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href="#New_York_City_school_boycott"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 New York City school boycott </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_York_City_school_boycott-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_protest_to_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_protest_to_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 From protest to politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_protest_to_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_movement:_Unions_and_social_democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_movement:_Unions_and_social_democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Labor movement: Unions and social democracy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_movement:_Unions_and_social_democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Foreign policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Jewry_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Jewry_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Soviet Jewry movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Jewry_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Criticisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gay_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gay_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Gay rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gay_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_beliefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_beliefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Death and beliefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_beliefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1990s_and_2000s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s_and_2000s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 1990s and 2000s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s_and_2000s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2010s_and_beyond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2010s_and_beyond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 2010s and beyond </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2010s_and_beyond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Publications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> 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data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بایارد راستین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بایارد راستین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EC%9D%B4%EC%96%B4%EB%93%9C_%EB%9F%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%8B%B4" title="바이어드 러스틴 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바이어드 러스틴" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Բայարդ Ռասթին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բայարդ Ռասթին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9F" title="ביירד רסטין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביירד רסטין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86" title="بايرد رستن – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بايرد رستن" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%89_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%BC%DB%8C%D9%86" title="بایرډ رسټین – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بایرډ رسټین" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Растин, Байард – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Растин, Байард" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bayard Rustin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q187930#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American civil rights activist (1912–1987)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Bayard Rustin</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:BayardRustinAug1963-LibraryOfCongress_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/BayardRustinAug1963-LibraryOfCongress_crop.jpg/220px-BayardRustinAug1963-LibraryOfCongress_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/BayardRustinAug1963-LibraryOfCongress_crop.jpg/330px-BayardRustinAug1963-LibraryOfCongress_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/BayardRustinAug1963-LibraryOfCongress_crop.jpg/440px-BayardRustinAug1963-LibraryOfCongress_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1146" data-file-height="1349" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Rustin at a news briefing on the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> in Washington, D.C., on August 27, 1963</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1912-03-17)March 17, 1912 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/West_Chester,_Pennsylvania" title="West Chester, Pennsylvania">West Chester, Pennsylvania</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 24, 1987(1987-08-24) (aged 75) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">New York City, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wilberforce_University" title="Wilberforce University">Wilberforce University</a> <a href="/wiki/Cheyney_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Cheyney University of Pennsylvania">Cheyney University</a> <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Organization(s)</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Fellowship_of_Reconciliation" title="Fellowship of Reconciliation">Fellowship of Reconciliation</a> <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> <a href="/wiki/War_Resisters_League" title="War Resisters League">War Resisters League</a> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats,_USA" title="Social Democrats, USA">Social Democrats, USA</a> (National Chairman) <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph_Institute" title="A. Philip Randolph Institute">A. Philip Randolph Institute</a> (President) <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_the_Present_Danger" title="Committee on the Present Danger">Committee on the Present Danger</a> <a href="/wiki/Omega_Psi_Phi" title="Omega Psi Phi">Omega Psi Phi</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Movement</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peace_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace Movement">Peace Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/LGBT_social_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT social movements">Gay Rights Movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">Neoconservatism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Partner(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Davis Platt (1940s) <a href="/wiki/Walter_Naegle" title="Walter Naegle">Walter Naegle</a> (1977–1987; Rustin's death)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Socialism" title="Category:Socialism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#AE1719; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_States" title="History of the socialist movement in the United States">Socialism in the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/120px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/180px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/240px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="292" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_Hill,_Illinois#History" title="Bishop Hill, Illinois">Bishop Hill Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brook_Farm" title="Brook Farm">Brook Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icarians" title="Icarians">Icarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonestown" title="Jonestown">Jonestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looking_Backward" title="Looking Backward">Looking Backward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Harmony,_Indiana" title="New Harmony, Indiana">New Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Community" title="Oneida Community">Oneida Community</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1877_St._Louis_general_strike" title="1877 St. Louis general strike">1877 St. Louis general strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Lawrence_textile_strike" title="1912 Lawrence textile strike">1912 Lawrence textile strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Worker_Movement" title="Catholic Worker Movement">Catholic Worker Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Rebellion" title="Green Corn Rebellion">Green Corn Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor unionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Repression and persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Defense_Society" title="American Defense Society">American Defense Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Protective_League" title="American Protective League">American Protective League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_African_Americans" title="Communist Party USA and African Americans">Communist Party USA and African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">labor movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_American_labor_movement_(1919%E2%80%931937)" title="Communist Party USA and American labor movement (1919–1937)">1919–1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_American_labor_movement_(1937%E2%80%931950)" title="Communist Party USA and American labor movement (1937–1950)">1937–1957</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">John Birch Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_General_Strike" title="Seattle General Strike">Seattle General Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders" title="Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders">Smith Act trials</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Anti-war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a> movements <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li></ul> Contemporary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1999_Seattle_WTO_protests" title="1999 Seattle WTO protests">1999 Seattle WTO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_Wall_Street" title="Occupy Wall Street">Occupy Wall Street</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Abern" title="Martin Abern">Abern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pearl_Andrews" title="Stephen Pearl Andrews">Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Avrich" title="Paul Avrich">Avrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwasi_Balagoon" title="Kuwasi Balagoon">Balagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bellamy" title="Edward Bellamy">Bellamy (Edward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bellamy" title="Francis Bellamy">Bellamy (Francis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_L._Berger" title="Victor L. Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaal_Bowman" title="Jamaal Bowman">Bowman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bruenig" title="Elizabeth Bruenig">Bruenig (Elizabeth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Bruenig" title="Matt Bruenig">Bruenig (Matt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Brisbane" title="Albert Brisbane">Brisbane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Brooks_(political_commentator)" title="Michael Brooks (political commentator)">Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Browder" title="Earl Browder">Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cori_Bush" title="Cori Bush">Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cabet" title="Étienne Cabet">Cabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Cannon" title="James P. Cannon">Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cantor" title="Dan Cantor">Cantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Clark" title="Peter H. Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cockburn" title="Alexander Cockburn">Cockburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Davis (Angela)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis (Mike)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jodi_Dean" title="Jodi Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_De_Leon" title="Daniel De Leon">De Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser" title="Theodore Dreiser">Dreiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ehrenreich" title="Barbara Ehrenreich">Ehrenreich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Fearing" title="Kenneth Fearing">Fearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Feinberg" title="Leslie Feinberg">Feinberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Ford" title="James W. Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Wilson_Gilmore" title="Ruth Wilson Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Gitlow" title="Benjamin Gitlow">Gitlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Batchelder_Greene" title="William Batchelder Greene">Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Guthrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dashiell_Hammett" title="Dashiell Hammett">Hammett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yip_Harburg" title="Yip Harburg">Harburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Harrington" title="Michael Harrington">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Harrison" title="Hubert Harrison">Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hay" title="Harry Hay">Hay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Haywood" title="Bill Haywood">Haywood (Bill)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Haywood (Harry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howie_Hawkins" title="Howie Hawkins">Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hedges" title="Chris Hedges">Hedges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Heywood" title="Angela Heywood">Heywood (Angela)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Heywood" title="Ezra Heywood">Heywood (Ezra)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Hill_(activist)" title="Joe Hill (activist)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Hillquit" title="Morris Hillquit">Hillquit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hoan" title="Daniel Hoan">Hoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman" title="Abbie Hoffman">Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones" title="Mother Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Labadie" title="Jo Labadie">Labadie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_London" title="Jack London">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Lovestone" title="Jay Lovestone">Lovestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyer_Lum" title="Dyer Lum">Lum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Marcy" title="Sam Marcy">Marcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McReynolds" title="David McReynolds">McReynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlene_Mitchell" title="Charlene Mitchell">Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Moore" title="Michael Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Morello" title="Tom Morello">Morello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Most" title="Johann Most">Most</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Humphrey_Noyes" title="John Humphrey Noyes">Noyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phil_Ochs" title="Phil Ochs">Ochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Panken" title="Jacob Panken">Panken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Parsons" title="Albert Parsons">Parsons (Albert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Parsons" title="Lucy Parsons">Parsons (Lucy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Piker" title="Hasan Piker">Piker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Fox_Piven" title="Frances Fox Piven">Piven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Reed_(journalist)" title="John Reed (journalist)">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(transcendentalist)" title="George Ripley (transcendentalist)">Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matilda_Robbins" title="Matilda Robbins">Robbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_J._Robinson" title="Nathan J. Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zack_de_la_Rocha" title="Zack de la Rocha">Rocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Roediger" title="David Roediger">Roediger</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ruthenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Ruthenberg">Ruthenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Sacco and Vanzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sandburg" title="Carl Sandburg">Sandburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshama_Sawant" title="Kshama Sawant">Sawant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Seidel" title="Emil Seidel">Seidel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Shachtman" title="Max Shachtman">Shachtman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata_Shakur" title="Assata Shakur">Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._F._Stone" title="I. F. Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaskar_Sunkara" title="Bhaskar Sunkara">Sunkara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serj_Tankian" title="Serj Tankian">Tankian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashida_Tlaib" title="Rashida Tlaib">Tlaib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nina_Turner" title="Nina Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. Wolff">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Meiksins_Wood" title="Ellen Meiksins Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Olin_Wright" title="Erik Olin Wright">Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Zeidler" title="Frank Zeidler">Zeidler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">Zerzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Active organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Riders_Liberation_Party" title="Black Riders Liberation Party">Black Riders Liberation Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Socialists_in_America" title="Black Socialists in America">Black Socialists in America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialists_of_America" title="Democratic Socialists of America">Democratic Socialists of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_New_York_(2010)" title="Freedom Party of New York (2010)">Freedom Party of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Road_Socialist_Organization" title="Freedom Road Socialist Organization">Freedom Road Socialist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Socialist_Party" title="Freedom Socialist Party">Freedom Socialist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Mountain_Peace_and_Justice_Party" title="Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party">Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Green Party of the United States">Green Party of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_Marijuana_Now" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Marijuana Now">Legal Marijuana Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_Progressive_Party_(United_States)_state_affiliates" title="Category:National Progressive Party (United States) state affiliates">National Progressive Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Afrikan_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Afrikan Black Panther Party">New Afrikan Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_Socialism_and_Liberation" title="Party for Socialism and Liberation">Party for Socialism and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Freedom_Party" title="Peace and Freedom Party">Peace and Freedom Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Dane" title="Progressive Dane">Progressive Dane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Labor_Party_(United_States)" title="Progressive Labor Party (United States)">Progressive Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redneck_Revolt" title="Redneck Revolt">Redneck Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party,_USA" title="Revolutionary Communist Party, USA">Revolutionary Communist Party, USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Action_(United_States)" title="Socialist Action (United States)">Socialist Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Alternative_(United_States)" title="Socialist Alternative (United States)">Socialist Alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Workers_Party" title="South Carolina Workers Party">South Carolina Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats,_USA" title="Social Democrats, USA">Social Democrats, USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Equality_Party_(United_States)" title="Socialist Equality Party (United States)">Socialist Equality Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_USA" title="Socialist Party USA">Socialist Party USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Rifle_Association" title="Socialist Rifle Association">Socialist Rifle Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_(United_States)" title="Socialist Workers Party (United States)">Socialist Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(United_States)" title="Solidarity (United States)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_(U.S._organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spark (U.S. organization)">Spark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartacist_League_(US)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartacist League (US)">Spartacist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Families_Party" title="Working Families Party">Working Families Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_World_Party" title="Workers World Party">Workers World Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Class_Party" title="Working Class Party">Working Class Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Socialist_Party_of_the_United_States" title="World Socialist Party of the United States">World Socialist Party of the United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Inactive or defunct organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Labor_Party" title="American Labor Party">American Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Union_of_Associationists" title="American Union of Associationists">American Union of Associationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Workers_Party" title="American Workers Party">American Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_Party_(United_States)" title="Citizens Party (United States)">Citizens Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_League_of_America" title="Communist League of America">Communist League of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_League_of_Struggle" title="Communist League of Struggle">Communist League of Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Workers%27_Party_(United_States)" title="Communist Workers' Party (United States)">Communist Workers' Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Federation" title="Democratic Socialist Federation">Democratic Socialist Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Organizing_Committee" title="Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee">Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer%E2%80%93Labor_Party" title="Farmer–Labor Party">Farmer–Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Party_(United_States)" title="Human Rights Party (United States)">Human Rights Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Party_(United_States)" title="Workers Party (United States)">Independent Socialist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialists_(United_States)" title="International Socialists (United States)">International Socialists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_Organization" title="International Socialist Organization">International Socialist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workingmen%27s_Association_in_America" title="International Workingmen's Association in America">International Workingmen's Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_Party_(United_States)" title="Justice Party (United States)">Justice Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Labor Party of the United States">Labor Party of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Party_(United_States,_1996)" title="Labor Party (United States, 1996)">Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoist_Internationalist_Movement" title="Maoist Internationalist Movement">Maoist Internationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Guards_(United_States)" title="Red Guards (United States)">Red Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_American_Movement" title="New American Movement">New American Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Party_(United_States)" title="New Party (United States)">New Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpartisan_League" title="Nonpartisan League">Nonpartisan League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Party_(1970s)" title="Patriot Party (1970s)">Patriot Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States,_1971)" title="People's Party (United States, 1971)">People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_Party_of_America" title="Proletarian Party of America">Proletarian Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Socialist_League_(U.S.)" title="Revolutionary Socialist League (U.S.)">Revolutionary Socialist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Youth_Movement" title="Revolutionary Youth Movement">Revolutionary Youth Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democracy_of_America" title="Social Democracy of America">Social Democracy of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Federation_(United_States)" title="Social Democratic Federation (United States)">Social Democratic Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_America" title="Social Democratic Party of America">Social Democratic Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Labor_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Labor Party of America">Socialist Labor Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society" title="Students for a Democratic Society">SDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_Underground" title="Weather Underground">Weather Underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Panther_Party" title="White Panther Party">White Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Workers Party of the United States">Workers Party of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Lords" title="Young Lords">Young Lords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Patriots_Organization" title="Young Patriots Organization">Young Patriots Organization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_Reason_(newspaper)" title="Appeal to Reason (newspaper)">Appeal to Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_Affairs_(magazine)" title="Current Affairs (magazine)">Current Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daily_Worker" title="Daily Worker">Daily Worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissent_(American_magazine)" title="Dissent (American magazine)">Dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_Review_(1900)" title="International Socialist Review (1900)">International Socialist Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(magazine)" title="Jacobin (magazine)">Jacobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Jungle" title="The Jungle">The Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looking_Backward" title="Looking Backward">Looking Backward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_Capital" title="Monopoly Capital">Monopoly Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review" title="Monthly Review">Monthly Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Other_America" title="The Other America">The Other America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_People%27s_History_of_the_United_States" title="A People's History of the United States">A People's History of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlers:_The_Mythology_of_the_White_Proletariat" title="Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat">Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Socialism" title="Voluntary Socialism">Voluntary Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_Socialism%3F" title="Why Socialism?">Why Socialism?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZNetwork" title="ZNetwork">ZNetwork</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Left" title="American Left">American Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">in the US</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Anarcho-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_socialism" title="Bill of Rights socialism">Bill of Rights socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Individualist anarchism in the United States">in the US</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Socialism_US" title="Template:Socialism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Socialism_US" title="Template talk:Socialism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Bayard Rustin (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈbaɪ.ərd/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">BY-ərd</a>; March 17, 1912 – August 24, 1987) was an American political activist, a prominent leader in social movements for <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gay_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay rights">gay rights</a>. Rustin was the principal organizer of the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-nps-1">[1]</a> Rustin worked in 1941 with <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a> on the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a> to press for an end to <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a> in the military and defense employment. Rustin later organized <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a>, and helped to organize the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> to strengthen <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>'s leadership; he taught King about non-violence. Rustin worked alongside <a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a>, a co-director of the <a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Citizenship" title="Crusade for Citizenship">Crusade for Citizenship</a>, in 1954; and before the <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a>, he helped organize a group called "In Friendship" to provide material and legal assistance to people threatened with eviction from their tenant farms and homes.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Rustin became the head of the <a href="/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="AFL–CIO">AFL–CIO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph_Institute" title="A. Philip Randolph Institute">A. Philip Randolph Institute</a>, which promoted the integration of formerly all-white unions and promoted the unionization of African Americans. During the 1970s and 1980s, Rustin served on many humanitarian missions, such as aiding refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia. Rustin was a <a href="/wiki/Gay_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay man">gay man</a> and, due to criticism over his sexuality, usually advised other civil rights leaders from behind the scenes. During the 1980s, he became a public advocate on behalf of gay causes, speaking at events as an activist and supporter of human rights.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Later in life, while still devoted to securing workers' rights, Rustin joined other union leaders in aligning with ideological <a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">neoconservatism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> earning posthumous praise from President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AP_Reagan_Praises-6">[6]</a> On November 20, 2013, President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> posthumously awarded Rustin the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-metroweekly1-7">[7]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> Rustin was born in 1912 in <a href="/wiki/West_Chester,_Pennsylvania" title="West Chester, Pennsylvania">West Chester, Pennsylvania</a>, to Florence Rustin and Archie Hopkins, but raised by his maternal grandparents, Julia (Davis) and Janifer Rustin, as the ninth of their twelve children; growing up he believed his biological mother was his older sister.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_African-American_Culture_and_History:_Rustin-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-biography.com_bio-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> His grandparents were relatively wealthy local caterers who raised Rustin in a large house.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_African-American_Culture_and_History:_Rustin-8">[8]</a> Julia Rustin was a <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quaker</a>, although she attended her husband's <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">African Methodist Episcopal Church</a>. She was also a member of the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP). NAACP leaders such as <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W.E.B. Du Bois</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson" title="James Weldon Johnson">James Weldon Johnson</a> were frequent guests in the Rustin home. With these influences in his early life, in his youth Rustin campaigned against racially discriminatory <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>.<a href="#cite_note-spartacus-11">[11]</a> One of the first documented realizations Rustin had of his sexuality was when he mentioned to his grandmother that he preferred to spend time with males rather than females. She responded, "I suppose that's what you need to do".<a href="#cite_note-Gates-Rivers-12">[12]</a> In 1932, Rustin entered <a href="/wiki/Wilberforce_University" title="Wilberforce University">Wilberforce College</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Historically black college">historically black college</a> in Ohio operated by the AME Church.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Rustin was active in a number of campus organizations, including the <a href="/wiki/Omega_Psi_Phi" title="Omega Psi Phi">Omega Psi Phi</a> fraternity.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> He was expelled from Wilberforce in 1936 after organizing a strike,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> and later attended Cheyney State Teachers College (now <a href="/wiki/Cheyney_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Cheyney University of Pennsylvania">Cheyney University of Pennsylvania</a>). Cheyney honored Rustin with a posthumous <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Humane_Letters" title="Doctor of Humane Letters">Doctor of Humane Letters</a> degree at its 2013 commencement.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> After completing an activist training program conducted by the <a href="/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a> (AFSC), Rustin moved to <a href="/wiki/Harlem,_Manhattan" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlem, Manhattan">Harlem</a> in 1937 and began studying at <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a>. There he became involved in efforts to defend and free the <a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a>, nine young black men in Alabama who were accused of raping two white women. He joined the <a href="/wiki/Young_Communist_League,_USA" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Communist League, USA">Young Communist League</a> in 1936, and left in 1941 after the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a> reversed its anti-war policy in response to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>'s invasion of the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>. This conflicted with Rustin's anti-war stance.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Soon after arriving in New York City, he became a member of Fifteenth Street Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Rustin was an accomplished tenor vocalist, an asset that earned him admission to both Wilberforce University and Cheyney State Teachers College with music scholarships.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In 1939, he was in the chorus of the short-lived Broadway musical <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_(musical)" title="John Henry (musical)">John Henry</a> that starred <a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a>. Blues singer <a href="/wiki/Josh_White" title="Josh White">Josh White</a> was also a cast member and later invited Rustin to join his gospel and vocal harmony group Josh White and the Carolinians, with whom he made several recordings. With this opportunity, Rustin became a regular performer at the <a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_Society" title="Café Society">Café Society</a> nightclub in <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Village" title="Greenwich Village">Greenwich Village</a>, widening his social and intellectual contacts.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> A few albums on Fellowship Records featuring his singing, such as <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin_Sings_a_Program_of_Spirituals" title="Bayard Rustin Sings a Program of Spirituals">Bayard Rustin Sings a Program of Spirituals</a>, were produced from the 1950s through the 1970s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolving_affiliations">Evolving affiliations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolving affiliations">edit</a>]</div> At the direction of the Soviet Union, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a> (CPUSA) and its members, including Rustin at that time, were active in the 1930s in supporting <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">civil rights</a> for African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-Kazin2011-20">[20]</a> The CPUSA, at the time following Stalin's "theory of nationalism", favored the creation of a separate nation for African Americans to be located in the American Southeast where the greatest proportion of the black population was concentrated.