Sidney and Beatrice Webb | British Socialists & Economists

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[{"p":2,"t":1353697},{"p":1,"t":199691},{"p":1,"t":1357701},{"p":1,"t":473136},{"p":1,"t":495422},{"p":1,"t":347128},{"p":7,"t":551385},{"p":1,"t":289319},{"p":1,"t":551073},{"p":1,"t":553374}], "sequence": 1, "topics": {} }); </script> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="1353697"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb">Sidney and Beatrice Webb</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref7796"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb#ref7796">Early life of Beatrice Potter Webb.</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref7797"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb#ref7797">Early life of Sidney Webb.</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref7798"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb#ref7798">Their work after marriage.</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref7799"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb/Association-with-the-Labour-Party">Association with the Labour Party.</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref7800"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb/Association-with-the-Labour-Party#ref7800">Legacy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb/images-videos">Images</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/28/39728-004-AECE0EBC/Sidney-Beatrice-Webb.jpg" data-href="/media/1/1353697/32299" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" 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Cupid gathers a basket of red hearts from a pine tree which, in the language of flowers represents daring. Valentine's Day St. Valentine's Day February 14 love romance history and society heart In Roman mythology Cupid was the son of Venus, goddess of love (Eros and Aphrodite in the Greek Pantheon)." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-do-we-give-valentine-cards" >Why Do We Give Valentine Cards?</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm"> <div class="h-100 infinite-pagination-container d-flex flex-column position-relative"> <div class="position-absolute top-0 h-100 w-100"> <div 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Cole</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Honorary President, Fabian Society, England. Author of <i>Beatrice Webb </i>and others; editor <i><i>of</i> The Webbs and Their Work.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Margaret I. Cole</span></div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sidney-and-Beatrice-Webb/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="qf-title font-weight-bold font-14 mb-10 text-center"> Quick Facts</div> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>In full respectively: </dt> <dd>Sidney James Webb, Baron Passfield of Passfield Corner, and Martha Beatrice Webb</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Née: </dt> <dd>Potter</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Born: </dt> <dd>July 13, 1859, London</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Died: </dt> <dd> Oct. 13, 1947, Liphook, Hampshire, Eng.</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Born: </dt> <dd> Jan. 22, 1858, Gloucester, Gloucestershire</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Died: </dt> <dd>April 30, 1943, Liphook</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> </div> <button class="facts-list-show-more-btn mt-15 p-0 mx-auto btn font-14 d-block font-weight-normal"> <span class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></span> <span class="show-more-label">Show More</span> </button> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref947123"></span>Sidney and Beatrice Webb</strong> (respectively, born July 13, 1859, London—died Oct. 13, 1947, Liphook, Hampshire, Eng.; born Jan. 22, 1858, Gloucester, Gloucestershire—died April 30, 1943, Liphook) were English Socialist economists (husband and wife), early members of the Fabian Society, and co-founders of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/London-School-of-Economics-and-Political-Science" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">London School of Economics and Political Science</a>. <span id="ref183452"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sidney-Webb" class="md-crosslink ">Sidney Webb</a> also helped reorganize the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-London" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">University of London</a> into a federation of teaching institutions and served in the government as a Labour Party member. Pioneers in social and economic reforms as well as distinguished historians, the Webbs deeply affected social thought and institutions in England.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref7796"><h2 class="h1">Early life of Beatrice Potter Webb.</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><span id="ref183451"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Beatrice-Webb" class="md-crosslink ">Beatrice Potter</a> was born in Gloucester, into a class which, to use her own words, “habitually gave orders.” She was the eighth daughter of Richard Potter, a businessman, at whose death she inherited a private income of £1,000 a year, and Laurencina Heyworth, daughter of a Liverpool merchant. She grew up a rather lonely and sickly girl, educating herself by extensive reading and discussions with her father’s visitors, of whom the philosopher <span id="ref183453"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herbert-Spencer" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Herbert Spencer</a> exerted the greatest <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intellectual" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intellectual" data-type="MW">intellectual</a> influence on her. Her elder sisters made conventional marriages, and she herself might have become the third wife of the much older Liberal statesman <span id="ref183454"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Chamberlain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Joseph Chamberlain</a> had not incompatibility of temperament caused a break between them. Even before that, however, she had begun to question the assumptions of her father’s business world. While staying with distant relatives in a small Lancashire town, she became acquainted with the world of the members of the working class cooperative movement.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Following the disappointing outcome of her relationship with Chamberlain, she took up <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-service" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">social work</a> in London but soon became critical of the failure of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="inadequate" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/inadequate" data-type="EB">inadequate</a> measures of charitable organizations to attack the root problems of poverty. She learned more of the realities of lower class life while helping her cousin <span id="ref183455"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Booth" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Charles Booth</a>, the shipowner and social reformer, to research his monumental study of <em>The <span id="ref183456"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Life-and-Labour-of-the-People-in-London" class="md-crosslink ">Life and Labour of the People in London</a>.</em> In 1891 she published <em><span id="ref183457"></span>The Co-operative Movement in Great Britain,</em> a small book based on her experiences in Lancashire, which later became a classic. It was not long before she realized that in order to find any solution to the problem of poverty she would have to learn more about the organizations that the working class had created for itself; <em>i.e.,</em> the labour unions. While collecting information about earlier economic conditions, she was advised to apply to a “mine of information,” Sidney Webb, whose acquaintance she made in 1890.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h3"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref7797"><h2 class="h1">Early life of Sidney Webb.