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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Comparison with mass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_with_chemical_substance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_with_chemical_substance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Relation with chemical substance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_with_chemical_substance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Based_on_atoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Based_on_atoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Based on atoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Based_on_atoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Based_on_protons,_neutrons_and_electrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Based_on_protons,_neutrons_and_electrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Based on protons, neutrons and electrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Based_on_protons,_neutrons_and_electrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Based_on_quarks_and_leptons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Based_on_quarks_and_leptons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Based on quarks and leptons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Based_on_quarks_and_leptons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Based_on_elementary_fermions_(mass,_volume,_and_space)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Based_on_elementary_fermions_(mass,_volume,_and_space)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Based on elementary fermions (mass, volume, and space)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Based_on_elementary_fermions_(mass,_volume,_and_space)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_general_relativity_and_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_general_relativity_and_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>In general relativity and cosmology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_general_relativity_and_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quarks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quarks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Quarks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quarks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baryonic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baryonic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Baryonic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baryonic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hadronic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hadronic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Hadronic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hadronic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degenerate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degenerate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Degenerate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degenerate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strange" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strange"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Strange</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strange-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Two_meanings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_meanings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4.1</span> <span>Two meanings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_meanings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leptons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leptons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Leptons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leptons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Phases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antimatter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antimatter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Antimatter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antimatter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Dark</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dark-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dark subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exotic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exotic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Exotic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exotic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_and_philosophical_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_and_philosophical_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Historical and philosophical study</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_and_philosophical_study-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historical and philosophical study subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_and_philosophical_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity_(c._600_BCE–c._322_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity_(c._600_BCE–c._322_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Classical antiquity (c. 600 BCE–c. 322 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity_(c._600_BCE–c._322_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Enlightenment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Age of Enlightenment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_and_20th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>19th and 20th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Matter</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 139 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-139" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">139 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie" title="Materie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Materie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%81%E1%88%B5_%E1%8A%A0%E1%8A%AB%E1%88%8D" title="ቁስ አካል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቁስ አካል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="पदार्थ – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="مادة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مادة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mba%27e" title="Mba'e – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Mba'e" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiya_(fizika)" title="Materiya (fizika) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Materiya (fizika)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87_(%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9)" title="ماده (فیزیک) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ماده (فیزیک)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5" title="পদার্থ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পদার্থ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bu%CC%8Dt-chit" title="Bu̍t-chit – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bu̍t-chit" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materi" title="Materi – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Materi" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_(%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Матэрыя (фізіка) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Матэрыя (фізіка)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="पदार्थ – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materya" title="Materya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Materya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Материя (физика) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Материя (физика)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%84%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8D" title="དངོས་པོ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="དངོས་པོ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materija" title="Materija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Materija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A8ria" title="Matèria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Matèria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%C4%83%D0%BC%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Йăмлăх (физика) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Йăмлăх (физика)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butang" title="Butang – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Butang" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmota" title="Hmota – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hmota" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mhakatwa" title="Mhakatwa – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mhakatwa" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mater" title="Mater – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Mater" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stof_(fysik)" title="Stof (fysik) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stof (fysik)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="مادة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="مادة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie_(Physik)" title="Materie (Physik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Materie (Physik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aine_(f%C3%BC%C3%BCsika)" title="Aine (füüsika) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aine (füüsika)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8E%CE%BB%CE%B7" title="Ύλη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ύλη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Аваулемкс – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Аваулемкс" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materio" title="Materio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Materio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87_(%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9)" title="ماده (فیزیک) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماده (فیزیک)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mati%C3%A8re" title="Matière – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Matière" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matearje" title="Matearje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Matearje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhna" title="Damhna – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Damhna" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vu%CC%8Dt-ch%E1%B9%B3t" title="Vu̍t-chṳt – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Vu̍t-chṳt" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%BC%EC%A7%88" title="물질 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="물질" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1_(%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1)" title="Մատերիա (ֆիզիկա) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մատերիա (ֆիզիկա)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="पदार्थ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materija" title="Materija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Materija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materio" title="Materio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Materio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materi" title="Materi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Materi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTho" title="UTho – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="UTho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia_(fisica)" title="Materia (fisica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Materia (fisica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A8" title="חומר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חומר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A8ri" title="Matèri – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Matèri" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ದ್ರವ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ದ್ರವ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მატერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მატერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%8E%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DA%BE" title="پَدارتھ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="پَدارتھ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Зат – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Зат" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maada" title="Maada – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maada" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maty%C3%A8r" title="Matyèr – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Matyèr" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Made_(k%C3%AEmya)" title="Made (kîmya) – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Made (kîmya)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Материя (физика) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Материя (физика)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia_(physica)" title="Materia (physica) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Materia (physica)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C4%93rija" title="Matērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Matērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materija_(fizika)" title="Materija (fizika) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Materija (fizika)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mateia" title="Mateia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Mateia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/marji" title="marji – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="marji" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabuzimbe" title="Nabuzimbe – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Nabuzimbe" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyag_(fizika)" title="Anyag (fizika) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Anyag (fizika)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Материја – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Материја" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaka" title="Zaka – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Zaka" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ദ്രവ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ദ്രവ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="पदार्थ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jirim" title="Jirim – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jirim" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materi" title="Materi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Materi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%ACk-c%C3%A9k" title="Ŭk-cék – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ŭk-cék" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A9ria" title="Matéria – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Matéria" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Бодис – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бодис" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%BC%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="ဒြပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဒြပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie" title="Materie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Materie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="पदार्थ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5" title="पदार्थ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पदार्थ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="物質 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="物質" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie" title="Materie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Materie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie" title="Materie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Materie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie" title="Materie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Materie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A8ria" title="Matèria – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Matèria" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%A6%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A5" title="ପଦାର୍ଥ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପଦାର୍ଥ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watana" title="Watana – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Watana" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiya" title="Materiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Materiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A5" title="ਪਦਾਰਥ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਦਾਰਥ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%81" title="مادہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مادہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%BC%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="ဒြပ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဒြပ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87" title="ماده – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ماده" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mata" title="Mata – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Mata" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BB" title="រូបធាតុ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រូបធាតុ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie" title="Materie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Materie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substancja_(fizyka)" title="Substancja (fizyka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Substancja (fizyka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A9ria" title="Matéria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Matéria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materie" title="Materie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Materie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imayay" title="Imayay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Imayay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Вещество – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вещество" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Материя – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Материя" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D)" title="द्रव्यम् (भौतविज्ञानम्) – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="द्रव्यम् (भौतविज्ञानम्)" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%B1_%D8%AA%DB%92_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA_%D9%82%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="میٹر تے ایندیاں قسماں – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="میٹر تے ایندیاں قسماں" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiter" title="Maiter – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Maiter" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ABnda" title="Lënda – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lënda" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AE%E0%B6%BA" title="පදාර්ථය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පදාර්ථය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter" title="Matter – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Matter" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88" title="مادو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مادو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmota_(fyzika)" title="Hmota (fyzika) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hmota (fyzika)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snov" title="Snov – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Snov" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maatar" title="Maatar – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Maatar" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AF%DB%95" title="ماددە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ماددە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Материја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Материја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materija" title="Materija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Materija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A9ri" title="Matéri – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Matéri" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aine" title="Aine – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aine" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materya" title="Materya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Materya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="பருப்பொருள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பருப்பொருள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanga" title="Tanga – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tanga" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="పదార్థము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పదార్థము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3" title="สสาร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สสาร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Модда (физика) – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Модда (физика)" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A2%E1%8F%B3%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%8A" title="ᎢᏳᏍᏗᏊ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎢᏳᏍᏗᏊ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madde" title="Madde – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Madde" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Матерія (фізика) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Матерія (фізика)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%81" title="مادہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مادہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia" title="Materia – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Materia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BA%ADt_ch%E1%BA%A5t" title="Vật chất – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vật chất" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Something that has mass and volume</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Matter_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Matter (disambiguation)">Matter (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg/220px-Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg/330px-Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg/440px-Hydrogen_discharge_tube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> in its <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> state is the most abundant ordinary matter in the universe.