CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Evolution of human intelligence - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"3ea7480b-3777-461e-af42-1e61d74aad33","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Evolution_of_human_intelligence","wgTitle":"Evolution of human intelligence","wgCurRevisionId":1275868873,"wgRevisionId":1275868873,"wgArticleId":2452832,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the EasyTimeline extension","CS1: long volume value","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from June 2022","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009","Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019", "Articles which contain graphical timelines","Evolution-related timelines","Human evolution","Intelligence","Paleolithic"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Evolution_of_human_intelligence","wgRelevantArticleId":2452832,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false, "wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q4117055","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.timeline.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=[ "ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.timeline.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Evolution of human intelligence - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Evolution_of_human_intelligence rootpage-Evolution_of_human_intelligence skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Evolution+of+human+intelligence" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Evolution+of+human+intelligence" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Evolution+of+human+intelligence" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Evolution+of+human+intelligence" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hominidae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hominidae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Hominidae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hominidae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homininae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homininae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Homininae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homininae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span><i>Homo</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tool-use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tool-use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Tool-use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tool-use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homo_sapiens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo_sapiens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span><i>Homo sapiens</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo_sapiens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Homo_sapiens_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo_sapiens_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span><i>Homo sapiens</i> intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo_sapiens_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Models</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Models subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_brain_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_brain_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Social brain hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_brain_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_intelligence_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_intelligence_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cultural intelligence hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_intelligence_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_empirical_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_empirical_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Further empirical evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_empirical_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transformative_cultural_intelligence_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transformative_cultural_intelligence_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Transformative cultural intelligence hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transformative_cultural_intelligence_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduction_in_aggression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduction_in_aggression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Reduction in aggression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduction_in_aggression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_exchange_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_exchange_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Social exchange theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_exchange_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Sexual selection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence_as_a_disease-resistance_sign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence_as_a_disease-resistance_sign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Intelligence as a disease-resistance sign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence_as_a_disease-resistance_sign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_dominance-social_competition_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_dominance-social_competition_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Ecological dominance-social competition model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_dominance-social_competition_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence_dependent_on_brain_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence_dependent_on_brain_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Intelligence dependent on brain size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence_dependent_on_brain_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Expanded_cortical_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expanded_cortical_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8.1</span> <span>Expanded cortical regions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expanded_cortical_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cellular,_genetic,_and_circuitry_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular,_genetic,_and_circuitry_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Cellular, genetic, and circuitry changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cellular,_genetic,_and_circuitry_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Group selection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutritional_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutritional_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Nutritional status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutritional_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution of human intelligence</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تطور الذكاء عند الإنسان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تطور الذكاء عند الإنسان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_des_Denkens" title="Evolution des Denkens – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Evolution des Denkens" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluci%C3%B3n_de_la_inteligencia_humana" title="Evolución de la inteligencia humana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evolución de la inteligencia humana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فرگشت هوش انسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرگشت هوش انسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89volution_de_l%27intelligence_humaine" title="Évolution de l'intelligence humaine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Évolution de l'intelligence humaine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התפתחות האינטליגנציה האנושית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התפתחות האינטליגנציה האנושית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="თავის ტვინის ევოლუცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თავის ტვინის ევოლუცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E3%81%AE%E7%9F%A5%E8%83%BD%E3%81%AE%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="人類の知能の進化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="人類の知能の進化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%DA%81%D9%8A%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84" title="د انساني ځيرکتيا تکامل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د انساني ځيرکتيا تکامل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_intelig%C3%AAncia_humana" title="Evolução da inteligência humana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evolução da inteligência humana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%98%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A4" title="پەرەسەندنی ژیریی مرۆڤ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەرەسەندنی ژیریی مرۆڤ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E6%99%BA%E8%83%BD%E5%98%85%E9%80%B2%E5%8C%96" title="人類智能嘅進化 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="人類智能嘅進化" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4117055#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Evolution_of_human_intelligence" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&oldid=1275868873" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&id=1275868873&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEvolution_of_human_intelligence"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEvolution_of_human_intelligence"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4117055" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p> The <b>evolution of human intelligence</b> is closely tied to the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a> and to the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">origin of language</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">timeline of human evolution</a> spans approximately seven million years,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the separation of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a></i> until the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">behavioral modernity</a> by 50,000 years ago. The first three million years of this timeline concern <i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus_tchadensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelanthropus tchadensis">Sahelanthropus</a></i>, the following two million concern <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i> and the final two million span the history of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> era. </p><p>Many traits of human intelligence, such as <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mourning" title="Mourning">mourning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a>, are somewhat apparent in other <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a>, although they are in much less sophisticated forms than what is found in humans like the <a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">great ape language</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hominidae">Hominidae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hominidae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.760em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Hominin timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_timeline" title="Template talk:Human timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:50.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−10 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−9 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−8 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−7 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−6 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:-0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#FFE4F1"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.665em;height:23.335em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-text{letter-spacing:-0.12em;line-height:1em;text-orientation:upright;writing-mode:vertical-lr;width:1em}}</style><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Miocene</span></a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.900em;height:13.765em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.883em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.058em;height:12.841em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.421em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.000em;height:36.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-6.7em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-18.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a></b></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:48.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:46.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Samburupithecus" title="Samburupithecus">Samburupithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus" title="Ouranopithecus">Ouranopithecus</a></span></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_turkae" title="Ouranopithecus turkae">Ou. turkae</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_macedoniensis" title="Ouranopithecus macedoniensis">Ou. macedoniensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Chororapithecus" title="Chororapithecus">Chororapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:35.000em;height:10.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.75em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Oreopithecus" title="Oreopithecus">Oreopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.75em;left:-0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sivapithecus" title="Sivapithecus">Sivapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Graecopithecus" title="Graecopithecus">Graecopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-1.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2.5em;left:0.15em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. praegens</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. tugenensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.000em;height:6.850em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-3.75em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.425em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.700em;height:1.150em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.575em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ar. kadabba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ar. ramidus</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:16.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Au. africanus</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Au. afarensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Au. anamensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#DCEEFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:8.250em;height:5.750em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.9em;left:-0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.875em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Au. garhi</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.570em;height:9.430em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.5em;left:-1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Au. sediba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.500em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.7em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.750em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">Homo sapiens</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.200em;left:1.300em;width:3.900em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.100em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:1.050em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.8em;left:2.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.525em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.4em;left:2.8em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:8.500em;left:11.700em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.860em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution#Hominidae" title="Timeline of human evolution">Earlier apes</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Earliest bipedal</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Earliest sign of <i>Ardipithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Earliest sign of <i>Australopithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age#Beginning_of_the_Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Earliest stone tools</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">Earliest sign of<br /> <i>Homo</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.600em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa" title="Early expansions of hominins out of Africa">Dispersal beyond Africa</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.550em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Earliest language</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Earliest fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cooking#History" title="Cooking">cooking</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.6em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Rock_art#East_Asia" title="Rock art">Earliest rock art</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.625em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Clothing#Origin_and_history" title="Clothing">Earliest clothes</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.250em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Modern humans</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:21.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:0.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:110%"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">H o m i n i d s</a></span></b></span></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:3.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:3.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"><b><span style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">P a r a n t h r o p u s</a></span></span></b></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.000em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Primate_empathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Primate empathy">Primate empathy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lucy_Temerlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucy Temerlin">Lucy Temerlin</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a> (Hominidae) show some <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathic</a> abilities. <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">Chimpanzees</a> can make <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a> and use them to acquire foods and for <a href="/wiki/Social_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Social display">social displays</a>; they have mildly complex <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank; they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deception</a>; they can learn to use <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a> and understand aspects of human <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> including some relational <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, concepts of <a href="/wiki/Number" title="Number">number</a> and numerical sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One common characteristic that is present in species of "high degree intelligence" (i.e. dolphins, great apes, and humans - <i>Homo sapiens</i>) is a brain of enlarged size. Additionally, these species have a more developed neocortex, a folding of the cerebral cortex, and <a href="/wiki/Spindle_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Spindle neuron">von Economo neurons</a>. Said neurons are linked to social intelligence and the ability to gauge what another is thinking or feeling and are also present in bottlenose dolphins.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homininae">Homininae</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Homininae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chimpanzee_mom_and_baby.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chimpanzee_mom_and_baby.jpg/170px-Chimpanzee_mom_and_baby.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chimpanzee_mom_and_baby.jpg/255px-Chimpanzee_mom_and_baby.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chimpanzee_mom_and_baby.jpg/340px-Chimpanzee_mom_and_baby.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>Chimpanzee mother and baby</figcaption></figure><p>Around <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">10 million years ago</a>, the Earth's climate entered a cooler and drier phase, which led eventually to the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary glaciation</a> beginning some 2.6 million years ago. One consequence of this was that the north African <a href="/wiki/Subtropical_or_tropical_moist_lowland_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest">tropical forest</a> began to retreat, being replaced first by open <a href="/wiki/Grasslands" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasslands">grasslands</a> and eventually by <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> (the modern <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>). As their environment changed from continuous forest to patches of forest separated by expanses of grassland, some primates adapted to a partly or fully ground-dwelling life where they were exposed to <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Big_cats" class="mw-redirect" title="Big cats">big cats</a>, from whom they had previously been safe. </p><p>These environmental pressures caused selection to favor <a href="/wiki/Savanna_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Savanna theory">bipedalism</a> - walking on hind legs. This gave the Homininae's eyes greater elevation, the ability to see approaching danger further off, and a more efficient means of locomotion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This is only one explanation (June 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It also freed their arms from the task of walking and made the hands available for tasks such as gathering food. At some point the bipedal <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Handedness" title="Handedness">handedness</a>, giving them the ability to pick up sticks, <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a> and stones and use them as <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a>, or as <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a> for tasks such as killing smaller animals, cracking <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nuts</a>, or cutting up <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carcasses</a>. In other words, these primates developed the use of primitive <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. Bipedal tool-using primates from the subtribe <a href="/wiki/Hominina" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominina">Hominina</a> date back to as far as about 5 to 7 million years ago, such as one of the earliest species, <i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus_tchadensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelanthropus tchadensis">Sahelanthropus tchadensis</a></i>. </p><p>From about 5 million years ago, the hominin brain began to develop rapidly in both size and differentiation of function. There has been a gradual increase in brain volume as humans progressed along the timeline of evolution (see <a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a>), starting from about 600 cm<sup>3</sup> in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> up to 1500 cm<sup>3</sup> in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_neanderthalensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo neanderthalensis">Homo neanderthalensis</a></i>. Thus, in general there's a positive correlation between brain volume and intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, modern <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> have a brain volume slightly smaller (1250 cm<sup>3</sup>) than neanderthals, and the Flores hominids (<i><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">Homo floresiensis</a></i>), nicknamed hobbits, had a cranial capacity of about 380 cm<sup>3</sup> (considered small for a chimpanzee) about a third of that of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i>. It is proposed that they evolved from <i>H. erectus</i> as a case of insular dwarfism. With their three-times-smaller brain, the Flores hominids apparently used fire and made tools as sophisticated as those of their ancestor <i>H. erectus</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homo"><i>Homo</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Homo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo"><i>Homo</i></a></div> <p>Roughly 2.4 million years ago <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> had appeared in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>: the first known <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">human</a> species, and the first known to make <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>, yet the disputed findings of signs of tool use from even earlier ages and from the same vicinity as multiple <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i> fossils may put to question how much more intelligent than its predecessors <i>H. habilis</i> was. </p><p>The use of tools conferred a crucial evolutionary advantage, and required a larger and more sophisticated brain to co-ordinate the fine hand movements required for this task.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Our knowledge of the complexity of behaviour of <i>Homo habilis</i> is not limited to stone culture; they also had habitual therapeutic use of toothpicks.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A larger brain requires a larger <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a>, and thus is accompanied by other morphological and biological evolutionary changes. One such change required for the <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">female</a> to have a wider <a href="/wiki/Birth_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth canal">birth canal</a> for the newborn's larger skull to pass through. The solution to this was to give birth at an early stage of fetal development, before the skull grew too large to pass through the birth canal. Other accompanying adaptations were the smaller maxillary and mandibular bones, smaller and weaker facial muscles, and shortening and flattening of the face resulting in modern-human's complex cognitive and linguistic capabilities as well as the ability to create facial expressions and smile.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequentially, dental issues in modern humans arise from these morphological changes that are exacerbated by a shift from nomadic to sedentary lifestyles.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humans' increasingly sedentary lifestyle to protect their more vulnerable offspring led them to grow even more dependent on tool-making to compete with other animals and other humans, and rely less on body size and strength.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 200,000 years ago <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> were colonized by <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_extinction" title="Neanderthal extinction">extinct</a> by 39,000 years ago following the appearance of modern humans in the region from 40,000 to 45,000 years ago. </p><p><b>History of humans</b> </p><p>In the Late Pliocene, hominins were set apart from modern great apes and other closely related organisms by the anatomical evolutionary changes resulting in bipedalism, or the ability to walk upright.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Characteristics such as a supraorbital torus, or prominent eyebrow ridge, and flat face also makes <i>Homo erectus</i> distinguishable. Their brain size substantially sets them apart from closely related species, such as <i>H. habilis</i>, as seen by an increase in average cranial capacity of 1000 cc. Compared to earlier species, <i>H. erectus</i> developed keels and small crests in the skull showing morphological changes of the skull to support increased brain capacity. It is believed that <i>Homo erectus</i> were, anatomically, modern humans as they are very similar in size, weight, bone structure, and nutritional habits. Over time, however, human intelligence developed in phases that is interrelated with brain physiology, cranial anatomy and morphology, and rapidly changing climate and environments.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acheulean_handaxe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Acheulean_handaxe.png/220px-Acheulean_handaxe.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Acheulean_handaxe.png/330px-Acheulean_handaxe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Acheulean_handaxe.png/440px-Acheulean_handaxe.png 2x" data-file-width="1269" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of Acheulean handaxe from Spain from front, back, side, and top profile</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tool-use">Tool-use</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tool-use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of the evolution of cognition relies on the archaeological record made up of assemblages of material culture, particularly from the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic Period</a>, to make inferences about our ancestor's cognition. Paleo-anthropologists from the past half-century have had the tendency of reducing <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tool</a> artifacts to physical products of the metaphysical activity taking place in the brains of hominins. Recently, a new approach called 4E cognition (see Models for other approaches) has been developed by cognitive archaeologists <a href="/wiki/Lambros_Malafouris" title="Lambros Malafouris">Lambros Malafouris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Wynn" title="Thomas G. Wynn">Thomas G. Wynn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karenleigh_A._Overmann" title="Karenleigh A. Overmann">Karenleigh A. Overmann</a>, to move past the "internal" and "external" dichotomy by treating stone tools as objects with agency in both providing insight to hominin cognition and having a role in the development of early hominin cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 4E cognition approach describes cognition as embodied, embedded, enactive, and extended, to understand the interconnected nature between the mind, body, and environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are four major categories of tools created and used throughout human evolution that are associated with the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">evolution of the brain</a> and intelligence. Stone tools such as flakes and cores used by <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> for cracking bones to extract marrow, known as the <a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a> culture, make up the oldest major category of tools from about 2.5 and 1.6 million years ago. The development of stone tool technology suggests that our ancestors had the ability to hit cores with precision, taking into account the force and angle of the strike, and the cognitive planning and capacity to envision a desired outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lower_Palaeolithic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Stone tool artifacts include flakes, cores, and hammers used by hominins during the Paleolithic Period" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lower_Palaeolithic.jpg/220px-Lower_Palaeolithic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lower_Palaeolithic.jpg/330px-Lower_Palaeolithic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lower_Palaeolithic.jpg/440px-Lower_Palaeolithic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Stone tools from the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic Period</a>, also known as the Stone Age, are indicative of cognitive advancements throughout human evolutionary history.