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In 1941, after Germany invaded the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a> ordered the CPUSA to abandon civil rights work and focus on supporting U.S. entry into <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Disillusioned, Rustin began working with members of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party</a> of <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>, the head of the <a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a>. Another of Rustin's socialist mentors was the pacifist <a href="/wiki/A._J._Muste" title="A. J. Muste">A. J. Muste</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Fellowship_of_Reconciliation" title="Fellowship of Reconciliation">Fellowship of Reconciliation</a> (FOR). FOR hired Rustin as a race relations secretary in the late summer of 1941.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_African_American_History:_Bayard_Rustin-23">[23]</a> He considered Rustin to be a fine young man of oratorical ability and intelligence who would sacrifice himself repeatedly for a good cause.<a href="#cite_note-:12-24">[24]</a>  Muste, Randolph and Rustin proposed a march on Washington, D.C., in 1941 to protest racial segregation in the armed forces and widespread discrimination in employment. Meeting with President Roosevelt in the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a>, Randolph respectfully and politely but firmly told President Roosevelt that African Americans would march in the capital unless desegregation occurred. To prove their good faith, the organizers canceled the planned march after Roosevelt issued <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Employment Act">Fair Employment Act</a>), which banned discrimination in defense industries and federal agencies. Rustin had an "infinite capacity for compassion," according to Daniel Levinson. Having an interest in social change from a young age, he would work with the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> and be influenced by their ideals. However, this changes later in his life when he begins to align with conservative views. In 1944, while imprisoned in North Carolina, Rustin displayed nonviolent tactics. He would allow himself to get beaten repeatedly by a white inmate until he gave up, as Rustin was unnerved. Rustin defied segregation during that time and practiced his tactic while incarcerated.<a href="#cite_note-:02-25">[25]</a> Randolph's decision as leader of the organizers to cancel the march was made against Rustin's advice.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_African_American_History:_Bayard_Rustin-23">[23]</a> The armed forces, in which Black troops typically had white commanding officers,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> remained racially segregated until 1948, when President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> issued an Executive Order. (The various branches took years to abide by that order, with the U.S. Marine Corps in 1960 being the last to desegregate.) Randolph felt that FOR had succeeded in their goal and wanted to dissolve the committee.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] Again, Rustin disagreed with him and voiced his differing opinion in a national press conference, which he later said he regretted.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_African_American_History:_Bayard_Rustin-23">[23]</a> Rustin traveled to California[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] to help protect the property of the more than 120,000 Japanese-Americans (most of whom were U.S.-born citizens) who had been <a href="/wiki/Japanese-American_internment" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese-American internment">imprisoned in internment camps</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">6-3 Korematsu Decision</a>, the Supreme Court upheld the forcible internment. Impressed with Rustin's organizational skills, A. J. Muste appointed him as FOR's secretary for student and general affairs. Rustin was also a pioneer in the movement to desegregate interstate bus travel. In 1942, he boarded a bus in <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a>, bound for <a href="/wiki/Nashville" class="mw-redirect" title="Nashville">Nashville</a>, and sat in the second row. A number of drivers asked him to move to the back, according to Southern practice of <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a>, but Rustin refused. The bus was stopped by police 13 miles north of Nashville and Rustin was arrested. He was beaten and taken to a police station but was released uncharged.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> He spoke about his decision to be arrested, and how that moment also clarified his witness as a gay person, in an interview with the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Blade" title="Washington Blade">Washington Blade</a> in the 1980s: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> As I was going by the second seat to go to the rear, a white child reached out for the ring necktie I was wearing and pulled it, whereupon its mother said, "Don't touch a nigger." If I go and sit quietly at the back of that bus now, that child, who was so innocent of race relations that it was going to play with me, will have seen so many blacks go in the back and sit down quietly that it's going to end up saying, "They like it back there, I've never seen anybody protest against it." I owe it to that child, not only to my own dignity, I owe it to that child, that it should be educated to know that blacks do not want to sit in the back, and therefore I should get arrested, letting all these white people in the bus know that I do not accept that. It occurred to me shortly after that that it was an absolute necessity for me to declare homosexuality because if I didn't I was a part of the prejudice. I was aiding and abetting the prejudice that was a part of the effort to destroy me.<a href="#cite_note-NPR_2019-01-06-28">[28]</a></blockquote> In 1942, Rustin assisted two other FOR staffers, <a href="/wiki/George_Houser" title="George Houser">George Houser</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a>, and activist <a href="/wiki/Bernice_Fisher" title="Bernice Fisher">Bernice Fisher</a> as they formed the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality</a> (CORE). Rustin was not a direct founder, but was later described as "an uncle of CORE". CORE had been conceived as a pacifist organization based on the writings of <a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a>, who used <a href="/wiki/Non-violent_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-violent resistance">non-violent resistance</a> against British rule in India. CORE was also influenced by his protégé <a href="/wiki/Krishnalal_Shridharani" title="Krishnalal Shridharani">Krishnalal Shridharani</a>'s book War without Violence.<a href="#cite_note-Hardiman2003-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> As declared <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">conscientious objectors</a> who refused induction into the military, Rustin, Houser, and other members of FOR and CORE were convicted of violating the <a href="/wiki/Selective_Training_and_Service_Act_of_1940" title="Selective Training and Service Act of 1940">Selective Service Act</a>. From 1944 to 1946, Rustin was imprisoned in <a href="/wiki/Federal_Correctional_Institution,_Ashland" title="Federal Correctional Institution, Ashland">Ashland Federal Prison</a> in Kentucky, and later the <a href="/wiki/Lewisburg_Federal_Penitentiary" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary">Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary</a>, in Pennsylvania. At both, he organized protests against racially segregated housing and dining facilities. During his incarceration, he also organized FOR's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Free_India_Committee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Free India Committee (page does not exist)">Free India Committee</a>. After his release from prison, he was frequently arrested for protesting against British colonial rule, in both India and Africa. Just before a trip to Africa while college secretary of the FOR, Rustin recorded a <a href="/wiki/LP_record" title="LP record">10-inch LP</a>, Elizabethan Songs and Negro Spirituals, for the Fellowship Records label. He sang <a href="/wiki/Spirituals" title="Spirituals">spirituals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan">Elizabethan</a> songs, accompanied on the <a href="/wiki/Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a> by Margaret Davison.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_the_Civil_Rights_Movement">Influence on the Civil Rights Movement</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Influence on the Civil Rights Movement">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></div> Rustin and Houser organized the <a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a> in 1947. This was the first of the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Rides">Freedom Rides</a> to test the 1946 ruling of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> in <a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan#Arrest.2C_jail_and_conviction" title="Irene Morgan">Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia</a> that banned <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a> in interstate travel as unconstitutional. Rustin and CORE executive secretary George Houser recruited a team of fourteen men, divided equally by race, to ride in pairs through Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The NAACP opposed CORE's <a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhian</a> tactics as too meek. Participants in the Journey of Reconciliation were arrested several times. Arrested with <a href="/wiki/Igal_Roodenko" title="Igal Roodenko">Igal Roodenko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joe_Felmet" title="Joe Felmet">Joe Felmet</a>, Rustin served twenty-two days on a <a href="/wiki/Chain_gang" title="Chain gang">chain gang</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> for violating state <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> laws regarding segregated seating on public transportation.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> On June 17, 2022, Chapel Hill <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Superior_Court" title="North Carolina Superior Court">Superior Court</a> Judge Allen Baddour, with full consent of the state, dismissed the 1947 North Carolina charges against the four Freedom Riders, with members of the exonerees' families in attendance.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> In 1948, Rustin traveled to India to learn techniques of <a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">nonviolent civil resistance</a> directly from the leaders of the Gandhian movement. The conference had been organized before <a href="/wiki/Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a>'s assassination earlier that year. Between 1947 and 1952, Rustin also met with leaders of independence movements in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>. In 1951, he formed the committee to Support South African Resistance, which later became the <a href="/wiki/American_Committee_on_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Committee on Africa">American Committee on Africa</a>. Rustin was arrested in <a href="/wiki/Pasadena,_California" title="Pasadena, California">Pasadena, California</a>, in January 1953 for sexual activity in a parked car with two men in their 20s.<a href="#cite_note-NPR_2019-01-06-28">[28]</a> Originally charged with vagrancy and lewd conduct, he pleaded guilty to a single, lesser charge of "sex perversion" (as <a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a> was officially referred to in California at the time, even if consensual) and served 60 days in jail. The Pasadena arrest was the first time that Rustin's homosexuality had come to public attention. He had been and remained candid in private about his sexuality, although homosexual activity was still criminalized throughout the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Magazine_of_History_2006-03-37">[37]</a> Rustin resigned from the <a href="/wiki/Fellowship_of_Reconciliation_(United_States)" title="Fellowship of Reconciliation (United States)">Fellowship of Reconciliation</a> (FOR) because of his convictions. They also greatly affected Rustin's relationship with <a href="/wiki/A._J._Muste" title="A. J. Muste">A. J. Muste</a>, the director of the FOR. Muste had already tried to change Rustin's sexuality earlier in their relationship with no success. Later in Rustin's life, they continued their relationship with more tension than they had previously.<a href="#cite_note-Religion_Dispatches_2012-06-25-38">[38]</a> Rustin became the executive secretary of the <a href="/wiki/War_Resisters_League" title="War Resisters League">War Resisters League</a>. An American Legion chapter in Montana used Rustin's Pasadena conviction to try to cancel his lectures in the state.<a href="#cite_note-Magazine_of_History_2006-03-37">[37]</a> Rustin served as an unidentified member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a>'s task force to write "<a href="/wiki/Speak_Truth_to_Power:_a_Quaker_Search_for_an_Alternative_to_Violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Speak Truth to Power: a Quaker Search for an Alternative to Violence">Speak Truth to Power: A Quaker Search for an Alternative to Violence</a>",<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> published in 1955. This was one of the most influential and widely commented upon <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifist</a> essays in the United States. Rustin had wanted to keep his participation quiet, as he believed that his known sexual orientation would be used by critics as an excuse to compromise the 71-page pamphlet when it was published. It analyzed the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> and the American response to it, and recommended <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">non-violent</a> solutions. Rustin took leave from the War Resisters League in 1956 to advise minister <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> of the Baptist Church on Gandhian tactics. King was organizing the public transportation boycott in <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery, Alabama</a>, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a>. According to Rustin, "I think it's fair to say that Dr. King's view of non-violent tactics was almost non-existent when the boycott began. In other words, Dr. King was permitting himself and his children and his home to be protected by guns." Rustin convinced King to abandon the armed protection, including a personal handgun.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> In a 1964 interview with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Penn_Warren" title="Robert Penn Warren">Robert Penn Warren</a> for the book <a href="/wiki/Who_Speaks_for_the_Negro%3F" title="Who Speaks for the Negro?">Who Speaks for the Negro?</a>, Rustin also reflected that his integrative ideology began to differ from King's. He believed a social movement "has to be based on the collective needs of people at this time, regardless of color, creed, race."<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The following year, Rustin and King began organizing the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC). Many African-American leaders were concerned that Rustin's sexual orientation and past Communist membership would undermine support for the civil rights movement. After the organization of the SCLC, Rustin and King planned a civil rights march adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/1960_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1960 Democratic National Convention">1960 Democratic National Convention</a> in Los Angeles. This did not sit well with U.S. Representative <a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a> Powell threatened to leak to the press rumors of a fake affair between Rustin and King. King, acting in his interests, canceled the march, and Rustin left his position in the SCLC. King received criticism for this action from Harper's magazine, which wrote about him: "Lost much moral credit ... in the eyes of the young." Although Rustin was open about his sexual orientation and his convictions were a matter of public record, the events had not been discussed widely beyond the civil rights leadership. Rustin did not let this setback change his direction in the movement.<a href="#cite_note-Gates-Rivers-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington,_D.C._(Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Civil_Rights_March_on_Washington%2C_D.C._%28Leaders_of_the_march_posing_in_front_of_the_statue_of_Abraham_Lincoln..._-_NARA_-_542063_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1963" data-file-height="1429" /></a><figcaption>Leaders of the March on Washington posing in front of the statue of Abraham Lincoln on August 28, 1963</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="March_on_Washington">March on Washington</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: March on Washington">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/200px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/300px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/400px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="2625" /></a><figcaption>Rustin and <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Robinson" title="Cleveland Robinson">Cleveland Robinson</a> of the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> on August 7, 1963</figcaption></figure> Despite shunning from some civil rights leaders, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[w]hen the moment came for an unprecedented mass gathering in Washington, Randolph pushed Rustin forward as the logical choice to organize it.<a href="#cite_note-WP_2011-08-21-42">[42]</a></blockquote> A few weeks before the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> in August 1963, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Senators_from_South_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Senators from South Carolina">South Carolina Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/Strom_Thurmond" title="Strom Thurmond">Strom Thurmond</a> railed against Rustin as a "Communist, draft-dodger, and homosexual", and had his entire Pasadena arrest file entered in the record.<a href="#cite_note-WP_2011-08-21-42">[42]</a> Thurmond also produced a <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> photograph of Rustin talking to King while King was bathing, to imply that there was a same-sex relationship between the two. Both men denied the allegation of an affair.<a href="#cite_note-Gates-Rivers-12">[12]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-151-rr1pg1jj76">"Eyes on the Prize; America, They Loved You Madly; Interview with Bayard Rustin"</a> conducted in 1979 for the America, They Loved You Madly, a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a> documentary in which he discusses the Brown decision, the reasons for increased civil rights activism after World War II, and his work to organize the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> Rustin became involved in the March on Washington in 1962 when he was recruited by A. Philip Randolph. The march was planned to be a commemoration of the Emancipation Proclamation one hundred years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-Gates-Rivers-12">[12]</a> Rustin was instrumental in organizing the march. He drilled off-duty police officers as marshals, bus captains to direct traffic, and scheduled the podium speakers. <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Holmes_Norton" title="Eleanor Holmes Norton">Eleanor Holmes Norton</a> and Rachelle Horowitz were aides.