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a> and general <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <b>matter</b> is any substance that has <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> and takes up space by having <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Penrose_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, which are made up of interacting <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>, and in everyday as well as scientific usage, <i>matter</i> generally includes <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a> and anything made up of them, and any particles (or <a href="/wiki/Composite_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite particle">combination of particles</a>) that act as if they have both <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest mass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a>. However it does not include <a href="/wiki/Massless_particle" title="Massless particle">massless particles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, or other energy phenomena or waves such as <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> or <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Penrose_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mcgrawhill_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgrawhill-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matter exists in various <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">states</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a>). These include classical everyday phases such as <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> – for example <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> exists as <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>, liquid water, and gaseous <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> – but other states are possible, including <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">fermionic condensates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">quark–gluon plasma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RHIC_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RHIC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Usually atoms can be imagined as a <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, and a surrounding "cloud" of orbiting <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> which "take up space".<sup id="cite_ref-Davies2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hooft_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooft-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this is only somewhat correct because subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum nature</a>, which means they do not act as everyday objects appear to act – they can act like <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">waves as well as particles</a>, and they do not have well-defined sizes or positions. In the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, matter is not a fundamental concept because the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary constituents</a> of atoms are <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quantum</a> entities which do not have an inherent "size" or "<a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a>" in any everyday sense of the word. Due to the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">exclusion principle</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">fundamental interactions</a>, some "<a href="/wiki/Point_particle" title="Point particle">point particles</a>" known as <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a>), and many composites and atoms, are effectively forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space. </p><p>For much of the history of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Particulate_theory_of_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate theory of matter">particulate theory of matter</a>, appeared in both <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pullman2001p77_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullman2001p77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early philosophers who proposed the particulate theory of matter include the <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">ancient Indian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a> (c. 6th–century BCE or after),<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler2002_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler2002-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic</a> Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> (~490 BCE), and pre-Socratic Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> (~470–380 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_concepts">Related concepts</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_mass">Comparison with mass</h3></div> <p>Matter should not be confused with mass, as the two are not the same in modern physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Mongillo_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mongillo-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matter is a general term describing any 'physical substance'. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> is not a substance but rather a quantitative <i>property</i> of matter and other substances or systems; various types of mass are defined within <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> – including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest mass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inertial_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertial mass">inertial mass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic mass">relativistic mass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass–energy</a>. </p><p>While there are different views on what should be considered matter, the mass of a substance has exact scientific definitions. Another difference is that matter has an "opposite" called <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a>, but mass has no opposite—there is no such thing as "anti-mass" or <a href="/wiki/Negative_mass" title="Negative mass">negative mass</a>, so far as is known, although scientists do discuss the concept. Antimatter has the same (i.e. positive) mass property as its normal matter counterpart. </p><p>Different fields of science use the term matter in different, and sometimes incompatible, ways. Some of these ways are based on loose historical meanings from a time when there was no reason to distinguish mass from simply a <a href="/wiki/Quantity_of_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantity of matter">quantity of matter</a>. As such, there is no single universally agreed scientific meaning of the word "matter". Scientifically, the term "mass" is well-defined, but "matter" can be defined in several ways. Sometimes in the field of physics "matter" is simply equated with particles that exhibit rest mass (i.e., that cannot travel at the speed of light), such as quarks and leptons. However, in both <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, matter exhibits both <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a>-like and <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particle</a>-like properties, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weinberg_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weinberg-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Masujima_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masujima-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relation_with_chemical_substance">Relation with chemical substance</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_substance&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kochendes_wasser02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kochendes_wasser02.jpg/220px-Kochendes_wasser02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kochendes_wasser02.jpg/330px-Kochendes_wasser02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Kochendes_wasser02.jpg/440px-Kochendes_wasser02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same pure chemical substance, water.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substance</a> is a unique form of matter with constant <a href="/wiki/Chemical_composition" title="Chemical composition">chemical composition</a> and characteristic <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">properties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical substances may take the form of a single <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemical compounds</a>. If two or more chemical substances can be combined without <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reacting</a>, they may form a chemical <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a mixture is separated to isolate one chemical substance to a desired degree, the resulting substance is said to be <a href="/wiki/Chemical_purity" title="Chemical purity">chemically pure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chemical substances can exist in several different physical <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">states</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a>) without changing their chemical composition. Substances <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">transition</a> between these <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Phases of matter">phases of matter</a> in response to changes in <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>. Some chemical substances can be combined or converted into new substances by means of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a>. Chemicals that do not possess this ability are said to be <a href="/wiki/Inert_gas" title="Inert gas">inert</a>. </p> Pure <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">water</a> is an example of a chemical substance, with a constant composition of two hydrogen <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">bonded</a> to a single oxygen atom (i.e. H<sub>2</sub>O). The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_ratio" title="Atomic ratio">atomic ratio</a> of hydrogen to oxygen is always 2:1 in every <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> of water. Pure water will tend to <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boil</a> near 100 °C (212 °F), an example of one of the characteristic properties that define it. Other notable chemical substances include <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> (a form of the element <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">table salt</a> (NaCl; an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic compound">ionic compound</a>), and refined <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sugar</a> (C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>; an <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a>).</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Based_on_atoms">Based on atoms</h3></div> <p>A definition of "matter" based on its physical and chemical structure is: <i>matter is made up of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barker0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barker0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such <i>atomic matter</i> is also sometimes termed <i>ordinary matter</i>. As an example, <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleic acid">deoxyribonucleic acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> (DNA) are matter under this definition because they are made of atoms. This definition can be extended to include charged atoms and molecules, so as to include <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a> (gases of ions) and <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a> (ionic solutions), which are not obviously included in the atoms definition. Alternatively, one can adopt the <i>protons, neutrons, and electrons</i> definition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Based_on_protons,_neutrons_and_electrons"><span id="Based_on_protons.2C_neutrons_and_electrons"></span>Based on protons, neutrons and electrons</h3></div> <p>A definition of "matter" more fine-scale than the atoms and molecules definition is: <i>matter is made up of what <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> are made of</i>, meaning anything made of positively charged <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>, neutral <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, and negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DePodesta1_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DePodesta1-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition goes beyond atoms and molecules, however, to include substances made from these building blocks that are <i>not</i> simply atoms or molecules, for example electron beams in an old <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a> television, or <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a> matter—typically, carbon and oxygen nuclei in a sea of degenerate electrons. At a microscopic level, the constituent "particles" of matter such as protons, neutrons, and electrons obey the laws of quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality. At an even deeper level, protons and neutrons are made up of <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and the force fields (<a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a>) that bind them together, leading to the next definition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Based_on_quarks_and_leptons">Based on quarks and leptons</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/330px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/495px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/660px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption>Under the "quarks and leptons" definition, the elementary and composite particles made of the <a href="/wiki/Quarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarks">quarks</a> (in purple) and <a href="/wiki/Leptons" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptons">leptons</a> (in green) would be matter—while the gauge bosons (in red) would not be matter. However, interaction energy inherent to composite particles (for example, gluons involved in neutrons and protons) contribute to the mass of ordinary matter.</figcaption></figure> <p>As seen in the above discussion, many early definitions of what can be called "ordinary matter" were based upon its structure or "building blocks". On the scale of elementary particles, a definition that follows this tradition can be stated as: "ordinary matter is everything that is composed of <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a>", or "ordinary matter is everything that is composed of any elementary fermions except antiquarks and antileptons".<sup id="cite_ref-Povh0_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povh0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carithers_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carithers-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The connection between these formulations follows. </p><p>Leptons (the most famous being the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>), and quarks (of which <a href="/wiki/Baryons" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryons">baryons</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a>, are made) combine to form <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a>, which in turn form <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a>. Because atoms and molecules are said to be matter, it is natural to phrase the definition as: "ordinary matter is anything that is made of the same things that atoms and molecules are made of". (However, notice that one also can make from these building blocks matter that is <i>not</i> atoms or molecules.) Then, because electrons are leptons, and protons and neutrons are made of quarks, this definition in turn leads to the definition of matter as being "quarks and leptons", which are two of the four types of elementary fermions (the other two being antiquarks and antileptons, which can be considered antimatter as described later). Carithers and Grannis state: "Ordinary matter is composed entirely of <a href="/wiki/Generation_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Generation (physics)">first-generation</a> particles, namely the [up] and [down] quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino."<sup id="cite_ref-Carithers_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carithers-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Higher generations particles quickly decay into first-generation particles, and thus are not commonly encountered.<sup id="cite_ref-Green2005_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green2005-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>This definition of ordinary matter is more subtle than it first appears. All the particles that make up ordinary matter (leptons and quarks) are elementary fermions, while all the <a href="/wiki/Force_carriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Force carriers">force carriers</a> are elementary bosons.<sup id="cite_ref-Smolin_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smolin-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a> that mediate the <a href="/wiki/Weak_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak force">weak force</a> are not made of quarks or leptons, and so are not ordinary matter, even if they have mass.<sup id="cite_ref-Caso_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caso-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> is not something that is exclusive to ordinary matter. </p><p>The quark–lepton definition of ordinary matter, however, identifies not only the elementary building blocks of matter, but also includes composites made from the constituents (atoms and molecules, for example). Such composites contain an interaction energy that holds the constituents together, and may constitute the bulk of the mass of the composite. As an example, to a great extent, the mass of an atom is simply the sum of the masses of its constituent protons, neutrons and electrons. However, digging deeper, the protons and neutrons are made up of quarks bound together by gluon fields (see <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics#Dynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">dynamics of quantum chromodynamics</a>) and these gluon fields contribute significantly to the mass of hadrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Aitchison_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aitchison-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, most of what composes the "mass" of ordinary matter is due to the <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> of quarks within protons and neutrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Povh_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povh-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the sum of the mass of the three quarks in a <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a> is approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001125000000000000♠"></span>12.5 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass" title="Electronvolt">MeV/<i>c</i><sup>2</sup></a></span>, which is low compared to the mass of a nucleon (approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002938000000000000♠"></span>938 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass" title="Electronvolt">MeV/<i>c</i><sup>2</sup></a></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-Green2004_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green2004-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Akai_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akai-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bottom line is that most of the mass of everyday objects comes from the interaction energy of its elementary components. </p><p>The Standard Model groups matter particles into three generations, where each generation consists of two quarks and two leptons. The first generation is the <i><a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down</a></i> quarks, the <i><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrino</a></i>; the second includes the <i><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">charm</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">strange</a></i> quarks, the <i><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">muon neutrino</a></i>; the third generation consists of the <i><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">bottom</a></i> quarks and the <i><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">tau</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">tau neutrino</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Staley_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staley-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most natural explanation for this would be that quarks and leptons of higher generations are <a href="/wiki/Excited_state" title="Excited state">excited states</a> of the first generations. If this turns out to be the case, it would imply that quarks and leptons are <a href="/wiki/Composite_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite particle">composite particles</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirsh_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirsh-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This quark–lepton definition of matter also leads to what can be described as "conservation of (net) matter" laws—discussed later below. Alternatively, one could return to the mass–volume–space concept of matter, leading to the next definition, in which antimatter becomes included as a subclass of matter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Based_on_elementary_fermions_(mass,_volume,_and_space)"><span id="Based_on_elementary_fermions_.28mass.2C_volume.2C_and_space.29"></span>Based on elementary fermions (mass, volume, and space)</h3></div> <p>A common or traditional definition of matter is "anything that has <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> (occupies <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a>)".<sup id="cite_ref-Walker_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hage_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hage-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it has mass and volume (occupies space). </p><p>The observation that matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an explanation for why matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a result of the phenomenon described in the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Peacock_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peacock-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kreiger_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kreiger-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which applies to <a href="/wiki/Fermions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermions">fermions</a>. Two particular examples where the exclusion principle clearly relates matter to the occupation of space are white dwarf stars and neutron stars, discussed further below. </p><p>Thus, matter can be defined as everything composed of elementary fermions. Although we do not encounter them in everyday life, antiquarks (such as the <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiproton</a>) and antileptons (such as the <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>) are the <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticles</a> of the quark and the lepton, are elementary fermions as well, and have essentially the same properties as quarks and leptons, including the applicability of the Pauli exclusion principle which can be said to prevent two particles from being in the same place at the same time (in the same state), i.e. makes each particle "take up space". This particular definition leads to matter being defined to include anything made of these <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> particles as well as the ordinary quark and lepton, and thus also anything made of <a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">mesons</a>, which are unstable particles made up of a quark and an antiquark. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_general_relativity_and_cosmology">In general relativity and cosmology</h3></div> <p>In the context of <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, mass is not an additive quantity, in the sense that one cannot add the rest masses of particles in a system to get the total rest mass of the system.