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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Parthian music</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="This article exist only in this language. 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Music of the Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 224 CE)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parthian_lute_player.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Parthian_lute_player.jpg/220px-Parthian_lute_player.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Parthian_lute_player.jpg/330px-Parthian_lute_player.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Parthian_lute_player.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Small <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> sculpture of a Parthian musician playing a <i><a href="/wiki/Tanbur" title="Tanbur">tanbur</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>, a major state of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iran">ancient Iran</a>, lasted from 247 BCE to 224 CE, in which music played a prominent role. It featured in festivals, weddings, education, warfare and other social gatherings. Surviving artistic records indicate that it involved both men and women, who could be <a href="/wiki/Musician" title="Musician">instrumentalists</a> or singers. Along with the older music of the previous <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> and particularly the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_music" title="Achaemenid music">Achaemenid period</a>, Parthian music was crucial in laying the foundation for the golden age of subsequent <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Sasanian music</a>. </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Gusans" title="Gusans">gōsān</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">گوسان</span>) poet-musician <a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">minstrels</a> were a central tradition, probably originating in the earlier Achaemenid period. Little is known of them, though Greek commentators recall <a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">panegyrical</a> themes in their songs. A wide variety of instruments were used, often to accompany the gōsān. They included both single and <a href="/wiki/Double_reed" title="Double reed">double reed</a> wind instruments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pan_flute" title="Pan flute">panpipes</a> (syrinx), <a href="/wiki/Transverse_flute" title="Transverse flute">transverse flute</a>, small <a href="/wiki/Trumpet" title="Trumpet">trumpets</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a>, as well as string instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Kithara" title="Kithara">kithara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harp" title="Harp">harps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyre" title="Lyre">lyres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lute</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Tanbur" title="Tanbur">tanbur</a></i>. At least some of these, such as harps, lutes and lyres, originated in earlier periods. </p><p>Compared to their Western rival, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, much less is known about the Parthians, but information on music can be gathered from a few Parthian texts, accounts from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Roman</a> writers, some archeological evidence, and a variety of visual sources. The last of these are usually from either the archeological sites and former settlements of <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a>, and include <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> plaques, <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a> and illustrations on drinking horns known as <i><a href="/wiki/Rhyton" title="Rhyton">rhytons</a></i> or in Persian, <i>takuk</i> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">تکوک</span>). </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_music" title="Achaemenid music">Achaemenid music</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Parthian_Empire_under_Mithridates_II.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_the_Parthian_Empire_under_Mithridates_II.svg/460px-Map_of_the_Parthian_Empire_under_Mithridates_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="460" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_the_Parthian_Empire_under_Mithridates_II.svg/690px-Map_of_the_Parthian_Empire_under_Mithridates_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Map_of_the_Parthian_Empire_under_Mithridates_II.svg/920px-Map_of_the_Parthian_Empire_under_Mithridates_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="1217" /></a><figcaption>The Parthian Empire in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 124–91 BC</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to a paucity of surviving records, it is impossible to create a thorough outline of the earliest music in Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a39_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a39-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Music has existed in Persia since at least <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3300–3100</span> BCE of the <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> period, from when the earliest artistic depictions of <a href="/wiki/Arched_harp" title="Arched harp">arched harps</a> are dated; it is possible that these instruments existed long before their visual depictions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Arched_harps"_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Arched_harps"-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later surviving instruments include bull lyres from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2450</span>, small Oxus <a href="/wiki/Trumpet" title="Trumpet">trumpets</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2200–1750</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Bull_lyres,_(iii)_Trumpets"_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Bull_lyres,_(iii)_Trumpets"-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and much later, lutes from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span> BCE, which seem to have been popular with the upper class.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§3_"2nd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Lutes"_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§3_"2nd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Lutes"-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rock_relief" title="Rock relief">Rock reliefs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kul-e_Farah" title="Kul-e Farah">Kul-e Farah</a> from 1st-century BCE, include sophisticated Persian court ensembles, in which the arched harp is central.