<a href="#cite_note-WP_2011-08-21-42">[42]</a> Despite King's support, NAACP chairman <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a> did not want Rustin to receive any public credit for his role in planning the march.<a href="#cite_note-Life_2009-11-05-43">[43]</a> Roy Wilkins said, "This march is of such importance that we must not put a person of his liabilities at the head." Because of this conflict, Randolph served as the director of the march and Rustin as his deputy. During the planning of the march, Rustin feared his previous legal issues would pose a threat to the march. Nevertheless, Rustin did become well known. On September 6, 1963, a photograph of Rustin and Randolph appeared on the cover of <a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a> magazine, identifying them as "the leaders" of the March.<a href="#cite_note-Life_2009-11-05-43">[43]</a> Rustin stated his thoughts on the march and said it "made Americans feel for the first time that we were capable of being truly a nation, that we were capable of moving beyond division and bigotry". <a href="#cite_note-:12-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York_City_school_boycott">New York City school boycott</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: New York City school boycott">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_school_boycott" title="New York City school boycott">New York City school boycott</a></div> At the beginning of 1964, <a href="/wiki/Reverend_Milton_Galamison" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverend Milton Galamison">Reverend Milton Galamison</a> and other Harlem community leaders invited Rustin to coordinate a citywide boycott of public schools to protest their <a href="/wiki/De_facto_segregation" class="mw-redirect" title="De facto segregation">de facto segregation</a>. Prior to the boycott, the organizers asked the <a href="/wiki/United_Federation_of_Teachers" title="United Federation of Teachers">United Federation of Teachers</a> Executive Board to join the boycott or ask teachers to join the picket lines. The union declined, promising only to protect from reprisals any teachers who participated. More than 400,000 New Yorkers participated in a one-day February 3, 1964, boycott. Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Perlstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Perlstein (page does not exist)">Daniel Perlstein</a> notes that "newspapers were astounded both by the numbers of black and Puerto Rican parents and children who boycotted and by the complete absence of violence or disorder from the protesters."<a href="#cite_note-perlstein-44">[44]</a> It was, Rustin stated, and newspapers reported, "the largest civil rights demonstration" in American history. Rustin said that "the movement to integrate the schools will create far-reaching benefits" for teachers as well as students.<a href="#cite_note-perlstein-44">[44]</a> The protest demanded complete integration of the city's schools (which would require some whites to attend schools in black neighborhoods), and it challenged the coalition between African Americans and white liberals. An ensuing white backlash affected relations among the black leaders. Writing to black labor leaders, Rustin denounced Galamison for seeking to conduct another boycott in the spring and soon abandoned the coalition.<a href="#cite_note-perlstein-44">[44]</a> Rustin organized a May March 18 which called for "maximum possible" integration. Perlstein recounts. "This goal was to be achieved through such modest programs as the construction of larger schools and the replacement of junior high schools with middle schools. The UFT and other white moderates endorsed the May rally, yet only four thousand protesters showed up, and the Board of Education was no more responsive to the conciliatory May demonstration than to the earlier, more confrontational boycott."<a href="#cite_note-perlstein-44">[44]</a> When Rustin was invited to speak at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia#Integration,_coeducation,_and_student_dissent" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia in 1964</a>, school administrators tried to ban him, out of fear that he would organize a school boycott there. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_protest_to_politics">From protest to politics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: From protest to politics">edit</a>]</div> In the spring of 1964, Martin Luther King was considering hiring Rustin as executive director of SCLC but was advised against it by <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a>, a longtime activist friend of Rustin's. He opposed the hire because of what he considered Rustin's growing devotion to the political theorist <a href="/wiki/Max_Shachtman" title="Max Shachtman">Max Shachtman</a>. Other SCLC leaders opposed Rustin due to his sexuality.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/1964_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1964 Democratic National Convention">1964 Democratic National Convention</a>, which followed <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> in Mississippi, Rustin became an adviser to the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a> (MFDP); they were trying to gain recognition as the legitimate, non-<a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> delegation from their state, where blacks had been officially <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disenfranchised</a> since the turn of the century (as they were generally throughout the South) and excluded from the official political system. DNC leaders Lyndon Johnson and Hubert Humphrey offered only two non-voting seats to the MFDP, with the official seating going to the regular segregationist Mississippi delegation. Rustin and the AFL–CIO leaders urged the MFDP to take the offer. MFDP leaders, including <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a>, angrily rejected the arrangement; many of their supporters became highly suspicious of Rustin. Rustin's attempt to compromise appealed to the Democratic Party leadership.<a href="#cite_note-perlstein-44">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_2.jpg/267px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_2.jpg/401px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_2.jpg/534px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2728" data-file-height="2096" /></a><figcaption>Rustin, 1965</figcaption></figure> After the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, Rustin advocated closer ties between the civil rights movement and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>, specifically the party's base among the white working class, many of whom still had strong union affiliations. With <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a>, Rustin wrote an influential article in 1964 called "From Protest to Politics", published in <a href="/wiki/Commentary_(magazine)" title="Commentary (magazine)">Commentary</a> magazine; it analyzed the changing economy and its implications for African Americans. Rustin wrote presciently that the rise of automation would reduce the demand for low-skill high-paying jobs, which would jeopardize the position of the urban African-American working class, particularly in northern states. He believed that the working class had to collaborate across racial lines for common economic goals. His prophecy has been proven right in the dislocation and loss of jobs for many urban African Americans due to the restructuring of industry in the coming decades. Rustin believed that the African-American community needed to change its political strategy, building and strengthening a political alliance with predominately white unions and other organizations (churches, synagogues, etc.) to pursue a common economic agenda. He wrote that it was time to move from protest to politics. Rustin's analysis of the economic problems of the Black community was widely influential.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Rustin argued that since black people could now legally sit in the restaurant after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, they needed to be able to afford service financially. He believed that a coalition of progressive forces to move the Democratic Party forward was needed to change the economic structure.<a href="#cite_note-chandra-47">[47]</a> He also argued that the African-American community was threatened by the appeal of <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>, particularly the rise of "<a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a>". He thought this position was a fantasy of middle-class black people that repeated the political and moral errors of previous <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalists</a>, while alienating the white allies needed by the African-American community. Nation editor and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/Randall_Kennedy" title="Randall Kennedy">Randall Kennedy</a> noted later that, while Rustin had a general "disdain of nationalism", he had a "very different attitude toward Jewish nationalism" and was "unflaggingly supportive of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-The_Nation_2016-01-04-48">[48]</a> Commentary editor-in-chief <a href="/wiki/Norman_Podhoretz" title="Norman Podhoretz">Norman Podhoretz</a> had commissioned the article from Rustin, and the two men remained intellectually and personally aligned for the next 20 years.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Podhoretz and the magazine promoted the <a href="/wiki/Neoconservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoconservative">neoconservative</a> movement, which had implications for civil rights initiatives as well as other economic aspects of the society. In 1985, Rustin publicly praised Podhoretz for his refusal to "pander to minority groups" and for opposing affirmative action quotas in hiring as well as black studies programs in colleges.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Because of these positions, Rustin was criticized as a "sell-out" by many of his former colleagues in the civil rights movement, especially those connected to <a href="/wiki/Grassroots_organizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Grassroots organizing">grassroots organizing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> They charged that he was lured by the material comforts that came with a less radical and more professional type of activism.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Biographer <a href="/wiki/John_D%27Emilio" title="John D'Emilio">John D'Emilio</a> rejects these characterizations, and "portrays the final third of Rustin's life as one in which his reputation among his former allies was routinely questioned. After decades of working outside the system, they simply could not accept working within the system."<a href="#cite_note-chandra-47">[47]</a> However, Randall Kennedy wrote in a 2003 article that descriptions of Rustin as "a bought man" are "at least partly true", noting that his sponsorship by the <a href="/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="AFL–CIO">AFL–CIO</a> brought him some financial stability but imposed boundaries on his politics.<a href="#cite_note-The_Nation_2016-01-04-48">[48]</a> Kennedy notes that despite Rustin's conservative turn in the mid-1960s, he remained a lifelong socialist,<a href="#cite_note-The_Nation_2016-01-04-48">[48]</a> and D'Emilio argues that in the final phase of his life, Rustin remained on the left: "D'Emilio explains, even as Rustin was taking what appeared to be a more "conservative" turn, he remained committed to social justice. Rustin was making radical and ambitious demands for a basic <a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_wealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Redistribution of wealth">redistribution of wealth</a> in American society, including universal healthcare, the abolition of poverty, and full employment."<a href="#cite_note-chandra-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_movement:_Unions_and_social_democracy">Labor movement: Unions and social democracy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Labor movement: Unions and social democracy">edit</a>]</div> Rustin increasingly worked to strengthen the labor movement, which he saw as the champion of empowerment for the African American community and for economic justice for all Americans. He contributed to the labor movement's two sides, economic and political, through the support of labor unions and social-democratic politics. He was the founder and became the Director of the <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph_Institute" title="A. Philip Randolph Institute">A. Philip Randolph Institute</a>, which coordinated the AFL-CIO's work on civil rights and economic justice. He became a regular columnist for the AFL-CIO newspaper. On the political side of the labor movement, Rustin increased his visibility as a leader of the American movement for <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a>. In early 1972, he became a national co-chairman of the Socialist Party of America. In December 1972, when the Socialist Party changed its name to <a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats,_USA" title="Social Democrats, USA">Social Democrats, USA</a> (SDUSA) by a vote of 73–34, Rustin continued to serve as national co-chairman, along with <a href="/wiki/Charles_S._Zimmerman" title="Charles S. Zimmerman">Charles S. Zimmerman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Ladies_Garment_Workers%27_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="International Ladies Garment Workers' Union">International Ladies Garment Workers' Union</a> (ILGWU).<a href="#cite_note-NY_Times_1972-12-31-52">[52]</a> In his opening speech to the December 1972 Convention, Co-Chairman Rustin called for SDUSA to organize against the "reactionary policies of the Nixon Administration"; Rustin also criticized the "irresponsibility and élitism of the 'New Politics' liberals".<a href="#cite_note-NY_Times_1972-12-31-52">[52]</a> In later years, Rustin served as the national chairman of SDUSA. During the 1960s, Rustin was a member<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> of the <a href="/wiki/League_for_Industrial_Democracy" title="League for Industrial Democracy">League for Industrial Democracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> He would remain a member for years, and became vice president during the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Foreign policy">edit</a>]</div> Like many liberals and some socialists, Rustin supported President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Containment_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Containment policy">containment policy</a> against <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, while criticizing specific conduct of this policy. In particular, to maintain independent labor unions and political opposition in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, Rustin and others gave critical support to U.S. military intervention in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, while calling for a negotiated peace treaty and democratic elections. Rustin criticized the specific conduct of the war, though. For instance, in a fundraising letter sent to War Resisters League supporters in 1964, Rustin wrote of being "angered and humiliated by the kind of war being waged, a war of torture, a war in which civilians are being machine-gunned from the air, and in which American napalm bombs are being dropped on the villages."<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Along with <a href="/wiki/Allard_Lowenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Allard Lowenstein">Allard Lowenstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Norman Thomas</a>, Rustin worked with the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>-sponsored Committee on Free Elections in the Dominican Republic, which lent international credibility to a 1966 ballot effectively rigged against the socialist former president, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Bosch_(politician)" title="Juan Bosch (politician)">Juan Bosch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Rustin worked as a human rights and <a href="/wiki/Election_monitoring" title="Election monitoring">election monitor</a> for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In 1970, Rustin called for the U.S. to send military jets in the fight against <a href="/wiki/Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab states">Arab states</a> by Israel; referring to a New York Times article he wrote, Rustin wrote to Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Golda_Meir" title="Golda Meir">Golda Meir</a> "...I hope that the ad will also have an effect on a serious domestic question: namely, the relations between the Jewish and the Negro communities in America." Rustin was concerned about unity between two groups that he argued faced discrimination in America and abroad, and also believed that Israel's democratic ideals were proof that justice and equality would prevail in the Arab territories despite the atrocities of war. His former colleagues in the peace movement considered it to be a profound betrayal of Rustin's nonviolent ideals.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Rustin maintained his strongly anti-Soviet and anti-communist views later in his life, especially with regard to Africa. Rustin co-wrote with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gershman" title="Carl Gershman">Carl Gershman</a> (a former director of <a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats,_USA" title="Social Democrats, USA">Social Democrats, USA</a> and future <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> appointee) an essay entitled "Africa, Soviet Imperialism & the Retreat of American Power", in which he decried Russian and Cuban involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a> and defended the military intervention by <a href="/wiki/Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Apartheid South Africa">apartheid South Africa</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Angola" title="National Liberation Front of Angola">National Liberation Front of Angola</a> (FNLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (<a href="/wiki/UNITA" title="UNITA">UNITA</a>). "And if a South African force did intervene at the urging of black leaders and on the side of the forces that clearly represent the black majority in Angola, to counter a non-African army of Cubans ten times its size, by what standard of political judgment is this immoral?" Rustin accused the Soviet Union of a classic imperialist agenda in Africa in pursuit of economic resources and vital sea lanes, and called the <a href="/wiki/Carter_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Carter Administration">Carter Administration</a> "hypocritical" for claiming to be committed to the welfare of blacks while doing too little to thwart Russian and Cuban expansion throughout Africa.