<sup id="cite_ref-Penrose_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penrose-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup> In relativity, usually a more general view is that it is not the sum of <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest masses</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor" title="Stress–energy tensor">energy–momentum tensor</a> that quantifies the amount of matter. This tensor gives the rest mass for the entire system. Matter, therefore, is sometimes considered as anything that contributes to the energy–momentum of a system, that is, anything that is not purely gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-Caroll_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caroll-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davies499_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies499-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view is commonly held in fields that deal with <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. In this view, light and other massless particles and fields are all part of matter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <p>In particle physics, fermions are particles that obey <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">Fermi–Dirac statistics</a>. Fermions can be elementary, like the electron—or composite, like the proton and neutron. In the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>, there are two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons, which are discussed next. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quarks">Quarks</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">Quark</a></div> <p>Quarks are <a href="/wiki/Massive_particle" title="Massive particle">massive particles</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">spin-<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000031-QINU`"'</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></a>, implying that they are <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>. They carry an <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> of −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> <i><a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a></i> (down-type quarks) or +<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> <i>e</i> (up-type quarks). For comparison, an electron has a charge of −1 <i>e</i>. They also carry <a href="/wiki/Colour_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour charge">colour charge</a>, which is the equivalent of the electric charge for the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a>. Quarks also undergo <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>, meaning that they are subject to the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:center;"> <caption>Quark properties<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>name</th> <th>symbol</th> <th>spin</th> <th>electric charge<br />(<i><a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a></i>)</th> <th>mass<br />(<a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">c</a></i><sup>2</sup>)</th> <th>mass comparable to</th> <th>antiparticle</th> <th>antiparticle<br />symbol </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">up-type quarks </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>u<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>+<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>1.5 to 3.3 </td> <td>~ 5 electrons </td> <td>antiup </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">u</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">charm</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>c<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>+<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>1160 to 1340 </td> <td>~ 1 proton </td> <td>anticharm </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">c</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>t<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>+<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">2</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>169,100 to 173,300 </td> <td>~ 180 protons or<br />~1 <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> atom </td> <td>antitop </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">t</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">down-type quarks </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>d<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>3.5 to 6.0 </td> <td>~10 electrons </td> <td>antidown </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">d</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">strange</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>s<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>70 to 130 </td> <td>~ 200 electrons </td> <td>antistrange </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">s</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">bottom</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>b<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> </td> <td>4130 to 4370 </td> <td>~ 5 protons </td> <td>antibottom </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">b</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baryonic">Baryonic</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quark_structure_proton.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/170px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/255px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/340px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="695" /></a><figcaption>Quark structure of a proton: 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.</figcaption></figure><p>Baryons are strongly interacting fermions, and so are subject to Fermi–Dirac statistics. Amongst the baryons are the protons and neutrons, which occur in atomic nuclei, but many other unstable baryons exist as well. The term baryon usually refers to triquarks—particles made of three quarks. Also, "exotic" baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark are known as <a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">pentaquarks</a>, but their existence is not generally accepted. </p><p>Baryonic matter is the part of the universe that is made of baryons (including all atoms). This part of the universe does not include <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_holes" class="mw-redirect" title="Black holes">black holes</a> or various forms of degenerate matter, such as those that compose <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a> stars and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>. Microwave light seen by <a href="/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe" title="Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe">Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe</a> (WMAP) suggests that only about 4.6% of that part of the universe within range of the best <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> (that is, matter that may be visible because light could reach us from it) is made of baryonic matter. About 26.8% is dark matter, and about 68.3% is dark energy.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_Science_Dark_Matter_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA_Science_Dark_Matter-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the mass–energy density of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hadronic">Hadronic</h4></div> <p>Hadronic matter can refer to 'ordinary' baryonic matter, made from <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a> (baryons and <a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">mesons</a>), or <a href="/wiki/Quark_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Quark matter">quark matter</a> (a generalisation of atomic nuclei), i.e. the 'low' temperature <a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">degenerate matter</a> and the result of high energy heavy nuclei collisions.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Degenerate">Degenerate</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">Degenerate matter</a></div> <p>In physics, <i>degenerate matter</i> refers to the ground state of a gas of fermions at a temperature near absolute zero.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldberg0_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldberg0-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a> requires that only two fermions can occupy a quantum state, one spin-up and the other spin-down. Hence, at zero temperature, the fermions fill up sufficient levels to accommodate all the available fermions—and in the case of many fermions, the maximum kinetic energy (called the <i><a href="/wiki/Fermi_energy" title="Fermi energy">Fermi energy</a></i>) and the pressure of the gas becomes very large, and depends on the number of fermions rather than the temperature, unlike normal states of matter. </p><p>Degenerate matter is thought to occur during the evolution of heavy stars.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldberg1_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldberg1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demonstration by <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> that <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf_star" class="mw-redirect" title="White dwarf star">white dwarf stars</a> have a maximum allowed mass because of the exclusion principle caused a revolution in the theory of star evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Luminet_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luminet-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Degenerate matter includes the part of the universe that is made up of neutron stars and white dwarfs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strange">Strange</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Strange_matter" title="Strange matter">Strange matter</a></div> <p><i>Strange matter</i> is a particular form of <a href="/wiki/Quark_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Quark matter">quark matter</a>, usually thought of as a <i>liquid</i> of <a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">up</a>, <a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">down</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">strange</a> quarks. It is contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">nuclear matter</a>, which is a liquid of <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> (which themselves are built out of up and down quarks), and with non-strange quark matter, which is a quark liquid that contains only up and down quarks. At high enough density, strange matter is expected to be <a href="/wiki/Color_superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Color superconductor">color superconducting</a>. Strange matter is hypothesized to occur in the core of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a>, or, more speculatively, as isolated droplets that may vary in size from <a href="/wiki/Femtometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Femtometer">femtometers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">strangelets</a>) to kilometers (<a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">quark stars</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Two_meanings">Two meanings</h5></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, the term is used in two ways, one broader and the other more specific. </p> <ol><li>The broader meaning is just quark matter that contains three flavors of quarks: up, down, and strange. In this definition, there is a critical pressure and an associated critical density, and when nuclear matter (made of <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a>) is compressed beyond this density, the protons and neutrons dissociate into quarks, yielding quark matter (probably strange matter).</li> <li>The narrower meaning is quark matter that is <i>more stable than nuclear matter</i>. The idea that this could happen is the "strange matter hypothesis" of Bodmer<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Witten.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this definition, the critical pressure is zero: the true ground state of matter is <i>always</i> quark matter. The nuclei that we see in the matter around us, which are droplets of nuclear matter, are actually <a href="/wiki/Metastable" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastable">metastable</a>, and given enough time (or the right external stimulus) would decay into droplets of strange matter, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">strangelets</a>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leptons">Leptons</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Lepton</a></div> <p>Leptons are particles of <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">spin-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span></a>, meaning that they are <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>. They carry an <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> of −1 <i><a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a></i> (charged leptons) or 0 <i>e</i> (neutrinos). Unlike quarks, leptons do not carry <a href="/wiki/Colour_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour charge">colour charge</a>, meaning that they do not experience the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a>. Leptons also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a>. Leptons are massive particles, therefore are subject to gravity. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:center;"> <caption>Lepton properties </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>name</th> <th>symbol</th> <th>spin</th> <th>electric charge<br />(<i><a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a></i>)</th> <th>mass<br />(<a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">MeV</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">c</a></i><sup>2</sup>)</th> <th>mass comparable to</th> <th>antiparticle</th> <th>antiparticle<br />symbol </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">charged leptons<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>−1 </td> <td>0.5110 </td> <td>1 electron </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antielectron" class="mw-redirect" title="Antielectron">antielectron</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>e<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>μ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>−1 </td> <td>105.7 </td> <td>~ 200 electrons </td> <td>antimuon </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>μ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">tau</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>τ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>−1 </td> <td>1,777 </td> <td>~ 2 protons </td> <td>antitau </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>τ<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">+</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7">neutrinos<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrino</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ν<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>0 </td> <td>< 0.000460 </td> <td>< <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">1000</span></span> electron </td> <td>electron antineutrino </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">e</sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">muon neutrino</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ν<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">μ</sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>0 </td> <td>< 0.19 </td> <td>< <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> electron </td> <td>muon antineutrino </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">μ</sub></span></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">tau neutrino</a> </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span>ν<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">τ</sub></span></span></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> </td> <td>0 </td> <td>< 18.2 </td> <td>< 40 electrons </td> <td>tau antineutrino </td> <td><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sub></span></span><span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">τ</sub></span></span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phases">Phases</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase (matter)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">Phase diagram</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">State of matter</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_for_pure_substance.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Phase_diagram_for_pure_substance.JPG/280px-Phase_diagram_for_pure_substance.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Phase_diagram_for_pure_substance.JPG/420px-Phase_diagram_for_pure_substance.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Phase_diagram_for_pure_substance.JPG/560px-Phase_diagram_for_pure_substance.JPG 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">Phase diagram</a> for a typical substance at a fixed volume</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bulk" class="extiw" title="wikt:bulk">bulk</a>, matter can exist in several different forms, or states of aggregation, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Collings_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collings-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> depending on ambient <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trevena_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trevena-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A phase is a form of matter that has a relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (such as <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific heat">specific heat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a>, and so forth). These phases include the three familiar ones (<a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>), as well as more exotic states of matter (such as <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasmas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Superfluid">superfluids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supersolid" title="Supersolid">supersolids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensates</a>, ...). A <i><a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a></i> may be a liquid, gas or plasma. There are also <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">paramagnetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetic</a> phases of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic material">magnetic materials</a>. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transitions</a> and are studied in the field of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>. In nanomaterials, the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume results in matter that can exhibit properties entirely different from those of bulk material, and not well described by any bulk phase (see <a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">nanomaterials</a> for more details). </p><p>Phases are sometimes called <i>states of matter</i>, but this term can lead to confusion with <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic states</a>. For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different <i>thermodynamic states</i> (different pressures), but in the same <i>phase</i> (both are gases). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antimatter">Antimatter</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233989161">.mw-parser-output .unsolved{margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;border:#ccc solid;padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.35em 2.2em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle);background-image:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Question%2C_Web_Fundamentals.svg");background-position:top 50%left 0.35em;background-size:1.5em;background-repeat:no-repeat}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .unsolved{clear:right;float:right;max-width:25%}}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-label{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-body{margin:0.35em;font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .unsolved-more{font-size:smaller}</style> <div role="note" aria-labelledby="unsolved-label-physics" class="unsolved"> <div><span class="unsolved-label" id="unsolved-label-physics">Unsolved problem in physics</span>:</div> <div class="unsolved-body"><a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">Baryon asymmetry</a>. Why is there far more matter than antimatter in the observable universe? </div> <div class="unsolved-more"><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">(more unsolved problems in physics)</a></div> </div> <p><i>Antimatter</i> is matter that is composed of the <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticles</a> of those that constitute ordinary matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come into contact with each other, the two <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilate</a>; that is, they may both be converted into other particles with equal <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s equation <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E%3DMC2" class="mw-redirect" title="E=MC2"><i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup></a></span>. These new particles may be high-energy <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>) or other particle–antiparticle pairs. The resulting particles are endowed with an amount of kinetic energy equal to the difference between the <a href="/wiki/Rest_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest mass">rest mass</a> of the products of the annihilation and the rest mass of the original particle–antiparticle pair, which is often quite large. Depending on which definition of "matter" is adopted, antimatter can be said to be a particular subclass of matter, or the opposite of matter. </p><p>Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>). This is because antimatter that came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as <a href="/wiki/Antihydrogen" title="Antihydrogen">antihydrogen</a>) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties. </p><p>There is considerable speculation both in <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter (in the sense of quarks and leptons but not antiquarks or antileptons), and whether other places are almost entirely antimatter (antiquarks and antileptons) instead. In the early universe, it is thought that matter and antimatter were equally represented, and the disappearance of antimatter requires an asymmetry in physical laws called <a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">CP (charge–parity) symmetry violation</a>, which can be obtained from the Standard Model,<sup id="cite_ref-CP_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CP-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but at this time the apparent <a href="/wiki/Asymmetry" title="Asymmetry">asymmetry</a> of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great <a href="/wiki/Unsolved_problems_in_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsolved problems in physics">unsolved problems in physics</a>. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under <a href="/wiki/Baryogenesis" title="Baryogenesis">baryogenesis</a>. </p><p>Formally, antimatter particles can be defined by their negative <a href="/wiki/Baryon_number" title="Baryon number">baryon number</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton number</a>, while "normal" (non-antimatter) matter particles have positive baryon or lepton number.