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Elamite_harp_ensembles"_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Elamite_harp_ensembles"-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (550–330 BCE), still relatively few records survive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarhat20043_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarhat20043-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some speculation and anecdotal evidence suggests the presence of female choirs,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the emergence of the <i><a href="/wiki/Gusans" title="Gusans">gōsān</a></i> poet-musician <a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">minstrel</a> tradition, which would be central in Parthian music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195720–21_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195720–21-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> was a major political and cultural power of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iran">ancient Iran</a>, existing from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 247</span> BCE to 224 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its height, its territory covered modern-day Syria to India, and the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often remembered for its rivalry with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, but compared to its Western opponent, relatively little information is known.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Native Parthian textual sources are very minimal, and the primary official records which still exist are <a href="/wiki/Parthian_coinage" title="Parthian coinage">Parthian coinage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColledge196717_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledge196717-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The few known Parthian texts are usually from the more Western regions, generally written in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a>, and less often in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a> or Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColledge196717_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledge196717-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much information about the Parthian Empire comes from foreign commentators, particularly Greeks and Romans—though there are accounts of Parthian history before 141 BCE, though this is extremely limited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColledge196717_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledge196717-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These accounts are often inaccurate and heavily biased, which has led to a long held view of the Parthians as "uncultivated and as barbarians".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021xxiv_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021xxiv-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a perspective has long prevented the serious study of Parthian culture; the historian Leonardo Gregoratti noted that "The Parthian Empire, a state lasting for five-long centuries, has recently emerged slowly from the shadow of history to regain its cultural and historical identity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021xxiv_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021xxiv-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence for Parthian music is somewhat limited, but via the visual arts, archeological evidence, as well as both Parthian and foreign texts, numerous trends of the period can be observed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_paras._1–3_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_paras._1–3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statuette_of_2_musicians,_one_holding_a_pair_of_oboes_the_other_holds_a_drum._Seleucid-Parthian_period,_3rd_century_BCE_to_2nd_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum,.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Statuette_of_2_musicians%2C_one_holding_a_pair_of_oboes_the_other_holds_a_drum._Seleucid-Parthian_period%2C_3rd_century_BCE_to_2nd_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum%2C.jpg/220px-Statuette_of_2_musicians%2C_one_holding_a_pair_of_oboes_the_other_holds_a_drum._Seleucid-Parthian_period%2C_3rd_century_BCE_to_2nd_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum%2C.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Statuette_of_2_musicians%2C_one_holding_a_pair_of_oboes_the_other_holds_a_drum._Seleucid-Parthian_period%2C_3rd_century_BCE_to_2nd_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum%2C.jpg/330px-Statuette_of_2_musicians%2C_one_holding_a_pair_of_oboes_the_other_holds_a_drum._Seleucid-Parthian_period%2C_3rd_century_BCE_to_2nd_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum%2C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Statuette_of_2_musicians%2C_one_holding_a_pair_of_oboes_the_other_holds_a_drum._Seleucid-Parthian_period%2C_3rd_century_BCE_to_2nd_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum%2C.jpg/440px-Statuette_of_2_musicians%2C_one_holding_a_pair_of_oboes_the_other_holds_a_drum._Seleucid-Parthian_period%2C_3rd_century_BCE_to_2nd_century_CE._Pergamon_Museum%2C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3578" data-file-height="4554" /></a><figcaption>Two musicians of the Parthian period, kept in the <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Museum" title="Pergamon Museum">Pergamon Museum</a>, Berlin. The musician on the left appears to hold a percussion instrument, while there is a wind instrument on the right</figcaption></figure> <p>Information on Parthian music use comes from a few Parthian texts,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195710_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195710-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> archeological remains and writings from Greek and Roman authors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_paras._1–3_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_paras._1–3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depictions in the <a href="/wiki/Visual_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual art">visual arts</a> of the time often illustrate the instruments discussed in text, but also depict ones which are otherwise unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include depictions of instruments, musicians and ensembles on <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> plaques, and <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">Ivory</a> drinking horns known as <i><a href="/wiki/Rhyton" title="Rhyton">rhytons</a></i> or <i>takuk</i> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">تکوک</span>; also spelled "rhutas"), provide much otherwise unknown musical information, with illustrations described by music archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Bo_Lawergren" title="Bo Lawergren">Bo Lawergren</a> as "most magnificent depictions" of Parthian music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These objects are generally from sites at either <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This extant evidence indicates that music played a prominent role in the Parthian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021189_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021189-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was part of numerous aspects of Parthian life, finding use in festivals, weddings and warfare, among other social