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a> culture, associated with <i>Homo erectus</i>, is composed of bifacial, or double-sided, hand-axes, that "requires more planning and skill on the part of the toolmaker; he or she would need to be aware of principles of symmetry".<sup id="cite_ref-:32_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, some sites show evidence that selection of raw materials involved travel, advanced planning, cooperation, and thus communication with other hominins.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third major category of tool industry marked by its innovation in tool-making technique and use is the <a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a> culture. Compared to previous tool cultures, in which tools were regularly discarded after use, Mousterian tools, associated with <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a>, were specialized, built to last, and "formed a true toolkit".<sup id="cite_ref-:32_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The making of these tools, called the <a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a>, involves a multi-step process which yields several tools. In combination with other data, the formation of this tool culture for hunting large mammals in groups evidences the development of speech for communication and complex planning capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While previous tool cultures did not show great variation, the tools of early modern <i>Homo sapiens</i> are robust in the amount of artifacts and diversity in utility. There are several styles associated with this category of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a>, such as blades, boomerangs, <a href="/wiki/Atlatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlatl">atlatls</a> (spear throwers), and archery made from varying materials of stone, bone, teeth, and shell. Beyond use, some tools have been shown to have served as signifiers of status and group membership. The role of tools for social uses signal cognitive advancements such as complex language and abstract relations to things.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homo_sapiens"><i>Homo sapiens</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Homo sapiens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_man_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lion_man_photo.jpg/170px-Lion_man_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="425" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Lion_man_photo.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Lion-man" title="Lion-man">The Lion-man</a>", found in the <a href="/wiki/Hohlenstein-Stadel" title="Hohlenstein-Stadel"> Hohlenstein-Stadel cave</a> of Germany's <a href="/wiki/Swabian_Alb" class="mw-redirect" title="Swabian Alb">Swabian Alb</a> and dated to 40,000 years ago, is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Aurignacian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurignacian culture">Aurignacian culture</a> and is the oldest known <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">anthropomorphic</a> animal figurine in the world.</figcaption></figure> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_9ekyht6w4x0kjbh88fkxapb57nisfz2"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" coords="299,89,391,110" title="Quaternary extinction event" alt="Quaternary extinction event" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" coords="322,79,369,100" title="Quaternary extinction event" alt="Quaternary extinction event" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" coords="375,89,466,110" title="Holocene extinction" alt="Holocene extinction" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" coords="397,79,444,100" title="Holocene extinction" alt="Holocene extinction" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yellowstone_Caldera" coords="115,69,229,90" title="Yellowstone Caldera" alt="Yellowstone Caldera" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yellowstone_Caldera" coords="242,69,355,90" title="Yellowstone Caldera" alt="Yellowstone Caldera" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory" coords="378,69,436,90" title="Toba catastrophe theory" alt="Toba catastrophe theory" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" coords="238,4,374,25" title="Homo heidelbergensis" alt="Homo heidelbergensis" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_neanderthalensis" coords="307,19,448,40" title="Homo neanderthalensis" alt="Homo neanderthalensis" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" coords="175,5,283,26" title="Homo antecessor" alt="Homo antecessor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" coords="337,14,429,35" title="Homo sapiens" alt="Homo sapiens" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" coords="107,25,198,46" title="Homo habilis" alt="Homo habilis" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_georgicus" coords="24,33,127,54" title="Homo georgicus" alt="Homo georgicus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" coords="27,14,124,35" title="Homo ergaster" alt="Homo ergaster" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" coords="30,1,121,22" title="Homo erectus" alt="Homo erectus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo" coords="-11,12,46,33" title="Homo" alt="Homo" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Homo" coords="-14,2,49,23" title="Homo" alt="Homo" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_9ekyht6w4x0kjbh88fkxapb57nisfz2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/9ekyht6w4x0kjbh88fkxapb57nisfz2.png" /></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><small><b>Dates approximate, consult articles for details</b></small></dd> <dd><small>(<i>From 2,000,000 BC to 2013 AD in (partial) <a href="/wiki/Exponential_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Exponential notation">exponential notation</a></i>)</small></dd> <dd><small><i>See also</i>: <a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">Java Man</a> (−1.75e+06), <a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">Yuanmou Man</a> (−1.75e+06: -0.73e+06),</small></dd> <dd><small><a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">Lantian Man</a> (−1.7e+06), <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">Nanjing Man</a> (- 0.6e+06), <a href="/wiki/Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">Tautavel Man</a> (- 0.5e+06),</small></dd> <dd><small><a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">Peking Man</a> (- 0.4e+06), <a href="/wiki/Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">Solo Man</a> (- 0.4e+06), and <a href="/wiki/Pe%C8%99tera_cu_Oase" title="Peștera cu Oase">Peștera cu Oase</a> (- 0.378e+05)</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Homo_sapiens_intelligence"><i>Homo sapiens</i> intelligence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Homo sapiens intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Early human migration">Early human migration</a></div> <p>The eldest findings of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a>, Morocco date back <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300,000</span> years<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossils of <i>Homo sapiens</i> were found in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> which are c. 200,000 years old. It is unclear to what extent these early modern humans had developed <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">religion</a>, etc. The <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a> proposes that there was an evolutionary tradeoff between short-term working memory and complex language skills over the course of human evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to proponents of the <a href="/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Toba catastrophe theory">Toba catastrophe theory</a>, the climate in non-tropical regions of the earth experienced a sudden freezing about 70,000 years ago, because of a huge explosion of the Toba volcano that filled the atmosphere with volcanic ash for several years. This reduced the human population to less than 10,000 breeding pairs in equatorial Africa, from which all modern humans are descended. Being unprepared for the sudden change in climate, the survivors were those intelligent enough to invent new tools and ways of keeping warm and finding new sources of food (for example, adapting to ocean fishing based on prior fishing skills used in lakes and streams that became frozen).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Around 80,000–100,000 years ago, three main lines of <i>Homo sapiens</i> diverged, bearers of mitochondrial <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_L1_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup L1 (mtDNA)">haplogroup L1</a> (mtDNA) / <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_A_(Y-DNA)" title="Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)">A</a> (Y-DNA) colonizing <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a> (the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Khoisan" title="Khoisan">Khoisan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Capoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Capoid">Capoid</a> peoples), bearers of <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_L2_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)">haplogroup L2</a> (mtDNA) / <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_B_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup B (Y-DNA)">B</a> (Y-DNA) settling <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> (the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger–Congo">Niger–Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilo-Saharan">Nilo-Saharan</a> speaking peoples), while the bearers of <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_L3_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)">haplogroup L3</a> remained in East Africa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The "Great Leap Forward" leading to full <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">behavioral modernity</a> sets in only after this separation. Rapidly increasing sophistication in tool-making and behaviour is apparent from about 80,000 years ago, and the <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Recent African origin">migration out of Africa</a> follows towards the very end of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle Paleolithic</a>, some 60,000 years ago. Fully modern behaviour, including <a href="/wiki/Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">figurative art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, self-ornamentation, <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burial_rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Burial rite">burial rites</a> etc. is evident by 30,000 years ago. The oldest unequivocal examples of <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">prehistoric art</a> date to this period, the <a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian</a> periods of <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">prehistoric Europe</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Venus_figurines" class="mw-redirect" title="Venus figurines">Venus figurines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave painting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chauvet_Cave" title="Chauvet Cave">Chauvet Cave</a>) and the earliest <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">musical instruments</a> (the bone pipe of <a href="/wiki/Geissenkl%C3%B6sterle" title="Geissenklösterle">Geissenklösterle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, dated to about 36,000 years ago).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The human brain has evolved gradually over the passage of time; a series of incremental changes occurring as a result of external stimuli and conditions. It is crucial to keep in mind that evolution operates within a limited framework at a given point in time. In other words, the adaptations that a species can develop are not infinite and are defined by what has already taken place in the evolutionary timeline of a species. Given the immense anatomical and structural complexity of the brain, its evolution (and the congruent evolution of human intelligence), can only be reorganized in a finite number of ways. The majority of said changes occur either in terms of size or in terms of developmental timeframes.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory.png/284px-Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory.png" decoding="async" width="284" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory.png/426px-Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory.png/568px-Blausen_0102_Brain_Motor%26Sensory.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1493" /></a><figcaption>Motor and sensory areas of the cerebral cortex; dashed areas shown are commonly left hemisphere dominant.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> is divided into four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal) each with specific functions. The cerebral cortex is significantly larger in humans than in any other animal and is responsible for higher thought processes such as reasoning, abstract thinking, and decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another characteristic that makes humans special and sets them apart from any other species is our ability to produce and understand complex, syntactic language. The cerebral cortex, particularly in the temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes, are populated with neural circuits dedicated to language. There are two main areas of the brain commonly associated with language, namely: <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>. The former is responsible for the understanding of speech and the latter for the production of speech. Homologous regions have been found in other species (i.e. Area 44 and 45 have been studied in chimpanzees) but they are not as strongly related to or involved in linguistic activities as in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Models">Models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_brain_hypothesis">Social brain hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Social brain hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dunbar%27s_number" title="Dunbar's number">Dunbar's number</a></div> <p>The social brain hypothesis was proposed by British anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Robin_Dunbar" title="Robin Dunbar">Robin Dunbar</a>, who argues that human intelligence did not evolve primarily as a means to solve ecological problems, but rather as a means of surviving and reproducing in large and complex social groups.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the behaviors associated with living in large groups include reciprocal altruism, deception, and coalition formation. These group dynamics relate to <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Mind" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Mind">Theory of Mind</a> or the ability to understand the thoughts and emotions of others, though Dunbar himself admits in the same book that it is not the flocking itself that causes intelligence to evolve (as shown by <a href="/wiki/Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminants</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dunbar argues that when the size of a social group increases, the number of different relationships in the group may increase by orders of magnitude. Chimpanzees live in groups of about 50 individuals whereas humans typically have a social circle of about 150 people, which is also the typical size of social communities in small societies and personal social networks;<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar_2014_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar_2014-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this number is now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Dunbar%27s_number" title="Dunbar's number">Dunbar's number</a>. In addition, there is evidence to suggest that the success of groups is dependent on their size at foundation, with groupings of around 150 being particularly successful, potentially reflecting the fact that communities of this size strike a balance between the minimum size of effective functionality and the maximum size for creating a sense of commitment to the community.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunbar_2014_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunbar_2014-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the social brain hypothesis, when hominids started living in large groups, selection favored greater intelligence. As evidence, Dunbar cites a relationship between neocortex size and group size of various mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criticism">Criticism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">Phylogenetic</a> studies of brain sizes in primates show that while diet predicts primate brain size, sociality does not predict brain size when corrections are made for cases in which diet affects both brain size and sociality. The exceptions to the predictions of the social intelligence hypothesis, which that hypothesis has no predictive model for, are successfully predicted by diets that are either nutritious but scarce or abundant but poor in nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers have found that <a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">frugivores</a> tend to exhibit larger brain size than <a href="/wiki/Folivore" title="Folivore">folivores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One potential explanation for this finding is that frugivory requires "extractive foraging", or the process of locating and preparing hard-shelled foods, such as nuts, insects, and fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extractive foraging requires higher cognitive processing, which could help explain larger brain size.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, other researchers argue that extractive foraging was not a catalyst in the evolution of primate brain size, demonstrating that some non primates exhibit advanced foraging techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other explanations for the positive correlation between brain size and frugivory highlight how the high-energy, frugivore diet facilitates fetal brain growth and requires spatial mapping to locate the embedded foods.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Meerkat" title="Meerkat">Meerkats</a> have far more social relationships than their small brain capacity would suggest. Another hypothesis is that it is actually intelligence that causes social relationships to become more complex, because intelligent individuals are more difficult to learn to know.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also studies that show that Dunbar's number is not the upper limit of the number of social relationships in humans either.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hypothesis that it is brain capacity that sets the upper limit for the number of social relationships is also contradicted by computer simulations that show simple unintelligent reactions to be sufficient to emulate "ape politics"<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by the fact that some social insects such as the paper wasp do have hierarchies in which each individual has its place (as opposed to herding without social structure) and maintains their hierarchies in groups of approximately 80 individuals with their brains smaller than that of any mammal.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Insects provide an opportunity to explore this since they exhibit an unparalleled diversity of social forms to permanent colonies containing many individuals working together as a collective organism and have evolved an impressive range of cognitive skills despite their small nervous systems.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social insects are shaped by ecology, including their social environment. Studies aimed to correlating brain volume to complexity have failed to identify clear correlations between sociality and cognition because of cases like social insects. In humans, societies are usually held together by the ability of individuals to recognize features indicating group membership. Social insects, likewise, often recognize members of their colony allowing them to defend against competitors. Ants do this by comparing odors which require fine discrimination of multicomponent variable cues.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies suggest this recognition is achieved through simple cognitive operations that do not involve long-term memory but through sensory adaptation or habituation.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In honeybees, their symbolic 'dance' is a form of communication that they use to convey information with the rest of their colony. In an even more impressive social use of their dance language, bees indicate suitable nest locations to a swarm in search of a new home. The swarm builds a consensus from multiple 'opinions' expressed by scouts with different information, to finally agree on a single destination to which the swarm relocates.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_intelligence_hypothesis">Cultural intelligence hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cultural intelligence hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Overview">Overview</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similar to, but distinct from the social brain hypothesis, is the cultural intelligence or cultural brain hypothesis, which dictates that human brain size, cognitive ability, and intelligence have increased over generations due to cultural information from a mechanism known as social learning.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothesis also predicts a positive correlation between species with a higher dependency and more frequent opportunities for social learning and overall cognitive ability.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because social learning allows species to develop cultural skills and strategies for survival; in this way it can be said that heavily cultural species should in theory be more intelligent.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humans have been widely acknowledged as the most intelligent species on the planet, with big brains with ample cognitive abilities and processing power which outcompete all other species.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, humans have shown an enormous increase in brain size and intelligence over millions of years of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because humans have been referred to as an 'evolved cultural species'; one that has an unrivalled reliance on culturally transmitted knowledge due to the social environment around us.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is down to social transmission of information which spreads significantly faster in human populations relative to changes in genetics.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Put simply, humans are the most cultural species there is, and are therefore the most intelligent species there is. The key point when concerning evolution of intelligence is that this cultural information has been consistently transmitted across generations to build vast amounts of cultural skills and knowledge throughout the human race.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dunbar's social brain hypothesis on the other hand dictates that our brains evolved primarily due to complex social interactions in groups,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so in this way the two hypotheses are distinct from each other in that the cultural intelligence hypothesis focuses more on an in increase in intelligence from socially transmitted information. A shift in focus from 'social' interactions to learning strategies can be seen through this.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypothesis can also be seen to contradict the idea of human 'general intelligence' by emphasising the process of cultural skills and information being learned from others.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Muthukrishna" title="Michael Muthukrishna">Muthukrishna</a> and researchers constructed a model based on the cultural intelligence hypothesis which revealed relationships between brain size, group size, social learning and mating structures.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The model had three underlying assumptions: </p> <ol><li>Brain size, complexity and organisation were grouped into one variable</li> <li>A larger brain results in larger capacity for adaptive knowledge</li> <li>More adaptive knowledge increases fitness of organisms</li></ol> <p>Using evolutionary simulation, the researchers were able to confirm the existence of hypothesised relationships. Results concerning the cultural intelligence hypothesis model showed that larger brains can store more information and adaptive knowledge, thus supporting larger groups. This abundance of adaptive knowledge can then be used for frequent social learning opportunities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Further_empirical_evidence">Further empirical evidence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further empirical evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As previously mentioned, social learning is the foundation of the cultural intelligence hypothesis and can be described simplistically as learning from others. It involves behaviours such as imitation, observational learning, influences from family and friends and explicit teaching from others.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What sets humans apart from other species is that, due to our emphasis on culturally acquired information, humans have evolved to already possess significant social learning abilities from infancy. Neurological studies on nine month old infants were conducted by researchers in 2012 to demonstrate this phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study involved infants observing a caregiver making a sound with a rattle over a period of one week. The brains of the infants were monitored throughout the study. Researchers found that the infants were able to activate neural pathways associated with making a sound with the rattle without actually doing the action themselves, showing human social learning in action- infants were able to understand the effects of a particular action simply by observing the performance of the action by someone else. Not only does this study demonstrate the neural mechanisms of social learning, but it also demonstrates our inherent ability to acquire cultural skills from those around us from the very start of our lives- it therefore shows strong support for the cultural intelligent hypothesis. </p><p>Various studies have been conducted to show the cultural intelligence hypothesis in action on a wider scale. One particular study in 2016 investigated two orangutan species, including the more social Sumatran species and the less sociable Bornean species. The aim was to test the notion that species with a higher frequency of opportunities for social learning should evolve to be more intelligent.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Results showed that the Sumatrans consistently performed better in cognitive tests compared to the less sociable Borneans. The Sumatrans also showed greater inhibition and more cautious behaviour within their habitat. This was one of the first studies to show evidence for the cultural intelligence hypothesis in a non human species- frequency of learning opportunities had gradually produced differences in cognitive abilities between the two species. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transformative_cultural_intelligence_hypothesis">Transformative cultural intelligence hypothesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Transformative cultural intelligence hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A study in 2018 proposed an altered variant of the original version of the hypothesis called the 'transformative cultural intelligence hypothesis'.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The research involved investigating four year old's problem solving skills in different social contexts. The children were asked to extract a floating object from a tube using water. Nearly all were unsuccessful without cues, however most children succeeded after being shown a pedagogical solution suggesting video. When the same video was shown in a non pedagogical manner however, the children's success in the task did not improve. Crucially, this meant that the children's physical cognition and problem solving ability was therefore affected by how the task was socially presented to them. Researchers thus formulated the transformative cultural intelligence hypothesis, which stresses that our physical cognition is developed and affected by the social environment around us. This challenges the traditional cultural intelligence hypothesis which states that it is human's social cognition and not physical cognition which is superior to our nearest primate relatives;<sup id="cite_ref-:8_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> showing unique physical cognition in humans affected by external social factors. This phenomenon has not been seen in other species. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduction_in_aggression">Reduction in aggression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Reduction in aggression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another theory that tries to explain the growth of human intelligence is the reduced aggression theory (aka <a href="/wiki/Self-domestication" title="Self-domestication">self-domestication</a> theory). According to this strand of thought, what led to the evolution of advanced intelligence in <i>Homo sapiens</i> was a drastic reduction of the aggressive drive. This change separated us from other species of monkeys and primates, where this aggressivity is still in plain sight, and eventually lead to the development of quintessential human traits such as empathy, social cognition, and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Eccles,_John_C._1989_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eccles,_John_C._1989-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Waal,_Frans_B._M._1989_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waal,_Frans_B._M._1989-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory has received strong support from studies of animal domestication where selective breeding for tameness has, in only a few generations, led to the emergence of impressive "humanlike" abilities. Tamed foxes, for example, exhibit advanced forms of social communication (following pointing gestures), pedomorphic physical features (childlike faces, floppy ears) and even rudimentary forms of <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a> (eye contact seeking, gaze following).