</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Sidney <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Edwin-Webb" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">James Webb</a> was born in London into a lower middle-class family; his father was a free-lance accountant and his mother was a shopkeeper. He left school before he was 16, but after attending evening classes he secured admission to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/civil-service" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">civil service</a> and three years later (1884) passed his bar examinations. For some time he had been the close friend of the young journalist Bernard <span id="ref183458"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Bernard-Shaw" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shaw</a>, who in 1885 induced him to join a very small, newly founded Socialist body called the <span id="ref183459"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fabian-Society" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fabian Society</a>. Shaw believed that Webb’s extensive factual knowledge was exactly what the society needed as a foundation for its theoretical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="advocacy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/advocacy" data-type="MW">advocacy</a> of <span id="ref183460"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/socialism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Socialism</a>. In 1887 Webb justified Shaw’s choice by writing for the society the first edition of the Fabian Tract <em><span id="ref280033"></span>Facts for Socialists,</em> revised editions of which were published until the end of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">World War II</a>. The tract was the first concise expression of the Fabian <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conviction" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conviction" data-type="MW">conviction</a> that public knowledge of the facts of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/industrialization" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">industrial society</a> was the essential first step toward the reform of that society.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">As executive member of the Fabian Society, Webb, in 1889, delivered one of the public lectures that made up <em><span id="ref280034"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fabian-Essays-in-Socialism" class="md-crosslink ">Fabian Essays</a></em> and put the society on the map. The following year he met Beatrice Potter, who was making her own way to a belief in Socialism and had been greatly impressed by Webb’s contribution to <em>Fabian Essays.</em> Webb at once fell in love with the handsome, intellectual young woman. She took longer to adjust her sights to the scruffy, rather ugly little man in the shiny suits, though he had already made a name for himself as a lecturer and writer on economics. They were married in 1892 and by way of honeymoon set off to investigate <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/trade-union" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">trade union</a> records in Glasgow and Dublin.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h4"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref7798"><h2 class="h1">Their work after marriage.</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Shortly after returning to London they set up house there. Sidney left the civil service, and they decided to live on Beatrice’s <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="inheritance" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/inheritance" data-type="EB">inheritance</a> and what they could make from books and journalism in order to devote more time to social research and political work. Sidney retained only his position on the London County Council, to which he was first elected in 1892, and his association with the Fabian Society. The first fruits, and the first success, of their collaborative effort were the great twin volumes <em><span id="ref280035"></span>The History of Trade Unionism</em> (1894) and <em><span id="ref280036"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Industrial-Democracy" class="md-crosslink ">Industrial Democracy</a></em> (1897). In these books the Webbs, in effect, introduced the economists and social historians of Britain to a part of British social life of which they had hitherto been unaware. The work that followed extended into areas of historical and social research, educational and political reform, and journalism.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Among their writings was the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="prodigious" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/prodigious" data-type="EB">prodigious</a> enterprise—which again broke new ground—of the history of English local government from the 17th to the 20th century. This work, published over a period of 25 years, firmly established the Webbs as historical researchers of the first rank. They produced also a great number of books, large and small, and pamphlets, some of short-lived, others of permanent interest. Their literary output, however, important as it was, takes second place to their work in creating and developing institutions.</p><div class="module-spacing"> <DIV class="marketing-INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="INLINE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Get Unlimited Access</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more.</div> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-button-wrapper d-flex justify-content-center align-items-center ml-auto mr-auto"> <a class="btn btn-m btn-orange" href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=inline-cta&utm_campaign=august-2024">Subscribe</a> </div> </div> </div> </DIV></div><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Sidney served from 1892 to 1910 on the London County Council; he is best remembered for his creation of the system of secondary state schools and the scholarship system for elementary school pupils. He was also instrumental in the establishment of technical and other postschool education in London. Concurrently, he and Beatrice founded the London School of Economics; with R.B. (later Lord) Haldane, Liberal statesman. Sidney reorganized the University of London into a federation of teaching institutions; and with the educator Robert Morant he provided the blueprint for the Education Acts of 1902 and 1903, which set the pattern of English public education for generations to come. In this last effort, Sidney and Beatrice employed the tactic that became known as “permeation,” that is, attempting to push through Fabian policies or parts of policies by converting persons of power and influence irrespective of their political affiliations. At that time, for instance, both Lord Balfour, the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Conservative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Conservative" data-type="MW">Conservative</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prime-minister" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prime minister</a>, and his Liberal rival Lord Rosebery were approached for political support. With the advent of the huge Liberal majority in 1906 this strategy became ineffective, and the Webbs were eventually forced to “permeate” the fledgling <span id="ref280037"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Labour-Party-political-party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Labour Party</a>. Before that, however, Beatrice, as a member from 1905 to 1909 of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws, had produced her remarkable <em>Minority Report,</em> which 35 years before the “Beveridge Report” advocating universal <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/social-insurance" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">social insurance</a>, clearly spelled out the outlines of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/welfare-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">welfare state</a>. The nationwide agitation that the Webbs organized in favour of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/social-security-government-program" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">social security</a> was only <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="quelled" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/quelled" data-type="EB">quelled</a> in 1911 by Lloyd George’s hasty improvisation of a scheme of contributory insurance.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":2,"pageId":1353697,"pageLength":1208,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"BIO_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Sidney and Beatrice Webb | British Socialists & Economists | Britannica