiki/Kit%C4%81b_al-Hayaw%C4%81n" title="Kitāb al-Hayawān">Kitāb al-Hayawān</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hectocotyle_Arm_-_a_page_of_Aristotle%27s_History_of_Animals_(D%27Arcy_Thompson).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hectocotyle_Arm_-_a_page_of_Aristotle%27s_History_of_Animals_%28D%27Arcy_Thompson%29.jpg/170px-Hectocotyle_Arm_-_a_page_of_Aristotle%27s_History_of_Animals_%28D%27Arcy_Thompson%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hectocotyle_Arm_-_a_page_of_Aristotle%27s_History_of_Animals_%28D%27Arcy_Thompson%29.jpg/255px-Hectocotyle_Arm_-_a_page_of_Aristotle%27s_History_of_Animals_%28D%27Arcy_Thompson%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hectocotyle_Arm_-_a_page_of_Aristotle%27s_History_of_Animals_%28D%27Arcy_Thompson%29.jpg/340px-Hectocotyle_Arm_-_a_page_of_Aristotle%27s_History_of_Animals_%28D%27Arcy_Thompson%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="686" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Arcy Thompson">D'Arcy Thompson</a>'s illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hectocotyl_arm" class="mw-redirect" title="Hectocotyl arm">hectocotyl arm</a> in a page of his 1910 translation<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Arabic translation comprises treatises 1–10 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Kit%C4%81b_al-Hayaw%C4%81n_(Aristotle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitāb al-Hayawān (Aristotle)">Kitāb al-Hayawān</a></i> (<i>The Book of Animals</i>). It was known to the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Al-Kind%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Kindī">Al-Kindī</a> (d. 850) and commented on by <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> among others. It was in turn translated into Latin, along with <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Rushd" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Rushd">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a>'s commentary on it, by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a> in the early 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English translations were made by Richard Cresswell in 1862<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the zoologist <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Wentworth_Thompson" title="D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson">D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson</a> in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A French translation was made by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Barth%C3%A9lemy-Saint-Hilaire" title="Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire">Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire</a> in 1883.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another translation into French was made by J. Tricot in 1957, following D'Arcy Thompson's interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A German translation of books I–VIII was made by Anton Karsch, starting in 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A translation of all ten books into German was made by Paul Gohlke in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology#Influence" title="Aristotle's biology">Aristotle's biology § Influence</a></div> <p>The comparative anatomist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> said in 1837 that "Zoological Science sprang from [Aristotle's] labours, we may almost say, like <a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a> from the Head of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jove</a>, in a state of noble and splendid maturity".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ben Waggoner of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Museum_of_Paleontology" title="University of California Museum of Paleontology">University of California Museum of Paleontology</a> wrote that </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Though Aristotle's work in zoology was not without errors, it was the grandest biological synthesis of the time, and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his death. His observations on the anatomy of octopus, cuttlefish, crustaceans, and many other marine invertebrates are remarkably accurate, and could only have been made from first-hand experience with dissection. Aristotle described the embryological development of a chick; he distinguished whales and dolphins from fish; he described the chambered stomachs of ruminants and the social organization of bees; he noticed that some sharks give birth to live young—his books on animals are filled with such observations, some of which were not confirmed until many centuries later.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pagel" title="Walter Pagel">Walter Pagel</a> comments that Aristotle "perceptibly influenced" the founders of modern zoology, the Swiss <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a> with his 1551–1558 <i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_animalium_(Gesner)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiae animalium (Gesner)">Historiae animalium</a></i>, the Italian <a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a> (1522–1605), the French <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Rondelet" title="Guillaume Rondelet">Guillaume Rondelet</a> (1507–1566), and the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Volcher_Coiter" title="Volcher Coiter">Volcher Coiter</a> (1534–1576), while his methods of looking at time series and making use of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a> assisted the Englishman <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> in his 1651 work on embryology.<sup id="cite_ref-Pagel1967_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pagel1967-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Armand Marie Leroi</a>'s 2014 book <i>The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</i> and BBC documentary <i><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lagoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's Lagoon">Aristotle's Lagoon</a></i> set Aristotle's biological writings including the <i>History of Animals</i> in context, and propose an interpretation of his biological theories.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D'Arcy Thompson translated the relevant passage of Book IV.1 as follows: "In all cases their feet are furnished with suckers. The octopus, by the way, uses his feelers either as feet or hands; with the two which stand over his mouth he draws in food, and the last of his feelers he employs in the act of copulation; and this last one, by the way, is extremely sharp, is exceptional as being of a whitish colour, and at its extremity is bifurcate; that is to say, it has an additional something on the rachis, and by rachis is meant the smooth surface or edge of the arm on the far side from the suckers."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Editions">Editions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Editions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDean-Jones2023" class="citation book cs1">Dean-Jones, Lesley (2023). <i>Historia animalium book X: Aristotle's endoxon, topos and dialectic on On Failure to Reproduce</i>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107015159" title="Special:BookSources/9781107015159"><bdi>9781107015159</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+animalium+book+X%3A+Aristotle%27s+endoxon%2C+topos+and+dialectic+on+On+Failure+to+Reproduce&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781107015159&rft.aulast=Dean-Jones&rft.aufirst=Lesley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Lennox-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lennox_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lennox_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lennox_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lennox_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLennox2011" class="citation web cs1">Lennox, James (27 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/">"Aristotle's Biology"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+Biology&rft.date=2011-07-27&rft.aulast=Lennox&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faristotle-biology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrench1994" class="citation book cs1">French, Roger (1994). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientnaturalhi00fren"><i>Ancient Natural History: Histories of Nature</i></a></span>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">92–</span>99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11545-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-11545-2"><bdi>978-0-415-11545-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Natural+History%3A+Histories+of+Nature&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-11545-2&rft.aulast=French&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientnaturalhi00fren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Animals</i>, I, 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. G. Lennox, Aristotle’s philosophy of biology, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521650274" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521650274">978-0521650274</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVoultsiadouVafidis2007" class="citation journal cs1">Voultsiadou, Eleni; Vafidis, Dimitris (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/18759866-07602004">"Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology"</a>. <i>Contributions to Zoology</i>. <b>76</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">103–</span>120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18759866-07602004">10.1163/18759866-07602004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9866">1875-9866</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55152069">55152069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contributions+to+Zoology&rft.atitle=Marine+invertebrate+diversity+in+Aristotle%27s+zoology&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E103-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55152069%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1875-9866&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18759866-07602004&rft.aulast=Voultsiadou&rft.aufirst=Eleni&rft.au=Vafidis%2C+Dimitris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%2F18759866-07602004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FH08-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FH08_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFürst_von_Lieven,_A.Humar,_M.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Fürst von Lieven, A.; Humar, M. (2008). "A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences</i>. <b>30</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">227–</span>262. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371">23334371</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19203017">19203017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Philosophy+of+the+Life+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+Cladistic+Analysis+of+Aristotle%27s+Animal+Groups+in+the+%22Historia+animalium%22&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E227-%3C%2Fspan%3E262&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23334371%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19203017&rft.au=F%C3%BCrst+von+Lieven%2C+A.&rft.au=Humar%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaurinHumar2022" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1">"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus Palevol</i> (in French). <b>21</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1">10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245863171">245863171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Palevol&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+signal+in+characters+from+Aristotle%27s+History+of+Animals&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5852%2Fcr-palevol2022v21a1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245863171%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Laurin&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.au=Humar%2C+Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5852%252Fcr-palevol2022v21a1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, 1910, page iv</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Camouflage-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Camouflage_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle (c. 350 BC). <i>Historia Animalium</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.9.ix.html">IX, 621b–622a</a>. Cited in Borrelli, Luciana; <a href="/wiki/Francesca_Gherardi" title="Francesca Gherardi">Gherardi, Francesca</a>; Fiorito, Graziano (2006). <i>A catalogue of body patterning in Cephalopoda</i>. Firenze University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8453-377-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8453-377-7">978-88-8453-377-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fupress.com/scheda.asp?IDV=487">Abstract</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180206145302/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.9.ix.html">Archived</a> 2018-02-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell2014-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell2014_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2014" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Gordon Lindsay (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XrrQCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA517"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Animals in Classical Thought and Life</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 517. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-103515-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-103515-9"><bdi>978-0-19-103515-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Animals+in+Classical+Thought+and+Life&rft.pages=517&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-103515-9&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Gordon+Lindsay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXrrQCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, Book IV.I (D'Arcy Thompson, page 524)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allaby-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allaby_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allaby_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllaby2010" class="citation book cs1">Allaby, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KtKZ12YN9qcC&pg=PT34"><i>Animals: From Mythology to Zoology</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. 