gatherings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021189_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021189-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Towards the empire's later period, the first half of the 2nd century saw the increasing presence of Christian music. In particular, the East Syrian liturgy was practiced above the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> river, having made its way there through <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Urfa" title="Urfa">Urfa</a>, Turkey). This occurred simultaneously with many of the other Parthian music traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instruments_and_occasions">Instruments and occasions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Instruments and occasions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, most Parthian instruments seem to be based on those of Greece, Rome and Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual depictions indicate that instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cithara" class="mw-redirect" title="Cithara">cithara</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Syrinx" title="Syrinx">syrinx</a> (pan flute) was used in theater, sacrifices, Dionysian dances and other rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a>, the Parthians danced "to the music of flutes and the throbbing of drums".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerodian19611126_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerodian19611126-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Music was standard in the education of Parthian youth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021188_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021188-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek Geographer <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> noted that the teachers would even "wake the boys up before dawn by the sound of brazen instruments".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrabo1932179_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrabo1932179-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specific_elements">Specific elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Specific elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drums">Drums</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Drums"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Rhoptron" title="Rhoptron">rhoptron</a> drum is among the better known instruments of the Parthians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENikonorov200071_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENikonorov200071-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These large drums were used in warfare, with <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> noting that the Parthians "had rightly judged that, of all the senses, hearing is the one most apt to confound the soul, soonest rouses its emotions and most effectively unseats the judgement".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916387_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916387-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The musicologist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Mathiesen" title="Thomas J. Mathiesen">Thomas J. Mathiesen</a> notes that although the instrument is often rendered in English as <a href="/wiki/Tambourine" title="Tambourine">tambourine</a>, it more closely resembles a <a href="/wiki/Snare_drum" title="Snare drum">snare drum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMathiesen2019§5_"Musical_instruments"_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathiesen2019§5_"Musical_instruments"-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He explains that an ensemble of tambourine could not arose the same fear as large snare drums.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMathiesen2019§5_"Musical_instruments"_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathiesen2019§5_"Musical_instruments"-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rhoptron is considered an early predecessor of the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Timpani" title="Timpani">Timpani</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlades2001§_§3_"To_c1600"_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlades2001§_§3_"To_c1600"-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minstrels">Minstrels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Minstrels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gusans" title="Gusans">Gusans</a></div> <p>Based on textual and artistic representations, the gōsān (also 'gusan'; <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">گوسان</span>) minstrel tradition was seemingly prominent in Parthian society,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had probably originated in the earlier Achaemenid period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A gōsān was a poet-musician though there was much variety within the tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce2012§_paras._1,_7_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce2012§_paras._1,_7-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They would sing in Markets during peacetime, and were probably accompanied by instrumentalists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Essentially nothing is known of their training and extremely little examples of their songs survive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195718_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195718-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on later evidence, their songs would "proclaim the worthiness of kings and heroes of old".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195711_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195711-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is affirmed by Strabo, who notes in his <i><a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a></i> (XV.3.18) that young men would sing of "the deeds both of the gods and of the noblest men".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrabo1932179_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrabo1932179-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the "Life of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Crassus</a>" from his <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i>, Plutarch noted that the gōsān would also ridicule the Romans, as they "sang many scurrilous and ridiculous songs about the effeminacy and cowardice of Crassus".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916419_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916419-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_influence">Later influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Later influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Sasanian music</a></div> <p>Parthian music, along with that of the Achaemenids, <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a>, laid the foundation for subsequent <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Sasanian music</a> (224–651 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a37_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a37-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gōsān minstrel tradition continued in the Sasanian empire, where Persian music reached a <a href="/wiki/Golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age">golden age</a> of patronage and prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§5_"Sassanian_period,_224–651_CE."