<sup id="cite_ref-Belyaev_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Belyaev-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trut,_L._N.,_Plyusnina,_I.,_&_Oskina,_I._N._2004_pp._644-655_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trut,_L._N.,_Plyusnina,_I.,_&_Oskina,_I._N._2004_pp._644-655-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence also comes from the field of <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a> (which is the study of animal behavior, focused on observing species in their natural habitat rather than in controlled laboratory settings) where it has been found that animals with a gentle and relaxed manner of interacting with each other – for example stumptailed macaques, orangutans and bonobos – have more advanced socio-cognitive abilities than those found among the more aggressive chimpanzees and baboons.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is hypothesized that these abilities derive from a selection against aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-Waal,_Frans_B._M._1989_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waal,_Frans_B._M._1989-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brothers,_L.,_Ring,_B.,_&_Kling,_A._1990_pp._199-213_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brothers,_L.,_Ring,_B.,_&_Kling,_A._1990_pp._199-213-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brothers,_L.,_&_Ring,_B._1993_pp._53-61_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brothers,_L.,_&_Ring,_B._1993_pp._53-61-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hare,_B.,_Wobber,_V.,_&_Wrangham,_R._2012_pp._573-585_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hare,_B.,_Wobber,_V.,_&_Wrangham,_R._2012_pp._573-585-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On a mechanistic level, these changes are believed to be the result of a systemic downregulation of the sympathetic nervous system (the fight-or-flight reflex). Hence, tamed foxes show a reduced adrenal gland size and have an up to fivefold reduction in both basal and stress-induced blood cortisol levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Osadschuk_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osadschuk-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Trut,_L._N.,_Oskina,_I._N._&_Kharlamova,_A._2009_pp._349-360_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trut,_L._N.,_Oskina,_I._N._&_Kharlamova,_A._2009_pp._349-360-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, domesticated rats and guinea pigs have both reduced adrenal gland size and reduced blood corticosterone levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Künzl,_C.,_&_Sachser,_N._1999_pp._28-37_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Künzl,_C.,_&_Sachser,_N._1999_pp._28-37-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It seems as though the <a href="/wiki/Neoteny" title="Neoteny">neoteny</a> of domesticated animals significantly prolongs the immaturity of their hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system (which is otherwise only immature for a short period when they are pups/kittens) and this opens up a larger "socialization window" during which they can learn to interact with their caretakers in a more relaxed way. </p><p>This downregulation of sympathetic nervous system reactivity is also believed to be accompanied by a compensatory increase in a number of opposing organs and systems. Although these are not as well specified, various candidates for such "organs" have been proposed: the parasympathetic system as a whole, the septal area over the amygdala,<sup id="cite_ref-Eccles,_John_C._1989_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eccles,_John_C._1989-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the oxytocin system,<sup id="cite_ref-Carter_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carter-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the endogenous opioids<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson,_E.,_&_Panksepp,_J._1998_pp._437-452_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson,_E.,_&_Panksepp,_J._1998_pp._437-452-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and various forms of quiescent immobilization which antagonize the fight-or-flight reflex.<sup id="cite_ref-Porges_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porges-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_exchange_theory">Social exchange theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social exchange theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wason_selection_task_cards.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Wason_selection_task_cards.svg/175px-Wason_selection_task_cards.svg.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Wason_selection_task_cards.svg/263px-Wason_selection_task_cards.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Wason_selection_task_cards.svg/350px-Wason_selection_task_cards.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Each card has a number on one side, and a patch of color on the other. Which card or cards must be turned over to test the idea that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is blue?</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wason_selection_task_cards_-_drinking_variant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Wason_selection_task_cards_-_drinking_variant.svg/175px-Wason_selection_task_cards_-_drinking_variant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Wason_selection_task_cards_-_drinking_variant.svg/263px-Wason_selection_task_cards_-_drinking_variant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Wason_selection_task_cards_-_drinking_variant.svg/350px-Wason_selection_task_cards_-_drinking_variant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Each card has an age on one side, and a drink on the other. Which card or cards must be turned over to test the idea that if someone is drinking alcohol then they must be over 18?</div></div></div></div></div> <p>One study hypothesizes that reasoning about social exchange between individuals is an adaptation to the human brain. This adaption is predicted to evolve when two parties are both better off than they were before by mutually exchanging things they value less for things they value more. However, selection will only favor social exchange when both parties benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2004, psychologist <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Kanazawa" title="Satoshi Kanazawa">Satoshi Kanazawa</a> argued that <i><a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)">g</a></i> was a <a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">domain-specific</a>, <a href="/wiki/Species-typical_behavior" title="Species-typical behavior">species-typical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)" title="Information processing (psychology)">information processing</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">psychological adaptation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2010, Kanazawa argued that <i>g</i> correlated only with performance on evolutionarily unfamiliar rather than evolutionarily familiar problems, proposing what he termed the "Savanna-IQ interaction hypothesis".<sup id="cite_ref-Kanazawa_2010a_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanazawa_2010a-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kanazawa_2010b_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kanazawa_2010b-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Review" title="Psychological Review">Psychological Review</a></i> published a comment reviewing Kanazawa's 2004 article by psychologists <a href="/wiki/Denny_Borsboom" title="Denny Borsboom">Denny Borsboom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conor_Dolan" title="Conor Dolan">Conor Dolan</a> that argued that Kanazawa's conception of <i>g</i> was empirically unsupported and purely hypothetical and that an evolutionary account of <i>g</i> must address it as a source of <a href="/wiki/Differential_psychology" title="Differential psychology">individual differences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to Kanazawa's 2010 article, psychologists <a href="/wiki/Scott_Barry_Kaufman" title="Scott Barry Kaufman">Scott Barry Kaufman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colin_G._DeYoung" title="Colin G. DeYoung">Colin G. DeYoung</a>, Deirdre Reis, and Jeremy R. Gray gave 112 subjects a 70-item computerized version of the <a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Logic_puzzle" title="Logic puzzle">logic puzzle</a>) in a <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">social relations</a> context as proposed by <a href="/wiki/Leda_Cosmides" title="Leda Cosmides">Leda Cosmides</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Tooby" title="John Tooby">John Tooby</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Adapted_Mind" title="The Adapted Mind">The Adapted Mind</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cosmides_&_Tooby_1992_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosmides_&_Tooby_1992-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and found instead that "performance on non-arbitrary, evolutionarily familiar problems is more strongly related to general intelligence than performance on arbitrary, evolutionarily novel problems".<sup id="cite_ref-Kaufman_et_al._2010_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaufman_et_al._2010-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peter_Cathcart_Wason" title="Peter Cathcart Wason">Peter Cathcart Wason</a> originally demonstrated that not even 10% of subjects found the correct solution and his finding was replicated.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EvansNewstead1993_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EvansNewstead1993-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychologists <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Cheng" title="Patricia Cheng">Patricia Cheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Holyoak" title="Keith Holyoak">Keith Holyoak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a>, and Lindsay M. Oliver demonstrated experimentally that subjects who have completed semester-long college courses in <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional calculus</a> do not perform better on the Wason selection task than subjects who do not complete such college courses.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tooby and Cosmides originally proposed a social relations context for the Wason selection task as part of a larger computational theory of social exchange after they began reviewing the previous experiments about the task beginning in 1983.<sup id="cite_ref-Cosmides_&_Tooby_1992_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosmides_&_Tooby_1992-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite other experimenters finding that some contexts elicited more correct subject responses than others, no theoretical explanation for differentiating between them was identified until Tooby and Cosmides proposed that disparities in subjects performance on contextualized versus non-contextualized variations of the task was a <a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">by-product</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Functional_specialization_(brain)" title="Functional specialization (brain)">specialized</a> <a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">cheater-detection</a> <a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">module</a>, and Tooby and Cosmides later noted that whether there are evolved cognitive mechanisms for the content-blind <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_inference" title="Rule of inference">rules of logical inference</a> is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, economist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a> has noted that numerous studies finding <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">disparities between the mean test scores of ethnic groups</a> on <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence tests</a> have found that ethnic groups with lower mean test scores have tended to perform worst on <a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">non-verbal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">non-informational</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstract reasoning</a> test items.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing after the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> in 2003, psychologist <a href="/wiki/Earl_B._Hunt" title="Earl B. Hunt">Earl B. Hunt</a> noted in 2011 that no genes related to <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence#Genetics_of_race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">differences in cognitive skills across various racial and ethnic groups</a> had ever been discovered,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2012, <i><a href="/wiki/American_Psychologist" title="American Psychologist">American Psychologist</a></i> published a review of new findings by psychologists <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Richard E. Nisbett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Aronson" title="Joshua Aronson">Joshua Aronson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clancy_Blair" title="Clancy Blair">Clancy Blair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diane_F._Halpern" title="Diane F. Halpern">Diane F. Halpern</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eric_Turkheimer" title="Eric Turkheimer">Eric Turkheimer</a>, economist <a href="/wiki/William_Dickens" title="William Dickens">William Dickens</a>, and philosopher <a href="/wiki/James_Flynn_(academic)" title="James Flynn (academic)">James R. Flynn</a> that concluded that almost no <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">single-nucleotide</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene_polymorphism" title="Gene polymorphism">genetic polymorphisms</a> that have been discovered are consistently associated with <a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">variation in IQ</a> in the normal range.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sexual selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection in humans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Human mating strategies</a></div> <p>This model, which invokes <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, is proposed by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Miller_(psychologist)" title="Geoffrey Miller (psychologist)">Geoffrey Miller</a> who argues that human intelligence is unnecessarily sophisticated for the needs of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter-gatherers">hunter-gatherers</a> to survive. He argues that the manifestations of intelligence such as <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> did not evolve because of their utilitarian value to the survival of ancient hominids. Rather, intelligence may have been a <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> indicator. Hominids would have been <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">chosen</a> for greater intelligence as an indicator of healthy genes and a <a href="/wiki/Fisherian_runaway" title="Fisherian runaway">Fisherian runaway</a> <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> loop of sexual selection would have led to the evolution of human intelligence in a relatively short period.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Denis_Dutton" title="Denis Dutton">Denis Dutton</a> also argued that the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">human capacity for aesthetics</a> evolved by sexual selection.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/George_Christopher_Williams" title="George Christopher Williams">George C. Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">evolutionary medicine</a> researcher <a href="/wiki/Randolph_M._Nesse" title="Randolph M. Nesse">Randolph M. Nesse</a> cite <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychologists</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Tooby" title="John Tooby">John Tooby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leda_Cosmides" title="Leda Cosmides">Leda Cosmides</a> as referring to the <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a> as "Darwinian <a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">algorithms of the mind</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while social psychologist <a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">David Buss</a> has argued that the <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">sex-specialized differences</a> in the emotion of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">jealousy</a> are adaptive <a href="/wiki/Strategy_(game_theory)" title="Strategy (game theory)">strategies</a> for detecting <a href="/wiki/Infidelity" title="Infidelity">infidelity</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">mating partner</a> and anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Donald_Brown_(anthropologist)" title="Donald Brown (anthropologist)">Donald E. Brown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ward_Goodenough" title="Ward Goodenough">Ward Goodenough</a> have argued that <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">cultural universal</a> that evolved to regulate sexual access to <a href="/wiki/Age_and_female_fertility" title="Age and female fertility">fertile women</a> within a particular culture in response to <a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">male intrasexual competition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">dominance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buss/Brown/Pinker_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss/Brown/Pinker-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>list 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Citing <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">cross-cultural research</a> conducted by Buss,<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Buss_1992_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss_1992-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Miller has argued that if humans <a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">prefer</a> altruistic mating partners that would select by <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a> for <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">altruism</a> directly.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Nesse and theoretical biologist <a href="/wiki/Mary_Jane_West-Eberhard" title="Mary Jane West-Eberhard">Mary Jane West-Eberhard</a> view sexual selection as a subcategory of <a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">social selection</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-West-Eberhard/Lyon/Montgomerie/Nesse_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-West-Eberhard/Lyon/Montgomerie/Nesse-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>list 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Nesse and anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Boehm" title="Christopher Boehm">Christopher Boehm</a> arguing further that altruism in humans held <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness advantages</a> that enabled evolutionarily extraordinary <a href="/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">cooperativeness</a> and the human capability of creating <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a> by <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band societies</a> against <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">thieves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">free-riders</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">psychopaths</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nesse/Boehm_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nesse/Boehm-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>list 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many species, only males have impressive <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sexual_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary sexual characteristics">secondary sexual characteristics</a> such as ornaments and show-off behavior, but sexual selection is also thought to be able to act on females as well in at least partially <a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">monogamous species</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With complete monogamy, there is <a href="/wiki/Assortative_mating" title="Assortative mating">assortative mating</a> for sexually selected traits. This means that less attractive individuals will find other less attractive individuals to mate with. If attractive traits are good fitness indicators, this means that sexual selection increases the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_load" title="Genetic load">genetic load</a> of the offspring of unattractive individuals. Without sexual selection, an unattractive individual might find a superior mate with few deleterious mutations, and have healthy children that are likely to survive. With sexual selection, an unattractive individual is more likely to have access only to an inferior mate who is likely to pass on many deleterious mutations to their joint offspring, who are then less likely to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sexual selection is often thought to be a likely explanation for other female-specific human traits, for example breasts and buttocks far larger in proportion to total body size than those found in related species of ape.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often assumed that if breasts and buttocks of such large size were necessary for functions such as suckling infants, they would be found in other species. That human female breasts (typical mammalian breast tissue is small)<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are found <a href="/wiki/Sexually_attractive" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually attractive">sexually attractive</a> by many men is in agreement with sexual selection acting on human females secondary sexual characteristics. </p><p>Sexual selection for intelligence and judging ability can act on indicators of success, such as highly visible displays of wealth. Growing human brains require more nutrition than brains of related species of ape. It is possible that for females to successfully judge male intelligence, they must be intelligent themselves. This could explain why despite the absence of clear differences in intelligence between males and females on average, there are clear differences between male and female propensities to display their intelligence in ostentatious forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_82-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Critique">Critique</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sexual selection by the disability principle/fitness display model of the evolution of human intelligence is criticized by certain researchers for issues of timing of the costs relative to reproductive age. While sexually selected ornaments such as peacock feathers and moose antlers develop either during or after puberty, timing their costs to a sexually mature age, human brains expend large amounts of nutrients building <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> and other brain mechanisms for efficient communication between the neurons early in life. These costs early in life build facilitators that reduce the cost of neuron firing later in life, and as a result the peaks of the brain's costs and the peak of the brain's performance are timed on opposite sides of puberty with the costs peaking at a sexually immature age while performance peaks at a sexually mature age. Critical researchers argue the above shows that the cost of intelligence is a signal which reduces the chance of surviving to reproductive age, and does not signal fitness of sexually mature individuals. Since the disability principle is about selection from disabilities in sexually immature individuals, which increases the offspring's chance of survival to reproductive age, disabilities would be selected against and not for by the above mechanism. These critics argue that human intelligence evolved by natural selection citing that unlike sexual selection, natural selection have produced many traits that cost the most nutrients before puberty including immune systems and accumulation and modification for increased toxicity of poisons in the body as a protective measure against predators.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligence_as_a_disease-resistance_sign">Intelligence as a disease-resistance sign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Intelligence as a disease-resistance sign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of people with severe <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> impairment caused by childhood viral infections like <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxoplasma">Toxoplasma</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a></i>, and animal parasites like <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">intestinal worms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schistosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Schistosomes">schistosomes</a> is estimated to be in the hundreds of millions.<sup id="cite_ref-olness_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-olness-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even more people with moderate mental damages, such as an inability to complete difficult tasks, that are not classified as 'diseases' by medical standards, may still be considered as inferior mates by potential sexual partners. </p><p>Thus, widespread, <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulent</a>, and archaic infections are greatly involved in natural selection for cognitive abilities. People infected with parasites may have brain damage and obvious maladaptive behavior in addition to visible signs of disease. Smarter people can more skillfully learn to distinguish safe non-polluted water and food from unsafe kinds and learn to distinguish mosquito infested areas from safe areas. Additionally, they can more skillfully find and develop safe food sources and living environments. Given this situation, preference for smarter child-bearing/rearing partners increases the chance that their descendants will inherit the best resistance <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>, not only for <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> resistance to disease, but also smarter brains for learning skills in avoiding disease and selecting nutritious food. When people search for mates based on their success, wealth, reputation, disease-free body appearance, or psychological traits such as benevolence or confidence; the effect is to select for superior intelligence that results in superior disease resistance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecological_dominance-social_competition_model">Ecological dominance-social competition model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ecological dominance-social competition model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another model describing the evolution of human intelligence is ecological dominance-social competition (EDSC),<sup id="cite_ref-flinn_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flinn-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explained by Mark V. Flinn, David C. Geary and Carol V. Ward based mainly on work by <a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Alexander" title="Richard D. Alexander">Richard D. Alexander</a>. According to the model, human intelligence was able to evolve to significant levels because of the combination of increasing domination over <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> and increasing importance of social interactions. As a result, the primary selective pressure for increasing human intelligence shifted from learning to master the <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural world</a> to competition for dominance among members or groups of its own species. </p><p>As advancement, survival and reproduction within an increasing complex social structure favored ever more advanced social skills, <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> of concepts through increasingly complex language patterns ensued. Since competition had shifted bit by bit from controlling "nature" to influencing other humans, it became of relevance to outmaneuver other members of the group seeking <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acceptance" title="Acceptance">acceptance</a>, by means of more advanced social skills. A more social and communicative person would be more easily selected. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligence_dependent_on_brain_size">Intelligence dependent on brain size</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Intelligence dependent on brain size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human intelligence is developed to an extreme level that is not necessarily adaptive in an evolutionary sense. Firstly, larger-headed babies are more difficult to give <a href="/wiki/Birth" title="Birth">birth</a> to and large brains are costly in terms of <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-isler_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isler-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the direct adaptive benefit of human intelligence is questionable at least in modern societies, while it is difficult to study in prehistoric societies. Since 2005, scientists have been evaluating genomic data on gene variants thought to influence head size, and have found no evidence that those genes are under strong selective pressure in current human populations.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trait of head size has become generally fixed in modern human beings.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While decreased brain size has strong correlation with lower intelligence in humans, some modern humans have brain sizes as small as with <i>Homo erectus</i> but normal intelligence (based on IQ tests) for modern humans. Increased brain size in humans may allow for greater capacity for specialized expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expanded_cortical_regions">Expanded cortical regions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Expanded cortical regions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two major perspectives on primate brain evolution are the <a href="/wiki/Concerted_evolution" title="Concerted evolution">concerted</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">mosaic</a> approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the concerted evolution approach, cortical expansions in the brain are considered to be a by-product of a larger brain, rather than adaptive potential.