34–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6101-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6101-3"><bdi>978-0-8160-6101-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animals%3A+From+Mythology+to+Zoology&rft.pages=34-&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6101-3&rft.aulast=Allaby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKtKZ12YN9qcC%26pg%3DPT34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeroi2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Leroi, Armand Marie</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CU4gBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69"><i>The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</i></a>. Bloomsbury. pp. 69–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3620-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3620-0"><bdi>978-1-4088-3620-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pages=69-&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-3620-0&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCU4gBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haworth-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haworth_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaworth2011" class="citation book cs1">Haworth, Alan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WZUWqnGiTfsC&pg=PA37"><i>Understanding the Political Philosophers: From Ancient to Modern Times</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19896-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19896-1"><bdi>978-1-135-19896-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Political+Philosophers%3A+From+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-135-19896-1&rft.aulast=Haworth&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWZUWqnGiTfsC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lang2015-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lang2015_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lang2015_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLang2015" class="citation book cs1">Lang, Philippa (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OzDPCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60"><i>Science: Antiquity and its Legacy</i></a>. I.B.Tauris. pp. <span class="nowrap">60–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-955-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-955-1"><bdi>978-0-85773-955-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%3A+Antiquity+and+its+Legacy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-85773-955-1&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Philippa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOzDPCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mayhew-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mayhew_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMayhew2004" class="citation book cs1">Mayhew, Robert (2004). 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University Of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-51200-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-51200-6"><bdi>978-0-226-51200-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5&rft.btitle=The+Female+in+Aristotle%27s+Biology&rft.pub=University+Of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-226-51200-6&rft.aulast=Mayhew&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJungCho2013" class="citation journal cs1">Jung, YH; Cho, BH (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3873309">"Prevalence of missing and impacted third molars in adults aged 25 years and above"</a>. <i>Imaging Science in Dentistry</i>. <b>43</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">219–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5624%2Fisd.2013.43.4.219">10.5624/isd.2013.43.4.219</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3873309">3873309</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24380060">24380060</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Imaging+Science+in+Dentistry&rft.atitle=Prevalence+of+missing+and+impacted+third+molars+in+adults+aged+25+years+and+above.&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3873309%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24380060&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5624%2Fisd.2013.43.4.219&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=YH&rft.au=Cho%2C+BH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3873309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilkins-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilkins_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilkins_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilkins2008" class="citation web cs1">Wilkins, John S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Evolving+Thoughts&rft.atitle=Aristotle+on+the+mayfly&rft.date=2008-09-16&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscienceblogs.com%2Fevolvingthoughts%2F2008%2F09%2F16%2Faristotle-on-the-mayfly%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weigmann-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weigmann_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeigmann2005" class="citation journal cs1">Weigmann, Katrin (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1299297">"The Consequence of Errors"</a>. <i>EMBO Reports</i>. <b>6</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">306–</span>309. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.embor.7400389">10.1038/sj.embor.7400389</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1299297">1299297</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15809657">15809657</a>. <q>Aristotle's belief that the brain is a cooling organ for the blood was definitely not based on anything that scientists today would consider scientific evidence. 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Ferdinand Schöning.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VIII%3A+Tierkunde&rft.btitle=Die+Lehrschriften&rft.pub=Ferdinand+Sch%C3%B6ning&rft.date=1949&rft.au=Gohlke%2C+Paul+Hermann+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOwen1992" class="citation book cs1">Owen, Richard (1992). Sloan, Phillip Reid (ed.). <i>The Hunterian Lectures in Comparative Anatomy (May and June 1837)</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 91.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hunterian+Lectures+in+Comparative+Anatomy+%28May+and+June+1837%29&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaggoner1996" class="citation web cs1">Waggoner, Ben (9 June 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/aristotle.html">"Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Museum_of_Paleontology" title="University of California Museum of Paleontology">University of California Museum of Paleontology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161120124920/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/aristotle.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aristotle+%28384%E2%80%93322+B.C.E.%29&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Paleontology&rft.date=1996-06-09&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhistory%2Faristotle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pagel1967-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pagel1967_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPagel1967" class="citation book cs1">Pagel, Walter (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m0cQQlZK43cC&pg=PA335"><i>William Harvey's Biological Ideas: Selected Aspects and Historical Background</i></a>. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. p. 335. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8055-0962-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8055-0962-6"><bdi>978-3-8055-0962-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+Harvey%27s+Biological+Ideas%3A+Selected+Aspects+and+Historical+Background&rft.pages=335&rft.pub=Karger+Medical+and+Scientific+Publishers&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-3-8055-0962-6&rft.aulast=Pagel&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm0cQQlZK43cC%26pg%3DPA335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeroi2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Leroi, Armand Marie</a> (2014). <i>The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</i>. Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-02674-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-02674-6"><bdi>978-0-670-02674-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-670-02674-6&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeroi2013" class="citation web cs1">Leroi, Armand Marie (presenter) (11 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00q0hh2">"Aristotle's Lagoon"</a>. BBC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Lagoon&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2013-06-11&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie+%28presenter%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb00q0hh2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Animals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Animals&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_animals_(Aristotle)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of animals (Aristotle)">History of animals (Aristotle)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Animals_(Thompson)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:History of Animals (Thompson)">History of Animals (Thompson)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Greek <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div lang="el" style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/el:%CE%A4%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF_%CF%84%CE%B1_%CE%B6%CF%8E%CE%B1_%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" class="extiw" title="s:el:Των περί τα ζώα ιστοριών">Τῶν περὶ τὰ ζῷα ἱστοριῶν</a></b> </div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>English translation by <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Wentworth_Thompson" title="D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson">D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historiaanimaliu00aris_0">Archive.org</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofaristotle04arisuoft">or this</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotleshisto00schngoog">English translation by Richard Cresswell</a>. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1862.</li> <li><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=History+of+Animals&author=ARISTOTLE&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced"><i>History of Animals</i></a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z8NAAAAYAAJ"><i>Historia animalium</i> – 1837</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Greek)</span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="History of biology">History of biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields,<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" title="Timeline of immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">Model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">Plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">RNA biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_through_1859" title="History of zoology through 1859">Zoology (through 1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_since_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="History of zoology since 1859">Zoology (since 1859)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories,<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis" title="One gene–one enzyme hypothesis">One gene–one enzyme hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">Sequence hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="History of the creation–evolution controversy">History of the creation-evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_biology" title="Category:History of biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_history50" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_history" title="Template:Natural history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_history" title="Template talk:Natural history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_history50" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneering<br />naturalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical<br />antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<i>De Natura Animalium</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> (<i>Pinax theatri botanici</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)" title="Historia animalium (Gessner book)">Historia animalium</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch" title="Frederik Ruysch">Frederik Ruysch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> (<i>Avium Praecipuarum</i>, <i>New Herball</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gerard" title="John Gerard">John Gerard</a> (<i>Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnier_de_Graaf" title="Regnier de Graaf">Regnier de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Steller" title="Georg Wilhelm Steller">Georg Steller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Fabricius" title="Johan Christian Fabricius">Johan Christian Fabricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray_book)" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de" title="Bernard Germain de Lacépède">Bernard Germain de Lacépède</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" title="The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne">The Natural History of Selborne</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Thomas Bewick</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_British_Birds" title="A History of British Birds">A History of British Birds</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_zoologique" title="Philosophie zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Montagu_(naturalist)" title="George Montagu (naturalist)">George Montagu</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ornithological_Dictionary" title="Ornithological Dictionary">Ornithological Dictionary</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Malay_Archipelago" title="The Malay Archipelago">The Malay Archipelago</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" title="The Naturalist on the River Amazons">The Naturalist on the River Amazons</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Birds_of_America" title="The Birds of America">The Birds of America</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Henry_Gosse" title="Philip Henry Gosse">Philip Henry Gosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_Hooker" title="William Jackson Hooker">William Jackson Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Jardine,_7th_Baronet" title="Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet">William Jardine</a> (<i>The Naturalist's Library</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur" title="Kunstformen der Natur">Kunstformen der Natur</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lydekker" title="Richard Lydekker">Richard Lydekker</a> (<i>The Royal Natural History</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Thayer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Concealing-Coloration_in_the_Animal_Kingdom" title="Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom">Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Hugh B. Cott</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Niko Tinbergen</a> (<i>The Study of Instinct</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_Aggression" title="On Aggression">On Aggression</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> (<i>The Dancing Bees</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Lockley" title="Ronald Lockley">Ronald Lockley</a> (<i>Shearwaters</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sceliphron wasp building nest"><img alt="Sceliphron wasp building nest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/85px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/128px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/170px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">Natural history museums</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalists</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists" title="List of parson-naturalists">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_societies" title="Category:Natural history societies">Natural History Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" title="List of natural history dealers">List of natural history dealers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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