_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§5_"Sassanian_period,_224–651_CE."-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is likely that Parthian songs remained sung long after the Empire's fall, particularly in the north-eastern parts of modern-day Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These song may have influenced or been included into the <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Parthian gōsān tradition made a substantial influence on that <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Armenia" title="Music of Armenia">music of Armenia</a>, where a similar gōsān art developed. The Armenian gōsān sang on similar topics of heroism, which were often performed with instrumental accompaniment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kept in the <a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum_van_Oudheden" title="Rijksmuseum van Oudheden">Rijksmuseum van Oudheden</a>, found in Iran. Inv. Nr.: B 1952/2.1<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021191_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021191-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, p. 189 notes that most ancient societies, like the Parthians, held music in high regard.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021191-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021191_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a39-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a39_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuring1991a">During 1991a</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Arched_harps"-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Arched_harps"_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001">Lawergren 2001</a>, §2 "3rd millennium BCE: (i) Arched harps".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Bull_lyres,_(iii)_Trumpets"-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§2_"3rd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Bull_lyres,_(iii)_Trumpets"_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001">Lawergren 2001</a>, §2 "3rd millennium BCE: (ii) Bull lyres, (iii) Trumpets".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§3_"2nd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Lutes"-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§3_"2nd_millennium_BCE:_(ii)_Lutes"_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001">Lawergren 2001</a>, §3 "2nd millennium BCE: (ii) Lutes".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Elamite_harp_ensembles"-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(i)_Elamite_harp_ensembles"_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001">Lawergren 2001</a>, §4 "1st millennium BCE: (i) Elamite harp ensembles".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§4_"1st_millennium_BCE:_(iii)_Achaemenid_period,_550–331_BCE"_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001">Lawergren 2001</a>, §4 "1st millennium BCE: (iii) Achaemenid period, 550–331 BCE".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarhat20043-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFarhat20043_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFarhat2004">Farhat 2004</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195720–21-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195720–21_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce1957">Boyce 1957</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock20211_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEColledge196717-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColledge196717_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColledge196717_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColledge196717_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFColledge1967">Colledge 1967</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021xxiv-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021xxiv_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021xxiv_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, p. xxiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_paras._1–3-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_paras._1–3_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_paras._1–3_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001a">Lawergren 2001a</a>, § paras. 1–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195710-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195710_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce1957">Boyce 1957</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190–191_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, pp. 190–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._2_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001a">Lawergren 2001a</a>, § para. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021190_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021189-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021189_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021189_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001a§_para._1_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001a">Lawergren 2001a</a>, § para. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerodian19611126-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerodian19611126_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerodian1961">Herodian 1961</a>, p. 1126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021188-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllerbrock2021188_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllerbrock2021">Ellerbrock 2021</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrabo1932179-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrabo1932179_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrabo1932179_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrabo1932">Strabo 1932</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENikonorov200071-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENikonorov200071_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNikonorov2000">Nikonorov 2000</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916387-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916387_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1916">Plutarch 1916</a>, p. 387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathiesen2019§5_"Musical_instruments"-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMathiesen2019§5_"Musical_instruments"_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMathiesen2019§5_"Musical_instruments"_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMathiesen2019">Mathiesen 2019</a>, §5 "Musical instruments".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlades2001§_§3_"To_c1600"-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlades2001§_§3_"To_c1600"_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlades2001">Blades 2001</a>, § §3 "To c1600".