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> In 1976, Rustin was a member of the anti-communist <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_the_Present_Danger" title="Committee on the Present Danger">Committee on the Present Danger</a> (CPD), founded by politician <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nitze" title="Paul Nitze">Paul Nitze</a>. Nitze was a member of <a href="/wiki/Team_B" title="Team B">Team B</a>, the independent analysts commissioned by <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George Bush</a> to scrutinize the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>'s assessments of the Soviet nuclear threat. CPD promoted Team B's controversial intelligence claims about Soviet foreign policy, using them as an argument against arms control agreements such as <a href="/wiki/SALT_II" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT II">SALT II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Jewry_movement">Soviet Jewry movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Soviet Jewry movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Jewry_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Jewry Movement">Soviet Jewry Movement</a></div> The plight of Jews in the Soviet Union reminded Rustin of the struggles that blacks faced in the United States. Soviet Jews faced many of the same forms of discrimination in employment, education, and housing, while also being prisoners within their own country by being denied the chance to emigrate by Soviet authorities.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] After seeing the injustice that Soviet Jews faced, Rustin became a leading voice in advocating for the movement of Jews from the Soviet Union to Israel. He worked closely with Senator Henry Jackson of Washington, who introduced legislation that tied trade relations with the Soviet Union to their treatment of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Podair_2009_p99-63">[63]</a> In 1966 he chaired the historic Ad hoc Commission on Rights of Soviet Jews organized by the Conference on the Status of Soviet Jews, leading a panel of six jurors in the commission's public tribunal on Jewish life in the Soviet Union. Members of the panel included <a href="/wiki/Telford_Taylor" title="Telford Taylor">Telford Taylor</a>, the Nuremberg war trial prosecutor and Columbia University professor of law, Dr. John C. Bennett, president of the Union Theological Seminary; Reverend George B. Ford, pastor emeritus of the Corpus Christi Church; Samuel Fishman representing United Automobile Workers; and Norman Thomas, veteran Socialist leader.<a href="#cite_note-JTA_1966-12-05-64">[64]</a> The commission collected testimonies from Soviet Jews and compiled them into a report that was delivered to the secretary-general of the United Nations. The report urged the international community to demand that the Soviet authorities allow Jews to practice their religion, preserve their culture, and emigrate from the USSR at their will.<a href="#cite_note-JTA_1966-12-05-64">[64]</a> The testimonies from Soviet Jews were published by <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Decter" title="Moshe Decter">Moshe Decter</a>, the executive secretary of the Conference on the Status of Soviet Jews, in a book—Redemption! Jewish freedom letters from Russia, with a foreword by Rustin.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Through the 1970s and 1980s Rustin wrote several articles on the subject of Soviet Jewry and appeared at Soviet Jewry movement rallies, demonstrations, vigils, and conferences, in the United States and abroad.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> He co-sponsored the National Interreligious Task Force on Soviet Jewry. Rustin allied with Senator <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan" title="Daniel Patrick Moynihan">Daniel Patrick Moynihan</a>, an outspoken advocate for Soviet Jewry, and worked closely with Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Jackson" title="Henry M. Jackson">Henry Jackson</a>, informing the <a href="/wiki/Jackson%E2%80%93Vanik_amendment" title="Jackson–Vanik amendment">Jackson–Vanik amendment</a>, vital legislation that restricted United States trade with the Soviet Union in relation to its treatment of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Podair_2009_p99-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Criticisms">edit</a>]</div> Rustin was at the forefront of the freedom struggle for African Americans but parted ways from the activists in 1968. He was considered an “<a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom" title="Uncle Tom">Uncle Tom</a>” by some as he started to fight for equality for all and not just blacks. An incident in the summer of 1964 in which a police officer killed a black child led to violence. “When he urged blacks to resist with non-violence, they spat at him and shot back “Uncle Tom! Uncle Tom!”. Rustin’s views of the protest were to “urge them not to behave with desperation but politically and rationally.” He would later switch from radicalism to a truly collaborative approach. Rustin wanted blacks to align themselves with whites to see progression.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gay_rights">Gay rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gay rights">edit</a>]</div> Davis Platt, Bayard's partner from the 1940s,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> said "I never had any sense at all that Bayard felt any shame or guilt about his homosexuality. That was rare in those days. Rare."<a href="#cite_note-Magazine_of_History_2006-03-37">[37]</a> Bayard often would be viewed as bisexual because of those attracted to him. His relationships were mainly with the men, both black and white. However, his longer relationships were with the latter. Rustin did not realize his sexual orientation when he was in school. His awareness left no worry, and his family openly accepted it.<a href="#cite_note-:02-25">[25]</a> Rustin did not engage in any gay rights activism until the 1980s. He was urged to do so by his partner <a href="/wiki/Walter_Naegle" title="Walter Naegle">Walter Naegle</a>, who has said that "I think that if I hadn't been in the office at that time, when these invitations [from gay organizations] came in, he probably wouldn't have done them."<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> He was an advocate for people with <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS/HIV</a>, and because of his public works, he may have “came out” to the public. Rustin no longer hinders his sexual orientation from others. “His aim--to how people responded to him as a black gay man—was “the new barometer for social change”.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Because same-sex marriage was not officially recognized at the time, Rustin and Naegle undertook to solidify their partnership and protect their union legally through adoption: in 1982 Rustin adopted Naegle, 30 years old at the time. Naegle explained that Bayard:<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... was concerned about protecting my rights, because gay people had no protection. At that time, marriage between a same-sex couple was inconceivable. And so he adopted me, legally adopted me, in 1982. That was the only thing we could do to kind of legalize our relationship. We actually had to go through a process as if Bayard was adopting a small child. My biological mother had to sign a legal paper, a paper disowning me. They had to send a social worker to our home. When the social worker arrived, she had to sit us down to talk to us to make sure that this was a fit home. </blockquote> Rustin testified in favor of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Gay_Rights_Bill_of_1986" title="New York City Gay Rights Bill of 1986">New York City Gay Rights Bill</a>. In 1986, he gave a speech "The New Niggers Are Gays" in which he asserted:<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Today, blacks are no longer the litmus paper or the barometer of social change. Blacks are in every segment of society and there are laws that help to protect them from racial discrimination. The new "niggers" are gays... It is in this sense that gay people are the new barometer for social change... The question of social change should be framed with the most vulnerable group in mind: gay people.</blockquote> Also in 1986, Rustin was invited to contribute to the book In the Life: A Black Gay Anthology. He declined, explaining:<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <blockquote>I was not involved in the struggle for gay rights as a youth ... I did not "come out of the closet" voluntarily—circumstances forced me out. While I have no problem with being publicly identified as homosexual, it would be dishonest of me to present myself as one who was in the forefront of the struggle for gay rights ... I fundamentally consider sexual orientation to be a private matter. As such, it has not been a factor which has greatly influenced my role as an activist.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_and_beliefs">Death and beliefs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Death and beliefs">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_before_demonstration_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Bayard_Rustin_before_demonstration_NYWTS.jpg/250px-Bayard_Rustin_before_demonstration_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Bayard_Rustin_before_demonstration_NYWTS.jpg/375px-Bayard_Rustin_before_demonstration_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Bayard_Rustin_before_demonstration_NYWTS.jpg/500px-Bayard_Rustin_before_demonstration_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2744" data-file-height="1928" /></a><figcaption>Rustin speaks with civil rights activists before a demonstration, 1964</figcaption></figure> Rustin died on August 24, 1987, of a perforated <a href="/wiki/Vermiform_appendix" class="mw-redirect" title="Vermiform appendix">appendix</a>. An obituary in The New York Times reported, "Looking back at his career, Mr. Rustin, a <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a>, once wrote: 'The principal factors which influenced my life are 1) nonviolent tactics; 2) constitutional means; 3) democratic procedures; 4) respect for human personality; 5) a belief that all people are one.'"<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Rustin was survived by Walter Naegle, his partner of ten years.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Rustin's personal philosophy is said to have been inspired by combining Quaker pacifism with socialism (as taught by <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>), and the theory of non-violent protest popularized by <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-biography.com_bio-9">[9]</a> President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> issued a statement on Rustin's death, praising his work for civil rights and "for human rights throughout the world". He added that Rustin "was denounced by former friends, because he never gave up his conviction that minorities in America could and would succeed based on their individual merit".<a href="#cite_note-AP_Reagan_Praises-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_and_Eugene_Reed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bayard_Rustin_and_Eugene_Reed.jpg/210px-Bayard_Rustin_and_Eugene_Reed.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bayard_Rustin_and_Eugene_Reed.jpg/315px-Bayard_Rustin_and_Eugene_Reed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bayard_Rustin_and_Eugene_Reed.jpg/420px-Bayard_Rustin_and_Eugene_Reed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2152" data-file-height="2392" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Bayard Rustin and Eugene Reed</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_7DF837881783464B8614DDD69B5F8086">Vietnam: A Television History; Homefront USA; Interview with Bayard Rustin, 1982</a>, 39:32, <a href="/wiki/WGBH-TV" title="WGBH-TV">WGBH-TV</a><a href="#cite_note-WGBH_1982-10-07-77">[77]</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=6026">The Bayard Rustin Papers</a>, 1:05:32, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a><a href="#cite_note-locpapers-78">[78]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> According to journalist Steve Hendrix, Rustin "faded from the shortlist of well-known civil rights lions", in part because he was active behind the scenes, and also because of public discomfort with his sexual orientation and former communist membership.<a href="#cite_note-WP_2011-08-21-42">[42]</a> In addition, Rustin's tilt toward neo-conservatism in the late 1960s led him into a disagreement with most civil rights leaders. But, the 2003 documentary film <a href="/wiki/Brother_Outsider:_The_Life_of_Bayard_Rustin" title="Brother Outsider: The Life of Bayard Rustin">Brother Outsider: The Life of Bayard Rustin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sundance_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Sundance Festival">Sundance Festival</a> Grand Jury Prize nominee,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> and the March 2012 centennial of Rustin's birth have contributed to renewed recognition of his extensive contributions. Rustin served as chairman of <a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats,_USA" title="Social Democrats, USA">Social Democrats, USA</a>, which, The Washington Post wrote in 2013, "was a breeding ground for many <a href="/wiki/Neoconservatism" title="Neoconservatism">neoconservatives</a>".<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> French historian <a href="/wiki/Justin_Va%C3%AFsse" title="Justin Vaïsse">Justin Vaïsse</a> classifies him as a "right-wing socialist" and "second age neoconservative", citing his role as vice-chair of the <a href="/wiki/Coalition_for_a_Democratic_Majority" title="Coalition for a Democratic Majority">Coalition for a Democratic Majority</a>, which was involved in the second incarnation of the <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_the_Present_Danger" title="Committee on the Present Danger">Committee on the Present Danger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Richman" title="Daniel Richman">Daniel Richman</a>, former clerk for <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> justice <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, Marshall's friendship with Rustin, who was open about his homosexuality, played a significant role in Marshall's dissent from the court's 5–4 decision upholding the constitutionality of state sodomy laws in the <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">later overturned</a> 1986 case <a href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Hardwick" title="Bowers v. Hardwick">Bowers v. Hardwick</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MurdochPrice2002-83">[83]</a> Several buildings have been named in honor of Rustin, including the <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin_Educational_Complex" title="Bayard Rustin Educational Complex">Bayard Rustin Educational Complex</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Chelsea,_Manhattan" title="Chelsea, Manhattan">Chelsea, Manhattan</a>;<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Bayard <a href="/wiki/Rustin_High_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Rustin High School">Rustin High School</a> near his hometown of <a href="/wiki/West_Chester,_Pennsylvania" title="West Chester, Pennsylvania">West Chester, Pennsylvania</a>; Bayard Rustin Library at the Affirmations Gay/Lesbian Community Center in <a href="/wiki/Ferndale,_Michigan" title="Ferndale, Michigan">Ferndale, Michigan</a>; the Bayard Rustin Social Justice Center in <a href="/wiki/Conway,_Arkansas" title="Conway, Arkansas">Conway, Arkansas</a>, and the Bayard Rustin Center for Social Justice in <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>; the Bayard Rustin Room at <a href="/wiki/Friends_House" title="Friends House">Friends House</a>, London, UK.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Rustin is one of two men who have both participated in the <a href="/wiki/Penn_Relays" title="Penn Relays">Penn Relays</a> and had a school, <a href="/wiki/West_Chester_Rustin_High_School" title="West Chester Rustin High School">West Chester Rustin High School</a>, named in his honor that participates in the relays.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> In 1968, two months after the King assassination, <a href="/wiki/Montclair_State_University" title="Montclair State University">Montclair State University</a> gave Rustin an honorary <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Letters" title="Doctor of Letters">Doctor of Letters</a> degree.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> In 1985, <a href="/wiki/Haverford_College" title="Haverford College">Haverford College</a> awarded Rustin an honorary <a href="/wiki/Legum_Doctor" title="Legum Doctor">doctorate in law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990s_and_2000s">1990s and 2000s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1990s and 2000s">edit</a>]</div> In 1995, a <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_Historical_Marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State Historical Marker">Pennsylvania State Historical Marker</a> was placed at Lincoln and Montgomery Avenues, West Chester, Pennsylvania, on the grounds of <a href="/wiki/Henderson_High_School_(Pennsylvania)" title="Henderson High School (Pennsylvania)">Henderson High School</a>, which he attended.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> A 1998 anthology movie, Out of the Past, featured letters and archival footage of Rustin.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/West_Chester_Area_School_District" title="West Chester Area School District">West Chester Area School District</a> voted in 2002 to approve the creation of <a href="/wiki/West_Chester_Rustin_High_School" title="West Chester Rustin High School">Bayard Rustin High School</a> in a 6–3 vote.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Those in favor mentioned Rustin's involvement in the civil rights movement, and opposition was tied to Rustin's sexuality and political views.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The school opened in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In July 2007 after a year's collaboration starting in June 2006, a group of San Francisco Bay Area Black LGBT community leaders officially formed the Bayard Rustin Coalition (BRC), with the permission of the Estate of Bayard Rustin. The BRC promotes greater Black participation in the electoral process, advances civil and human rights issues, and promotes the legacy of Rustin.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2010s_and_beyond">2010s and beyond</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 2010s and beyond">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Activists_with_Bayard_Rustin%27s_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Activists_with_Bayard_Rustin%27s_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom.jpg/220px-Activists_with_Bayard_Rustin%27s_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Activists_with_Bayard_Rustin%27s_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom.jpg/330px-Activists_with_Bayard_Rustin%27s_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Activists_with_Bayard_Rustin%27s_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom.jpg/440px-Activists_with_Bayard_Rustin%27s_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1756" data-file-height="1791" /></a><figcaption>Rustin's partner <a href="/wiki/Walter_Naegle" title="Walter Naegle">Walter Naegle</a> (left) holding the posthumous Medal of Freedom</figcaption></figure> In 2011, the Bayard Rustin Center for LGBTQA Activism, Awareness, and Reconciliation was announced at <a href="/wiki/Guilford_College" title="Guilford College">Guilford College</a>, a Quaker school.