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have supported the concerted evolution model by finding cortical expansions between <a href="/wiki/Macaque" title="Macaque">macaques</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marmoset" title="Marmoset">marmosets</a> are comparable to that of humans and macaques.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers attribute this result to the constraints on the evolutionary process of increasing brain size.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mosaic approach, cortical expansions are attributed to their adaptive advantage for the species.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers have attributed hominin evolution to mosaic evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simian primate brain evolution studies show that specific cortical regions associated with high-level cognition have demonstrated the greatest expansion over primate brain evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sensory and motor regions have showcased limited growth.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three regions associated with complex cognition include the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a>, and the medial wall of the cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies demonstrate that the enlargement in these regions is disproportionately centered in the <a href="/wiki/Temporoparietal_junction" title="Temporoparietal junction">temporoparietal junction</a> (TPJ), <a href="/wiki/Lateral_prefrontal_cortex" title="Lateral prefrontal cortex">lateral prefrontal cortex</a> (LPFC), and <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a> (ACC).<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The TPJ is located in the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a> and is associated with morality, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spatial_awareness" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial awareness">spatial awareness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> is located in the TPJ.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have suggested that the region assists in language production, as well as language processing.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The LPFC is commonly associated with planning and working memory functions.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>, the second major region associated with language processing, is also located in the LPFC.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ACC is associated with detecting errors, monitoring conflict, motor control, and emotion.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, researchers have found that the ACC in humans is disproportionately expanded when compared to the ACC in macaques.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fossils show that although <i>Homo sapiens'</i> total brain volume approached modern levels as early as 300,000 years ago, parietal lobes and cerebella grew relative to total volume after this point, reaching current levels of variation at some point between the approximate dates of 100,000 and 35,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Neubauer2018_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neubauer2018-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies on cortical expansions in the brain have been used to examine the evolutionary basis of neurological disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_117-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, researchers associate the expanded TPJ region with Alzheimer's disease. However, other researchers found no correlation between expanded cortical regions in the human brain and the development of Alzheimer's disease.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cellular,_genetic,_and_circuitry_changes"><span id="Cellular.2C_genetic.2C_and_circuitry_changes"></span>Cellular, genetic, and circuitry changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Cellular, genetic, and circuitry changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Human brain evolution involves cellular, genetic, and circuitry changes.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a genetic level, humans have a modified <a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2 gene</a>, which is associated with speech and language development.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human variant of the gene <a href="/wiki/SRGAP2" title="SRGAP2">SRGAP2</a>, <a href="/wiki/SRGAP2C" title="SRGAP2C">SRGAP2C</a>, enables greater dendritic spine density which fosters greater neural connections.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a cellular level, studies demonstrate <a href="/wiki/Von_economo_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Von economo neurons">von Economo neurons</a> (VENs) are more prevalent in humans than other primates.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies show that VENs are associated with empathy, social awareness and self-control.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies show that the striatum plays a role in understanding reward and pair-bond formation.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a circuitry level, humans exhibit a more complex <a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirror neuron system">mirror neuron system</a>, greater connection between the two major language processing areas (Wernicke's area and Broca's area), and a vocal control circuit that connects the motor cortex and brain stem.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mirror neuron system is associated with <a href="/wiki/Social_cognition" title="Social cognition">social cognition</a>, theory of mind, and empathy.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have demonstrated the presence of the mirror neuron system in both macaques in humans; However, the mirror neuron system is only activated in macaques when observing transitive movements.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_selection">Group selection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Group selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> theory contends that organism characteristics that provide benefits to a group (clan, tribe, or larger population) can evolve despite individual disadvantages such as those cited above. The group benefits of intelligence (including language, the ability to communicate between individuals, the ability to teach others, and other cooperative aspects) have apparent utility in increasing the survival potential of a group. </p><p>In addition, the theory of group selection is inherently tied to Darwin's theory of natural selection. Specifically, that "group-related adaptations must be attributed to the natural selection of alternative groups of individuals and that the natural selection of alternative alleles within populations will be opposed to this development".<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between-group selection can be used to explain the changes and adaptations that arise within a group of individuals. Group-related adaptations and changes are a byproduct of between-group selection as traits or characteristics that prove to be advantageous in relation to another group will become increasingly popular and disseminated within a group. In the end, increasing its overall chance of surviving a competing group. </p><p>However, this explanation cannot be applied to humans (and other species, predominantly other mammals) that live in stable, established social groupings. This is because of the social intelligence that functioning within these groups requires from the individual. Humans, while they are not the only ones, possess the cognitive and mental capacity to form systems of personal relationships and ties that extend well beyond those of the nucleus of family. The continuous process of creating, interacting, and adjusting to other individuals is a key component of many species' ecology. </p><p>These concepts can be tied to the social brain hypothesis, mentioned above. This hypothesis posits that human cognitive complexity arose as a result of the higher level of social complexity required from living in enlarged groups. These bigger groups entail a greater amount of social relations and interactions thus leading to an expanded quantity of intelligence in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this hypothesis has been under academic scrutiny in recent years and has been largely disproven. In fact, the size of a species' brain can be much better predicted by diet instead of measures of sociality as noted by the study conducted by DeCasien et al. They found that ecological factors (such as: folivory/frugivory, environment) explain a primate brain size much better than social factors (such as: group size, mating system).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutritional_status">Nutritional status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Nutritional status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early hominins dating back to pre 3.5 Ma in Africa ate primarily plant foods supplemented by insects and scavenged meat.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their diets are evidenced by their 'robust' dento-facial features of small canines, large molars, and enlarged masticatory muscles that allowed them to chew through tough plant fibers. Intelligence played a role in the acquisition of food, through the use of tool technology such as stone anvils and hammers.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no direct evidence of the role of nutrition in the evolution of intelligence dating back to <i>Homo erectus</i>, contrary to dominant narratives in paleontology that link meat-eating to the appearance of modern human features such as a larger brain. However, scientists suggest that nutrition did play an important role, such as the consumption of a diverse diet including plant foods and new technologies for cooking and processing food such as fire.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diets deficient in <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>, <a href="/wiki/B_vitamins" title="B vitamins">B vitamins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omega_3_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega 3 fatty acids">omega 3 fatty acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and other nutrients can result in lower intelligence<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> either in the mother during pregnancy or in the child during development. While these inputs did not have an effect on the evolution of intelligence they do govern its expression. A higher intelligence could be a signal that an individual comes from and lives in a physical and social environment where nutrition levels are high, whereas a lower intelligence could imply a child, its mother, or both, come from a physical and social environment where nutritional levels are low. Previc emphasizes the contribution of nutritional factors to elevations of <a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic" title="Dopaminergic">dopaminergic</a> activity in the brain, which may have been responsible for the evolution of human intelligence since <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> is crucial to working memory, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_shifting" title="Cognitive shifting">cognitive shifting</a>, abstract, distant concepts, and other hallmarks of advanced intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 40em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetacean_intelligence" title="Cetacean intelligence">Cetacean intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">Cephalopod intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Timeline of human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noosphere" title="Noosphere">Noosphere</a> – Philosophical concept of biosphere successor via humankind's rational activities</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKlugCummingsSpencerPalladino2012" class="citation book cs1">Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA (2012). <i>Concepts of Genetics</i> (Tenth ed.). Pearson. p. 719. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-75435-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-75435-6"><bdi>978-0-321-75435-6</bdi></a>. <q>Assuming that chimpanzees and humans last shared a common ancestor about 8-6 million years ago, the tree shows that Neanderthals and humans last shared a common ancestor about 706,000 years ago and that the isolating split between Neanderthals and human populations occurred about 370,000 years ago.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+of+Genetics&rft.pages=719&rft.edition=Tenth&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-321-75435-6&rft.aulast=Klug&rft.aufirst=WS&rft.au=Cummings%2C+MR&rft.au=Spencer%2C+CA&rft.au=Palladino%2C+MA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160917161331/http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/A105/lectures/A105L12.html">"Chimpanzee intelligence"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>. 23 February 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/teach/A105/lectures/A105L12.html">the original</a> on 17 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chimpanzee+intelligence&rft.pub=Indiana+University&rft.date=2000-02-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiana.edu%2F~origins%2Fteach%2FA105%2Flectures%2FA105L12.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearziStanford2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bearzi M, Stanford CB (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt5gv9w4jw/qt5gv9w4jw.pdf?t=krnonn">"Dolphins and African apes: comparisons of sympatric socio-ecology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Contributions to Zoology</i>. <b>76</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">235–</span>254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18759866-07604003">10.1163/18759866-07604003</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contributions+to+Zoology&rft.atitle=Dolphins+and+African+apes%3A+comparisons+of+sympatric+socio-ecology&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E235-%3C%2Fspan%3E254&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18759866-07604003&rft.aulast=Bearzi&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Stanford%2C+CB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fcontent%2Fqt5gv9w4jw%2Fqt5gv9w4jw.pdf%3Ft%3Dkrnonn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPietschnigPenkeWichertsZeiler2015" class="citation journal cs1">Pietschnig, Jakob; Penke, Lars; Wicherts, Jelte M.; Zeiler, Michael; Voracek, Martin (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.017">"Meta-analysis of associations between human brain volume and intelligence differences: How strong are they and what do they mean?"</a>. <i>Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews</i>. <b>57</b>: <span class="nowrap">411–</span>432. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2015.09.017">10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0149-7634">0149-7634</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26449760">26449760</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23180321">23180321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+%26+Biobehavioral+Reviews&rft.atitle=Meta-analysis+of+associations+between+human+brain+volume+and+intelligence+differences%3A+How+strong+are+they+and+what+do+they+mean%3F&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E411-%3C%2Fspan%3E432&rft.date=2015-10&rft.issn=0149-7634&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23180321%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26449760&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2015.09.017&rft.aulast=Pietschnig&rft.aufirst=Jakob&rft.au=Penke%2C+Lars&rft.au=Wicherts%2C+Jelte+M.&rft.au=Zeiler%2C+Michael&rft.au=Voracek%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2015.09.017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKo2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ko KH (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.drustvo-antropologov.si/AN/PDF/2016_1/Anthropological_Notebooks_XXII_1_Ko.pdf">"Origins of human intelligence: The chain of tool-making and brain evolution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Anthropological Notebooks</i>. <b>22</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropological+Notebooks&rft.atitle=Origins+of+human+intelligence%3A+The+chain+of+tool-making+and+brain+evolution&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Ko&rft.aufirst=KH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drustvo-antropologov.si%2FAN%2FPDF%2F2016_1%2FAnthropological_Notebooks_XXII_1_Ko.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowzariJorgensen2022" class="citation journal cs1">Nowzari, Hessam; Jorgensen, Michael (June 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Foral2020016">"Human Dento-Facial Evolution: Cranial Capacity, Facial Expression, Language, Oral Complications and Diseases"</a>. <i>Oral</i>. <b>2</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">163–</span>172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Foral2020016">10.3390/oral2020016</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2673-6373">2673-6373</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oral&rft.atitle=Human+Dento-Facial+Evolution%3A+Cranial+Capacity%2C+Facial+Expression%2C+Language%2C+Oral+Complications+and+Diseases&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E163-%3C%2Fspan%3E172&rft.date=2022-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Foral2020016&rft.issn=2673-6373&rft.aulast=Nowzari&rft.aufirst=Hessam&rft.au=Jorgensen%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Foral2020016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Puech P.-F., Puech S., Cianfarani F., Albertini H. (1989). <a href="//archive.org/details/ToothWearAndDexterityInHomoErectus" class="extiw" title="iarchive:ToothWearAndDexterityInHomoErectus">"Tooth wear and dexterity in <i>Homo erectus</i>"</a>, pp. 247–251 in <i>Hominidae. Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress of Human Paleontology</i>, Jaca Book (Milan: Italy)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConroyPontzer2012" class="citation book cs1">Conroy, Glenn C.; Pontzer (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393912890/about-the-book/product-details"><i>Reconstructing Human Origins: A Modern Synthesis</i></a>. Herman Pontzer (3rd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91289-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91289-0"><bdi>978-0-393-91289-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/760290570">760290570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+Human+Origins%3A+A+Modern+Synthesis&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F760290570&rft.isbn=978-0-393-91289-0&rft.aulast=Conroy&rft.aufirst=Glenn+C.&rft.au=Pontzer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwnorton.com%2Fbooks%2F9780393912890%2Fabout-the-book%2Fproduct-details&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart-Fox2022" class="citation journal cs1">Stuart-Fox, Martin (18 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02604027.2021.2018646">"Major Transitions in Human Evolutionary History"</a>. <i>World Futures</i>. <b>79</b>: <span class="nowrap">29–</span>68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02604027.2021.2018646">10.1080/02604027.2021.2018646</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0260-4027">0260-4027</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248251299">248251299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Futures&rft.atitle=Major+Transitions+in+Human+Evolutionary+History&rft.volume=79&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=2022-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248251299%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0260-4027&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02604027.2021.2018646&rft.aulast=Stuart-Fox&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F02604027.2021.2018646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:22_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:22_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynnOvermannMalafouris2021" class="citation journal cs1">Wynn, Thomas; Overmann, Karenleigh A; Malafouris, Lambros (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1059712320967184">"4E cognition in the Lower Palaeolithic"</a>. <i>Adaptive Behavior</i>. <b>29</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">99–</span>106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1059712320967184">10.1177/1059712320967184</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1059-7123">1059-7123</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:228957681">228957681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Adaptive+Behavior&rft.atitle=4E+cognition+in+the+Lower+Palaeolithic&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E106&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228957681%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1059-7123&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1059712320967184&rft.aulast=Wynn&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Overmann%2C+Karenleigh+A&rft.au=Malafouris%2C+Lambros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F1059712320967184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:32_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShookNelsonAguileraBraff2019" class="citation book cs1">Shook, Beth; Nelson, Katie; Aguilera, Kelsie; Braff, Lara (2019). <i>Explorations</i>. Pressbooks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931303-62-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931303-62-0"><bdi>978-1-931303-62-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explorations&rft.pub=Pressbooks&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-931303-62-0&rft.aulast=Shook&rft.aufirst=Beth&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Katie&rft.au=Aguilera%2C+Kelsie&rft.au=Braff%2C+Lara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichterGrünJoannes-BoyauSteele2017" class="citation journal cs1">Richter D, Grün R, Joannes-Boyau R, Steele TE, Amani F, Rué M, et al. (June 2017). "The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age". <i>Nature</i>. <b>546</b> (7657): <span class="nowrap">293–</span>296. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.546..293R">2017Natur.546..293R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature22335">10.1038/nature22335</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28593967">28593967</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205255853">205255853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+age+of+the+hominin+fossils+from+Jebel+Irhoud%2C+Morocco%2C+and+the+origins+of+the+Middle+Stone+Age&rft.volume=546&rft.issue=7657&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E293-%3C%2Fspan%3E296&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature22335&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205255853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28593967&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.546..293R&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Gr%C3%BCn%2C+R&rft.au=Joannes-Boyau%2C+R&rft.au=Steele%2C+TE&rft.au=Amani%2C+F&rft.au=Ru%C3%A9%2C+M&rft.au=Fernandes%2C+P&rft.au=Raynal%2C+JP&rft.au=Geraads%2C+D&rft.au=Ben-Ncer%2C+A&rft.au=Hublin%2C+JJ&rft.au=McPherron%2C+SP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span> "Here we report the ages, determined by thermoluminescence dating, of fire-heated flint artefacts obtained from new excavations at the Middle Stone Age site of Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, which are directly associated with newly discovered remains of <i>H. sapiens</i>. A weighted average age places these Middle Stone Age artefacts and fossils at 315 ± 34 thousand years ago. Support is obtained through the recalculated uranium series with electron spin resonance date of 286 ± 32 thousand years ago for a tooth from the Irhoud 3 hominin mandible."; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithTafforeauReidGrün2007" class="citation journal cs1">Smith TM, Tafforeau P, Reid DJ, Grün R, Eggins S, Boutakiout M, Hublin JJ (April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1828706">"Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early <i>Homo sapiens</i>"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>104</b> (15): <span class="nowrap">6128–</span>6133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.6128S">2007PNAS..104.6128S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0700747104">10.1073/pnas.0700747104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1828706">1828706</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17372199">17372199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Earliest+evidence+of+modern+human+life+history+in+North+African+early+Homo+sapiens&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6128-%3C%2Fspan%3E6133&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1828706%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17372199&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0700747104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..104.6128S&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=TM&rft.au=Tafforeau%2C+P&rft.au=Reid%2C+DJ&rft.au=Gr%C3%BCn%2C+R&rft.au=Eggins%2C+S&rft.au=Boutakiout%2C+M&rft.au=Hublin%2C+JJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1828706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichterGrünJoannes-BoyauSteele2017" class="citation journal cs1">Richter D, Grün R, Joannes-Boyau R, Steele TE, Amani F, Rué M, et al. (June 2017). "The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age". <i>Nature</i>. <b>546</b> (7657): <span class="nowrap">293–</span>296. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.546..293R">2017Natur.546..293R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature22335">10.1038/nature22335</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28593967">28593967</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205255853">205255853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+age+of+the+hominin+fossils+from+Jebel+Irhoud%2C+Morocco%2C+and+the+origins+of+the+Middle+Stone+Age&rft.volume=546&rft.issue=7657&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E293-%3C%2Fspan%3E296&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature22335&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205255853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28593967&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.546..293R&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Gr%C3%BCn%2C+R&rft.au=Joannes-Boyau%2C+R&rft.au=Steele%2C+TE&rft.au=Amani%2C+F&rft.au=Ru%C3%A9%2C+M&rft.au=Fernandes%2C+P&rft.au=Raynal%2C+JP&rft.au=Geraads%2C+D&rft.au=Ben-Ncer%2C+A&rft.au=Hublin%2C+JJ&rft.au=McPherron%2C+SP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithTafforeauReidGrün2007" class="citation journal cs1">Smith TM, Tafforeau P, Reid DJ, Grün R, Eggins S, Boutakiout M, Hublin JJ (April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1828706">"Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early <i>Homo sapiens</i>"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>104</b> (15): <span class="nowrap">6128–</span>6133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.6128S">2007PNAS..104.6128S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0700747104">10.1073/pnas.0700747104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1828706">1828706</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17372199">17372199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Earliest+evidence+of+modern+human+life+history+in+North+African+early+Homo+sapiens&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6128-%3C%2Fspan%3E6133&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1828706%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17372199&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0700747104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..104.6128S&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=TM&rft.au=Tafforeau%2C+P&rft.au=Reid%2C+DJ&rft.au=Gr%C3%BCn%2C+R&rft.au=Eggins%2C+S&rft.au=Boutakiout%2C+M&rft.au=Hublin%2C+JJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1828706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallaway2017" class="citation journal cs1">Callaway E (7 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/news/oldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114">"Oldest <i>Homo sapiens</i> fossil claim rewrites our species' history"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2017.22114">10.1038/nature.2017.22114</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Oldest+Homo+sapiens+fossil+claim+rewrites+our+species%27+history&rft.date=2017-06-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature.2017.22114&rft.aulast=Callaway&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2Foldest-homo-sapiens-fossil-claim-rewrites-our-species-history-1.22114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:13_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matsuzawa, T. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959438809000269">Symbolic representation of number in chimpanzees</a>. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 19(1), pp. 92–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossZubrowCowan2002" class="citation book cs1">Cross I, Zubrow E, Cowan F (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120610150342/http://www.mus.cam.ac.uk/~ic108/lithoacoustics/BAR2002/BARpreprint.pdf">"Musical behaviours and the archaeological record: a preliminary study"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In J. Mathieu (ed.). <i>Experimental Archaeology</i>. Vol. 1035. British Archaeological Reports International Series. pp. <span class="nowrap">25–</span>34. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mus.cam.ac.uk/~ic108/lithoacoustics/BAR2002/BARpreprint.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Musical+behaviours+and+the+archaeological+record%3A+a+preliminary+study&rft.btitle=Experimental+Archaeology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E34&rft.pub=British+Archaeological+Reports+International+Series&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Zubrow%2C+E&rft.au=Cowan%2C+F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mus.cam.ac.uk%2F~ic108%2Flithoacoustics%2FBAR2002%2FBARpreprint.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrikiSakura2008" class="citation journal cs1">Iriki A, Sakura O (June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2394573">"The neuroscience of primate intellectual evolution: natural selection and passive and intentional niche construction"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>363</b> (1500): <span class="nowrap">2229–</span>2241. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.2274">10.1098/rstb.2008.2274</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2394573">2394573</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18426757">18426757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+neuroscience+of+primate+intellectual+evolution%3A+natural+selection+and+passive+and+intentional+niche+construction&rft.volume=363&rft.issue=1500&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2229-%3C%2Fspan%3E2241&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2394573%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18426757&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2008.2274&rft.aulast=Iriki&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Sakura%2C+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2394573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Brain Facts: A Primer on The Brain and Nervous System</i>. Washington, D.C.: Society for Neuroscience. 