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two classes of particles are the antiparticle partners of one another. </p><p>In October 2017, scientists reported further evidence that matter and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a>, equally produced at the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, are identical, should completely annihilate each other and, as a result, the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> should not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20171020_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20171020-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This implies that there must be something, as yet unknown to scientists, that either stopped the complete mutual destruction of matter and antimatter in the early forming universe, or that gave rise to an imbalance between the two forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conservation">Conservation</h2></div> <p>Two quantities that can define an amount of matter in the quark–lepton sense (and antimatter in an antiquark–antilepton sense), <a href="/wiki/Baryon_number" title="Baryon number">baryon number</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton number</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Conservation_law" title="Conservation law">conserved</a> in the Standard Model. A <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryon</a> such as the proton or neutron has a baryon number of one, and a quark, because there are three in a baryon, is given a baryon number of 1/3. So the net amount of matter, as measured by the number of quarks (minus the number of antiquarks, which each have a baryon number of −1/3), which is proportional to baryon number, and number of leptons (minus antileptons), which is called the lepton number, is practically impossible to change in any process. Even in a nuclear bomb, none of the baryons (protons and neutrons of which the atomic nuclei are composed) are destroyed—there are as many baryons after as before the reaction, so none of these matter particles are actually destroyed and none are even converted to non-matter particles (like photons of light or radiation). Instead, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">nuclear</a> (and perhaps <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy" title="Quantum chromodynamics binding energy">chromodynamic) binding energy</a> is released, as these baryons become bound into mid-size nuclei having less energy (and, <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">equivalently</a>, less <a href="/wiki/Mass_per_nucleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass per nucleon">mass) per nucleon</a> compared to the original small (hydrogen) and large (plutonium etc.) nuclei. Even in <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93positron_annihilation" title="Electron–positron annihilation">electron–positron annihilation</a>, there is no net matter being destroyed, because there was zero net matter (zero total lepton number and baryon number) to begin with before the annihilation—one lepton minus one antilepton equals zero net lepton number—and this net amount matter does not change as it simply remains zero after the annihilation.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In short, matter, as defined in physics, refers to baryons and leptons. The amount of matter is defined in terms of baryon and lepton number. Baryons and leptons can be created, but their creation is accompanied by antibaryons or antileptons; and they can be destroyed by annihilating them with antibaryons or antileptons. Since antibaryons/antileptons have negative baryon/lepton numbers, the overall baryon/lepton numbers are not changed, so matter is conserved. However, baryons/leptons and antibaryons/antileptons all have positive mass, so the total amount of mass is not conserved. Further, outside of natural or artificial nuclear reactions, there is almost no antimatter generally available in the universe (see <a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">baryon asymmetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leptogenesis_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptogenesis (physics)">leptogenesis</a>), so particle annihilation is rare in normal circumstances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dark">Dark</h2></div> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:#6a3d9a;; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 3978.035783976px; border-left-color:#cab2d6;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#cab2d6;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#cab2d6;"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 389.47428549299px; border-left-color:#a6cee3;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#a6cee3;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#a6cee3;"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:99.211470131448px 12.53332335643px 0 0; border-top-color:#1f78b4;"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#1f78b4;"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p>Pie chart showing the fractions of energy in the universe contributed by different sources. <i>Ordinary matter</i> is divided into <i>luminous matter</i> (the stars and luminous gases and 0.005% radiation) and <i>nonluminous matter</i> (intergalactic gas and about 0.1% neutrinos and 0.04% supermassive black holes). Ordinary matter is uncommon. Modeled after Ostriker and Steinhardt.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostriker_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostriker-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For more information, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/index.html">NASA</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#1f78b4;; color:white;"> </span> Dark energy (73%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a6cee3;; color:black;"> </span> Dark matter (23%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cab2d6;; color:black;"> </span> Non-luminous matter (3.6%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#6a3d9a;; color:white;"> </span> Luminous matter (0.4%)</div> </div> </div></div> <p>Ordinary matter, in the quarks and leptons definition, constitutes about 4% of the <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">energy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Observable_universe" title="Observable universe">observable universe</a>. The remaining energy is theorized to be due to exotic forms, of which 23% is <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a><sup id="cite_ref-Pretzl_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pretzl-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 73% is <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheeler0_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler0-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gribbin_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gribbin-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rotation_curve_(Milky_Way).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Rotation_curve_%28Milky_Way%29.svg/280px-Rotation_curve_%28Milky_Way%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Rotation_curve_%28Milky_Way%29.svg/420px-Rotation_curve_%28Milky_Way%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Rotation_curve_%28Milky_Way%29.svg/560px-Rotation_curve_%28Milky_Way%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="562" data-file-height="393" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve" title="Galaxy rotation curve">Galaxy rotation curve</a> for the Milky Way. Vertical axis is speed of rotation about the galactic center. Horizontal axis is distance from the galactic center. The sun is marked with a yellow ball. The observed curve of speed of rotation is blue. The predicted curve based upon stellar mass and gas in the Milky Way is red. The difference is due to <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> or perhaps a modification of the <a href="/wiki/MOND" class="mw-redirect" title="MOND">law of gravity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schneider_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schneider-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koupelis_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koupelis-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jones_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scatter in observations is indicated roughly by gray bars.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model" title="Lambda-CDM model">Lambda-CDM model</a>, and <a href="/wiki/WIMPs" class="mw-redirect" title="WIMPs">WIMPs</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_formation_and_evolution" title="Galaxy formation and evolution">Galaxy formation and evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter_halo" title="Dark matter halo">Dark matter halo</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <i>dark matter</i> is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Majumdar_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Majumdar-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Olive_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olive-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Observational evidence of the early universe and the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but not be composed of ordinary baryons (protons and neutrons). The commonly accepted view is that most of the dark matter is <a href="/wiki/Nonbaryonic_dark_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonbaryonic dark matter">non-baryonic in nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Majumdar_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Majumdar-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory. Perhaps they are <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetric particles</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Olive2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olive2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are not <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> particles but relics formed at very high energies in the early phase of the universe and still floating about.<sup id="cite_ref-Majumdar_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Majumdar-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy">Energy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang#Dark_energy" title="Big Bang">Big Bang § Dark energy</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <i>dark energy</i> is the name given to the source of the repelling influence that is accelerating the rate of <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe</a>. Its precise nature is currently a mystery, although its effects can reasonably be modeled by assigning matter-like properties such as energy density and pressure to the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheeler1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheeler1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smolin2_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smolin2-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Fully 70% of the matter density in the universe appears to be in the form of dark energy. Twenty-six percent is dark matter. Only 4% is ordinary matter. So less than 1 part in 20 is made out of matter we have observed experimentally or described in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard model">standard model</a> of particle physics. Of the other 96%, apart from the properties just mentioned, we know absolutely nothing.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Lee_Smolin" title="Lee Smolin">Lee Smolin</a> (2007), <i>The Trouble with Physics</i>, p. 16</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exotic">Exotic</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></div> <p>Exotic matter is a concept of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, which may include dark matter and dark energy but goes further to include any hypothetical material that violates one or more of the properties of known forms of matter. Some such materials might possess hypothetical properties like <a href="/wiki/Negative_mass" title="Negative mass">negative mass</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_and_philosophical_study">Historical and philosophical study</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity_(c._600_BCE–c._322_BCE)"><span id="Classical_antiquity_.28c._600_BCE.E2.80.93c._322_BCE.29"></span>Classical antiquity (c. 600 BCE–c. 322 BCE)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> philosophical traditions each posited that <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">matter was made of atoms</a> (<i>paramanu</i>, <i>pudgala</i>) that were "eternal, indestructible, without parts, and innumerable" and which associated or dissociated to form more complex matter according to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">laws of nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pullman2001p77_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullman2001p77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They coupled their ideas of soul, or lack thereof, into their theory of matter. The strongest developers and defenders of this theory were the <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>-<a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> school, with the ideas of the Indian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a> being the most followed.<sup id="cite_ref-Pullman2001p77_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullman2001p77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fowler2002_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler2002-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buddhist philosophers also developed these ideas in late 1st-millennium CE, ideas that were similar to the Vaisheshika school, but ones that did not include any soul or conscience.<sup id="cite_ref-Pullman2001p77_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullman2001p77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jain philosophers included the <a href="/wiki/Jiva" title="Jiva">soul</a> (<i>jiva</i>), adding qualities such as taste, smell, touch, and color to each atom.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They extended the ideas found in early literature of the Hindus and Buddhists by adding that atoms are either humid or dry, and this quality cements matter. They also proposed the possibility that atoms combine because of the attraction of opposites, and the soul attaches to these atoms, transforms with <i><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a></i> residue, and <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">transmigrates with each rebirth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pullman2001p77_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pullman2001p77-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic philosophers</a> speculated the underlying nature of the visible world. <a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a> (c. 624 BCE–c. 546 BCE) regarded water as the fundamental material of the world. <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> (c. 610 BCE–c. 546 BCE) posited that the basic material was wholly characterless or limitless: the Infinite (<i><a href="/wiki/Apeiron_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apeiron (cosmology)">apeiron</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a> (flourished 585 BCE, d. 528 BCE) posited that the basic stuff was <i>pneuma</i> or air. <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> (c. 535 BCE–c. 475 BCE) seems to say the basic element is fire, though perhaps he means that all is change. <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> (c. 490–430 BCE) spoke of four <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">elements</a> of which everything was made: earth, water, air, and fire.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> argued that change does not exist, and <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> argued that everything is composed of minuscule, inert bodies of all shapes called atoms, a philosophy called <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a>. All of these notions had deep philosophical problems.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384 BCE–322 BCE) was the first to put the conception on a sound philosophical basis, which he did in his natural philosophy, especially in <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)"><i>Physics</i></a> book I.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He adopted as reasonable suppositions the four <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">Empedoclean elements</a>, but added a fifth, <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>. Nevertheless, these elements are not basic in Aristotle's mind. Rather they, like everything else in the visible world, are composed of the basic <i>principles</i> matter and form. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For my definition of matter is just this—the primary substratum of each thing, from which it comes to be without qualification, and which persists in the result.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aristotle, Physics I:9:192a32</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The word Aristotle uses for matter, <a href="/wiki/Hyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyle">ὕλη (<i>hyle</i> or <i>hule</i>)</a>, can be literally translated as wood or timber, that is, "raw material" for building.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, Aristotle's conception of matter is intrinsically linked to something being made or composed. In other words, in contrast to the early modern conception of matter as simply occupying space, matter for Aristotle is definitionally linked to process or change: matter is what underlies a change of substance. For example, a horse eats grass: the horse changes the grass into itself; the grass as such does not persist in the horse, but some aspect of it—its matter—does. The matter is not specifically described (e.g., as <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>), but consists of whatever persists in the change of substance from grass to horse. Matter in this understanding does not exist independently (i.e., as a <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>), but exists interdependently (i.e., as a "principle") with form and only insofar as it underlies change. It can be helpful to conceive of the relationship of matter and form as very similar to that between parts and whole. For Aristotle, matter as such can only <i>receive</i> actuality from form; it has no activity or actuality in itself, similar to the way that parts as such only have their existence <i>in</i> a whole (otherwise they would be independent wholes). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment philosophy">Enlightenment philosophy</a></div> <p>French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> (1596–1650) originated the modern conception of matter. He was primarily a geometer. Unlike Aristotle, who deduced the existence of matter from the physical reality of change, Descartes arbitrarily postulated matter to be an abstract, mathematical substance that occupies space: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>So, extension in length, breadth, and depth, constitutes the nature of bodily substance; and thought constitutes the nature of thinking substance. And everything else attributable to body presupposes extension, and is only a mode of an extended thing.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>René Descartes, Principles of Philosophy<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>For Descartes, matter has only the property of extension, so its only activity aside from locomotion is to exclude other bodies:<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is the <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanical philosophy</a>. Descartes makes an absolute distinction between mind, which he defines as unextended, thinking substance, and matter, which he defines as unthinking, extended substance.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are independent things. In contrast, Aristotle defines matter and the formal/forming principle as complementary <i>principles</i> that together compose one independent thing (<a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a>). In short, Aristotle defines matter (roughly speaking) as what things are actually made of (with a <i>potential</i> independent existence), but Descartes elevates matter to an actual independent thing in itself. </p><p>The continuity and difference between Descartes's and Aristotle's conceptions is noteworthy. In both conceptions, matter is passive or inert. In the respective conceptions matter has different relationships to intelligence. For Aristotle, matter and intelligence (form) exist together in an interdependent relationship, whereas for Descartes, matter and intelligence (mind) are definitionally opposed, independent <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substances</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Descartes's justification for restricting the inherent qualities of matter to extension is its permanence, but his real criterion is not permanence (which equally applied to color and resistance), but his desire to use geometry to explain all material properties.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Descartes, Hobbes, Boyle, and Locke argued that the inherent properties of bodies were limited to extension, and that so-called secondary qualities, like color, were only products of human perception.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English philosopher <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1643–1727) inherited Descartes's mechanical conception of matter. In the third of his "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy", Newton lists the universal qualities of matter as "extension, hardness, impenetrability, mobility, and inertia".<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly in <i>Optics</i> he conjectures that God created matter as "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles", which were "...even so very hard as never to wear or break in pieces".<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "primary" properties of matter were amenable to mathematical description, unlike "secondary" qualities such as color or taste. Like Descartes, Newton rejected the essential nature of secondary qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Newton developed Descartes's notion of matter by restoring to matter intrinsic properties in addition to extension (at least on a limited basis), such as mass. Newton's use of gravitational force, which worked "at a distance", effectively repudiated Descartes's mechanics, in which interactions happened exclusively by contact.<sup id="cite_ref-Chomsky_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chomsky-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though Newton's gravity would seem to be a <i>power</i> of bodies, Newton himself did not admit it to be an <i>essential</i> property of matter. Carrying the logic forward more consistently, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> (1733–1804) argued that corporeal properties transcend contact mechanics: chemical properties require the <i>capacity</i> for attraction.<sup id="cite_ref-Chomsky_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chomsky-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued matter has other inherent powers besides the so-called primary qualities of Descartes, et al.