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce2012§_paras._1,_7-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce2012§_paras._1,_7_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce2012">Boyce 2012</a>, § paras. 1, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195718-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195718_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce1957">Boyce 1957</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce195711-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce195711_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce1957">Boyce 1957</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916419-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlutarch1916419_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlutarch1916">Plutarch 1916</a>, p. 419.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a37-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuring1991a37_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuring1991a">During 1991a</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§5_"Sassanian_period,_224–651_CE."-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawergren2001§5_"Sassanian_period,_224–651_CE."_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLawergren2001">Lawergren 2001</a>, §5 "Sassanian period, 224–651 CE.".</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_2">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early">Early</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHerodian1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a> (1961) [3rd century]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/herodian_04_book4.htm#C11">"Book 4: Chapter XI"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Herodian_Roman_Histories"><i>History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus</i></a>. Translated by Echols, Edward C. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+4%3A+Chapter+XI&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Empire+from+the+Death+of+Marcus&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.au=Herodian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tertullian.org%2Ffathers%2Fherodian_04_book4.htm%23C11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch1916" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (1916) [2nd century]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html">"Life of Crassus"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/home.html"><i>Parallel Lives</i></a>. Vol. III. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Bernadotte_Perrin" title="Bernadotte Perrin">Perrin, Bernadotte</a> (Loeb Classical Library 65 ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Life+of+Crassus&rft.btitle=Parallel+Lives&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=Loeb+Classical+Library+65&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1916&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FLives%2FCrassus%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrabo1932" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (1932) [5th century]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/15C*.html">"Book XV: Chapter 3"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html"><i>Geography</i></a>. Translated by Jones, Horace Leonard (Loeb Classical Library 267 ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+XV%3A+Chapter+3&rft.btitle=Geography&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=Loeb+Classical+Library+267&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1932&rft.au=Strabo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FStrabo%2F15C%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern">Modern</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><b>Books</b></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColledge1967" class="citation book cs1">Colledge, M.A.R. (1967). <i>The Parthians</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/969998589">969998589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Parthians&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F969998589&rft.aulast=Colledge&rft.aufirst=M.A.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllerbrock2021" class="citation book cs1">Ellerbrock, Uwe (2021). <i>The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire</i>. Abingdon-on-Thames: <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-35848-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-35848-3"><bdi>978-1-000-35848-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Parthians%3A+The+Forgotten+Empire&rft.place=Abingdon-on-Thames&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-000-35848-3&rft.aulast=Ellerbrock&rft.aufirst=Uwe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarhat2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hormoz_Farhat" title="Hormoz Farhat">Farhat, Hormoz</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NiMhWnYDuQMC"><i>The Dastgah Concept in Persian Music</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54206-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54206-7"><bdi>978-0-521-54206-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dastgah+Concept+in+Persian+Music&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54206-7&rft.aulast=Farhat&rft.aufirst=Hormoz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNiMhWnYDuQMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuringMirabdolbaghi1991a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_During" title="Jean During">During, Jean</a>; Mirabdolbaghi, Zia, eds. (1991a). <i>The Art of Persian Music</i>. Washington D.C.: Mage Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-934211-22-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-934211-22-2"><bdi>978-0-934211-22-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Persian+Music&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pub=Mage+Publishers&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-934211-22-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFDuring1991a" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Jean_During" title="Jean During">During, Jean</a>. "Historical Survey". In <a href="#CITEREFDuringMirabdolbaghi1991a">During & Mirabdolbaghi (1991a)</a>, pp. 31–56.</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFDuringMirabdolbaghi1991b" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Jean_During" title="Jean During">During, Jean</a>; Mirabdolbaghi, Zia. "The Instruments of Yesterday and Today". In <a href="#CITEREFDuringMirabdolbaghi1991b">During & Mirabdolbaghi (1991b)</a>, pp. 99–152.</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <dl><dd><b>Articles</b></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlades2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Blades" title="James Blades">Blades, James</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000027985">"Timpani"</a></span>. In Bowles, Edmund A (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Revised by Edmund A. Bowles. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.27985">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.27985</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Timpani&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.27985&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Blades&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000027985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyce1957" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Boyce, Mary</a> (1957). "The Parthian Gōsān and Iranian Minstrel Tradition". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></i>. <b>89</b> (1–2). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 10–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0035869X0010735X">10.1017/S0035869X0010735X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25201987">25201987</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161761104">161761104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=The+Parthian+G%C5%8Ds%C4%81n+and+Iranian+Minstrel+Tradition&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=10-45&rft.date=1957&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161761104%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25201987%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0035869X0010735X&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyce2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Boyce, Mary</a> (2012) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gosan">"Gōsān"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i>. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=G%C5%8Ds%C4%81n&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Boyce&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fgosan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawergren2001a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bo_Lawergren" title="Bo Lawergren">Lawergren, Bo</a> (2001a). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000020973">"Parthian Empire"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.20973">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20973</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Parthian+Empire&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.20973&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Lawergren&rft.aufirst=Bo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000020973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawergrenFarhatBlum2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bo_Lawergren" title="Bo Lawergren">Lawergren, Bo</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hormoz_Farhat" title="Hormoz Farhat">Farhat, Hormoz</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Blum" title="Stephen Blum">Blum, Stephen</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000013895">"Iran"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.13895">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13895</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iran&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.13895&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=Lawergren&rft.aufirst=Bo&rft.au=Farhat%2C+Hormoz&rft.au=Blum%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000013895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFLawergren2001" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Bo_Lawergren" title="Bo Lawergren">Lawergren, Bo</a>. "I. Pre-Islamic". In <a href="#CITEREFLawergrenFarhatBlum2001">Lawergren, Farhat & Blum (2001)</a>.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikonorov2000" class="citation book cs1">Nikonorov, Valerii P. (2000). "The Use of Musical Percussion Instruments in Ancient Eastern Warfare: the Parthian and Middle Asian Evidence". In Hickmann, Ellen; Laufs, Ingo; <a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Eichmann" title="Ricardo Eichmann">Eichmann, Ricardo</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1264341"><i>Musikarchäologie früher Metallzeiten : Vorträge des 1. Symposiums der International Study Group on Music Archaeology im Kloster Michaelstein, 18.-24 Mai 1998</i></a> [<i>Music archaeology of Early Metal Ages : papers from the 1st Symposium of the International Study Group on Music Archaeology at Monastery Michaelstein, 18–24 May 1998</i>]. Studien zur Musikarchäologie, 2. Rahden/Westf: M. Leidorf. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46766984">46766984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Use+of+Musical+Percussion+Instruments+in+Ancient+Eastern+Warfare%3A+the+Parthian+and+Middle+Asian+Evidence&rft.btitle=Musikarch%C3%A4ologie+fr%C3%BCher+Metallzeiten+%3A+Vortr%C3%A4ge+des+1.+Symposiums+der+International+Study+Group+on+Music+Archaeology+im+Kloster+Michaelstein%2C+18.-24+Mai+1998&rft.place=Rahden%2FWestf&rft.series=Studien+zur+Musikarch%C3%A4ologie%2C+2&rft.pub=M.+Leidorf&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46766984&rft.aulast=Nikonorov&rft.aufirst=Valerii+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1264341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomanouMathiesenLingasMaliaras2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Romanou, Katy; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Mathiesen" title="Thomas J. Mathiesen">Mathiesen, Thomas J.</a>; Lingas, Alexander; Maliaras, Nikos; Chaldaiakis, Achilleus; Plemmenos, John; Bamichas, Pyrros; Kardamis, Kostas; Kontossi, Sofia; Economides, Myrto; Tragaki, Dafni; Tsagkarakis, Ioannis; Chardas, Kostas; Seiragakis, Manolis; Chianis, Sotirios; Brandl, Rudolph M. (2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-3000000167">"Greece"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a></i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fomo%2F9781561592630.013.3000000167">10.1093/omo/9781561592630.013.3000000167</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781561592630" title="Special:BookSources/9781561592630"><bdi>9781561592630</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greece&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fomo%2F9781561592630.013.3000000167&rft.isbn=9781561592630&rft.aulast=Romanou&rft.aufirst=Katy&rft.au=Mathiesen%2C+Thomas+J.&rft.au=Lingas%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Maliaras%2C+Nikos&rft.au=Chaldaiakis%2C+Achilleus&rft.au=Plemmenos%2C+John&rft.au=Bamichas%2C+Pyrros&rft.au=Kardamis%2C+Kostas&rft.au=Kontossi%2C+Sofia&rft.au=Economides%2C+Myrto&rft.au=Tragaki%2C+Dafni&rft.au=Tsagkarakis%2C+Ioannis&rft.au=Chardas%2C+Kostas&rft.au=Seiragakis%2C+Manolis&rft.au=Chianis%2C+Sotirios&rft.au=Brandl%2C+Rudolph+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-3000000167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParthian+music" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required)</span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFMathiesen2019" class="citation"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Mathiesen" title="Thomas J. Mathiesen">Mathiesen, Thomas J.</a> "II. Ancient". In <a href="#CITEREFRomanouMathiesenLingasMaliaras2019">Romanou et al. (2019)</a>.