2018. p. 51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brain+Facts%3A+A+Primer+on+The+Brain+and+Nervous+System&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Society+for+Neuroscience&rft.date=2018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchenkerHopkinsSpocterGarrison2010" class="citation journal cs1">Schenker NM, Hopkins WD, Spocter MA, Garrison AR, Stimpson CD, Erwin JM, et al. (March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2820707">"Broca's area homologue in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): probabilistic mapping, asymmetry, and comparison to humans"</a>. <i>Cerebral Cortex</i>. <b>20</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">730–</span>742. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhp138">10.1093/cercor/bhp138</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2820707">2820707</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19620620">19620620</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cerebral+Cortex&rft.atitle=Broca%27s+area+homologue+in+chimpanzees+%28Pan+troglodytes%29%3A+probabilistic+mapping%2C+asymmetry%2C+and+comparison+to+humans&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E730-%3C%2Fspan%3E742&rft.date=2010-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2820707%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19620620&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhp138&rft.aulast=Schenker&rft.aufirst=NM&rft.au=Hopkins%2C+WD&rft.au=Spocter%2C+MA&rft.au=Garrison%2C+AR&rft.au=Stimpson%2C+CD&rft.au=Erwin%2C+JM&rft.au=Hof%2C+PR&rft.au=Sherwood%2C+CC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2820707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Social_Brain_Hypothesis_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunbar1998" class="citation journal cs1">Dunbar RI (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.evergreen.edu/webpages/curricular/2006-2007/languageofpolitics/files/languageofpolitics/Evol_Anthrop_6.pdf">"The social brain hypothesis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews</i>. <b>6</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">178–</span>90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291520-6505%281998%296%3A5%3C178%3A%3AAID-EVAN5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-8">10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<178::AID-EVAN5>3.0.CO;2-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9555943">9555943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Anthropology%3A+Issues%2C+News%2C+and+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+social+brain+hypothesis&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E178-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291520-6505%281998%296%3A5%3C178%3A%3AAID-EVAN5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9555943%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dunbar&rft.aufirst=RI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.evergreen.edu%2Fwebpages%2Fcurricular%2F2006-2007%2Flanguageofpolitics%2Ffiles%2Flanguageofpolitics%2FEvol_Anthrop_6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDávid-BarrettDunbar2013" class="citation journal cs1">Dávid-Barrett T, Dunbar RI (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712454">"Processing power limits social group size: computational evidence for the cognitive costs of sociality"</a>. <i>Proceedings. Biological Sciences</i>. <b>280</b> (1765): 20131151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2013.1151">10.1098/rspb.2013.1151</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712454">3712454</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23804623">23804623</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings.+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Processing+power+limits+social+group+size%3A+computational+evidence+for+the+cognitive+costs+of+sociality&rft.volume=280&rft.issue=1765&rft.pages=20131151&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3712454%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23804623&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2013.1151&rft.aulast=D%C3%A1vid-Barrett&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Dunbar%2C+RI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3712454&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunbar_2014-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar_2014_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunbar_2014_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunbar2014" class="citation journal cs1">Dunbar RI (2014). "The Social Brain: Psychological Underpinnings and Implications for the Structure of Organizations". <i>Current Directions in Psychological Science</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">109–</span>114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721413517118">10.1177/0963721413517118</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146463887">146463887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Directions+in+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=The+Social+Brain%3A+Psychological+Underpinnings+and+Implications+for+the+Structure+of+Organizations&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E109-%3C%2Fspan%3E114&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0963721413517118&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146463887%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dunbar&rft.aufirst=RI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_22-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeCasienWilliamsHigham2017" class="citation journal cs1">DeCasien AR, Williams SA, Higham JP (March 2017). "Primate brain size is predicted by diet but not sociality". <i>Nature Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>1</b> (5): 112. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatEE...1..112D">2017NatEE...1..112D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41559-017-0112">10.1038/s41559-017-0112</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28812699">28812699</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205564046">205564046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Primate+brain+size+is+predicted+by+diet+but+not+sociality&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=112&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41559-017-0112&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205564046%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28812699&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatEE...1..112D&rft.aulast=DeCasien&rft.aufirst=AR&rft.au=Williams%2C+SA&rft.au=Higham%2C+JP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1986" class="citation journal cs1">King BJ (August 1986). "Extractive foraging and the evolution of primate intelligence". <i>Human Evolution</i>. <b>1</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">361–</span>372. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02436709">10.1007/BF02436709</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83885668">83885668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=Extractive+foraging+and+the+evolution+of+primate+intelligence&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E361-%3C%2Fspan%3E372&rft.date=1986-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02436709&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83885668%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=BJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kluger, Jeffrey (16 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110826141517/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2008867,00.html">"Inside The Minds of Animals"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCartyKillworthBernardJohnsen2000" class="citation journal cs1">McCarty C, Killworth PD, Bernard HR, Johnsen E, Shelley G (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120206174952/http://www.bebr.ufl.edu/files/Comparing%20Two%20Methods%20for%20Estimating%20Network%20Size_0.pdf">"Comparing Two Methods for Estimating Network Size"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Human Organization</i>. <b>60</b>: <span class="nowrap">28–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17730%2Fhumo.60.1.efx5t9gjtgmga73y">10.17730/humo.60.1.efx5t9gjtgmga73y</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bebr.ufl.edu/files/Comparing%20Two%20Methods%20for%20Estimating%20Network%20Size_0.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Organization&rft.atitle=Comparing+Two+Methods+for+Estimating+Network+Size&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17730%2Fhumo.60.1.efx5t9gjtgmga73y&rft.aulast=McCarty&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Killworth%2C+PD&rft.au=Bernard%2C+HR&rft.au=Johnsen%2C+E&rft.au=Shelley%2C+G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bebr.ufl.edu%2Ffiles%2FComparing%2520Two%2520Methods%2520for%2520Estimating%2520Network%2520Size_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard,_H._RussellShelley,_Gene_AnnKillworth,_Peter1987" class="citation journal cs1">Bernard, H. Russell; Shelley, Gene Ann; Killworth, Peter (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304225438/http://nersp.nerdc.ufl.edu/~ufruss/documents/network%20dredging.pdf">"How Much of a Network does the GSS and RSW Dredge Up?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Social Networks</i>. <b>9</b>: <span class="nowrap">49–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-8733%2887%2990017-7">10.1016/0378-8733(87)90017-7</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nersp.nerdc.ufl.edu/~ufruss/documents/network%20dredging.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Networks&rft.atitle=How+Much+of+a+Network+does+the+GSS+and+RSW+Dredge+Up%3F&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0378-8733%2887%2990017-7&rft.au=Bernard%2C+H.+Russell&rft.au=Shelley%2C+Gene+Ann&rft.au=Killworth%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnersp.nerdc.ufl.edu%2F~ufruss%2Fdocuments%2Fnetwork%2520dredging.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">How the body shapes the way we think: A new view of intelligence, Rolf Pfeifer, Josh Bongard</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Micromonsters, David Attenborough 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChittkaNiven2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chittka L, Niven J (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2009.08.023">"Are bigger brains better?"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>19</b> (21): <span class="nowrap">R995 –</span> <span class="nowrap">R1008</span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009CBio...19.R995C">2009CBio...19.R995C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2009.08.023">10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.023</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19922859">19922859</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7247082">7247082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Are+bigger+brains+better%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ER995+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ER1008%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2009-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2009.08.023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7247082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19922859&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009CBio...19.R995C&rft.aulast=Chittka&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Niven%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2009.08.023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHölldoblerWilson2008" class="citation book cs1">Hölldobler B, Wilson E (17 November 2008). <i>The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies</i>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393067040" title="Special:BookSources/9780393067040"><bdi>9780393067040</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Superorganism%3A+The+Beauty%2C+Elegance%2C+and+Strangeness+of+Insect+Societies&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2008-11-17&rft.isbn=9780393067040&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6lldobler&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Wilson%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosta2006" class="citation book cs1">Costa J (30 September 2006). <i>The Other Insect Societies</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674021631" title="Special:BookSources/9780674021631"><bdi>9780674021631</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Insect+Societies&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006-09-30&rft.isbn=9780674021631&rft.aulast=Costa&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuerrieriNehringJørgensenNielsen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Guerrieri FJ, Nehring V, Jørgensen CG, Nielsen J, Galizia CG, d'Ettorre P (July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2690455">"Ants recognize foes and not friends"</a>. <i>Proceedings. Biological Sciences</i>. <b>276</b> (1666): <span class="nowrap">2461–</span>2468. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2008.1860">10.1098/rspb.2008.1860</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2690455">2690455</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19364750">19364750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings.+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Ants+recognize+foes+and+not+friends&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1666&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2461-%3C%2Fspan%3E2468&rft.date=2009-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2690455%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19364750&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2008.1860&rft.aulast=Guerrieri&rft.aufirst=FJ&rft.au=Nehring%2C+V&rft.au=J%C3%B8rgensen%2C+CG&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+J&rft.au=Galizia%2C+CG&rft.au=d%27Ettorre%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2690455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosd'Ettorre2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bos N, d'Ettorre P (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3309994">"Recognition of social identity in ants"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. <b>3</b>: 83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2012.00083">10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00083</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3309994">3309994</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22461777">22461777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=Recognition+of+social+identity+in+ants&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=83&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3309994%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22461777&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2012.00083&rft.aulast=Bos&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=d%27Ettorre%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3309994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeeley2010" class="citation book cs1">Seeley TD (2010). <i>Honeybee democracy</i>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691147215" title="Special:BookSources/9780691147215"><bdi>9780691147215</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Honeybee+democracy&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780691147215&rft.aulast=Seeley&rft.aufirst=TD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_SchaikIslerBurkart2012" class="citation journal cs1">van Schaik CP, Isler K, Burkart JM (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/65158/1/Explaining_brain_size_CvS_etal_2012.pdf">"Explaining brain size variation: from social to cultural brain"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>16</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">277–</span>284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2012.04.004">10.1016/j.tics.2012.04.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22513173">22513173</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3387019">3387019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Explaining+brain+size+variation%3A+from+social+to+cultural+brain&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E284&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3387019%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22513173&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2012.04.004&rft.aulast=van+Schaik&rft.aufirst=CP&rft.au=Isler%2C+K&rft.au=Burkart%2C+JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zora.uzh.ch%2Fid%2Feprint%2F65158%2F1%2FExplaining_brain_size_CvS_etal_2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuthukrishnaDoebeliChudekHenrich2018" class="citation journal cs1">Muthukrishna M, Doebeli M, Chudek M, Henrich J (November 2018). Tarnita CE (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6224031">"The Cultural Brain Hypothesis: How culture drives brain expansion, sociality, and life history"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. <b>14</b> (11): e1006504. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PLSCB..14E6504M">2018PLSCB..14E6504M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1006504">10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006504</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6224031">6224031</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30408028">30408028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Computational+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Cultural+Brain+Hypothesis%3A+How+culture+drives+brain+expansion%2C+sociality%2C+and+life+history&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e1006504&rft.date=2018-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6224031%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30408028&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1006504&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018PLSCB..14E6504M&rft.aulast=Muthukrishna&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Doebeli%2C+M&rft.au=Chudek%2C+M&rft.au=Henrich%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6224031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_SchaikBurkart2011" class="citation journal cs1">van Schaik CP, Burkart JM (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3049085">"Social learning and evolution: the cultural intelligence hypothesis"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>366</b> (1567): <span class="nowrap">1008–</span>1016. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0304">10.1098/rstb.2010.0304</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3049085">3049085</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21357223">21357223</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Social+learning+and+evolution%3A+the+cultural+intelligence+hypothesis&rft.volume=366&rft.issue=1567&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1008-%3C%2Fspan%3E1016&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3049085%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21357223&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0304&rft.aulast=van+Schaik&rft.aufirst=CP&rft.au=Burkart%2C+JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3049085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenrich2016" class="citation book cs1">Henrich JP (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1096377221"><i>The Secret of Our Success: How Culture is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16685-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16685-8"><bdi>978-0-691-16685-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1096377221">1096377221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+of+Our+Success%3A+How+Culture+is+Driving+Human+Evolution%2C+Domesticating+Our+Species%2C+and+Making+Us+Smarter&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1096377221&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16685-8&rft.aulast=Henrich&rft.aufirst=JP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1096377221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothDicke2005" class="citation journal cs1">Roth G, Dicke U (May 2005). "Evolution of the brain and intelligence". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>9</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">250–</span>257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.03.005">10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15866152">15866152</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14758763">14758763</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+brain+and+intelligence&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E257&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14758763%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15866152&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.03.005&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Dicke%2C+U&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuss2015" class="citation book cs1">Buss DM (2015). <i>Handbook of evolutionary psychology, volume 2</i>. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">749–</span>769. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118755853" title="Special:BookSources/9781118755853"><bdi>9781118755853</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+evolutionary+psychology%2C+volume+2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E749-%3C%2Fspan%3E769&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781118755853&rft.aulast=Buss&rft.aufirst=DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaland1992" class="citation journal cs1">Laland KN (1 March 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095%2892%2990020-5">"A theoretical investigation of the role of social transmission in evolution"</a>. <i>Ethology and Sociobiology</i>. <b>13</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">87–</span>113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0162-3095%2892%2990020-5">10.1016/0162-3095(92)90020-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0162-3095">0162-3095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethology+and+Sociobiology&rft.atitle=A+theoretical+investigation+of+the+role+of+social+transmission+in+evolution&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E113&rft.date=1992-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0162-3095%2892%2990020-5&rft.issn=0162-3095&rft.aulast=Laland&rft.aufirst=KN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1016%2F0162-3095%252892%252990020-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenrich2011" class="citation journal cs1">Henrich J (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e519392012-002">"A cultural species: How culture drove human evolution"</a>. <i>PsycEXTRA Dataset</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fe519392012-002">10.1037/e519392012-002</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PsycEXTRA+Dataset&rft.atitle=A+cultural+species%3A+How+culture+drove+human+evolution&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fe519392012-002&rft.aulast=Henrich&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1037%2Fe519392012-002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunbar1998" class="citation journal cs1">Dunbar RI (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291520-6505%281998%296%3A5%3C178%3A%3AAID-EVAN5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-8">"The social brain hypothesis"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews</i>. <b>6</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">178–</span>190. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291520-6505%281998%296%3A5%3C178%3A%3AAID-EVAN5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-8">10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<178::AID-EVAN5>3.0.CO;2-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1520-6505">1520-6505</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9555943">9555943</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Anthropology%3A+Issues%2C+News%2C+and+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+social+brain+hypothesis&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E178-%3C%2Fspan%3E190&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9555943%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1520-6505&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28SICI%291520-6505%281998%296%3A5%3C178%3A%3AAID-EVAN5%3E3.0.CO%3B2-8&rft.aulast=Dunbar&rft.aufirst=RI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2F%2528SICI%25291520-6505%25281998%25296%253A5%253C178%253A%253AAID-EVAN5%253E3.0.CO%253B2-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrmannCallHernàndez-LloredaHare2007" class="citation journal cs1">Herrmann E, Call J, Hernàndez-Lloreda MV, Hare B, Tomasello M (September 2007). "Humans have evolved specialized skills of social cognition: the cultural intelligence hypothesis". <i>Science</i>. <b>317</b> (5843): <span class="nowrap">1360–</span>1366. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...317.1360H">2007Sci...317.1360H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1146282">10.1126/science.1146282</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17823346">17823346</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:686663">686663</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Humans+have+evolved+specialized+skills+of+social+cognition%3A+the+cultural+intelligence+hypothesis&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5843&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1360-%3C%2Fspan%3E1366&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1146282&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A686663%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17823346&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...317.1360H&rft.aulast=Herrmann&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Call%2C+J&rft.au=Hern%C3%A0ndez-Lloreda%2C+MV&rft.au=Hare%2C+B&rft.au=Tomasello%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGariépyWatsonDuXie2014" class="citation journal cs1">Gariépy JF, Watson KK, Du E, Xie DL, Erb J, Amasino D, Platt ML (31 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3982061">"Social learning in humans and other animals"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Neuroscience</i>. <b>8</b>: 58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnins.2014.00058">10.3389/fnins.2014.00058</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3982061">3982061</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24765063">24765063</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Social+learning+in+humans+and+other+animals&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=58&rft.date=2014-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3982061%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24765063&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnins.2014.00058&rft.aulast=Gari%C3%A9py&rft.aufirst=JF&rft.au=Watson%2C+KK&rft.au=Du%2C+E&rft.au=Xie%2C+DL&rft.au=Erb%2C+J&rft.au=Amasino%2C+D&rft.au=Platt%2C+ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3982061&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulusHunniusBekkering2013" class="citation journal cs1">Paulus M, Hunnius S, Bekkering H (October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3791065">"Neurocognitive mechanisms underlying social learning in infancy: infants' neural processing of the effects of others' actions"</a>. <i>Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</i>. <b>8</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">774–</span>779. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fscan%2Fnss065">10.1093/scan/nss065</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3791065">3791065</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22689219">22689219</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Cognitive+and+Affective+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Neurocognitive+mechanisms+underlying+social+learning+in+infancy%3A+infants%27+neural+processing+of+the+effects+of+others%27+actions&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E774-%3C%2Fspan%3E779&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3791065%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22689219&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fscan%2Fnss065&rft.aulast=Paulus&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Hunnius%2C+S&rft.au=Bekkering%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3791065&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForssWillemsCallvan_Schaik2016" class="citation journal cs1">Forss SI, Willems E, Call J, van Schaik CP (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4964338">"Cognitive differences between orang-utan species: a test of the cultural intelligence hypothesis"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 30516. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatSR...630516F">2016NatSR...630516F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep30516">10.1038/srep30516</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4964338">4964338</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27466052">27466052</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Cognitive+differences+between+orang-utan+species%3A+a+test+of+the+cultural+intelligence+hypothesis&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30516&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4964338%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27466052&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep30516&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatSR...630516F&rft.aulast=Forss&rft.aufirst=SI&rft.au=Willems%2C+E&rft.au=Call%2C+J&rft.au=van+Schaik%2C+CP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4964338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoll2018" class="citation journal cs1">Moll H (1 March 2018). "The Transformative Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis: Evidence from Young Children's Problem-Solving". <i>Review of Philosophy and Psychology</i>. <b>9</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">161–</span>175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13164-017-0342-7">10.1007/s13164-017-0342-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1878-5166">1878-5166</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39117653">39117653</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Philosophy+and+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+Transformative+Cultural+Intelligence+Hypothesis%3A+Evidence+from+Young+Children%27s+Problem-Solving&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E161-%3C%2Fspan%3E175&rft.date=2018-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39117653%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1878-5166&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13164-017-0342-7&rft.aulast=Moll&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eccles,_John_C._1989-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eccles,_John_C._1989_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eccles,_John_C._1989_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eccles, John C. (1989). Evolution of the Brain: Creation of the Self. Foreword by Carl Popper. London: Routledge <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415032247" title="Special:BookSources/9780415032247">9780415032247</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Waal,_Frans_B._M._1989-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waal,_Frans_B._M._1989_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waal,_Frans_B._M._1989_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">de Waal, Frans B. M. (1989). Peacemaking among primates. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674659216" title="Special:BookSources/9780674659216">9780674659216</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belyaev-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Belyaev_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Belyaev, D. K. 1984. "Foxes" pp. 211-214. In Mason I. L. ed., <i>Evolution of Domesticated Animals</i>. Prentice Hall Press.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582460468" title="Special:BookSources/0582460468">0582460468</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trut,_L._N.,_Plyusnina,_I.,_&_Oskina,_I._N._2004_pp._644-655-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trut,_L._N.,_Plyusnina,_I.,_&_Oskina,_I._N._2004_pp._644-655_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrutPlyusninaOskina2004" class="citation journal cs1">Trut LN, Plyusnina I, Oskina IN (2004). "An experiment on fox domestication and debattable issues of evolution of the dog". <i>Russian Journal of Genetics</i>. <b>40</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">644–</span>655. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3ARUGE.0000033312.92773.c1">10.1023/B:RUGE.0000033312.92773.c1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19741949">19741949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Journal+of+Genetics&rft.atitle=An+experiment+on+fox+domestication+and+debattable+issues+of+evolution+of+the+dog&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E644-%3C%2Fspan%3E655&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FB%3ARUGE.0000033312.92773.c1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19741949%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Trut&rft.aufirst=LN&rft.au=Plyusnina%2C+I&rft.au=Oskina%2C+IN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/ethology.htm">"ETHOLOGY"</a>. <i>www.indiana.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.indiana.edu&rft.atitle=ETHOLOGY&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiana.edu%2F~p1013447%2Fdictionary%2Fethology.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brothers,_L.,_Ring,_B.,_&_Kling,_A._1990_pp._199-213-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brothers,_L.,_Ring,_B.,_&_Kling,_A._1990_pp._199-213_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrothersRingKling1990" class="citation journal cs1">Brothers L, Ring B, Kling A (December 1990). "Response of neurons in the macaque amygdala to complex social stimuli". <i>Behavioural Brain Research</i>. <b>41</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">199–</span>213. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0166-4328%2890%2990108-Q">10.1016/0166-4328(90)90108-Q</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2288672">2288672</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4023773">4023773</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioural+Brain+Research&rft.atitle=Response+of+neurons+in+the+macaque+amygdala+to+complex+social+stimuli&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E213&rft.date=1990-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4023773%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2288672&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0166-4328%2890%2990108-Q&rft.aulast=Brothers&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Ring%2C+B&rft.au=Kling%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brothers,_L.,_&_Ring,_B._1993_pp._53-61-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brothers,_L.,_&_Ring,_B._1993_pp._53-61_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrothersRing1993" class="citation journal cs1">Brothers L, Ring B (October 1993). "Mesial temporal neurons in the macaque monkey with responses selective for aspects of social stimuli". <i>Behavioural Brain Research</i>. <b>57</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">53–</span>61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0166-4328%2893%2990061-T">10.1016/0166-4328(93)90061-T</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8292255">8292255</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4014644">4014644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioural+Brain+Research&rft.atitle=Mesial+temporal+neurons+in+the+macaque+monkey+with+responses+selective+for+aspects+of+social+stimuli&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&rft.date=1993-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4014644%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8292255&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0166-4328%2893%2990061-T&rft.aulast=Brothers&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Ring%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hare,_B.,_Wobber,_V.,_&_Wrangham,_R._2012_pp._573-585-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hare,_B.,_Wobber,_V.,_&_Wrangham,_R._2012_pp._573-585_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHareWobberWrangham2012" class="citation journal cs1">Hare B, Wobber V, Wrangham R (2012). "The self-domestication hypothesis: evolution of bonobo psychology is due to selection against aggression". <i>Animal Behaviour</i>. <b>83</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">573–</span>585. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.anbehav.2011.12.007">10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.12.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3415520">3415520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animal+Behaviour&rft.atitle=The+self-domestication+hypothesis%3A+evolution+of+bonobo+psychology+is+due+to+selection+against+aggression&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E573-%3C%2Fspan%3E585&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.anbehav.2011.12.007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3415520%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hare&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Wobber%2C+V&rft.au=Wrangham%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osadschuk-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Osadschuk_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osadschuk, L. V. 1997. "Effects of domestication on the adrenal cortisol production of silver foxes during embryonic development ". In In L. N. Trut and L. V. Osadschuk eds., <i>Evolutionary-Genetic and Genetic-Physiological Aspects of Fur Animal Domestication</i>. Oslo: Scientifur.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0105-2403">0105-2403</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trut,_L._N.,_Oskina,_I._N._&_Kharlamova,_A._2009_pp._349-360-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trut,_L._N.,_Oskina,_I._N._&_Kharlamova,_A._2009_pp._349-360_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrutOskinaKharlamova2009" class="citation journal cs1">Trut L, Oskina I, Kharlamova A (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763232">"Animal evolution during domestication: the domesticated fox as a model"</a>. <i>BioEssays</i>. <b>31</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">349–</span>360. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.200800070">10.1002/bies.200800070</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763232">2763232</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19260016">19260016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioEssays&rft.atitle=Animal+evolution+during+domestication%3A+the+domesticated+fox+as+a+model&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E349-%3C%2Fspan%3E360&rft.date=2009-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763232%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19260016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbies.200800070&rft.aulast=Trut&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Oskina%2C+I&rft.au=Kharlamova%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2763232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Künzl,_C.,_&_Sachser,_N._1999_pp._28-37-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Künzl,_C.,_&_Sachser,_N._1999_pp._28-37_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKünzlSachser1999" class="citation journal cs1">Künzl C, Sachser N (February 1999). "The behavioral endocrinology of domestication: A comparison between the domestic guinea pig (Cavia aperea f. porcellus) and its wild ancestor, the cavy (Cavia aperea)". <i>Hormones and Behavior</i>. <b>35</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">28–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhbeh.1998.1493">10.1006/hbeh.1998.1493</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10049600">10049600</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33327158">33327158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hormones+and+Behavior&rft.atitle=The+behavioral+endocrinology+of+domestication%3A+A+comparison+between+the+domestic+guinea+pig+%28Cavia+aperea+f.+porcellus%29+and+its+wild+ancestor%2C+the+cavy+%28Cavia+aperea%29&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=1999-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33327158%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10049600&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fhbeh.1998.1493&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCnzl&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Sachser%2C+N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertShchepinaWinterRömpler2008" class="citation journal cs1">Albert FW, Shchepina O, Winter C, Römpler H, Teupser D, Palme R, et al. (March 2008). "Phenotypic differences in behavior, physiology and neurochemistry between rats selected for tameness and for defensive aggression towards humans". <i>Hormones and Behavior</i>. <b>53</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">413–</span>421. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yhbeh.2007.11.010">10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.11.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18177873">18177873</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4609177">4609177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hormones+and+Behavior&rft.atitle=Phenotypic+differences+in+behavior%2C+physiology+and+neurochemistry+between+rats+selected+for+tameness+and+for+defensive+aggression+towards+humans&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E413-%3C%2Fspan%3E421&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4609177%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18177873&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.yhbeh.2007.11.010&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=FW&rft.au=Shchepina%2C+O&rft.au=Winter%2C+C&rft.au=R%C3%B6mpler%2C+H&rft.au=Teupser%2C+D&rft.au=Palme%2C+R&rft.au=Ceglarek%2C+U&rft.au=Kratzsch%2C+J&rft.au=Sohr%2C+R&rft.au=Trut%2C+LN&rft.au=Thiery%2C+J&rft.au=Morgenstern%2C+R&rft.au=Plyusnina%2C+IZ&rft.au=Sch%C3%B6neberg%2C+T&rft.au=P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carter-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carter_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter2014" class="citation journal cs1">Carter CS (2014). "Oxytocin pathways and the evolution of human behavior". <i>Annual Review of Psychology</i>. <b>65</b>: <span class="nowrap">17–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-010213-115110">10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115110</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24050183">24050183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&rft.atitle=Oxytocin+pathways+and+the+evolution+of+human+behavior&rft.volume=65&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-psych-010213-115110&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24050183&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=CS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nelson,_E.,_&_Panksepp,_J._1998_pp._437-452-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nelson,_E.,_&_Panksepp,_J._1998_pp._437-452_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelsonPanksepp1998" class="citation journal cs1">Nelson EE, Panksepp J (May 1998). "Brain substrates of infant-mother attachment: contributions of opioids, oxytocin, and norepinephrine". <i>Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews</i>. <b>22</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">437–</span>452. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0149-7634%2897%2900052-3">10.1016/S0149-7634(97)00052-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9579331">9579331</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14345053">14345053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+and+Biobehavioral+Reviews&rft.atitle=Brain+substrates+of+infant-mother+attachment%3A+contributions+of+opioids%2C+oxytocin%2C+and+norepinephrine&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E437-%3C%2Fspan%3E452&rft.date=1998-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14345053%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9579331&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0149-7634%2897%2900052-3&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=EE&rft.au=Panksepp%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Porges-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Porges_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorges2003" class="citation journal cs1">Porges SW (December 2003). "Social engagement and attachment: a phylogenetic perspective". <i>Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>1008</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">31–</span>47. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NYASA1008...31P">2003NYASA1008...31P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1196%2Fannals.1301.004">10.1196/annals.1301.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14998870">14998870</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1377353">1377353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Social+engagement+and+attachment%3A+a+phylogenetic+perspective&rft.volume=1008&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1196%2Fannals.1301.004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1377353%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14998870&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003NYASA1008...31P&rft.aulast=Porges&rft.aufirst=SW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsoukalas2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tsoukalas I (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40806-017-0112-x">"Theory of Mind: Towards an Evolutionary Theory"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Psychological Science</i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">38–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40806-017-0112-x">10.1007/s40806-017-0112-x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Theory+of+Mind%3A+Towards+an+Evolutionary+Theory&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs40806-017-0112-x&rft.aulast=Tsoukalas&rft.aufirst=I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs40806-017-0112-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CCwSs2TrvPwwSU8rDyUkvtLYAuYfylMD/view?usp=sharing">Pdf.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosmidesBarrettTooby2010" class="citation journal cs1">Cosmides L, Barrett HC, Tooby J (May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3024027">"Colloquium paper: adaptive specializations, social exchange, and the evolution of human intelligence"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>107</b> (Suppl 2): <span class="nowrap">9007–</span>9014. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107.9007C">2010PNAS..107.9007C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0914623107">10.1073/pnas.0914623107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3024027">3024027</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20445099">20445099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Colloquium+paper%3A+adaptive+specializations%2C+social+exchange%2C+and+the+evolution+of+human+intelligence&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=Suppl+2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9007-%3C%2Fspan%3E9014&rft.date=2010-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3024027%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20445099&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0914623107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107.9007C&rft.aulast=Cosmides&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Barrett%2C+HC&rft.au=Tooby%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3024027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanazawa2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Kanazawa" title="Satoshi Kanazawa">Kanazawa S</a> (April 2004). "General intelligence as a domain-specific adaptation". <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>111</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>: <span class="nowrap">512–</span>523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.111.2.512">10.1037/0033-295X.111.2.512</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15065920">15065920</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=General+intelligence+as+a+domain-specific+adaptation&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E512-%3C%2Fspan%3E523&rft.date=2004-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.111.2.512&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15065920&rft.aulast=Kanazawa&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kanazawa_2010a-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kanazawa_2010a_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanazawa2010" class="citation journal cs1">Kanazawa S (16 February 2010). "Why Liberals and Atheists Are More Intelligent". <i>Social Psychology Quarterly</i>. <b>73</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">33–</span>57. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.395.4490">10.1.1.395.4490</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0190272510361602">10.1177/0190272510361602</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-2725">0190-2725</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2642312">2642312</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Psychology+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Why+Liberals+and+Atheists+Are+More+Intelligent&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.date=2010-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.395.4490%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2642312%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0190-2725&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0190272510361602&rft.aulast=Kanazawa&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kanazawa_2010b-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kanazawa_2010b_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanazawa2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Kanazawa" title="Satoshi Kanazawa">Kanazawa S</a> (May–June 2010). "Evolutionary psychology and intelligence research". <i>The American Psychologist</i>. <b>65</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">279–</span>289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0019378">10.1037/a0019378</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20455621">20455621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+psychology+and+intelligence+research&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E279-%3C%2Fspan%3E289&rft.date=2010-05%2F2010-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0019378&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20455621&rft.aulast=Kanazawa&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorsboomDolan2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denny_Borsboom" title="Denny Borsboom">Borsboom D</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conor_Dolan" title="Conor Dolan">Dolan CV</a> (April 2006). "Why g is not an adaptation: a comment on Kanazawa (2004)". <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>113</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">433–</span>437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.113.2.433">10.1037/0033-295X.113.2.433</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16637768">16637768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Why+g+is+not+an+adaptation%3A+a+comment+on+Kanazawa+%282004%29&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E433-%3C%2Fspan%3E437&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.113.2.433&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16637768&rft.aulast=Borsboom&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Dolan%2C+CV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cosmides_&_Tooby_1992-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cosmides_&_Tooby_1992_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cosmides_&_Tooby_1992_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosmidesTooby1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leda_Cosmides" title="Leda Cosmides">Cosmides L</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Tooby" title="John Tooby">Tooby J</a> (1995) [1992]. "3. Cognitive Adaptations for Social Exchange". In <a href="/wiki/Jerome_H._Barkow" title="Jerome H. Barkow">Barkow JH</a>, Cosmides L, Tooby J (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Adapted_Mind" title="The Adapted Mind"><i>The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">179–</span>206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195101072" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195101072"><bdi>978-0195101072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.+Cognitive+Adaptations+for+Social+Exchange&rft.btitle=The+Adapted+Mind%3A+Evolutionary+Psychology+and+the+Generation+of+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E179-%3C%2Fspan%3E206&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0195101072&rft.aulast=Cosmides&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Tooby%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaufman_et_al._2010-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kaufman_et_al._2010_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmanDeYoungReisGray2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Scott_Barry_Kaufman" title="Scott Barry Kaufman">Kaufman SB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colin_G._DeYoung" title="Colin G. DeYoung">DeYoung CG</a>, Reis DL, Gray JR (May–June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Kaufman-DeYoung-Reis-Gray-2011.pdf">"General intelligence predicts reasoning ability even for evolutionarily familiar content"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_(journal)" title="Intelligence (journal)">Intelligence</a></i>. <b>39</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">311–</span>322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.intell.2011.05.002">10.1016/j.intell.2011.05.002</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intelligence&rft.atitle=General+intelligence+predicts+reasoning+ability+even+for+evolutionarily+familiar+content&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E311-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.date=2010-05%2F2010-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.intell.2011.05.002&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=SB&rft.au=DeYoung%2C+CG&rft.au=Reis%2C+DL&rft.au=Gray%2C+JR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscottbarrykaufman.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F08%2FKaufman-DeYoung-Reis-Gray-2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Scott_Barry_Kaufman" title="Scott Barry Kaufman">Kaufman SB</a> (2 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/201107/is-general-intelligence-compatible-evolutionary-psychology">"Is General Intelligence Compatible with Evolutionary Psychology?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Psychology_Today" title="Psychology Today">Psychology Today</a></i>. Sussex Publishers<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+Today&rft.atitle=Is+General+Intelligence+Compatible+with+Evolutionary+Psychology%3F&rft.date=2011-07-02&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=SB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Fblog%2Fbeautiful-minds%2F201107%2Fis-general-intelligence-compatible-evolutionary-psychology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWason1977" class="citation book cs1">Wason PC (1977). "Self-contradictions". In <a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird PN</a>, Wason PC (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thinking00ives"><i>Thinking: Readings in cognitive science</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521217569" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521217569"><bdi>978-0521217569</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Self-contradictions&rft.btitle=Thinking%3A+Readings+in+cognitive+science&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0521217569&rft.aulast=Wason&rft.aufirst=PC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthinking00ives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EvansNewstead1993-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EvansNewstead1993_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSt_EvansNewsteadByrne1993" class="citation book cs1">St Evans JB, Newstead SE, Byrne RM (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMhZ4dl1KcC"><i>Human Reasoning: The Psychology of Deduction</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86377-313-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86377-313-6"><bdi>978-0-86377-313-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Reasoning%3A+The+Psychology+of+Deduction&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-86377-313-6&rft.aulast=St+Evans&rft.aufirst=JB&rft.au=Newstead%2C+SE&rft.au=Byrne%2C+RM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiFMhZ4dl1KcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChengHolyoakNisbettOliver1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Cheng" title="Patricia Cheng">Cheng PW</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Holyoak" title="Keith Holyoak">Holyoak KJ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Nisbett RE</a>, Oliver LM (July 1986). "Pragmatic versus syntactic approaches to training deductive reasoning". <i>Cognitive Psychology</i>. <b>18</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>: <span class="nowrap">293–</span>328. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0285%2886%2990002-2">10.1016/0010-0285(86)90002-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F26121">2027.42/26121</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3742999">3742999</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10376933">10376933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Psychology&rft.atitle=Pragmatic+versus+syntactic+approaches+to+training+deductive+reasoning&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E293-%3C%2Fspan%3E328&rft.date=1986-07&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F26121&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10376933%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3742999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0010-0285%2886%2990002-2&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=PW&rft.au=Holyoak%2C+KJ&rft.au=Nisbett%2C+RE&rft.au=Oliver%2C+LM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosmidesTooby2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leda_Cosmides" title="Leda Cosmides">Cosmides L</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Tooby" title="John Tooby">Tooby J</a> (2005). "20. Neurocognitive Adaptations Designed for Social Exchange". In <a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">Buss DM</a> (ed.). <i>The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology</i> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Hoboken,_New_Jersey" title="Hoboken, New Jersey">Hoboken, NJ</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">600–</span>603. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471264033" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471264033"><bdi>978-0471264033</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=20.+Neurocognitive+Adaptations+Designed+for+Social+Exchange&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Evolutionary+Psychology&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E600-%3C%2Fspan%3E603&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0471264033&rft.aulast=Cosmides&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Tooby%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCosmidesTooby2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leda_Cosmides" title="Leda Cosmides">Cosmides L</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Tooby" title="John Tooby">Tooby J</a> (2016) [2005]. "25. Adaptations for Reasoning About Social Exchange". In <a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">Buss DM</a> (ed.). <i>The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Volume 2: Integrations</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Hoboken,_New_Jersey" title="Hoboken, New Jersey">Hoboken, NJ</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">625–</span>643. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118755808" title="Special:BookSources/978-1118755808"><bdi>978-1118755808</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=25.+Adaptations+for+Reasoning+About+Social+Exchange&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Evolutionary+Psychology%2C+Volume+2%3A+Integrations&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E625-%3C%2Fspan%3E643&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1118755808&rft.aulast=Cosmides&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Tooby%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowell1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell T</a> (1994). <i>Race and Culture: A World View</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">162–</span>165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465067978" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465067978"><bdi>978-0465067978</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Culture%3A+A+World+View&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E162-%3C%2Fspan%3E165&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0465067978&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSowell2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell T</a> (2013). <i>Intellectuals and Race</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">67–</span>69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465058723" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465058723"><bdi>978-0465058723</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectuals+and+Race&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0465058723&rft.aulast=Sowell&rft.aufirst=T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Earl_B._Hunt" title="Earl B. Hunt">Hunt, Earl</a> (2011). <i>Human Intelligence</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 447. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521707817" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521707817"><bdi>978-0521707817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=447&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0521707817&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Earl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNisbettAronsonDickensFlynn2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Nisbett" title="Richard E. Nisbett">Nisbett RE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Aronson" title="Joshua Aronson">Aronson J</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Dickens" title="William Dickens">Dickens W</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Flynn_(academic)" title="James Flynn (academic)">Flynn JR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clancy_Blair" title="Clancy Blair">Blair C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diane_F._Halpern" title="Diane F. Halpern">Halpern DF</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Turkheimer" title="Eric Turkheimer">Turkheimer E</a> (2012). "Intelligence: New Findings and Theoretical Developments". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Psychologist" title="American Psychologist">American Psychologist</a></i>. <b>67</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a>: <span class="nowrap">130–</span>159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0026699">10.1037/a0026699</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22233090">22233090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Psychologist&rft.atitle=Intelligence%3A+New+Findings+and+Theoretical+Developments&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E130-%3C%2Fspan%3E159&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0026699&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22233090&rft.aulast=Nisbett&rft.aufirst=RE&rft.au=Aronson%2C+J&rft.au=Dickens%2C+W&rft.au=Flynn%2C+JR&rft.au=Blair%2C+C&rft.au=Halpern%2C+DF&rft.au=Turkheimer%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_82-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Miller_(evolutionary_psychologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Miller (evolutionary psychologist)">Miller G</a> (2008). <a href="/wiki/The_Mating_Mind" title="The Mating Mind"><i>The Mating Mind</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-5749-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-5749-8"><bdi>978-0-8058-5749-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mating+Mind&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-5749-8&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDutton2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denis_Dutton" title="Denis Dutton">Dutton D</a> (2009). <i>The Art Instinct: Beauty, Pleasure, and Human Evolution</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">135–</span>163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1596914018" title="Special:BookSources/978-1596914018"><bdi>978-1596914018</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+Instinct%3A+Beauty%2C+Pleasure%2C+and+Human+Evolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E135-%3C%2Fspan%3E163&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1596914018&rft.aulast=Dutton&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNesseWilliams1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randolph_M._Nesse" title="Randolph M. Nesse">Nesse R</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Christopher_Williams" title="George Christopher Williams">Williams GC</a> (1994). <i>Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Vintage_Books" title="Vintage Books">Vintage Books</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">209–</span>212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0679746744" title="Special:BookSources/978-0679746744"><bdi>978-0679746744</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+We+Get+Sick%3A+The+New+Science+of+Darwinian+Medicine&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E209-%3C%2Fspan%3E212&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0679746744&rft.aulast=Nesse&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Williams%2C+GC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuss2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">Buss DM</a> (2016) [1994]. <a href="/wiki/The_Evolution_of_Desire" title="The Evolution of Desire"><i>The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating</i></a> (3rd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">189–</span>221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465097760" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465097760"><bdi>978-0465097760</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Desire%3A+Strategies+of+Human+Mating&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E221&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0465097760&rft.aulast=Buss&rft.aufirst=DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuss2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">Buss DM</a> (2011) [2000]. <i>The Dangerous Passion: Why Jealousy Is as Necessary as Love and Sex</i> (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1451673135" title="Special:BookSources/978-1451673135"><bdi>978-1451673135</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dangerous+Passion%3A+Why+Jealousy+Is+as+Necessary+as+Love+and+Sex&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1451673135&rft.aulast=Buss&rft.aufirst=DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Brown_(anthropologist)" title="Donald Brown (anthropologist)">Brown DE</a> (1991). <i>Human Universals</i>. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">PA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Temple_University_Press" title="Temple University Press">Temple University Press</a>. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0877228417" title="Special:BookSources/978-0877228417"><bdi>978-0877228417</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Universals&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0877228417&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=DE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinker2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker S</a> (2016) [2002]. <a href="/wiki/The_Blank_Slate" title="The Blank Slate"><i>The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature</i></a> (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. 457. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0142003343" title="Special:BookSources/978-0142003343"><bdi>978-0142003343</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blank+Slate%3A+The+Modern+Denial+of+Human+Nature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=457&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0142003343&rft.aulast=Pinker&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuss1989" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Buss" title="David Buss">Buss DM</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00023992">"Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_and_Brain_Sciences" title="Behavioral and Brain Sciences">Behavioral and Brain Sciences</a></i>. <b>12</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00023992">10.1017/S0140525X00023992</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Sex+differences+in+human+mate+preferences%3A+Evolutionary+hypotheses+tested+in+37+cultures&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00023992&rft.aulast=Buss&rft.aufirst=DM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0140525X00023992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buss_1992-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buss_1992_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuss1995" class="citation book cs1">Buss DM (1995) [1992]. "5. Mate Preference Mechanisms: Consequences for Partner Choice and Intrasexual Competition". In Barkow JH, Cosmides L, Tooby J (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Adapted_Mind" title="The Adapted Mind"><i>The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">253–</span>256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195101072" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195101072"><bdi>978-0195101072</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5.+Mate+Preference+Mechanisms%3A+Consequences+for+Partner+Choice+and+Intrasexual+Competition&rft.btitle=The+Adapted+Mind%3A+Evolutionary+Psychology+and+the+Generation+of+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E253-%3C%2Fspan%3E256&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0195101072&rft.aulast=Buss&rft.aufirst=DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Miller_(psychologist)" title="Geoffrey Miller (psychologist)">Miller GF</a> (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/matingmind00geof"><i>The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">292–</span>340. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385495165" title="Special:BookSources/978-0385495165"><bdi>978-0385495165</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mating+Mind%3A+How+Sexual+Choice+Shaped+the+Evolution+of+Human+Nature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E292-%3C%2Fspan%3E340&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0385495165&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=GF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmatingmind00geof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-West-Eberhard_1975-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-West-Eberhard_1975_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest-Eberhard1975" class="citation journal cs1">West-Eberhard MJ (1975). "The Evolution of Social Behavior by Kin Selection". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Quarterly_Review_of_Biology" title="The Quarterly Review of Biology">The Quarterly Review of Biology</a></i>. <b>50</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F408298">10.1086/408298</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2821184">2821184</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14459515">14459515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Social+Behavior+by+Kin+Selection&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14459515%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2821184%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F408298&rft.aulast=West-Eberhard&rft.aufirst=MJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-West-Eberhard_1979-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-West-Eberhard_1979_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest-Eberhard1979" class="citation journal cs1">West-Eberhard MJ (1979). "Sexual Selection, Social Competition, and Evolution". <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" title="Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society">Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</a></i>. <b>123</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>: <span class="nowrap">222–</span>34. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/986582">986582</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Sexual+Selection%2C+Social+Competition%2C+and+Evolution&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E222-%3C%2Fspan%3E34&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F986582%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=West-Eberhard&rft.aufirst=MJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-West-Eberhard_1983-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-West-Eberhard_1983_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest-Eberhard1983" class="citation journal cs1">West-Eberhard MJ (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/413215">"Sexual Selection, Social Competition, and Speciation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Review_of_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarterly Review of Biology">Quarterly Review of Biology</a></i>. <b>58</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">155–</span>183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F413215">10.1086/413215</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2828804">2828804</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54711556">54711556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.atitle=Sexual+Selection%2C+Social+Competition%2C+and+Speciation&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E155-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54711556%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2828804%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F413215&rft.aulast=West-Eberhard&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1086%2F413215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyonMontgomerie2012" class="citation journal cs1">Lyon BE, Montgomerie R (August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3391428">"Sexual selection is a form of social selection"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>367</b> (1600). <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>: <span class="nowrap">2266–</span>2273. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2012.0012">10.1098/rstb.2012.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3391428">3391428</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22777015">22777015</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Sexual+selection+is+a+form+of+social+selection&rft.volume=367&rft.issue=1600&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2266-%3C%2Fspan%3E2273&rft.date=2012-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3391428%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22777015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2012.0012&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=BE&rft.au=Montgomerie%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3391428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-West-Eberhard_2014-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-West-Eberhard_2014_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest-Eberhard2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">West-Eberhard MJ (October 2014). "Darwin's forgotten idea: the social essence of sexual selection". <i>Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews</i>. 46 Pt 4 (4). <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>: <span class="nowrap">501–</span>508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2014.06.015">10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.06.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25003806">25003806</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1604935">1604935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+and+Biobehavioral+Reviews&rft.atitle=Darwin%27s+forgotten+idea%3A+the+social+essence+of+sexual+selection&rft.volume=46+Pt+4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E501-%3C%2Fspan%3E508&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1604935%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25003806&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2014.06.015&rft.aulast=West-Eberhard&rft.aufirst=MJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nesse_2019_pp._172–76-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nesse_2019_pp._172–76_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNesse2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randolph_M._Nesse" title="Randolph M. Nesse">Nesse R</a> (2019). <i>Good Reasons for Bad Feelings: Insights from the Frontier of Evolutionary Psychiatry</i>. <a href="/wiki/Dutton_(imprint)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutton (imprint)">Dutton</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">172–</span>176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1101985663" title="Special:BookSources/978-1101985663"><bdi>978-1101985663</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Good+Reasons+for+Bad+Feelings%3A+Insights+from+the+Frontier+of+Evolutionary+Psychiatry&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E172-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1101985663&rft.aulast=Nesse&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoehm1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Boehm" title="Christopher Boehm">Boehm C</a> (September 1999). "The natural selection of altruistic traits". <i>Human Nature</i>. <b>10</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>: <span class="nowrap">205–</span>252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12110-999-1003-z">10.1007/s12110-999-1003-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26196335">26196335</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207392341">207392341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Nature&rft.atitle=The+natural+selection+of+altruistic+traits&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E252&rft.date=1999-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207392341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26196335&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12110-999-1003-z&rft.aulast=Boehm&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoehm2001" class="citation book cs1">Boehm C (2001) [1999]. <i>Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior</i> (Revised ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, MA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674006911" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674006911"><bdi>978-0674006911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hierarchy+in+the+Forest%3A+The+Evolution+of+Egalitarian+Behavior&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0674006911&rft.aulast=Boehm&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nesse_2007-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nesse_2007_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNesse2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randolph_M._Nesse" title="Randolph M. Nesse">Nesse RM</a> (2007). "Runaway social selection for displays of partner value and altruism". <i><a href="/wiki/Biological_Theory_(journal)" title="Biological Theory (journal)">Biological Theory</a></i>. <b>2</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>: <span class="nowrap">143–</span>55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fbiot.2007.2.2.143">10.1162/biot.2007.2.2.143</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:195097363">195097363</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Theory&rft.atitle=Runaway+social+selection+for+displays+of+partner+value+and+altruism&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E143-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fbiot.2007.2.2.143&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A195097363%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nesse&rft.aufirst=RM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nesse_2009-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nesse_2009_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNesse2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randolph_M._Nesse" title="Randolph M. Nesse">Nesse RM</a> (2009). "10. Social Selection and the Origins of Culture". In <a href="/wiki/Mark_Schaller" title="Mark Schaller">Schaller M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Heine_(psychologist)" title="Steven Heine (psychologist)">Heine SJ</a>, Norenzayan A, Yamagishi T, Kameda T (eds.). <i>Evolution, Culture, and the Human Mind</i>. Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">137–</span>50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805859119" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805859119"><bdi>978-0805859119</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.+Social+Selection+and+the+Origins+of+Culture&rft.btitle=Evolution%2C+Culture%2C+and+the+Human+Mind&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0805859119&rft.aulast=Nesse&rft.aufirst=RM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoehm,_C2012" class="citation book cs1">Boehm, C (2012). <i>Moral Origins: Social Selection and the Evolution of Virtue, Altruism, and Shame</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465020485" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465020485"><bdi>978-0465020485</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Origins%3A+Social+Selection+and+the+Evolution+of+Virtue%2C+Altruism%2C+and+Shame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0465020485&rft.au=Boehm%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoehm2014" class="citation journal cs1">Boehm C (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/151/2-3/article-p167_4.xml">"The moral consequences of social selection"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Behaviour_(journal)" title="Behaviour (journal)">Behaviour</a></i>. <b>151</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3). <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>: <span class="nowrap">167–</span>183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568539X-00003143">10.1163/1568539X-00003143</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behaviour&rft.atitle=The+moral+consequences+of+social+selection&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E167-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1568539X-00003143&rft.aulast=Boehm&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fbeh%2F151%2F2-3%2Farticle-p167_4.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones,_Ian_L.Hunter,_Fiona_M.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Ian L.; Hunter, Fiona M. (1993). "Mutual sexual selection in a monogamous seabird". <i>Nature</i>. <b>362</b> (6417): <span class="nowrap">238–</span>239. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Natur.362..238J">1993Natur.362..238J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F362238a0">10.1038/362238a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4254675">4254675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Mutual+sexual+selection+in+a+monogamous+seabird&rft.volume=362&rft.issue=6417&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E238-%3C%2Fspan%3E239&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4254675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F362238a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993Natur.362..238J&rft.au=Jones%2C+Ian+L.&rft.au=Hunter%2C+Fiona+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ngtMd5YoWi4C&q=great+ape+breast+tissue&pg=PA51">"Heredity and Society". Author Ian Porter. 1972. Page 51.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Evolution of Intelligence; Robert J. Sternberg, James C. Kaufman, 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The First Idea: How Symbols, Language, and Intelligence Evolved from Our Primate Ancestors to Modern Humans; Stanley I. Greenspan, Stuart Shanker, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-olness-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-olness_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlness2003" class="citation journal cs1">Olness K (April 2003). "Effects on brain development leading to cognitive impairment: a worldwide epidemic". <i>Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics</i>. <b>24</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">120–</span>130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00004703-200304000-00009">10.1097/00004703-200304000-00009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12692458">12692458</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31999992">31999992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Developmental+and+Behavioral+Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Effects+on+brain+development+leading+to+cognitive+impairment%3A+a+worldwide+epidemic&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E120-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=2003-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31999992%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12692458&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00004703-200304000-00009&rft.aulast=Olness&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-flinn-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-flinn_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlinn,_M._V.Geary,_D._C.Ward,_C._V.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Flinn, M. V.; Geary, D. C.; Ward, C. V. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070604224126/http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/Flinnetal2005.pdf">"Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Evolution and Human Behavior</i>. <b>26</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">10–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EHumB..26...10F">2005EHumB..26...10F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.evolhumbehav.2004.08.005">10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.08.005</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.missouri.edu/~gearyd/Flinnetal2005.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolution+and+Human+Behavior&rft.atitle=Ecological+dominance%2C+social+competition%2C+and+coalitionary+arms+races%3A+Why+humans+evolved+extraordinary+intelligence&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.evolhumbehav.2004.08.005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005EHumB..26...10F&rft.au=Flinn%2C+M.+V.&rft.au=Geary%2C+D.+C.&rft.au=Ward%2C+C.+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.missouri.edu%2F~gearyd%2FFlinnetal2005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isler-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isler_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIslervan_Schaik2006" class="citation journal cs1">Isler K, van Schaik CP (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1834002">"Metabolic costs of brain size evolution"</a>. <i>Biology Letters</i>. <b>2</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">557–</span>560. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2006.0538">10.1098/rsbl.2006.0538</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1834002">1834002</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17148287">17148287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Letters&rft.atitle=Metabolic+costs+of+brain+size+evolution&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E557-%3C%2Fspan%3E560&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1834002%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17148287&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2006.0538&rft.aulast=Isler&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=van+Schaik%2C+CP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1834002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOssorio2011" class="citation book cs1">Ossorio PN (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OVg4AAAAQBAJ">"Chapter 9: Myth and Mystification: The Science of Race and IQ"</a>. In Krimsky S, Sloan K (eds.). <i>Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture</i>. Columbia University Press. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52769-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-52769-9"><bdi>978-0-231-52769-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 August</span> 2013</span>. <q>Since 2005, other researchers have evaluated the same data on MCHPI and ASPM, plus some additional data, and concluded that there is no evidence that these genes have been under natural selection in modern humans. These reanalyses undercut the idea that the particular variants found at high frequency among people of European descent somehow made Europeans better adapted for modern civilization. Additional studies have discovered that the MCHPI and ASPM variants reported in the 2005 papers do not correlate with larger (or smaller) than average head size. The genes were originally described as having to do with head size because some variants of these genes can cause microcephaly (extremely small heads that lack major portions of the brain). However, those microcephaly-causing variants were not included in the studies published in 2005. Finally, several research groups have tried and failed to show any correlation between the variants described in the 2005 papers and IQ reading abilities, or verbal abilities. (citing "Comment on 'Ongoing Adaptive Evolution of ASPM, a Brain Size Determinant in <i>Homo sapiens</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span> and 'Microcephalin, a Gene Regulating Brain Size Continues to Evolve Adaptively in Humans", <i>Science</i> 313 (2006): 172 (a); F.Yu, S.R.Hill, S.F. Schaffner, et al., "Comment on 'Ongoing Adaptive Evolution of ASPM, a Brain Size Determinant in <i>Homo sapiens</i><span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>", <i>Science</i> 316 (2007): 370 (b). )</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+Myth+and+Mystification%3A+The+Science+of+Race+and+IQ&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Genetic+Revolution%3A+Science%2C+Myth%2C+and+Culture&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-231-52769-9&rft.aulast=Ossorio&rft.aufirst=PN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOVg4AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlugCummingsSpencerPalladino2012" class="citation book cs1">Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA (2012). <i>Concepts of Genetics</i> (Tenth ed.). Pearson. p. 669. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-75435-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-75435-6"><bdi>978-0-321-75435-6</bdi></a>. <q>h<sup>2</sup> values vary, but heritability tends to be low for quantitative traits that are essential to an organism's survival. Remember, this does not indicate the absence of a genetic contribution to the observed phenotypes for such traits. Instead, the low h<sup>2</sup> values show that natural selection has already largely optimized the genetic component of these traits during evolution.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts+of+Genetics&rft.pages=669&rft.edition=Tenth&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-321-75435-6&rft.aulast=Klug&rft.aufirst=WS&rft.au=Cummings%2C+MR&rft.au=Spencer%2C+CA&rft.au=Palladino%2C+MA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkoyles1999" class="citation journal cs1">Skoyles JR (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.human-existence.com/publications/Skoyles%20Human%20evolution%20expanded%20brains%20expertise%20not%20IQ.pdf">"Human evolution expanded brains to increase expertise capacity, not IQ"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Psycoloquy</i>. <b>10</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psycoloquy&rft.atitle=Human+evolution+expanded+brains+to+increase+expertise+capacity%2C+not+IQ.