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_and_20th_centuries">19th and 20th centuries</h3></div> <p>Since Priestley's time, there has been a massive expansion in knowledge of the constituents of the material world (viz., molecules, atoms, subatomic particles). In the 19th century, following the development of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> were seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter; atoms formed <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compound_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound (chemistry)">compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wenham_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wenham-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span class="anchor" id="note"></span> </p><p>The common definition in terms of occupying space and having mass is in contrast with most physical and chemical definitions of matter, which rely instead upon its structure and upon attributes not necessarily related to volume and mass. At the turn of the nineteenth century, the knowledge of matter began a rapid evolution. </p><p>Aspects of the Newtonian view still held sway. <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> discussed matter in his work <i>Matter and Motion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maxwell_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He carefully separates "matter" from space and time, and defines it in terms of the object referred to in <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_first_law_of_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton's first law of motion">Newton's first law of motion</a>. </p><p> However, the Newtonian picture was not the whole story. In the 19th century, the term "matter" was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers, and a brief outline can be found in Levere.<sup id="cite_ref-Levere_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levere-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (March 2011)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A textbook discussion from 1870 suggests matter is what is made up of atoms:<sup id="cite_ref-Barker_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barker-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Three divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms. <br />A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses. <br />A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity. <br />An Atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule. </p></blockquote> <p>Rather than simply having the attributes of mass and occupying space, matter was held to have chemical and electrical properties. In 1909 the famous physicist <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1856–1940) wrote about the "constitution of matter" and was concerned with the possible connection between matter and electrical charge.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomson_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomson-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 19th century with the <a href="/wiki/Thomson_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson experiment">discovery</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>, and in the early 20th century, with the <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiment">Geiger–Marsden experiment</a> discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>, and the birth of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, matter was seen as made up of electrons, <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> interacting to form atoms. There then developed an entire literature concerning the "structure of matter", ranging from the "electrical structure" in the early 20th century,<sup id="cite_ref-Richardson_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the more recent "quark structure of matter", introduced as early as 1992 by Jacob with the remark: "Understanding the quark structure of matter has been one of the most important advances in contemporary physics."<sup id="cite_ref-Jacob_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacob-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (March 2011)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In this connection, physicists speak of <i>matter fields</i>, and speak of particles as "quantum excitations of a mode of the matter field".<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weinberg_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weinberg-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And here is a quote from de Sabbata and Gasperini: "With the word 'matter' we denote, in this context, the sources of the interactions, that is <a href="/wiki/Spinor_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinor field">spinor fields</a> (like <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a>), which are believed to be the fundamental components of matter, or <a href="/wiki/Bosonic_field" title="Bosonic field">scalar fields</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Higgs particle">Higgs particles</a>, which are used to introduced mass in a <a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">gauge theory</a> (and that, however, could be composed of more fundamental <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermion</a> <a href="/wiki/Fermionic_field" title="Fermionic field">fields</a>)."<sup id="cite_ref-Sabbata_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sabbata-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag needs further explanation. (March 2011)">further explanation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Protons and neutrons however are not indivisible: they can be divided into <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>. And electrons are part of a particle family called <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a>. Both <a href="#Quarks_and_leptons_definition">quarks and leptons</a> are <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a>, and were in 2004 seen by authors of an undergraduate text as being the fundamental constituents of matter.<sup id="cite_ref-Povh1_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povh1-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These quarks and leptons interact through four <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental forces">fundamental forces</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interactions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interactions</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a> (see <i><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Allday2_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allday2-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the frustration of theoreticians like <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>. Interactions between quarks and leptons are the result of an exchange of <a href="/wiki/Force_carriers" class="mw-redirect" title="Force carriers">force-carrying particles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> between quarks and leptons.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The force-carrying particles are not themselves building blocks. As one consequence, mass and energy (which to our present knowledge cannot be created or destroyed) cannot always be related to matter (which can be created out of non-matter particles such as photons, or even out of pure energy, such as kinetic energy).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Force mediators are usually not considered matter: the mediators of the electric force (photons) possess energy (see <i><a href="/wiki/Planck_relation" title="Planck relation">Planck relation</a></i>) and the mediators of the weak force (<a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a>) have mass, but neither are considered matter either.<sup id="cite_ref-PhotonsMatter_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhotonsMatter-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, while these quanta are not considered matter, they do contribute to the total mass of atoms, <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>, and all systems that contain them.<sup id="cite_ref-Tipler0_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tipler0-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spitzer_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spitzer-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary">Summary</h2></div> <p>The modern conception of matter has been refined many times in history, in light of the improvement in knowledge of just <i>what</i> the basic building blocks are, and in how they interact. The term "matter" is used throughout physics in a wide variety of contexts: for example, one refers to "<a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-Chaikin_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaikin-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "elementary matter",<sup id="cite_ref-Greiner_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greiner-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a href="/wiki/Parton_(particle_physics)" title="Parton (particle physics)">partonic</a>" matter, "<a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark</a>" matter, "<a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">anti</a>"-matter, "<a href="/wiki/Strange_matter" title="Strange matter">strange</a>" matter, and "<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">nuclear</a>" matter. In discussions of matter and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a>, the former has been referred to by <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> as <i>koinomatter</i> (Gk. <i>common matter</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is fair to say that in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, there is no broad consensus as to a general definition of matter, and the term "matter" usually is used in conjunction with a specifying modifier. </p><p>The history of the concept of matter is a history of the fundamental <i>length scales</i> used to define matter. Different building blocks apply depending upon whether one defines matter on an atomic or elementary particle level. One may use a definition that matter is atoms, or that matter is <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a>, or that matter is leptons and quarks depending upon the scale at which one wishes to define matter.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These quarks and leptons interact through four <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental forces">fundamental forces</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interactions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interactions</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a> (see <i><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Allday2_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allday2-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><b>Antimatter</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiplasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiplasma">Ambiplasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihydrogen" title="Antihydrogen">Antihydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerator</a></li></ul> <p><b>Cosmology</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">Cosmological constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedmann_equations" title="Friedmann equations">Friedmann equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical ontology">Physical ontology</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><b>Dark matter</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonbaryonic_dark_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonbaryonic dark matter">Nonbaryonic dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_field_dark_matter" title="Scalar field dark matter">Scalar field dark matter</a></li></ul> <p><b>Philosophy</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_word#English_examples" title="Hybrid word">Mattergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_formation" title="Pattern formation">Pattern formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_Systems_of_Small_Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic Systems of Small Molecules">Periodic Systems of Small Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Penrose-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Penrose_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFR._Penrose1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">R. 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Williams (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1vnk6J8knKkC&pg=PA40"><i>Chemistry: The Molecular Science</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Jones_%26_Bartlett" class="mw-redirect" title="Jones & Bartlett">Jones & Bartlett</a>. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8151-8450-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8151-8450-8"><bdi>978-0-8151-8450-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3A+The+Molecular+Science&rft.pages=40&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8151-8450-8&rft.au=J.+Olmsted&rft.au=G.M.+Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1vnk6J8knKkC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mongillo-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mongillo_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Mongillo2007" class="citation book cs1">J. Mongillo (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j69lwrrQ4nsC&pg=PA30"><i>Nanotechnology 101</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33880-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33880-9"><bdi>978-0-313-33880-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanotechnology+101&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33880-9&rft.au=J.+Mongillo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj69lwrrQ4nsC%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP.C.W._Davies1979" class="citation book cs1">P.C.W. Davies (1979). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forcesofnature0000davi"><i>The Forces of Nature</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forcesofnature0000davi/page/116">116</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22523-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22523-6"><bdi>978-0-521-22523-6</bdi></a>. <q>matter field.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forces+of+Nature&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22523-6&rft.au=P.C.W.+Davies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforcesofnature0000davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinberg-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weinberg_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weinberg_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._Weinberg1998" class="citation book cs1">S. Weinberg (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2oPZJJerMLsC&q=Weinberg+%22matter+field%22&pg=PA5"><i>The Quantum Theory of Fields</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55002-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55002-4"><bdi>978-0-521-55002-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quantum+Theory+of+Fields&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55002-4&rft.au=S.+Weinberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2oPZJJerMLsC%26q%3DWeinberg%2B%2522matter%2Bfield%2522%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Masujima-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Masujima_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Masujima2008" class="citation book cs1">M. Masujima (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OM15pk3ZHf0C&pg=PA103"><i>Path Integral Quantization and Stochastic Quantization</i></a>. Springer. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-87850-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-87850-6"><bdi>978-3-540-87850-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Path+Integral+Quantization+and+Stochastic+Quantization&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-540-87850-6&rft.au=M.+Masujima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOM15pk3ZHf0C%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHale2013" class="citation book cs1">Hale, Bob (19 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L7poAgAAQBAJ&q=chemical+substance+is+a+form+of+matter+having+constant+chemical+composition+and+characteristic+properties&pg=PA280"><i>Necessary Beings: An Essay on Ontology, Modality, and the Relations Between Them</i></a>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191648342" title="Special:BookSources/9780191648342"><bdi>9780191648342</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180113233820/https://books.google.com/books?id=L7poAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA280&dq=chemical+substance+is+a+form+of+matter+having+constant+chemical+composition+and+characteristic+properties&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi-k_LI_dXUAhUHyWMKHa8vCowQ6AEIMjAC#v=onepage&q=chemical%20substance%20is%20a%20form%20of%20matter%20having%20constant%20chemical%20composition%20and%20characteristic%20properties&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Necessary+Beings%3A+An+Essay+on+Ontology%2C+Modality%2C+and+the+Relations+Between+Them&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2013-09-19&rft.isbn=9780191648342&rft.aulast=Hale&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL7poAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchemical%2Bsubstance%2Bis%2Ba%2Bform%2Bof%2Bmatter%2Bhaving%2Bconstant%2Bchemical%2Bcomposition%2Band%2Bcharacteristic%2Bproperties%26pg%3DPA280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_books#Gold_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC books">Compendium of Chemical Terminology</a></i>, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/C01039.html">Chemical Substance</a>". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2Fgoldbook.C01039">10.1351/goldbook.C01039</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introductory_Chemistry_Online_(Young)/02%3A_The_Physical_and_Chemical_Properties_of_Matter/2.1%3A_Pure_Substances_and_Mixtures">"2.1: Pure Substances and Mixtures"</a>. <i>Chemistry LibreTexts</i>. 15 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+LibreTexts&rft.atitle=2.1%3A+Pure+Substances+and+Mixtures&rft.date=2017-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchem.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FIntroductory_Chemistry%2FBook%253A_Introductory_Chemistry_Online_%28Young%29%2F02%253A_The_Physical_and_Chemical_Properties_of_Matter%2F2.1%253A_Pure_Substances_and_Mixtures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2012" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Lawrence E. (13 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jNbxCwAAQBAJ&q=chemical+substance+cannot+be+separated+into+components+by+physical+separation+method&pg=PA50"><i>The Processes of Life: An Introduction to Molecular Biology</i></a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262299947" title="Special:BookSources/9780262299947"><bdi>9780262299947</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180113233819/https://books.google.com/books?id=jNbxCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=chemical+substance+cannot+be+separated+into+components+by+physical+separation+method&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSrP7Q_NXUAhUH9mMKHdN0DDsQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=chemical%20substance%20cannot%20be%20separated%20into%20components%20by%20physical%20separation%20method&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Processes+of+Life%3A+An+Introduction+to+Molecular+Biology&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2012-01-13&rft.isbn=9780262299947&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjNbxCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dchemical%2Bsubstance%2Bcannot%2Bbe%2Bseparated%2Binto%2Bcomponents%2Bby%2Bphysical%2Bseparation%2Bmethod%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barker0-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barker0_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG.F._Barker1870" class="citation book cs1">G.F. Barker (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=az8AAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Three%20divisions%20of%20matter%20are%20recognized%22&pg=PA2">"Divisions of matter"</a>. <i>A text-book of elementary chemistry: theoretical and inorganic</i>. John F Morton & Co. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4460-2206-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4460-2206-1"><bdi>978-1-4460-2206-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Divisions+of+matter&rft.btitle=A+text-book+of+elementary+chemistry%3A+theoretical+and+inorganic&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=John+F+Morton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1870&rft.isbn=978-1-4460-2206-1&rft.au=G.F.+Barker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Daz8AAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522Three%2520divisions%2520of%2520matter%2520are%2520recognized%2522%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DePodesta1-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DePodesta1_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._de_Podesta2002" class="citation book cs1">M. de Podesta (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h8BNvnR050cC&pg=PA8"><i>Understanding the Properties of Matter</i></a> (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25788-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25788-6"><bdi>978-0-415-25788-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Properties+of+Matter&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25788-6&rft.au=M.+de+Podesta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh8BNvnR050cC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Povh0-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Povh0_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._PovhK._RithC._ScholzF._Zetsche2004" class="citation book cs1">B. Povh; K. Rith; C. Scholz; F. Zetsche; M. Lavelle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&q=povh+%22building+blocks+of+matter%22&pg=PA9">"Part I: Analysis: The building blocks of matter"</a>. <i>Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts</i> (4th ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7"><bdi>978-3-540-20168-7</bdi></a>. <q>Ordinary matter is composed entirely of first-generation particles, namely the u and d quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+Analysis%3A+The+building+blocks+of+matter&rft.btitle=Particles+and+Nuclei%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Physical+Concepts&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20168-7&rft.au=B.+Povh&rft.au=K.+Rith&rft.au=C.+Scholz&rft.au=F.+Zetsche&rft.au=M.+Lavelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrJe4k8tkq7sC%26q%3Dpovh%2B%2522building%2Bblocks%2Bof%2Bmatter%2522%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carithers-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carithers_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carithers_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._CarithersP._Grannis1995" class="citation journal cs1">B. Carithers; P. Grannis (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/pdf/95iii.pdf">"Discovery of the Top Quark"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beam_Line&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beam Line (page does not exist)">Beam Line</a></i>. <b>25</b> (3): 4–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Beam+Line&rft.atitle=Discovery+of+the+Top+Quark&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=4-16&rft.date=1995&rft.au=B.+Carithers&rft.au=P.+Grannis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slac.stanford.edu%2Fpubs%2Fbeamline%2Fpdf%2F95iii.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsan2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tsan, Ung Chan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00025093/file/matter-partG05R.pdf">"What Is a Matter Particle?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Modern Physics E</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 259–272. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IJMPE..15..259C">2006IJMPE..15..259C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218301306003916">10.1142/S0218301306003916</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121628541">121628541</a>. <q><i>(From Abstract:)</i> Positive baryon numbers (A>0) and positive lepton numbers (L>0) characterize matter particles while negative baryon numbers and negative lepton numbers characterize antimatter particles. Matter particles and antimatter particles belong to two distinct classes of particles. Matter neutral particles are particles characterized by both zero baryon number and zero lepton number. This third class of particles includes mesons formed by a quark and an antiquark pair (a pair of matter particle and antimatter particle) and bosons which are messengers of known interactions (photons for electromagnetism, W and Z bosons for the weak interaction, gluons for the strong interaction). The antiparticle of a matter particle belongs to the class of antimatter particles, the antiparticle of an antimatter particle belongs to the class of matter particles.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+E&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Matter+Particle%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=259-272&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121628541%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0218301306003916&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006IJMPE..15..259C&rft.aulast=Tsan&rft.aufirst=Ung+Chan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhal.in2p3.fr%2Fin2p3-00025093%2Ffile%2Fmatter-partG05R.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green2005-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green2005_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Green2005" class="citation book cs1">D. Green (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6-7TE5N0vbIC&pg=PA23"><i>High P<sub>T</sub> physics at hadron colliders</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83509-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83509-1"><bdi>978-0-521-83509-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=High+P%3Csub%3ET%3C%2Fsub%3E+physics+at+hadron+colliders&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83509-1&rft.au=D.+Green&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-7TE5N0vbIC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smolin-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smolin_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Smolin2007" class="citation book cs1">L. Smolin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z5rxrnlcp3sC&pg=PA67"><i>The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next</i></a>. Mariner Books. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-91868-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-91868-3"><bdi>978-0-618-91868-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trouble+with+Physics%3A+The+Rise+of+String+Theory%2C+the+Fall+of+a+Science%2C+and+What+Comes+Next&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Mariner+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-618-91868-3&rft.au=L.+Smolin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz5rxrnlcp3sC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caso-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caso_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The W boson mass is 80.398 GeV; see Figure 1 in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Amsler2008" class="citation journal cs1">C. Amsler; et al. (<a href="/wiki/Particle_Data_Group" title="Particle Data Group">Particle Data Group</a>) (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/reviews/wmass_s043202.pdf">"Review of Particle Physics: The Mass and Width of the W Boson"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Letters_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Physics Letters B">Physics Letters B</a></i>. <b>667</b> (1): 1. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhLB..667....1A">2008PhLB..667....1A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018">10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-685594">1854/LU-685594</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics%3A+The+Mass+and+Width+of+the+W+Boson&rft.volume=667&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-685594&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PhLB..667....1A&rft.au=C.+Amsler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F2008%2Freviews%2Fwmass_s043202.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aitchison-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aitchison_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFI.J.R._AitchisonA.J.G._Hey2004" class="citation book cs1">I.J.R. Aitchison; A.J.G. Hey (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vLP7XN2pWlEC&pg=PA48"><i>Gauge Theories in Particle Physics</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0864-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0864-9"><bdi>978-0-7503-0864-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gauge+Theories+in+Particle+Physics&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0864-9&rft.au=I.J.R.+Aitchison&rft.au=A.J.G.+Hey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvLP7XN2pWlEC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Povh-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Povh_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._PovhK._RithC._ScholzF._Zetsche2004" class="citation book cs1">B. Povh; K. Rith; C. Scholz; F. Zetsche; M. Lavelle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA103"><i>Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts</i></a>. Springer. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7"><bdi>978-3-540-20168-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Particles+and+Nuclei%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Physical+Concepts&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20168-7&rft.au=B.+Povh&rft.au=K.+Rith&rft.au=C.+Scholz&rft.au=F.+Zetsche&rft.au=M.+Lavelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrJe4k8tkq7sC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green2004-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green2004_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA.M._Green2004" class="citation book cs1">A.M. Green (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XUGVOJKHgKAC&pg=PA120"><i>Hadronic Physics from Lattice QCD</i></a>. World Scientific. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-256-022-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-256-022-3"><bdi>978-981-256-022-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hadronic+Physics+from+Lattice+QCD&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-981-256-022-3&rft.au=A.M.+Green&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXUGVOJKHgKAC%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akai-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Akai_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._Hatsuda2008" class="citation book cs1">T. Hatsuda (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZdFi145170C&pg=PA296">"Quark–gluon plasma and QCD"</a>. In H. Akai (ed.). <i>Condensed matter theories</i>. Vol. 21. Nova Publishers. p. 296. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60021-501-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60021-501-8"><bdi>978-1-60021-501-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Quark%E2%80%93gluon+plasma+and+QCD&rft.btitle=Condensed+matter+theories&rft.pages=296&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-60021-501-8&rft.au=T.+Hatsuda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPZdFi145170C%26pg%3DPA296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Staley-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Staley_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.W._Staley2004" class="citation book cs1">K.W. Staley (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DLt_fcBYynAC&pg=PA8">"Origins of the Third Generation of Matter"</a>. <i>The Evidence for the Top Quark</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82710-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82710-2"><bdi>978-0-521-82710-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Origins+of+the+Third+Generation+of+Matter&rft.btitle=The+Evidence+for+the+Top+Quark&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82710-2&rft.au=K.W.+Staley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDLt_fcBYynAC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kirsh-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kirsh_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFY._Ne'emanY._Kirsh1996" class="citation book cs1">Y. Ne'eman; Y. Kirsh (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K4jcfCguj8YC&pg=PA276"><i>The Particle Hunters</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47686-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47686-7"><bdi>978-0-521-47686-7</bdi></a>. <q>[T]he most natural explanation to the existence of higher generations of quarks and leptons is that they correspond to excited states of the first generation, and experience suggests that excited systems must be composite</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Particle+Hunters&rft.pages=276&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47686-7&rft.au=Y.+Ne%27eman&rft.au=Y.+Kirsh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK4jcfCguj8YC%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walker_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.M._WalkerA._King2005" class="citation book cs1">S.M. Walker; A. King (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o7EquxOl4MAC&q=matter"><i>What is Matter?</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Lerner_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Lerner Publications">Lerner Publications</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8225-5131-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8225-5131-7"><bdi>978-0-8225-5131-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Matter%3F&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Lerner+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8225-5131-7&rft.au=S.M.+Walker&rft.au=A.+King&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do7EquxOl4MAC%26q%3Dmatter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hage-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hage_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.KenkelP.B._KelterD.S._Hage2000" class="citation book cs1">J.Kenkel; P.B. Kelter; D.S. Hage (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ADSjPRl_tgoC&pg=PA1"><i>Chemistry: An Industry-based Introduction with CD-ROM</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-303-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-303-1"><bdi>978-1-56670-303-1</bdi></a>. <q>All basic science textbooks define <i>matter</i> as simply the collective aggregate of all material substances that occupy space and have mass or weight.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3A+An+Industry-based+Introduction+with+CD-ROM&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-56670-303-1&rft.au=J.Kenkel&rft.au=P.B.+Kelter&rft.au=D.S.+Hage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DADSjPRl_tgoC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peacock-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peacock_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.A._Peacock2008" class="citation book cs1">K.A. Peacock (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ITqnf5jdE5QC&pg=PA47"><i>The Quantum Revolution: A Historical Perspective</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33448-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33448-1"><bdi>978-0-313-33448-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quantum+Revolution%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33448-1&rft.au=K.A.+Peacock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DITqnf5jdE5QC%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kreiger-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kreiger_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.H._Krieger1998" class="citation book cs1">M.H. Krieger (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VduHhkzl-aQC&q=%22does+not+collapse+into+itself%22&pg=PA22"><i>Constitutions of Matter: Mathematically Modeling the Most Everyday of Physical Phenomena</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45305-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45305-7"><bdi>978-0-226-45305-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constitutions+of+Matter%3A+Mathematically+Modeling+the+Most+Everyday+of+Physical+Phenomena&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-226-45305-7&rft.au=M.H.+Krieger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVduHhkzl-aQC%26q%3D%2522does%2Bnot%2Bcollapse%2Binto%2Bitself%2522%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caroll-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caroll_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.M._Caroll2004" class="citation book cs1">S.M. 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Davies (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=akb2FpZSGnMC&pg=PA499"><i>The New Physics: A Synthesis</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 499. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43831-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43831-5"><bdi>978-0-521-43831-5</bdi></a>. <q><b>Matter fields</b>: the fields whose quanta describe the elementary particles that make up the material content of the Universe (as opposed to the gravitons and their supersymmetric partners).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Physics%3A+A+Synthesis&rft.pages=499&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43831-5&rft.au=P.+Davies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dakb2FpZSGnMC%26pg%3DPA499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Amsler2008" class="citation journal cs1">C. 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(23 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F706%2F3%2F032001">"Modelling Hadronic Matter"</a>. <i>Journal of Physics: Conference Series</i>. <b>706</b> (3): 032001. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016JPhCS.706c2001M">2016JPhCS.706c2001M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F706%2F3%2F032001">10.1088/1742-6596/706/3/032001</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics%3A+Conference+Series&rft.atitle=Modelling+Hadronic+Matter&rft.volume=706&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=032001&rft.date=2016-04-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F706%2F3%2F032001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016JPhCS.706c2001M&rft.aulast=Menezes&rft.aufirst=D%C3%A9bora+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1742-6596%252F706%252F3%252F032001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldberg0-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Goldberg0_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH.S._GoldbergM.D._Scadron1987" class="citation book cs1">H.S. 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Collings (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NE1RWiGXtdUC">"Chapter 1: States of Matter"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liquidcrystalsna00coll"><i>Liquid Crystals: Nature's Delicate Phase of Matter</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08672-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08672-9"><bdi>978-0-691-08672-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+States+of+Matter&rft.btitle=Liquid+Crystals%3A+Nature%27s+Delicate+Phase+of+Matter&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08672-9&rft.au=P.J.+Collings&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNE1RWiGXtdUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trevena-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trevena_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD.H._Trevena1975" class="citation book cs1">D.H. Trevena (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oOkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1">"Chapter 1.2: Changes of phase"</a>. <i>The Liquid Phase</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85109-031-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85109-031-3"><bdi>978-0-85109-031-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1.2%3A+Changes+of+phase&rft.btitle=The+Liquid+Phase&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-85109-031-3&rft.au=D.H.+Trevena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoOkOAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CP-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CP_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Research_Council_(US)2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council (US)</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oTedc3rTDr4C&pg=PA46"><i>Revealing the hidden nature of space and time</i></a>. National Academies Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10194-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10194-3"><bdi>978-0-309-10194-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revealing+the+hidden+nature+of+space+and+time&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10194-3&rft.au=National+Research+Council+%28US%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoTedc3rTDr4C%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsan2012" class="citation journal cs1">Tsan, U.C. (2012). 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Materialization and annihilation obey conservation of A and L (associated to all known interactions)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+E&rft.atitle=Negative+Numbers+And+Antimatter+Particles&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1250005-1-1250005-23&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS021830131250005X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012IJMPE..2150005T&rft.aulast=Tsan&rft.aufirst=U.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NAT-20171020-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NAT-20171020_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmorra_C.2017" class="citation journal cs1">Smorra C.; et al. 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All known interactions do conserve matter</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+E&rft.atitle=Mass%2C+Matter+Materialization%2C+Mattergenesis+and+Conservation+of+Charge&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1350027&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0218301313500274&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013IJMPE..2250027T&rft.aulast=Tsan&rft.aufirst=Ung+Chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostriker-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ostriker_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.P._OstrikerP.J._Steinhardt2003" class="citation journal cs1">J.P. Ostriker; P.J. Steinhardt (2003). "New Light on Dark Matter". <i>Science</i>. <b>300</b> (5627): 1909–13. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0306402">astro-ph/0306402</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Sci...300.1909O">2003Sci...300.1909O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1085976">10.1126/science.1085976</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12817140">12817140</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11188699">11188699</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=New+Light+on+Dark+Matter&rft.volume=300&rft.issue=5627&rft.pages=1909-13&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11188699%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Sci...300.1909O&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0306402&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12817140&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1085976&rft.au=J.P.+Ostriker&rft.au=P.J.+Steinhardt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pretzl-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pretzl_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._Pretzl2004" class="citation book cs1">K. Pretzl (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lokz2n-9gX0C&pg=PA289">"Dark Matter, Massive Neutrinos and Susy Particles"</a>. <i>Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter</i>. Walter Greiner. p. 289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2446-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2446-7"><bdi>978-1-4020-2446-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dark+Matter%2C+Massive+Neutrinos+and+Susy+Particles&rft.btitle=Structure+and+Dynamics+of+Elementary+Matter&rft.pages=289&rft.pub=Walter+Greiner&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2446-7&rft.au=K.+Pretzl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlokz2n-9gX0C%26pg%3DPA289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freeman-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._FreemanG._McNamara2006" class="citation book cs1">K. Freeman; G. McNamara (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C2OS1kmQ8JIC&pg=PA45">"What can the matter be?"</a>. <i>In Search of Dark Matter</i>. Birkhäuser Verlag. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-27616-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-27616-8"><bdi>978-0-387-27616-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+can+the+matter+be%3F&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Dark+Matter&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-387-27616-8&rft.au=K.+Freeman&rft.au=G.+McNamara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC2OS1kmQ8JIC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheeler0-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler0_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.C._Wheeler2007" class="citation book cs1">J.C. Wheeler (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j1ej8d0F8jAC&pg=PA282"><i>Cosmic Catastrophes: Exploding Stars, Black Holes, and Mapping the Universe</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85714-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85714-7"><bdi>978-0-521-85714-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Catastrophes%3A+Exploding+Stars%2C+Black+Holes%2C+and+Mapping+the+Universe&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85714-7&rft.au=J.C.+Wheeler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj1ej8d0F8jAC%26pg%3DPA282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gribbin-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gribbin_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Gribbin2007" class="citation book cs1">J. Gribbin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f6AYrZYGig8C&pg=PA151"><i>The Origins of the Future: Ten Questions for the Next Ten Years</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12596-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12596-2"><bdi>978-0-300-12596-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Future%3A+Ten+Questions+for+the+Next+Ten+Years&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12596-2&rft.au=J.+Gribbin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df6AYrZYGig8C%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schneider-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schneider_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Schneider2006" class="citation book cs1">P. Schneider (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uP1Hz-6sHaMC&pg=PA100"><i>Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology</i></a>. Springer. p. 4, Fig. 1.4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-33174-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-33174-2"><bdi>978-3-540-33174-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extragalactic+Astronomy+and+Cosmology&rft.pages=4%2C+Fig.+1.4&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-540-33174-2&rft.au=P.