</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Parthian_music&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebrary.net/161816/history/medical_knowledge_parthian_times">Image</a> of a Parthian musician</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medieval_Perso-Arab_music" title="Template talk:Medieval Perso-Arab music"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval_Perso-Arab_music" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval Perso-Arab music"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medieval_Perso-Arab_music" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Medieval Perso-Arab music</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab music">Arab music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Persian traditional music</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Achaemenid" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_music" title="Achaemenid music">Achaemenid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karnay" title="Karnay">Karnay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parthian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gusans" title="Gusans">gōsān</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoptron" title="Rhoptron">Rhoptron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Sasanian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamshad" title="Bamshad">Bamshad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbad" title="Barbad">Barbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagisa_(harpist)" title="Nagisa (harpist)">Nagisa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Umayyad</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%ACuways" title="Ṭuways">Ṭuways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashit" title="Nashit">Nashit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27ib_Khathir" title="Sa'ib Khathir">Sa'ib Khathir</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Misja%E1%B8%A5&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Misjaḥ (page does not exist)">Ibn Misjaḥ</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Gharid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Gharid (page does not exist)">al-Gharid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunain_al-Hiri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hunain al-Hiri (page does not exist)">Hunain al-Hiri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algharid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Algharid (page does not exist)">Algharid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Surayj&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Surayj (page does not exist)">Ibn Surayj</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ma%27bad_(musician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ma'bad (musician) (page does not exist)">Ma'bad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_al-Katib_al-Mughanni" title="Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni">Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Muhriz" title="Ibn Muhriz">Ibn Muhriz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Malik_al-Ta%27i&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malik al-Ta'i (page does not exist)">Malik al-Ta'i</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Qiyan" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atika_bint_Shuhda" title="Atika bint Shuhda">Atika bint Shuhda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azza_al-Mayla" title="Azza al-Mayla">Azza al-Mayla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djamila_(singer)" title="Djamila (singer)">Djamila/Jamila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hababah_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hababah (slave)">Hababah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubayda" title="Ubayda">Ubayda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abbasid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siyat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siyat (page does not exist)">Siyat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Jami&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Jami (page does not exist)">Ibn Jami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Mawsili" title="Ibrahim al-Mawsili">Ibrahim al-Mawsili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulayya_bint_al-Mahdi" title="Ulayya bint al-Mahdi">Ulayya bint al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ya%E1%B8%A5ya_al-Makki&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yaḥya al-Makki (page does not exist)">Yaḥya al-Makki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansour_Zalzal" title="Mansour Zalzal">Mansour Zalzal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhariq" title="Mukhariq">Mukhariq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishaq_al-Mawsili" title="Ishaq al-Mawsili">Ishaq al-Mawsili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allawayh_al-Asar" title="Allawayh al-Asar">Allawayh al-Asar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amr_ibn_Banah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amr ibn Banah (page does not exist)">Amr ibn Banah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jahzah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jahzah (page does not exist)">Jahzah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Tahhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn al-Tahhan (page does not exist)">Ibn al-Tahhan</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Qiyan" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Irfan_(singer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Irfan (singer) (page does not exist)">Irfan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahbubah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mahbubah (page does not exist)">Mahbubah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Milh_Al-Attara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Milh Al-Attara (page does not exist)">Milh Al-Attara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inan_bint_Abdallah" title="Inan bint Abdallah">Inan bint Abdallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C4%81riyah" title="Shāriyah">Shāriyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%E1%B8%8Dl_al-Sh%C4%81%CA%BBirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Faḍl al-Shāʻirah">Faḍl al-Shāʻirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arib_al-Ma%27muniyya" title="Arib al-Ma'muniyya">Arib al-Ma'muniyya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarirah_al-Ra%E2%80%99iqiyya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sarirah al-Ra’iqiyya (page does not exist)">Sarirah al-Ra’iqiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Andalusian-Arab</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ziryab" title="Ziryab">Ziryab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Majd_ibn_Abi_al-Hakam" title="Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam">Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theorists‎</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_al-Tayyib_al-Sarakhsi" title="Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhsi">Al-Sarakhsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziryab" title="Ziryab">Ziryab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Faraj_al-Isfahani" title="Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani">Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safi_al-Din_al-Urmawi" title="Safi al-Din al-Urmawi">Safi al-Din al-Urmawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kurr" title="Ibn Kurr">Ibn Kurr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ahmad_Monajjem" title="Abu Ahmad Monajjem">Abu Ahmad