&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Skoyles&rft.aufirst=JR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.human-existence.com%2Fpublications%2FSkoyles%2520Human%2520evolution%2520expanded%2520brains%2520expertise%2520not%2520IQ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_117-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaas2016" class="citation book cs1">Kaas JH (23 November 2016). <i>Evolution of nervous systems</i> (Second ed.). Kidlington, Oxford, United Kingdom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128040966" title="Special:BookSources/9780128040966"><bdi>9780128040966</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/964620094">964620094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+nervous+systems&rft.place=Kidlington%2C+Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.edition=Second&rft.date=2016-11-23&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F964620094&rft.isbn=9780128040966&rft.aulast=Kaas&rft.aufirst=JH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoley2016" class="citation journal cs1">Foley RA (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920300">"Mosaic evolution and the pattern of transitions in the hominin lineage"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>371</b> (1698): 20150244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0244">10.1098/rstb.2015.0244</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4920300">4920300</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27298474">27298474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Mosaic+evolution+and+the+pattern+of+transitions+in+the+hominin+lineage&rft.volume=371&rft.issue=1698&rft.pages=20150244&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4920300%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27298474&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2015.0244&rft.aulast=Foley&rft.aufirst=RA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4920300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinder2015" class="citation journal cs1">Binder JR (December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4691684">"The Wernicke area: Modern evidence and a reinterpretation"</a>. <i>Neurology</i>. <b>85</b> (24): <span class="nowrap">2170–</span>2175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1212%2FWNL.0000000000002219">10.1212/WNL.0000000000002219</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4691684">4691684</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26567270">26567270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurology&rft.atitle=The+Wernicke+area%3A+Modern+evidence+and+a+reinterpretation&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2170-%3C%2Fspan%3E2175&rft.date=2015-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4691684%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26567270&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1212%2FWNL.0000000000002219&rft.aulast=Binder&rft.aufirst=JR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4691684&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neubauer2018-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neubauer2018_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeubauerHublinGunz2018" class="citation journal cs1">Neubauer, Simon; Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Gunz, Philipp (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5783678">"The evolution of modern human brain shape"</a>. <i>Science Advances</i>. <b>4</b> (1): eaao5961. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018SciA....4.5961N">2018SciA....4.5961N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.aao5961">10.1126/sciadv.aao5961</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5783678">5783678</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29376123">29376123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+modern+human+brain+shape.&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=eaao5961&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5783678%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29376123&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.aao5961&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018SciA....4.5961N&rft.aulast=Neubauer&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Hublin%2C+Jean-Jacques&rft.au=Gunz%2C+Philipp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5783678&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFjellAmlienSneveGrydeland2015" class="citation journal cs1">Fjell AM, Amlien IK, Sneve MH, Grydeland H, Tamnes CK, Chaplin TA, et al. (September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6276920">"The Roots of Alzheimer's Disease: Are High-Expanding Cortical Areas Preferentially Targeted?†"</a>. <i>Cerebral Cortex</i>. <b>25</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">2556–</span>2565. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhu055">10.1093/cercor/bhu055</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6276920">6276920</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24658616">24658616</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cerebral+Cortex&rft.atitle=The+Roots+of+Alzheimer%27s+Disease%3A+Are+High-Expanding+Cortical+Areas+Preferentially+Targeted%3F%E2%80%A0&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2556-%3C%2Fspan%3E2565&rft.date=2015-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6276920%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24658616&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcercor%2Fbhu055&rft.aulast=Fjell&rft.aufirst=AM&rft.au=Amlien%2C+IK&rft.au=Sneve%2C+MH&rft.au=Grydeland%2C+H&rft.au=Tamnes%2C+CK&rft.au=Chaplin%2C+TA&rft.au=Rosa%2C+MG&rft.au=Walhovd%2C+KB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6276920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwoodSchumacher2018" class="citation journal cs1">Sherwood CC, Schumacher M (September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-makes-the-human-brain-special/">"What Makes the Human Brain Special"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=What+Makes+the+Human+Brain+Special&rft.date=2018-09&rft.aulast=Sherwood&rft.aufirst=CC&rft.au=Schumacher%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-makes-the-human-brain-special%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/FOXP2">"FOXP2 gene"</a>. <i>Genetics Home Reference</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Genetics+Home+Reference&rft.atitle=FOXP2+gene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fghr.nlm.nih.gov%2Fgene%2FFOXP2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharrierJoshiCoutinho-BuddKim2012" class="citation journal cs1">Charrier C, Joshi K, Coutinho-Budd J, Kim JE, Lambert N, de Marchena J, et al. (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3357949">"Inhibition of SRGAP2 function by its human-specific paralogs induces neoteny during spine maturation"</a>. <i>Cell</i>. <b>149</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">923–</span>935. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2012.03.034">10.1016/j.cell.2012.03.034</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3357949">3357949</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22559944">22559944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Inhibition+of+SRGAP2+function+by+its+human-specific+paralogs+induces+neoteny+during+spine+maturation&rft.volume=149&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E923-%3C%2Fspan%3E935&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3357949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22559944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2012.03.034&rft.aulast=Charrier&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Joshi%2C+K&rft.au=Coutinho-Budd%2C+J&rft.au=Kim%2C+JE&rft.au=Lambert%2C+N&rft.au=de+Marchena%2C+J&rft.au=Jin%2C+WL&rft.au=Vanderhaeghen%2C+P&rft.au=Ghosh%2C+A&rft.au=Sassa%2C+T&rft.au=Polleux%2C+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3357949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllmanTetreaultHakeemManaye2011" class="citation journal cs1">Allman JM, Tetreault NA, Hakeem AY, Manaye KF, Semendeferi K, Erwin JM, et al. (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3140770">"The von Economo neurons in the frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex"</a>. <i>Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>1225</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">59–</span>71. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NYASA1225...59A">2011NYASA1225...59A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2011.06011.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06011.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3140770">3140770</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21534993">21534993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+von+Economo+neurons+in+the+frontoinsular+and+anterior+cingulate+cortex&rft.volume=1225&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3140770%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21534993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2011.06011.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011NYASA1225...59A&rft.aulast=Allman&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Tetreault%2C+NA&rft.au=Hakeem%2C+AY&rft.au=Manaye%2C+KF&rft.au=Semendeferi%2C+K&rft.au=Erwin%2C+JM&rft.au=Park%2C+S&rft.au=Goubert%2C+V&rft.au=Hof%2C+PR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3140770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBáez-MendozaSchultz2013" class="citation journal cs1">Báez-Mendoza R, Schultz W (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3857563">"The role of the striatum in social behavior"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Neuroscience</i>. <b>7</b>: 233. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnins.2013.00233">10.3389/fnins.2013.00233</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3857563">3857563</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24339801">24339801</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=The+role+of+the+striatum+in+social+behavior&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=233&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3857563%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24339801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnins.2013.00233&rft.aulast=B%C3%A1ez-Mendoza&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Schultz%2C+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3857563&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajmohanMohandas2007" class="citation journal cs1">Rajmohan V, Mohandas E (January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2900004">"Mirror neuron system"</a>. <i>Indian Journal of Psychiatry</i>. <b>49</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">66–</span>69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5545.31522">10.4103/0019-5545.31522</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2900004">2900004</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20640069">20640069</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Mirror+neuron+system&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E66-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2900004%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20640069&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F0019-5545.31522&rft.aulast=Rajmohan&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Mohandas%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2900004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, George C and Dawkins, R. "Group Selection". <i>Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought</i>. Princeton University Press, Princeton; Oxford, 2019, pp. 92–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrPobinerRowanDu2022" class="citation journal cs1">Barr, W. Andrew; Pobiner, Briana; Rowan, John; Du, Andrew; Faith, J. Tyler (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8812535">"No sustained increase in zooarchaeological evidence for carnivory after the appearance of <i>Homo erectus</i>"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>119</b> (5): e2115540119. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022PNAS..11915540B">2022PNAS..11915540B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2115540119">10.1073/pnas.2115540119</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8812535">8812535</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35074877">35074877</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=No+sustained+increase+in+zooarchaeological+evidence+for+carnivory+after+the+appearance+of+Homo+erectus&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e2115540119&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8812535%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022PNAS..11915540B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35074877&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2115540119&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Barr&rft.aufirst=W.+Andrew&rft.au=Pobiner%2C+Briana&rft.au=Rowan%2C+John&rft.au=Du%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Faith%2C+J.+Tyler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8812535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffer1989" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffer A (1989). "Vitamin and Mineral Supplements Increase Intelligence". <i>Nutrition Health Review</i>. <b>52</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nutrition+Health+Review&rft.atitle=Vitamin+and+Mineral+Supplements+Increase+Intelligence&rft.volume=52&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Hoffer&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrevic2009" class="citation book cs1">Previc FH (2009). <i>The dopaminergic mind in human evolution and history</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51699-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51699-0"><bdi>978-0-521-51699-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dopaminergic+mind+in+human+evolution+and+history&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51699-0&rft.aulast=Previc&rft.aufirst=FH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <dl><dt>Bundled references</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Buss/Brown/Pinker-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buss/Brown/Pinker_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-West-Eberhard/Lyon/Montgomerie/Nesse-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-West-Eberhard/Lyon/Montgomerie/Nesse_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup id="cite_ref-West-Eberhard_1975_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-West-Eberhard_1975-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-West-Eberhard_1979_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-West-Eberhard_1979-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-West-Eberhard_1983_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-West-Eberhard_1983-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-West-Eberhard_2014_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-West-Eberhard_2014-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nesse_2019_pp._172–76_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nesse_2019_pp._172–76-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nesse/Boehm-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nesse/Boehm_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nesse_2007_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nesse_2007-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nesse_2009_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nesse_2009-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne1995" class="citation book cs1">Byrne RW (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thinkingapeevolu0000byrn"><i>The Thinking Ape: Evolutionary origins of intelligence</i></a></span>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852188-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852188-4"><bdi>978-0-19-852188-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thinking+Ape%3A+Evolutionary+origins+of+intelligence&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852188-4&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=RW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthinkingapeevolu0000byrn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenspanShanker2004" class="citation book cs1">Greenspan SI, Shanker S (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/firstideahowsymb00gree"><i>The First Idea: How symbols, language, and intelligence evolved from our early primate ancestors to modern humans</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0680-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0680-6"><bdi>978-0-7382-0680-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Idea%3A+How+symbols%2C+language%2C+and+intelligence+evolved+from+our+early+primate+ancestors+to+modern+humans&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0680-6&rft.aulast=Greenspan&rft.aufirst=SI&rft.au=Shanker%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffirstideahowsymb00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkoylesSagan2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Skoyles_(scientist)" title="John Skoyles (scientist)">Skoyles J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorion_Sagan" title="Dorion Sagan">Sagan D</a> (2002). <a href="/wiki/Up_from_Dragons" title="Up from Dragons"><i>Up from Dragons: The evolution of human intelligence</i></a>. New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-137825-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-137825-3"><bdi>978-0-07-137825-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Up+from+Dragons%3A+The+evolution+of+human+intelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-07-137825-3&rft.aulast=Skoyles&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Sagan%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobias1971" class="citation book cs1">Tobias PV (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/braininhominidev00tob_f8p"><i>The Brain in Hominid Evolution</i></a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03518-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03518-7"><bdi>978-0-231-03518-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brain+in+Hominid+Evolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-231-03518-7&rft.aulast=Tobias&rft.aufirst=PV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbraininhominidev00tob_f8p&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothDicke2005" class="citation journal cs1">Roth G, Dicke U (May 2005). "Evolution of the brain and intelligence". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>9</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">250–</span>257. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.03.005">10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15866152">15866152</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14758763">14758763</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+the+brain+and+intelligence&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E257&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14758763%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15866152&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.03.005&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Dicke%2C+U&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTodorovFiskePrentice2011" class="citation book cs1">Todorov A, Fiske S, Prentice DA (11 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JwgSDAAAQBAJ"><i>Social Neuroscience: Toward Understanding the Underpinnings of the Social Mind</i></a>. Oxford University Press, USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531687-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531687-2"><bdi>978-0-19-531687-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Neuroscience%3A+Toward+Understanding+the+Underpinnings+of+the+Social+Mind&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2011-02-11&rft.isbn=978-0-19-531687-2&rft.aulast=Todorov&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Fiske%2C+S&rft.au=Prentice%2C+DA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJwgSDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+human+intelligence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_evolution511" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_evolution" title="Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_evolution" title="Template talk:Human evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_evolution511" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy">Taxonomy</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Humans and<br />proto-humans<br />(<i>Homo</i>)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penghu_1" title="Penghu 1">H. tsaichangensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Java_Man" title="Java Man">H. e. erectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a></i> (?)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens26" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human"><i>H. s. sapiens</i> (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tam_Pa_Ling_Cave" title="Tam Pa Ling Cave">Tam Pa Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (→ <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a></i>)<sup>?</sup> → <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> → <i>archaic Homo sapiens</i> → <i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Diet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis#Diet" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li> <li>Drugs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li> <li>Behavior <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li> <li>Life history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution_theorists" title="Category:Human evolution theorists">Theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution_books" title="Category:Human evolution books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">Fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Human evolutionary developmental biology">Human evolutionary developmental biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" title="Category:Human evolution">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human evolution">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_intelligence_topics293" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Template:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Template talk:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_intelligence_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human intelligence topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_intelligence_topics293" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human intelligence</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_giftedness" title="Intellectual giftedness">Intellectual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic intelligence">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_intelligence_(psychology)" title="Spatial intelligence (psychology)">Spatial</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spatial_visualization_ability" title="Spatial visualization ability">visuospatial</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Abilities">Abilities</a>, traits,<br />and constructs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">Intellect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">Intelligence quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">Problem solving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill" title="Skill">Skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cattell%E2%80%93Horn%E2%80%93Carroll_theory" title="Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory">Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">Multiple-intelligences theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PASS_theory_of_intelligence" title="PASS theory of intelligence">PASS theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-stratum_theory" title="Three-stratum theory">Three-stratum theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triarchic_theory_of_intelligence" title="Triarchic theory of intelligence">Triarchic theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolution of human intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ" title="Heritability of IQ">Heritability of IQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics" title="Psychometrics">Psychometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_intelligence" title="Environment and intelligence">Intelligence and environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fertility_and_intelligence" title="Fertility and intelligence">fertility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Height_and_intelligence" title="Height and intelligence">height</a> / <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_health_on_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of health on intelligence">health</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_epidemiology" title="Cognitive epidemiology">longevity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">neuroscience</a> / <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_and_personality" title="Intelligence and personality">personality</a> / <a href="/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" title="Race and intelligence">race</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow plainlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_human_intelligence" title="Outline of human intelligence">Outline of human intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_thought" title="Outline of thought">thought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology753" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology753" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_cognition181" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_cognition" title="Template:Animal cognition"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_cognition" title="Template talk:Animal cognition"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_cognition" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal cognition"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_cognition181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">Cognitive bias in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_cognition" title="Comparative cognition">Comparative cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_cognition" title="Insect cognition">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_test" title="Mirror test">Mirror test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">Primate archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_non-humans" title="Tool use by non-humans">Tool use by non-humans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_sea_otters" title="Tool use by sea otters">sea otters</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_learning" title="Vocal learning">Vocal learning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Bird</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_intelligence" title="Pigeon intelligence">Pigeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">talking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_intelligence" title="Cat intelligence">Cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">Cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetacean_intelligence" title="Cetacean intelligence">Cetacean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_intelligence" title="Dog intelligence">Dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_cognition" title="Elephant cognition">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_intelligence" title="Fish intelligence">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hominid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relation to brain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_size" title="Brain size">Brain size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-to-body_mass_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain-to-body mass ratio">Brain-to-body mass ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encephalization_quotient" title="Encephalization quotient">Encephalization quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">Neuroscience and intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_animals_by_number_of_neurons" title="List of animals by number of neurons">Number of neurons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_cognition" title="Category:Animal cognition">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&oldid=1275868873">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&oldid=1275868873</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolution-related_timelines" title="Category:Evolution-related timelines">Evolution-related timelines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" title="Category:Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intelligence" title="Category:Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Paleolithic" title="Category:Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_EasyTimeline_extension" title="Category:Pages using the EasyTimeline extension">Pages using the EasyTimeline extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_June_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from June 2022">Use dmy dates from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2009" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2019" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_which_contain_graphical_timelines" title="Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines">Articles which contain graphical timelines</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 15 February 2025, at 15:19<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_human_intelligence&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolution of human intelligence</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>12 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-n4k9s","wgBackendResponseTime":118,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.786","walltime":"2.036","ppvisitednodes":{"value":13335,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":559015,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":7935,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":16,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":557330,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1664.015 1 -total"," 53.00% 881.929 2 Template:Reflist"," 28.20% 469.218 81 Template:Cite_journal"," 17.73% 294.961 40 Template:Cite_book"," 8.00% 133.049 1 Template:Human_timeline"," 7.75% 129.002 1 Template:Graphical_timeline"," 7.28% 121.222 1 Template:Annotated_link"," 5.82% 96.887 6 Template:Navbox"," 4.56% 75.875 1 Template:Evolutionary_psychology"," 4.56% 75.823 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.068","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25006873,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","18.6"],["?","180","15.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","13.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","6.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","6.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","5.1"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","5.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","5.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","40","3.4"],["chunk \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:4387\u003E","40","3.4"],["[others]","200","16.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-786d8bd985-s2r6c","timestamp":"20250215151925","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Evolution of human intelligence","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolution_of_human_intelligence","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4117055","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q4117055","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-08-14T16:33:22Z","dateModified":"2025-02-15T15:19:23Z","headline":"development of intelligence in humans and association with evolution of the brain and the origin of language"}</script> </body> </html>