+Schneider&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuP1Hz-6sHaMC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koupelis-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koupelis_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._KoupelisK.F._Kuhn2007" class="citation book cs1">T. Koupelis; K.F. Kuhn (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inquestofunivers00koup/page/492"><i>In Quest of the Universe</i></a></span>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inquestofunivers00koup/page/492">492; Fig. 16.13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-4387-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-4387-1"><bdi>978-0-7637-4387-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Quest+of+the+Universe&rft.pages=492%3B+Fig.+16.13&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-4387-1&rft.au=T.+Koupelis&rft.au=K.F.+Kuhn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finquestofunivers00koup%2Fpage%2F492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jones_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.H._JonesR.J._LambourneD.J._Adams2004" class="citation book cs1">M.H. Jones; R.J. Lambourne; D.J. Adams (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=36K1PfetZegC&pg=PA20"><i>An Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 21; Fig. 1.13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54623-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54623-2"><bdi>978-0-521-54623-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Galaxies+and+Cosmology&rft.pages=21%3B+Fig.+1.13&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54623-2&rft.au=M.H.+Jones&rft.au=R.J.+Lambourne&rft.au=D.J.+Adams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D36K1PfetZegC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Majumdar-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Majumdar_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Majumdar_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Majumdar_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Majumdar2007" class="citation book cs1">D. Majumdar (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arxiv-hep-ph0703310"><i>Dark matter – possible candidates and direct detection</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0703310">hep-ph/0703310</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008pahh.book..319M">2008pahh.book..319M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+matter+%E2%80%93+possible+candidates+and+direct+detection&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F0703310&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008pahh.book..319M&rft.au=D.+Majumdar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farxiv-hep-ph0703310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olive-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Olive_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.A._Olive2003" class="citation arxiv cs1">K.A. Olive (2003). "Theoretical Advanced Study Institute lectures on dark matter". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0301505">astro-ph/0301505</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Theoretical+Advanced+Study+Institute+lectures+on+dark+matter&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0301505&rft.au=K.A.+Olive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olive2-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Olive2_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.A._Olive2009" class="citation journal cs1">K.A. Olive (2009). "Colliders and Cosmology". <i><a href="/wiki/European_Physical_Journal_C" title="European Physical Journal C">European Physical Journal C</a></i>. <b>59</b> (2): 269–295. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0806.1208">0806.1208</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009EPJC...59..269O">2009EPJC...59..269O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1140%2Fepjc%2Fs10052-008-0738-8">10.1140/epjc/s10052-008-0738-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15421431">15421431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Physical+Journal+C&rft.atitle=Colliders+and+Cosmology&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=269-295&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0806.1208&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15421431%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1140%2Fepjc%2Fs10052-008-0738-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009EPJC...59..269O&rft.au=K.A.+Olive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheeler1-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wheeler1_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.C._Wheeler2007" class="citation book cs1">J.C. Wheeler (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j1ej8d0F8jAC&pg=PA282"><i>Cosmic Catastrophes</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85714-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85714-7"><bdi>978-0-521-85714-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cosmic+Catastrophes&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85714-7&rft.au=J.C.+Wheeler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj1ej8d0F8jAC%26pg%3DPA282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smolin2-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smolin2_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Smolin2007" class="citation book cs1">L. Smolin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z5rxrnlcp3sC&pg=PA16"><i>The Trouble with Physics</i></a>. Mariner Books. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-91868-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-91868-3"><bdi>978-0-618-91868-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trouble+with+Physics&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Mariner+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-618-91868-3&rft.au=L.+Smolin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz5rxrnlcp3sC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Glasenapp1999" class="citation book cs1">von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&pg=PA181"><i>Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1376-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1376-2"><bdi>978-81-208-1376-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism%3A+An+Indian+Religion+of+Salvation&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1376-2&rft.aulast=von+Glasenapp&rft.aufirst=Helmuth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWzEzXDk0v6sC%26pg%3DPA181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._ToulminJ._Goodfield1962" class="citation book cs1">S. Toulmin; J. Goodfield (1962). <i>The Architecture of Matter</i>. University of Chicago Press. pp. 48–54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Architecture+of+Matter&rft.pages=48-54&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.au=S.+Toulmin&rft.au=J.+Goodfield&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Discussed by Aristotle in <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i>, esp. book I, but also later; as well as <i>Metaphysics</i> I–II.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a good explanation and elaboration, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR.J._Connell1966" class="citation book cs1">R.J. Connell (1966). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/matterbecoming0000conn"><i>Matter and Becoming</i></a></span>. Priory Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+Becoming&rft.pub=Priory+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.au=R.J.+Connell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmatterbecoming0000conn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH.G._LiddellR._ScottJ.M._Whiton1891" class="citation book cs1">H.G. Liddell; R. Scott; J.M. Whiton (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexiconabridge00whitgoog"><i>A lexicon abridged from Liddell & Scott's Greek–English lexicon</i></a>. Harper and Brothers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexiconabridge00whitgoog/page/n78">72</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-910207-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-910207-5"><bdi>978-0-19-910207-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+lexicon+abridged+from+Liddell+%26+Scott%27s+Greek%E2%80%93English+lexicon&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Harper+and+Brothers&rft.date=1891&rft.isbn=978-0-19-910207-5&rft.au=H.G.+Liddell&rft.au=R.+Scott&rft.au=J.M.+Whiton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexiconabridge00whitgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Descartes1644" class="citation book cs1">R. Descartes (1644). "The Principles of Human Knowledge". <i>Principles of Philosophy I</i>. p. 53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+Human+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Philosophy+I&rft.pages=53&rft.date=1644&rft.au=R.+Descartes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">though even this property seems to be non-essential (René Descartes, <i>Principles of Philosophy</i> II [1644], "On the Principles of Material Things", no. 4.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Descartes1644" class="citation book cs1">R. Descartes (1644). "The Principles of Human Knowledge". <i>Principles of Philosophy I</i>. pp. 8, 54, 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Principles+of+Human+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Philosophy+I&rft.pages=8%2C+54%2C+63&rft.date=1644&rft.au=R.+Descartes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD.L._Schindler1986" class="citation book cs1">D.L. Schindler (1986). "The Problem of Mechanism". In D.L. Schindler (ed.). <i>Beyond Mechanism</i>. University Press of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Problem+of+Mechanism&rft.btitle=Beyond+Mechanism&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1986&rft.au=D.L.+Schindler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.A. Burtt, <i>Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science</i> (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, 1954), 117–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.E. McGuire and P.M. Heimann, "The Rejection of Newton's Concept of Matter in the Eighteenth Century", <i>The Concept of Matter in Modern Philosophy</i> ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978), 104–118 (105).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isaac Newton, <i>Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy</i>, trans. A. Motte, revised by F. Cajori (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1934), pp. 398–400. Further analyzed by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_A._Finocchiaro" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurice A. Finocchiaro">Maurice A. Finocchiaro</a>, "Newton's Third Rule of Philosophizing: A Role for Logic in Historiography", <i>Isis</i> 65:1 (Mar. 1974), pp. 66–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isaac Newton, <i>Optics</i>, Book III, pt. 1, query 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McGuire and Heimann, 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chomsky-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chomsky_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chomsky_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Chomsky1988" class="citation book cs1">N. Chomsky (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hwgHVRZtK8kC&pg=PA144"><i>Language and problems of knowledge: the Managua lectures</i></a> (2nd ed.). MIT Press. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53070-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53070-5"><bdi>978-0-262-53070-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+problems+of+knowledge%3A+the+Managua+lectures&rft.pages=144&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53070-5&rft.au=N.+Chomsky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhwgHVRZtK8kC%26pg%3DPA144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McGuire and Heimann, 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wenham-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wenham_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Wenham2005" class="citation book cs1">M. Wenham (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingpri0000wenh"><i>Understanding Primary Science: Ideas, Concepts and Explanations</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Paul Chapman Educational Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingpri0000wenh/page/115">115</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0163-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-0163-5"><bdi>978-1-4129-0163-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Primary+Science%3A+Ideas%2C+Concepts+and+Explanations&rft.pages=115&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Paul+Chapman+Educational+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-0163-5&rft.au=M.+Wenham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingpri0000wenh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maxwell-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.C._Maxwell1876" class="citation book cs1">J.C. Maxwell (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MWoOAAAAIAAJ"><i>Matter and Motion</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Promoting_Christian_Knowledge" title="Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge">Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MWoOAAAAIAAJ/page/n16">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-66895-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-66895-6"><bdi>978-0-486-66895-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+Motion&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge&rft.date=1876&rft.isbn=978-0-486-66895-6&rft.au=J.C.+Maxwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_MWoOAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levere-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Levere_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT.H._Levere1993" class="citation book cs1">T.H. Levere (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gKSDWsE8fZMC">"Introduction"</a>. <i>Affinity and Matter: Elements of Chemical Philosophy, 1800–1865</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88124-583-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-88124-583-1"><bdi>978-2-88124-583-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Affinity+and+Matter%3A+Elements+of+Chemical+Philosophy%2C+1800%E2%80%931865&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-2-88124-583-1&rft.au=T.H.+Levere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgKSDWsE8fZMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barker-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barker_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG.F._Barker1870" class="citation book cs1">G.F. Barker (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B6Yz6eW-5joC">"Introduction"</a>. <i>A Text Book of Elementary Chemistry: Theoretical and Inorganic</i>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_P._Morton_and_Company&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John P. Morton and Company (page does not exist)">John P. Morton and Company</a>. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=A+Text+Book+of+Elementary+Chemistry%3A+Theoretical+and+Inorganic&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=John+P.+Morton+and+Company&rft.date=1870&rft.au=G.F.+Barker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB6Yz6eW-5joC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomson-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomson_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.J._Thomson1909" class="citation book cs1">J.J. Thomson (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2AaToepvKoEC">"Preface"</a>. <i>Electricity and Matter</i>. A. Constable.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+Matter&rft.pub=A.+Constable&rft.date=1909&rft.au=J.J.+Thomson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2AaToepvKoEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richardson-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Richardson_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO.W._Richardson1914" class="citation book cs1">O.W. Richardson (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RpdDAAAAIAAJ">"Chapter 1"</a>. <i>The Electron Theory of Matter</i>. The University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1&rft.btitle=The+Electron+Theory+of+Matter&rft.pub=The+University+Press&rft.date=1914&rft.au=O.W.+Richardson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRpdDAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacob-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jacob_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Jacob1992" class="citation book cs1">M. Jacob (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iQ1e2a9bPikC"><i>The Quark Structure of Matter</i></a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3687-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3687-8"><bdi>978-981-02-3687-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quark+Structure+of+Matter&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-981-02-3687-8&rft.au=M.+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiQ1e2a9bPikC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sabbata-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sabbata_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFV._de_SabbataM._Gasperini1985" class="citation book cs1">V. de Sabbata; M. Gasperini (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7sJ6m8s0_ccC&pg=PA293"><i>Introduction to Gravitation</i></a>. World Scientific. p. 293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-5-0049-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9971-5-0049-8"><bdi>978-9971-5-0049-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Gravitation&rft.pages=293&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-9971-5-0049-8&rft.au=V.+de+Sabbata&rft.au=M.+Gasperini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7sJ6m8s0_ccC%26pg%3DPA293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Povh1-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Povh1_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The history of the concept of matter is a history of the fundamental <i>length scales</i> used to define matter. Different building blocks apply depending upon whether one defines matter on an atomic or elementary particle level. One may use a definition that matter is atoms, or that matter is <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a>, or that matter is leptons and quarks depending upon the scale at which one wishes to define matter. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._PovhK._RithC._ScholzF._Zetsche2004" class="citation book cs1">B. Povh; K. Rith; C. Scholz; F. Zetsche; M. Lavelle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA9">"Fundamental constituents of matter"</a>. <i>Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts</i> (4th ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7"><bdi>978-3-540-20168-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fundamental+constituents+of+matter&rft.btitle=Particles+and+Nuclei%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Physical+Concepts&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20168-7&rft.au=B.+Povh&rft.au=K.+Rith&rft.au=C.+Scholz&rft.au=F.+Zetsche&rft.au=M.+Lavelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrJe4k8tkq7sC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allday2-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allday2_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allday2_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Allday2001" class="citation book cs1">J. Allday (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kgsBbv3-9xwC&pg=PA12"><i>Quarks, Leptons and the Big Bang</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0806-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0806-9"><bdi>978-0-7503-0806-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quarks%2C+Leptons+and+the+Big+Bang&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0806-9&rft.au=J.+Allday&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkgsBbv3-9xwC%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB.A._Schumm2004" class="citation book cs1">B.A. Schumm (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deepdownthingsbr00schu"><i>Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics</i></a></span>. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deepdownthingsbr00schu/page/57">57</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7971-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7971-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-7971-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deep+Down+Things%3A+The+Breathtaking+Beauty+of+Particle+Physics&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7971-5&rft.au=B.A.+Schumm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdeepdownthingsbr00schu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhotonsMatter-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PhotonsMatter_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> See, for example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._JibuK._Yasue1995" class="citation book cs1">M. Jibu; K. Yasue (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUvcniwvg0C&pg=PA62"><i>Quantum Brain Dynamics and Consciousness</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55619-183-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55619-183-1"><bdi>978-1-55619-183-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quantum+Brain+Dynamics+and+Consciousness&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-55619-183-1&rft.au=M.+Jibu&rft.au=K.+Yasue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiNUvcniwvg0C%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Martin2009" class="citation book cs1">B. Martin (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ws8QZ2M5OR8C&pg=PT143"><i>Nuclear and Particle Physics</i></a> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-74275-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-74275-4"><bdi>978-0-470-74275-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+and+Particle+Physics&rft.pages=125&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-470-74275-4&rft.au=B.+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dws8QZ2M5OR8C%26pg%3DPT143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.W._PlaxcoM._Gross2006" class="citation book cs1">K.W. Plaxco; M. Gross (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/astrobiologybrie0000plax"><i>Astrobiology: A Brief Introduction</i></a></span>. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/astrobiologybrie0000plax/page/23">23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8367-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8367-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-8367-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrobiology%3A+A+Brief+Introduction&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8367-5&rft.au=K.W.+Plaxco&rft.au=M.+Gross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fastrobiologybrie0000plax&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tipler0-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tipler0_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP.A._TiplerR.A._Llewellyn2002" class="citation book cs1">P.A. Tipler; R.A. Llewellyn (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tpU18JqcSNkC&pg=PA94"><i>Modern Physics</i></a>. Macmillan. pp. 89–91, 94–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-4345-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Physics&rft.pages=89-91%2C+94-95&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-4345-3&rft.au=P.A.+Tipler&rft.au=R.A.+Llewellyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtpU18JqcSNkC%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spitzer-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spitzer_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._SchmüserH._Spitzer2002" class="citation book cs1">P. Schmüser; H. Spitzer (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mGj1y1WYflMC">"Particles"</a>. In L. Bergmann; et al. (eds.). <i>Constituents of Matter: Atoms, Molecules, Nuclei</i>. CRC Press. pp. 773 <i>ff</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1202-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1202-1"><bdi>978-0-8493-1202-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Particles&rft.btitle=Constituents+of+Matter%3A+Atoms%2C+Molecules%2C+Nuclei&rft.pages=773+%27%27ff%27%27&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-1202-1&rft.au=P.+Schm%C3%BCser&rft.au=H.+Spitzer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmGj1y1WYflMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chaikin-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chaikin_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP.M._ChaikinT.C._Lubensky2000" class="citation book cs1">P.M. Chaikin; T.C. Lubensky (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P9YjNjzr9OIC"><i>Principles of Condensed Matter Physics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. xvii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79450-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79450-3"><bdi>978-0-521-79450-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Condensed+Matter+Physics&rft.pages=xvii&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79450-3&rft.au=P.M.+Chaikin&rft.au=T.C.+Lubensky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP9YjNjzr9OIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greiner-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Greiner_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Greiner2003" class="citation book cs1">W. Greiner (2003). W. Greiner; M.G. Itkis; G. Reinhardt; M.C. Güçlü (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ORyJzhAzpUgC"><i>Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter</i></a>. Springer. p. xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2445-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2445-0"><bdi>978-1-4020-2445-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structure+and+Dynamics+of+Elementary+Matter&rft.pages=xii&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2445-0&rft.au=W.+Greiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DORyJzhAzpUgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Sukys1999" class="citation book cs1">P. Sukys (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liftingscientifi0000suky"><i>Lifting the Scientific Veil: Science Appreciation for the Nonscientist</i></a></span>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liftingscientifi0000suky/page/87">87</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9600-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9600-0"><bdi>978-0-8476-9600-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lifting+the+Scientific+Veil%3A+Science+Appreciation+for+the+Nonscientist&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-9600-0&rft.au=P.+Sukys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fliftingscientifi0000suky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._PovhK._RithC._ScholzF._Zetsche2004" class="citation book cs1">B. Povh; K. Rith; C. Scholz; F. Zetsche; M. Lavelle (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA9">"Fundamental constituents of matter"</a>. <i>Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts</i> (4th ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-20168-7"><bdi>978-3-540-20168-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fundamental+constituents+of+matter&rft.btitle=Particles+and+Nuclei%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Physical+Concepts&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-540-20168-7&rft.au=B.+Povh&rft.au=K.+Rith&rft.au=C.+Scholz&rft.au=F.+Zetsche&rft.au=M.+Lavelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrJe4k8tkq7sC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLillian_HoddesonMichael_Riordan1997" class="citation book cs1">Lillian Hoddeson; Michael Riordan, eds. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=klLUs2XUmOkC"><i>The Rise of the Standard Model</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57816-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57816-5"><bdi>978-0-521-57816-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Standard+Model&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57816-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklLUs2XUmOkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_Paul_Smith2004" class="citation book cs1">Timothy Paul Smith (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pc1A0qJio88C&pg=PA1">"The search for quarks in ordinary matter"</a>. <i>Hidden Worlds</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05773-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05773-6"><bdi>978-0-691-05773-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+search+for+quarks+in+ordinary+matter&rft.btitle=Hidden+Worlds&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05773-6&rft.au=Timothy+Paul+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPc1A0qJio88C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarald_Fritzsch2005" class="citation book cs1">Harald Fritzsch (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementarypartic0000frit"><i>Elementary Particles: Building blocks of matter</i></a></span>. World Scientific. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementarypartic0000frit/page/1">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005epbb.book.....F">2005epbb.book.....F</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-256-141-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-256-141-1"><bdi>978-981-256-141-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+Particles%3A+Building+blocks+of+matter&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005epbb.book.....F&rft.isbn=978-981-256-141-1&rft.au=Harald+Fritzsch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementarypartic0000frit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1992" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R7GauFXXedwC&pg=PA88">"The philosophy of matter"</a>. <i>A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz</i> (Reprint of 1937 2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08296-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08296-9"><bdi>978-0-415-08296-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+philosophy+of+matter&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Exposition+of+the+Philosophy+of+Leibniz&rft.pages=88&rft.edition=Reprint+of+1937+2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-415-08296-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR7GauFXXedwC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMatter" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield, <i>The Architecture of Matter</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).</li> <li>Richard J. Connell, <i>Matter and Becoming</i> (Chicago: The Priory Press, 1966).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernan_McMullin" title="Ernan McMullin">Ernan McMullin</a>, <i>The Concept of Matter in Greek and Medieval Philosophy</i> (Notre Dame, Indiana: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1965).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernan_McMullin" title="Ernan McMullin">Ernan McMullin</a>, <i>The Concept of Matter in Modern Philosophy</i> (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:States_of_matter" title="Template:States of matter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:States_of_matter" title="Template talk:States of matter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:States_of_matter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:States of matter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="States_of_matter_(list)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States of matter</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter" title="List of states of matter">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">Solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">Liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">Gas</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">Vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">Supercritical fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_change_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/150px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/225px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Phase_change_-_en.svg/300px-Phase_change_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="524" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Low energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">Fermionic condensate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">Degenerate matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect" title="Quantum Hall effect">Quantum Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rydberg_matter" title="Rydberg matter">Rydberg matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_matter" title="Strange matter">Strange matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluidity" title="Superfluidity">Superfluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersolid" title="Supersolid">Supersolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photonic_molecule" title="Photonic molecule">Photonic molecule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">High energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color-glass_condensate" title="Color-glass condensate">Color-glass condensate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">Colloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">Crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">Liquid crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_crystal" title="Time crystal">Time crystal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_spin_liquid" title="Quantum spin liquid">Quantum spin liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_matter" title="Programmable matter">Programmable matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">Antimatter</a></li> <li>Magnetically ordered <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">Antiferromagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrimagnetism" title="Ferrimagnetism">Ferrimagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">Ferromagnet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String-net_liquid" title="String-net liquid">String-net liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superglass" title="Superglass">Superglass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phase_transitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase transitions">Phase transitions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">Boiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_line_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical line (thermodynamics)">Critical line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">Critical point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)" title="Deposition (phase transition)">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">Evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_evaporation" title="Flash evaporation">Flash evaporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">Freezing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_ionization" title="Chemical ionization">Chemical ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_point" title="Lambda point">Lambda point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">Melting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_recombination" title="Plasma recombination">Recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regelation" title="Regelation">Regelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor%E2%80%93liquid_equilibrium" title="Vapor–liquid equilibrium">Saturated fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">Triple point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">Vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Enthalpy of fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_sublimation" title="Enthalpy of sublimation">Enthalpy of sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Enthalpy of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_internal_energy" title="Latent internal energy">Latent internal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trouton%27s_rule" title="Trouton's rule">Trouton's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">Volatility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baryonic_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Baryonic matter">Baryonic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binodal" title="Binodal">Binodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressed_fluid" title="Compressed fluid">Compressed fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_curve" title="Cooling curve">Cooling curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">Equation of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect" title="Leidenfrost effect">Leidenfrost effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_quantum_phenomena" title="Macroscopic quantum phenomena">Macroscopic quantum phenomena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpemba_effect" title="Mpemba effect">Mpemba effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order and disorder (physics)">Order and disorder (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinodal" title="Spinodal">Spinodal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">Superconductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheated_water" title="Superheated water">Superheated vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">Superheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermo-dielectric_effect" title="Thermo-dielectric effect">Thermo-dielectric effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Solid_objects" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solid_objects" title="Template:Solid objects"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solid_objects" title="Template talk:Solid objects"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Solid_objects" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Solid objects"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Solid_objects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Solid objects</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Solids">Solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deformable_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Deformable bodies">Deformable bodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Materials">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw materials">Raw materials</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_body" title="Rigid body">Rigid body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">Particular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">State of matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase (matter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">Amorphous solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonding_in_solids" title="Bonding in solids">Bonding in solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscibility" title="Miscibility">Miscibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">Phase diagram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceramics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass ceramics">Glass ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymer engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Composite materials">Composite materials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_materials_science" title="Computational materials science">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Fundamental_aspects_of_materials_science" title="Template:Fundamental aspects of materials science">Fundamental aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_informatics" title="Materials informatics">Informatics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Domains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Condensed-matter_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensed-matter physics">Condensed-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_physics" title="Polymer physics">Polymer physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_matter" title="Soft matter">Soft-matter physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Materials_science" title="Category:Materials science">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Materials_science" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Materials science">Common</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">Material</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Particles_in_physics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Particles" title="Template:Particles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Particles" title="Template talk:Particles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Particles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Particles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Particles_in_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particles in physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">Quarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">Up (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Up antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">Down (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Down antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">Charm (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Charm antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">Strange (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Strange antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">Top (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Top antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">Bottom (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom antiquark">antiquark)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Leptons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Muon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Antimuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Tau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Antitau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">Electron neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Electron antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">Muon neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Muon antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">Tau neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Tau antineutrino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">Bosons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">Gauge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" title="Scalar boson">Scalar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghost_(physics)" title="Ghost (physics)">Ghost fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghosts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">Gauginos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gluino" title="Gluino">Gluino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photino" title="Photino">Photino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axino" title="Axino">Axino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">Chargino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">Sfermion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_squark" title="Stop squark">Stop squark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvaton" title="Curvaton">Curvaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilaton" title="Dilaton">Dilaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">Inflaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoquark" title="Leptoquark">Leptoquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">Magnetic monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoron" title="Majoron">Majoron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">Tachyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" title="W′ and Z′ bosons">W′ and Z′ bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">Composite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hadrons" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_baryon" title="Delta baryon">Delta baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_baryon" title="Lambda baryon">Lambda baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_baryon" title="Sigma baryon">Sigma baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_baryon" title="Xi baryon">Xi baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_baryon" title="Omega baryon">Omega baryon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">Mesons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">Pion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rho_meson" title="Rho meson">Rho meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eta_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta meson">Eta and eta prime mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson" title="Bottom eta meson">Bottom eta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_meson" title="Phi meson">Phi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/psi_meson" title="J/psi meson">J/psi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_meson" title="Omega meson">Omega meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsilon_meson" title="Upsilon meson">Upsilon meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">Kaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Exotic_hadron" title="Exotic hadron">Exotic hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">Tetraquark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark" title="Double-charm tetraquark">Double-charm tetraquark</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauonium">Tauonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonium" title="Protonium">Protonium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superatom" title="Superatom">Superatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Hypothetical_composite_particles" title="Category:Hypothetical composite particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Baryons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaquark" title="Hexaquark">Hexaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaquark" title="Heptaquark">Heptaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">Skyrmion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mesons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">Glueball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_meson" title="Theta meson">Theta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_meson" title="T meson">T meson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" title="Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeron" title="Pomeron">Pomeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">Diquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-hadron" title="R-hadron">R-hadron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davydov_soliton" title="Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropleton" title="Dropleton">Dropleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)" title="Fracton (subdimensional particle)">Fracton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaron" title="Plasmaron">Plasmaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trion_(physics)" title="Trion (physics)">Trion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">Baryons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mesons" title="List of mesons">Mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a 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