Monajjem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Aghani" title="Kitab al-Aghani">Kitab al-Aghani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-Musiqa_al-Kabir" title="Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir">Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hind_bint_Utba" title="Hind bint Utba">Hind bint Utba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Parthian_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Parthian_Empire" title="Template:Parthian Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Parthian_Empire" title="Template talk:Parthian Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Parthian_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Parthian Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Parthian_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parni" title="Parni">Parni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parni_conquest_of_Parthia" title="Parni conquest of Parthia">Parni conquest of Parthia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynasty</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Armenia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Iberia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Iberia">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Caucasian_Albania" title="Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chosroid_dynasty" title="Chosroid dynasty">Chosroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Noble clans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">Seven Great Houses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan" title="House of Ispahbudhan">Ispahbudhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Karen" title="House of Karen">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Mihran" title="House of Mihran">Mihran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Spandiyadh" title="House of Spandiyadh">Spandiyadh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Suren" title="House of Suren">Suren</a></li> <li>Varaz</li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Zik" title="House of Zik">Zik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_art" title="Parthian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_coinage" title="Parthian coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_dress" title="Parthian dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Music</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid–Parthian Wars</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecbatana" title="Battle of Ecbatana">Battle of Ecbatana</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Roman–Parthian War of 58–63</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">Roman–Parthian War of 161–166</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Atropatene_campaign" title="Antony's Atropatene campaign">Antony's Atropatene campaign</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(165)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (165)">Battle of Ctesiphon (165)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(198)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (198)">Battle of Ctesiphon (198)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cilician_Gates" title="Battle of the Cilician Gates">Battle of the Cilician Gates</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Gindarus" title="Battle of Mount Gindarus">Battle of Mount Gindarus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amanus_Pass" title="Battle of Amanus Pass">Battle of Amanus Pass</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nisibis_(217)" title="Battle of Nisibis (217)">Battle of Nisibis (217)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_war_of_Caracalla" title="Parthian war of Caracalla">Parthian war of Caracalla</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian–Parthian War">Armenian–Parthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian%E2%80%93Bactrian_War" title="Parthian–Bactrian War">Bactrian–Parthian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_army" title="Parthian army">Parthian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Dark_Age" title="Parthian Dark Age">Parthian Dark Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_shot" title="Parthian shot">Parthian shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Parthia" title="List of monarchs of Parthia">Parthian monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Parthian_sub-kingdoms" title="List of rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms">Rulers of Parthian sub-kingdoms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_music" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_music" title="Template:Ancient music"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_music" title="Template talk:Ancient music"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_music" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient music"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_music" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_music" title="Ancient music">Ancient music</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_music" title="Hittite music">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_ancient_India" title="Music in ancient India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_music" title="Ancient Tamil music">Ancient Tamil music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese music">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iran#The_history_of_music_construction_in_Iranian_culture" title="Music of Iran">Persia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_music" title="Achaemenid music">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music" title="Ancient Celtic music">Celtic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extant music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delphic_Hymns" title="Delphic Hymns">Delphic Hymns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_songs" title="Hurrian songs">Hurrian songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katolophyromai" title="Katolophyromai">Katolophyromai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_hymn" title="Oxyrhynchus hymn">Oxyrhynchus hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seikilos_epitaph" title="Seikilos epitaph">Seikilos epitaph</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By millennium</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC_in_music" title="2nd millennium BC in music">2nd millennium BC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_millennium_BC_in_music" title="1st millennium BC in music">1st millennium BC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1st_millennium_in_music" title="1st millennium in music">1st millennium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Preceded by <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/7px-GClef.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/10px-GClef.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/14px-GClef.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="15" data-file-height="41" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Music" title="Portal:Music">Music</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" 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