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Formerly the Queer and Allied Resource Center, the center was rededicated in March 2011 with the permission of the Estate of Bayard Rustin and featured a keynote address by social justice activist <a href="/wiki/Mandy_Carter_(activist)" title="Mandy Carter (activist)">Mandy Carter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In 2012, Rustin was inducted into the <a href="/wiki/Legacy_Walk" title="Legacy Walk">Legacy Walk</a>, an outdoor public display which celebrates <a href="/wiki/LGBTQ" title="LGBTQ">LGBTQ</a> history and people.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In 2013, Rustin was selected as an honoree in the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Hall_of_Honor" title="Labor Hall of Honor">United States Department of Labor Hall of Honor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HoH-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> On August 8, 2013, President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> posthumously awarded Rustin the <a href="/wiki/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom" title="Presidential Medal of Freedom">Presidential Medal of Freedom</a>, the highest civilian award in the United States. The citation in the press release stated:<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <blockquote>Bayard Rustin was an unyielding activist for civil rights, dignity, and equality for all. An advisor to the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., he promoted nonviolent resistance, participated in one of the first Freedom Rides, organized the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, and fought tirelessly for marginalized communities at home and abroad. As an openly gay African American, Mr. Rustin stood at the intersection of several of the fights for equal rights.</blockquote> At the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> ceremony on November 20, 2013, President Obama presented Rustin's award to Walter Naegle, his partner of ten years at the time of Rustin's death.<a href="#cite_note-metroweekly1-7">[7]</a> In 2014, Rustin was one of the inaugural honorees in the <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Honor_Walk" title="Rainbow Honor Walk">Rainbow Honor Walk</a>, a <a href="/wiki/List_of_halls_and_walks_of_fame" title="List of halls and walks of fame">walk of fame</a> in San Francisco's <a href="/wiki/Castro_District,_San_Francisco" title="Castro District, San Francisco">Castro neighborhood</a> noting <a href="/wiki/LGBTQ" title="LGBTQ">LGBTQ</a> people who have "made significant contributions in their fields".<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In April 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_County,_Maryland" title="Montgomery County, Maryland">Montgomery County</a> <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_County_Public_Schools_(Maryland)" title="Montgomery County Public Schools (Maryland)">Board of Education</a> in Maryland voted to name the <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin_Elementary_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayard Rustin Elementary School">Bayard Rustin Elementary School</a> after Rustin. Canadian writer Steven Elliott Jackson wrote a play that stages an imaginary meeting and one-night-stand between Rustin and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Jenkins" title="Walter Jenkins">Walter Jenkins</a> of the Johnson administration called The Seat Next to the King. The play won the award for Best Play at the 2017 <a href="/wiki/Toronto_Fringe_Festival" title="Toronto Fringe Festival">Toronto Fringe Festival</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> A full-length play with music, written by Steve H. Broadnax III, Bayard Rustin Inside Ashland, dramatizing Rustin's <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> prison experience and its central role in his lifetime of activism, had its world premiere on May 22, 2022, at <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Light_and_Theatre_Company" title="People's Light and Theatre Company">People's Light and Theatre Company</a> in <a href="/wiki/Malvern,_Pennsylvania" title="Malvern, Pennsylvania">Malvern, Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin_Center_for_Social_Justice" title="Bayard Rustin Center for Social Justice">Bayard Rustin Center for Social Justice</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a> in 2018, with Naegle acting as Board Member Emeritus.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> It serves as a community activist center and <a href="/wiki/Safe_space" title="Safe space">safe space</a> for LGBTQ kids, intersectional families, and marginalized people.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Rustin was one of the fifty inaugural American "pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes" inducted in June 2019 to the <a href="/wiki/National_LGBTQ_Wall_of_Honor" title="National LGBTQ Wall of Honor">National LGBTQ Wall of Honor</a>, within the <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_National_Monument" title="Stonewall National Monument">Stonewall National Monument</a> (SNM) in New York City's <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Inn" title="Stonewall Inn">Stonewall Inn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Metro_2019-06-27-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-SDGLN-111">[111]</a> The SNM is the first <a href="/wiki/National_monument_(United_States)" title="National monument (United States)">U.S. national monument</a> dedicated to <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBTQ rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_LGBT_people" class="mw-redirect" title="History of LGBT people">queer history</a>,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> with the unveiling timed to coincide with the <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_50_%E2%80%93_WorldPride_NYC_2019" title="Stonewall 50 – WorldPride NYC 2019">50th anniversary</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In January 2020, California State Senator <a href="/wiki/Scott_Wiener" title="Scott Wiener">Scott Wiener</a>, chair of the <a href="/wiki/California_Legislative_LGBT_Caucus" class="mw-redirect" title="California Legislative LGBT Caucus">California Legislative LGBT Caucus</a>, and Assemblywoman <a href="/wiki/Shirley_Weber" title="Shirley Weber">Shirley Weber</a>, chair of the <a href="/wiki/California_Legislative_Black_Caucus" title="California Legislative Black Caucus">California Legislative Black Caucus</a>, called for Governor <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Newsom" title="Gavin Newsom">Gavin Newsom</a> to issue a pardon for Rustin's 1953 Pasadena arrest, citing Rustin's legacy as a civil rights icon.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Newsom issued the <a href="/wiki/Pardon" title="Pardon">pardon</a> on February 5 while also announcing a new process for fast-tracking pardons for those convicted under historical laws criminalizing homosexuality.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In 2021 <a href="/wiki/Higher_Ground_Productions" title="Higher Ground Productions">Higher Ground Productions</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, announced production of <a href="/wiki/Rustin_(film)" title="Rustin (film)">Rustin</a>, a biographical film directed by <a href="/wiki/George_C._Wolfe" title="George C. Wolfe">George C. Wolfe</a> and starring <a href="/wiki/Colman_Domingo" title="Colman Domingo">Colman Domingo</a> in the title role.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> The film premiered at the <a href="/wiki/Telluride_Film_Festival" title="Telluride Film Festival">Telluride Film Festival</a> on August 31, 2023, and was screened at the <a href="/wiki/Toronto_International_Film_Festival" title="Toronto International Film Festival">Toronto International Film Festival</a> on September 13, 2023. It received a limited theatrical release on November 3, 2023, followed by a <a href="/wiki/Netflix" title="Netflix">Netflix</a> release on November 17. Reviews were generally positive, with <a href="/wiki/Colman_Domingo" title="Colman Domingo">Colman Domingo</a>'s performance garnering numerous accolades including Best Actor nominations for the Academy Award, BAFTA Award, and Golden Globe Award. A street in <a href="/wiki/Nyack,_New_York" title="Nyack, New York">Nyack, New York</a> was renamed "Bayard Rustin Way" in 2022 to honor Rustin's memory.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> On June 5, 2023, the Pasadena City Council adopted a resolution introduced by Councilmember Jason Lyon declaring that the "City of Pasadena celebrates and concurs in the Governor's 2020 pardon of Bayard Rustin" and supporting the issuance of a commemorative United States postage stamp honoring Rustin.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Publications">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Interracial primer, New York: Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1943</li> <li>Interracial workshop: progress report, New York: Sponsored by Congress of Racial Equality and Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1947</li> <li>Journey of reconciliation: report, New York : Fellowship of Reconciliation, Congress of Racial Equality, 1947</li> <li>We challenged Jim Crow! a report on the journey of reconciliation, April 9–23, 1947, New York: Fellowship of Reconciliation, Congress of Racial Equality, 1947</li> <li>"In apprehension how like a god!", Philadelphia: Young Friends Movement 1948</li> <li>The revolution in the South", Cambridge, Massachusetts.: Peace Education Section, American Friends Service Committee, 1950s</li> <li>Report on Montgomery, Alabama New York: War Resisters League, 1956</li> <li>A report and action suggestions on non-violence in the South New York: War Resisters League, 1957</li> <li>Civil rights: the true frontier, New York: Donald Press, 1963</li> <li>From protest to politics: the future of the civil rights movement, New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1965</li> <li>The city in crisis, (introduction) New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1965</li> <li>"Black power" and coalition politics, New York, American Jewish Committee, 1966</li> <li>Which way? (with <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan" title="Daniel Patrick Moynihan">Daniel Patrick Moynihan</a>), New York: American Press, 1966</li> <li>The Watts "Manifesto" & the McCone report., New York, League for Industrial Democracy, 1966</li> <li>Fear, frustration, backlash: the new crisis in civil rights, New York, Jewish Labor Committee, 1966</li> <li>The lessons of the long hot summer, New York, American Jewish Committee, 1967</li> <li>The Negro community: frustration politics, sociology and economics, Detroit: UAW Citizenship-Legislative Department, 1967</li> <li>A way out of the exploding ghetto, New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1967</li> <li>The alienated: the young rebels today and why they're different, Washington, D.C.: International Labor Press Association, 1967</li> <li>"Right to work" laws: a trap for America's minorities, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1967</li> <li>Civil rights: the movement re-examined (contributor), New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1967</li> <li>Separatism or integration, which way for America?: a dialogue (with Robert Browne), New York, A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1968</li> <li>The Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, an analysis, New York, American Jewish Committee, 1968</li> <li>The labor-Negro coalition, a new beginning, Washington? D.C.: American Federationist?, 1968</li> <li>The anatomy of frustration, New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 1968</li> <li>Morals concerning minorities, mental health and identity, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1969</li> <li>Black studies: myths & realities (contributor), New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1969</li> <li>Conflict or coalition?: the civil rights struggle and the trade union movement today, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1969</li> <li>Three essays, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1969</li> <li>Black rage, White fear: the full employment answer: an address, Washington, D.C.: Bricklayers, Masons & Plasterers International Union, 1970</li> <li>A word to black students, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1970</li> <li>The failure of black separatism, New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1970</li> <li>The blacks and the unions (contributor), New York: A. Philip Randolph Educational Fund, 1971</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/491961038">Down the line; the collected writings of Bayard Rustin</a>, Chicago: <a href="/wiki/Quadrangle_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrangle Books">Quadrangle Books</a>, 1971</li> <li>Affirmative action in an economy of scarcity (with <a href="/wiki/Norman_Hill" title="Norman Hill">Norman Hill</a>), New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1974</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6053011">Seniority and racial progress</a> (with Norman Hill), New York: A. Philip Randolph Institute, 1975</li> <li>Have we reached the end of the second reconstruction?, Bloomington, Indiana: The Poynter Center, 1976</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/820362831">Strategies for freedom: the changing patterns of Black protest</a>, New York: Columbia University Press, 1976</li> <li>Africa, Soviet imperialism and the retreat of American power, New York: Social Democrats, USA (reprint), 1978</li> <li>South Africa: is peaceful change possible? a report (contributor), New York: New York Friends Group, 1984</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/904856466">Time on two crosses: the collected writings of Bayard Rustin</a>, San Francisco: <a href="/wiki/Cleis_Press" title="Cleis Press">Cleis Press</a>, 2003</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/756581388">I Must Resist: Bayard Rustin's Life in Letters</a>: <a href="/wiki/City_Lights_Bookstore" title="City Lights Bookstore">City Lights</a>, 2012</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_rights_leaders" title="List of civil rights leaders">List of civil rights leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rustin_(film)" title="Rustin (film)">Rustin</a>, a 2023 American <a href="/wiki/Biographical_film" title="Biographical film">biographical</a> <a href="/wiki/Drama_(film_and_television)" title="Drama (film and television)">drama film</a> directed by <a href="/wiki/George_C._Wolfe" title="George C. Wolfe">George C. Wolfe</a> about Bayard Rustin.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-nps-1"><a href="#cite_ref-nps_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/people/bayard-rustin.htm">"Bayard Rustin"</a>. National Park Service. Retrieved June 27, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bayard+Rustin&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fpeople%2Fbayard-rustin.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docsouth.unc.edu/sohp/playback.html?base_file=G-0007&duration=03:34:21">"Documenting the American South: Oral Histories of the American South"</a>. docsouth.unc.edu. Retrieved February 9, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=docsouth.unc.edu&rft.atitle=Documenting+the+American+South%3A+Oral+Histories+of+the+American+South&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocsouth.unc.edu%2Fsohp%2Fplayback.html%3Fbase_file%3DG-0007%26duration%3D03%3A34%3A21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2018" class="citation web cs1">Morgan, Thad (June 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/bayard-rustin-march-on-washington-openly-gay-mlk">"Why MLK's Right-Hand Man Was Nearly Written Out of History"</a>. HISTORY. Retrieved February 9, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Why+MLK%27s+Right-Hand+Man+Was+Nearly+Written+Out+of+History&rft.date=2018-06-01&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Thad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fbayard-rustin-march-on-washington-openly-gay-mlk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Justin Vaïsse, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z3b7syYOqskC&q=bayard+rustin">Neoconservatism: The Biography of a Movement</a> (Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 71–75. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160913115837/https://books.google.com/books?id=z3b7syYOqskC&q=bayard#v=snippet&q=bayard%20rustin&f=false">Archived</a> September 13, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neoconservatism.vaisse.net/doku.php?id=start#tablethe_three_ages_of_neoconservatism">"Table: The Three Ages of Neoconservatism"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160320161743/http://neoconservatism.vaisse.net/doku.php?id=start#tablethe_three_ages_of_neoconservatism">Archived</a> March 20, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Neoconservatism: Biography of Movement by Justin Vaisse, official website. </li> <li id="cite_note-AP_Reagan_Praises-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AP_Reagan_Praises_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AP_Reagan_Praises_6-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/96a87043e0eba7ae2215632d0e5230a5">Associated Press, "Reagan Praises Deceased Civil Rights Leader"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160331134656/http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1987/Reagan-Praises-Deceased-Civil-Rights-Leader/id-96a87043e0eba7ae2215632d0e5230a5">Archived</a> March 31, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-metroweekly1-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-metroweekly1_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-metroweekly1_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustin_Snow2013" class="citation web cs1">Justin Snow (November 20, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metroweekly.com/2013/11/obama-honors-bayard-rustin-and/">"Obama honors Bayard Rustin and Sally Ride with Medal of Freedom"</a>. metroweekly.com. Retrieved November 21, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Obama+honors+Bayard+Rustin+and+Sally+Ride+with+Medal+of+Freedom&rft.pub=metroweekly.com&rft.date=2013-11-20&rft.au=Justin+Snow&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metroweekly.com%2F2013%2F11%2Fobama-honors-bayard-rustin-and%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_African-American_Culture_and_History:_Rustin-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_African-American_Culture_and_History:_Rustin_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_African-American_Culture_and_History:_Rustin_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarol2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Carol, George (2006). "Bayard Rustin". Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. Detroit: Gale. pp. 1993–1994. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865816-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865816-2"><bdi>978-0-02-865816-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African-American+Culture+and+History&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=1993-1994&rft.pub=Gale&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865816-2&rft.aulast=Carol&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-biography.com_bio-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-biography.com_bio_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-biography.com_bio_9-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biography.com/people/bayard-rustin-9467932">Bayard Rustin Biography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160430150408/http://www.biography.com/people/bayard-rustin-9467932">Archived</a> April 30, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (2015), Biography.com. Retrieved 07:37, February 28, 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon2013" class="citation web cs1">Dixon, Mark E. (October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181022232810/http://www.mainlinetoday.com/core/pagetools.php?pageid=10587&url=%2FMain-Line-Today%2FOctober-2013%2FBayard-Rustins-Civil-Rights-Legacy-Began-with-Grandmother-Julia-Rustin%2F&mode=print">"Bayard Rustin's Civil Rights Legacy Began with Grandmother Julia Rustin"</a>. Main Line Today. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mainlinetoday.com/core/pagetools.php?pageid=10587&url=/Main-Line-Today/October-2013/Bayard-Rustins-Civil-Rights-Legacy-Began-with-Grandmother-Julia-Rustin/&mode=print">the original</a> on October 22, 2018. Retrieved June 28, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Main+Line+Today&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin%27s+Civil+Rights+Legacy+Began+with+Grandmother+Julia+Rustin&rft.date=2013-10&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=Mark+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mainlinetoday.com%2Fcore%2Fpagetools.php%3Fpageid%3D10587%26url%3D%2FMain-Line-Today%2FOctober-2013%2FBayard-Rustins-Civil-Rights-Legacy-Began-with-Grandmother-Julia-Rustin%2F%26mode%3Dprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-spartacus-11"><a href="#cite_ref-spartacus_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140419214532/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USArustin.htm">"Bayard Rustin Biography"</a>. Spartacus Educational. 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Retrieved May 26, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+African+Americans%3A+Many+Rivers+to+Cross&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin%2C+the+Gay+Civil+Rights+Leader+Who+Organized+the+March+on+Washington+%7C+African+American+History+Blog&rft.date=2013-01-20&rft.aulast=Gates&rft.aufirst=Henry+Louis+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwnet%2Fafrican-americans-many-rivers-to-cross%2Fhistory%2F100-amazing-facts%2Fwho-designed-the-march-on-washington%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson" class="citation web cs1">Watson, Warren. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wilberforcepayne.libguides.com/c.php?g=763792&p=5478045">"LibGuides: History of Wilberforce University: Bayard Rustin"</a>. wilberforcepayne.libguides.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030133036/https://wilberforcepayne.libguides.com/c.php?g=763792&p=5478045">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wilberforcepayne.libguides.com&rft.atitle=LibGuides%3A+History+of+Wilberforce+University%3A+Bayard+Rustin&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwilberforcepayne.libguides.com%2Fc.php%3Fg%3D763792%26p%3D5478045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oppf.org/about-omega/notable-omegas/">"Notable Omegas – Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200420034952/https://oppf.org/about-omega/notable-omegas/">Archived</a> from the original on April 20, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Notable+Omegas+%E2%80%93+Omega+Psi+Phi+Fraternity%2C+Inc.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foppf.org%2Fabout-omega%2Fnotable-omegas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann2012" class="citation news cs1">Mann, Leslie (February 1, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/2012/02/01/not-so-secret-life-of-gay-civil-rights-leader-bayard-rustin/">"Not-so-secret life of gay civil rights leader Bayard Rustin"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160220014048/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-02-01/entertainment/ct-ent-0202-museums-bayard-rustin-20120202_1_walter-naegle-bayard-rustin-brother-outsider">Archived</a> from the original on February 20, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Not-so-secret+life+of+gay+civil+rights+leader+Bayard+Rustin&rft.date=2012-02-01&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2F2012%2F02%2F01%2Fnot-so-secret-life-of-gay-civil-rights-leader-bayard-rustin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2024" class="citation web cs1">Johnstone, Malcolm (May 30, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://countylinesmagazine.com/article/brandywine-stories-bayard-rustin-a-renaissance-man/">"Brandywine Stories: Bayard Rustin, A Renaissance Man"</a>. County Lines Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619175339/https://countylinesmagazine.com/article/brandywine-stories-bayard-rustin-a-renaissance-man/">Archived</a> from the original on June 19, 2024. Retrieved October 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=County+Lines+Magazine&rft.atitle=Brandywine+Stories%3A+Bayard+Rustin%2C+A+Renaissance+Man&rft.date=2024-05-30&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcountylinesmagazine.com%2Farticle%2Fbrandywine-stories-bayard-rustin-a-renaissance-man%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aflcio.org/about/history/labor-history-people/bayard-rustin">"Bayard Rustin | AFL-CIO"</a>. aflcio.org. Retrieved September 3, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aflcio.org&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin+%7C+AFL-CIO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faflcio.org%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Flabor-history-people%2Fbayard-rustin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> D'Emilio 2003, pp. 21, 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> D'Emilio 2003, pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kazin2011-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Kazin2011_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKazin2011" class="citation book cs1">Kazin, Michael (August 21, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fsWLGcZ7pyAC&pg=PA112">The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3946-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3946-9"><bdi>978-1-4008-3946-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved November 6, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+American+Political+History&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011-08-21&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-3946-9&rft.aulast=Kazin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfsWLGcZ7pyAC%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> August Meier and Elliot Rudwick. Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowder1941" class="citation web cs1">Browder, Earl (1941). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/pubs/communist/v20n02-feb-1941-The-Communist-OCR.pdf">"The Communist"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Communist&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Browder&rft.aufirst=Earl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fhistory%2Fusa%2Fpubs%2Fcommunist%2Fv20n02-feb-1941-The-Communist-OCR.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_African_American_History:_Bayard_Rustin-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_African_American_History:_Bayard_Rustin_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_African_American_History:_Bayard_Rustin_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_African_American_History:_Bayard_Rustin_23-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Smith, Eric Ledell (2010). "Bayard Rustin". Encyclopedia of African American History. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 1002–1004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-769-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-769-2"><bdi>978-1-85109-769-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+History&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=1002-1004&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-769-2&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Eric+Ledell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerman1997" class="citation magazine cs1">Berman, Paul (April 21, 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?AN=">"The Prince of Protest"</a>. New Republic. pp. 34–39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Republic&rft.atitle=The+Prince+of+Protest&rft.pages=34-39&rft.date=1997-04-21&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ebscohost.com%2Flogin.aspx%3FAN%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO’ConnellO’Connell2002" class="citation journal cs1">O’Connell, Jeffrey; O’Connell, Thomas E. (December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12147-002-0008-2">"Belle Moskowitz: An early female powerhouse"</a>. Gender Issues. 20 (1): 76–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12147-002-0008-2">10.1007/s12147-002-0008-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1098-092X">1098-092X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+Issues&rft.atitle=Belle+Moskowitz%3A+An+early+female+powerhouse&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=76-83&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12147-002-0008-2&rft.issn=1098-092X&rft.aulast=O%E2%80%99Connell&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Connell%2C+Thomas+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs12147-002-0008-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/alaska-WWII/">BUILDING THE ALASKA HIGHWAY Race and the Army During World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/WGBH-TV" title="WGBH-TV">WGBH-TV</a>. Retrieved July 26, 2022. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRustin1942" class="citation journal cs1">Rustin, Bayard (July 1942). "Non-Violence vs. Jim Crow". Fellowship.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fellowship&rft.atitle=Non-Violence+vs.+Jim+Crow&rft.date=1942-07&rft.aulast=Rustin&rft.aufirst=Bayard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarsonGarrowKovach2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Carson, Clayborne</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_J._Garrow" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Garrow">Garrow, David J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bill_Kovach" title="Bill Kovach">Kovach, Bill</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9j8OAQAAMAAJ">Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963</a>. Library of America. pp. 15–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781931082280" title="Special:BookSources/9781931082280"><bdi>9781931082280</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reporting+Civil+Rights%3A+American+journalism%2C+1941%E2%80%931963&rft.pages=15-18&rft.pub=Library+of+America&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781931082280&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rft.au=Garrow%2C+David+J.&rft.au=Kovach%2C+Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9j8OAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPR_2019-01-06-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPR_2019-01-06_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPR_2019-01-06_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichel_Martin,_Emma_Bowman2019" class="citation news cs1">Michel Martin, Emma Bowman (January 6, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2019/01/06/682598649/in-newly-found-audio-a-forgotten-civil-rights-leader-says-coming-out-was-an-abso">"In Newly Found Audio, A Forgotten Civil Rights Leader Says Coming Out 'Was An Absolute Necessity'"</a>. NPR. Retrieved January 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=In+Newly+Found+Audio%2C+A+Forgotten+Civil+Rights+Leader+Says+Coming+Out+%27Was+An+Absolute+Necessity%27&rft.date=2019-01-06&rft.au=Michel+Martin%2C+Emma+Bowman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2019%2F01%2F06%2F682598649%2Fin-newly-found-audio-a-forgotten-civil-rights-leader-says-coming-out-was-an-abso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988">; "Lecturer Sentenced to Jail on Morals Charge", Los Angeles Times, January 23, 1953, 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardiman2003-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Hardiman2003_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Hardiman2003" class="citation book cs1">David Hardiman (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y1BMOHA2D7AC&pg=PA256">Gandhi in His Time and Ours: The Global Legacy of His Ideas</a>. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-712-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-712-5"><bdi>978-1-85065-712-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gandhi+in+His+Time+and+Ours%3A+The+Global+Legacy+of+His+Ideas&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-712-5&rft.au=David+Hardiman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy1BMOHA2D7AC%26pg%3DPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNishani2017" class="citation book cs1">Nishani, Frazier (2017). Harambee City : the Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the rise of Black Power populism. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. pp. 3–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610756013" title="Special:BookSources/9781610756013"><bdi>9781610756013</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/973832475">973832475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harambee+City+%3A+the+Congress+of+Racial+Equality+in+Cleveland+and+the+rise+of+Black+Power+populism&rft.place=Fayetteville&rft.pages=3-26&rft.pub=University+of+Arkansas+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F973832475&rft.isbn=9781610756013&rft.aulast=Nishani&rft.aufirst=Frazier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> From liner notes, Fellowship Records 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Podair 2009, pp. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeck1947" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">Peck, James</a> (September 1947). "Not So Deep Are the Roots". <a href="/wiki/The_Crisis" title="The Crisis">The Crisis</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Crisis&rft.atitle=Not+So+Deep+Are+the+Roots&rft.date=1947-09&rft.aulast=Peck&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> reprinted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarsonGarrowKovach2003" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9j8OAQAAMAAJ">Reporting Civil Rights: American journalism, 1941–1963</a>. Library of America. pp. 92–97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781931082280" title="Special:BookSources/9781931082280"><bdi>9781931082280</bdi></a>. Retrieved September 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reporting+Civil+Rights%3A+American+journalism%2C+1941%E2%80%931963&rft.pages=92-97&rft.pub=Library+of+America&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781931082280&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rft.au=Garrow%2C+David+J.&rft.au=Kovach%2C+Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9j8OAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNishani2017" class="citation book cs1">Nishani, Frazier (2017). Harambee City : the Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the rise of Black Power populism. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. pp. 43, 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610756013" title="Special:BookSources/9781610756013"><bdi>9781610756013</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/973832475">973832475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harambee+City+%3A+the+Congress+of+Racial+Equality+in+Cleveland+and+the+rise+of+Black+Power+populism&rft.place=Fayetteville&rft.pages=43%2C+124&rft.pub=University+of+Arkansas+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F973832475&rft.isbn=9781610756013&rft.aulast=Nishani&rft.aufirst=Frazier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForeman2022" class="citation news cs1">Foreman, Tom Jr. (June 17, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2022-06-17/freedom-riders-1947-convictions-vacated-in-north-carolina">"Freedom Riders' 1947 Convictions Vacated in North Carolina"</a>. U.S. News & World Report. Associated Press. Retrieved June 18, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Freedom+Riders%27+1947+Convictions+Vacated+in+North+Carolina&rft.date=2022-06-17&rft.aulast=Foreman&rft.aufirst=Tom+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2Farticles%2F2022-06-17%2Ffreedom-riders-1947-convictions-vacated-in-north-carolina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPequeño2022" class="citation news cs1">Pequeño, Sara (June 18, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.charlotteobserver.com/opinion/article262650177.html">"75 years later, a niece sees justice through for a Freedom Rider in NC"</a>. Charlotte Observer. Retrieved June 18, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Charlotte+Observer&rft.atitle=75+years+later%2C+a+niece+sees+justice+through+for+a+Freedom+Rider+in+NC&rft.date=2022-06-18&rft.aulast=Peque%C3%B1o&rft.aufirst=Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.charlotteobserver.com%2Fopinion%2Farticle262650177.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magazine_of_History_2006-03-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Magazine_of_History_2006-03_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magazine_of_History_2006-03_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magazine_of_History_2006-03_37-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Emilio2006" class="citation journal cs1">D'Emilio, John (March 2006). "Remembering Bayard Rustin". Magazine of History. 20 (2): 12–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmaghis%2F20.2.12">10.1093/maghis/20.2.12</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=Remembering+Bayard+Rustin&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=12-14&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmaghis%2F20.2.12&rft.aulast=D%27Emilio&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Religion_Dispatches_2012-06-25-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Religion_Dispatches_2012-06-25_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEason2012" class="citation web cs1">Eason, Leigh (June 25, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://religiondispatches.org/gay-black-and-quaker-history-catches-up-with-bayard-rustin/">"Gay, Black, and Quaker: History Catches Up with Bayard Rustin"</a>. Religion Dispatches. Retrieved May 26, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Religion+Dispatches&rft.atitle=Gay%2C+Black%2C+and+Quaker%3A+History+Catches+Up+with+Bayard+Rustin&rft.date=2012-06-25&rft.aulast=Eason&rft.aufirst=Leigh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freligiondispatches.org%2Fgay-black-and-quaker-history-catches-up-with-bayard-rustin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103150809/http://afsc.org/document/speak-truth-power">"Available online from"</a>. AFSC. March 2, 1955. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afsc.org/document/speak-truth-power">the original</a> on November 3, 2013. Retrieved November 1, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Available+online+from&rft.pub=AFSC&rft.date=1955-03-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafsc.org%2Fdocument%2Fspeak-truth-power&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stateofthereunion.com/home/season-2/bayard-rustin">"Bayard Rustin – Who Is This Man"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130516061236/http://stateofthereunion.com/home/season-2/bayard-rustin">Archived</a> May 16, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, State of the Reunion radio show, aired February 2011 on NPR, 1:40–2:10. Retrieved March 16, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Penn_Warren_Center_for_the_Humanities" class="citation web cs1">Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whospeaks.library.vanderbilt.edu/interview/bayard-rustin">"Bayard Rustin"</a>. Robert Penn Warren's Who Speaks for the Negro? Archive. Retrieved February 11, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Robert+Penn+Warren%27s+Who+Speaks+for+the+Negro%3F+Archive&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin&rft.au=Robert+Penn+Warren+Center+for+the+Humanities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhospeaks.library.vanderbilt.edu%2Finterview%2Fbayard-rustin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WP_2011-08-21-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WP_2011-08-21_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WP_2011-08-21_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WP_2011-08-21_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WP_2011-08-21_42-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHendrix2011" class="citation news cs1">Hendrix, Steve (August 21, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/bayard-rustin-organizer-of-the-march-on-washington-was-crucial-to-the-movement/2011/08/17/gIQA0oZ7UJ_story.html">"Bayard Rustin, organizer of the March on Washington, was crucial to the movement"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved August 22, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin%2C+organizer+of+the+March+on+Washington%2C+was+crucial+to+the+movement&rft.date=2011-08-21&rft.aulast=Hendrix&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Flifestyle%2Fstyle%2Fbayard-rustin-organizer-of-the-march-on-washington-was-crucial-to-the-movement%2F2011%2F08%2F17%2FgIQA0oZ7UJ_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Life_2009-11-05-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Life_2009-11-05_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Life_2009-11-05_43-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.life.com/image/52259555/in-gallery/23101#index/0">Life Magazine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091105052431/http://www.life.com/image/52259555/in-gallery/23101#index/0">Archived</a> November 5, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, September 6, 1963. </li> <li id="cite_note-perlstein-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-perlstein_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-perlstein_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-perlstein_44-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-perlstein_44-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-perlstein_44-4">e</a> Daniel Perlstein, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/justice/downloads/pdf/the_end_of_despair.pdf">"The dead end of despair: Bayard Rustin, the 1968 New York school crisis, and the struggle for racial justice"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203513/http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/justice/downloads/pdf/the_end_of_despair.pdf">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, New York City government. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CUI6tY9RJUYC&q=shachtman">Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963–1965 (Simon & Schuster, 1999), p. 292–293</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160406210727/https://books.google.com/books?id=CUI6tY9RJUYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=pillar+of+fire&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NI0HVZrZMsHaUsWWgaAP&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=shachtman&f=false">Archived</a> April 6, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Staughton_Lynd" title="Staughton Lynd">Staughton Lynd</a>, another civil rights activist, responded with an article entitled "Coalition Politics or Nonviolent Revolution?" </li> <li id="cite_note-chandra-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chandra_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chandra_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chandra_47-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandra2004" class="citation web cs1">Chandra, Mridu (January 1, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brooklynrail.org/2004/01/books/bayard-rustins-life-in-struggle">"Bayard Rustin's Life in Struggle"</a>. The Brooklyn Rail. Retrieved February 9, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Brooklyn+Rail&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin%27s+Life+in+Struggle&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=Mridu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrooklynrail.org%2F2004%2F01%2Fbooks%2Fbayard-rustins-life-in-struggle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Nation_2016-01-04-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Nation_2016-01-04_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Nation_2016-01-04_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Nation_2016-01-04_48-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenation.com/article/protest-patronage?page=0,3">Randall Kennedy, "From Protest to Patronage"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160104194411/http://www.thenation.com/article/protest-patronage?page=0%2C3">Archived</a> January 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Nation, September 11, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Walter Goodman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/02/21/specials/podhoretz-25years.html">"Podhoretz on 25 Years at Commentary"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305093450/http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/02/21/specials/podhoretz-25years.html">Archived</a> March 5, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Times, January 31, 1985. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrabb2012" class="citation news cs1">Crabb, Kenneth (March 24, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://indypendent.org/2012/03/bayard-rustin-at-100/">"Bayard Rustin at 100"</a>. The Indypendent. Retrieved June 5, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Indypendent&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin+at+100&rft.date=2012-03-24&rft.aulast=Crabb&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findypendent.org%2F2012%2F03%2Fbayard-rustin-at-100%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPodair2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerald_Podair&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerald Podair (page does not exist)">Podair, Jerald</a> (December 16, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gBH5GRFw-fkC&q=bayard.+sell+out.+grassroots&pg=PA64">Bayard Rustin: American Dreamer</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 64, 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742564800" title="Special:BookSources/9780742564800"><bdi>9780742564800</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bayard+Rustin%3A+American+Dreamer&rft.pages=64%2C+77&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2008-12-16&rft.isbn=9780742564800&rft.aulast=Podair&rft.aufirst=Jerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgBH5GRFw-fkC%26q%3Dbayard.%2Bsell%2Bout.%2Bgrassroots%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NY_Times_1972-12-31-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NY_Times_1972-12-31_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NY_Times_1972-12-31_52-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1972/12/31/archives/socialist-party-now-the-social-democrats-usa.html">"Socialist Party Now the Social Democrats, U.S.A."</a> The New York Times. December 31, 1972. Retrieved February 8, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Socialist+Party+Now+the+Social+Democrats%2C+U.S.A.&rft.date=1972-12-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1972%2F12%2F31%2Farchives%2Fsocialist-party-now-the-social-democrats-usa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> (limited free access). </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForman1972" class="citation book cs1">Forman, James (1972). The Making of Black Revolutionaries. University of Washington Press. p. 220.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Black+Revolutionaries&rft.pages=220&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Forman&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson1981" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instrugglesnccbl00cars_1">In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/instrugglesnccbl00cars_1/page/29">29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674447264" title="Special:BookSources/9780674447264"><bdi>9780674447264</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Struggle%3A+SNCC+and+the+Black+Awakening+of+the+1960s&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780674447264&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstrugglesnccbl00cars_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaratnyckyMotylSturmthal1980" class="citation book cs1">Karatnycky, Adrian; Motyl, Alexander J.; <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Sturmthal" title="Adolf Sturmthal">Sturmthal, Adolf</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/WorkersRightsEastAndWestAComparativeStudyOfTradeUnionAnd">Workers' rights, East and West : a comparative study of trade union and workers' rights in Western democracies and Eastern Europe</a>. Transaction Publishing / <a href="/wiki/League_for_Industrial_Democracy" title="League for Industrial Democracy">League for Industrial Democracy</a>. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780878558674" title="Special:BookSources/9780878558674"><bdi>9780878558674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workers%27+rights%2C+East+and+West+%3A+a+comparative+study+of+trade+union+and+workers%27+rights+in+Western+democracies+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishing+%2F+League+for+Industrial+Democracy&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=9780878558674&rft.aulast=Karatnycky&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft.au=Motyl%2C+Alexander+J.&rft.au=Sturmthal%2C+Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FWorkersRightsEastAndWestAComparativeStudyOfTradeUnionAnd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Rustin 2012, pp. 291–292. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Nathan Glazer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/20/books/review/Glazer-t.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0">"A Word From Our Sponsor: Review of Hugh Wilford's The Mighty Wurlitzer"</a>, The New York Times, January 20, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150909023200/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/20/books/review/Glazer-t.html?pagewanted=print&_r=0">Archived</a> September 9, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110823010319/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=249">"Freedom House: A History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=249">the original</a> on August 23, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freedom+House%3A+A+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffreedomhouse.org%2Ftemplate.cfm%3Fpage%3D249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Matthew Arlyck, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forusa.org/fellowship/2013/summer/book-review-i-must-resist/12390">"Review of I Must Resist: Letters of Bayard Rustin"</a>, Fellowship of Reconciliation website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160419182230/http://forusa.org/fellowship/2013/summer/book-review-i-must-resist/12390">Archived</a> April 19, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayard_Rustin_and_Carl_Gershman1977" class="citation web cs1">Bayard Rustin and Carl Gershman (October 1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/AfricaSovietImperialismAndTheRetreatOfAmericanPower/SDP2.pdf">"Africa, Soviet Imperialism & The Retreat Of American Power"</a> (PDF). Social Democrats, U.S.A. Retrieved November 1, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Africa%2C+Soviet+Imperialism+%26+The+Retreat+Of+American+Power&rft.pub=Social+Democrats%2C+U.S.A.&rft.date=1977-10&rft.au=Bayard+Rustin+and+Carl+Gershman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2FAfricaSovietImperialismAndTheRetreatOfAmericanPower%2FSDP2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_JX04sBnEWUC&q=bayard+rustin&pg=PA112">John Ehrman, The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs, 1945-1994 (Yale University Press, 1996), p. 107-114</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610060721/https://books.google.com/books?id=_JX04sBnEWUC&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=committee+on+the+present+danger+members%2C+rustin&source=bl&ots=McPgDKvLmg&sig=XNcW-pyaNXbU4KoEwBa57v54vl4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=viQcVfa_LYqSsQS0l4CYCw&ved=0CE8Q6AEwCQ">Archived</a> June 10, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Podair, Jerald E. "Bayard Rustin: American Dreamer" (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2009). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/074254513X" title="Special:BookSources/074254513X">074254513X</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Podair_2009_p99-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Podair_2009_p99_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Podair_2009_p99_63-1">b</a> Podair 2009, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-JTA_1966-12-05-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JTA_1966-12-05_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JTA_1966-12-05_64-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jta.org/1966/12/05/archive/commission-to-present-findings-on-soviet-jewry-to-u-n">"Commission to Present Findings on Soviet Jewry to U.N."</a> Jewish Telegraphic Agency. December 5, 1966. Retrieved July 15, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Telegraphic+Agency&rft.atitle=Commission+to+Present+Findings+on+Soviet+Jewry+to+U.N.&rft.date=1966-12-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2F1966%2F12%2F05%2Farchive%2Fcommission-to-present-findings-on-soviet-jewry-to-u-n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDecter1966" class="citation book cs1">Decter, Moshe (1966). Redemption! Jewish freedom letters from Russia. New York: American Jewish Conference on Soviet Jewry. pp. 2–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Redemption%21+Jewish+freedom+letters+from+Russia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=2-3&rft.pub=American+Jewish+Conference+on+Soviet+Jewry&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Decter&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShneier2008" class="citation book cs1">Shneier, Marc (2008). Shared Dreams: Martin Luther King, Jr. & the Jewish Community. New York: Jewish Lights. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1580232739" title="Special:BookSources/978-1580232739"><bdi>978-1580232739</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shared+Dreams%3A+Martin+Luther+King%2C+Jr.+%26+the+Jewish+Community&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Jewish+Lights&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1580232739&rft.aulast=Shneier&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPERLSTEIN2011" class="citation cs2">PERLSTEIN, DANIEL (April 15, 2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt13wzxr4.10">"The Dead End of Despair"</a>, Civil Rights in New York City, Fordham University Press, pp. 118–140, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt13wzxr4.10">10.2307/j.ctt13wzxr4.10</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-3746-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-3746-3"><bdi>978-0-8232-3746-3</bdi></a>, retrieved April 17, 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civil+Rights+in+New+York+City&rft.atitle=The+Dead+End+of+Despair&rft.pages=118-140&rft.date=2011-04-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt13wzxr4.10&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-3746-3&rft.aulast=PERLSTEIN&rft.aufirst=DANIEL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt13wzxr4.10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrayton2016" class="citation web cs1">Drayton, Robert (January 18, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.out.com/news-opinion/2013/08/28/bayard-rustin-walter-naegle-partner-gay-civil-rights-activist-march-washington">"The Personal Life of Bayard Rustin"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Out_(magazine)" title="Out (magazine)">Out</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Out&rft.atitle=The+Personal+Life+of+Bayard+Rustin&rft.date=2016-01-18&rft.aulast=Drayton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.out.com%2Fnews-opinion%2F2013%2F08%2F28%2Fbayard-rustin-walter-naegle-partner-gay-civil-rights-activist-march-washington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFd'Emilio2015" class="citation book cs1">d'Emilio, John (October 16, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151016235132/https://books.google.com/books?id=C1xJ5ONWltYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bayard+rustin,+gay,+book,+voluntarily,+closet">Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin - John D'Emilio - Google Книги</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780684827803" title="Special:BookSources/9780684827803"><bdi>9780684827803</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C1xJ5ONWltYC&q=bayard+rustin,+gay,+book,+voluntarily,+closet">the original</a> on October 16, 2015. Retrieved October 22, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Prophet%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+Bayard+Rustin+-+John+D%27Emilio+-+Google+%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2015-10-16&rft.isbn=9780684827803&rft.aulast=d%27Emilio&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC1xJ5ONWltYC%26q%3Dbayard%2Brustin%2C%2Bgay%2C%2Bbook%2C%2Bvoluntarily%2C%2Bcloset&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarbado2017" class="citation cs2">Carbado, Devon W. (July 5, 2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315088051-10">"Black Rights, Gay Rights, Civil Rights"</a>, Sexuality and Equality Law, Routledge, pp. 305–328, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315088051-10">10.4324/9781315088051-10</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-08805-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-08805-1"><bdi>978-1-315-08805-1</bdi></a>, retrieved April 17, 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sexuality+and+Equality+Law&rft.atitle=Black+Rights%2C+Gay+Rights%2C+Civil+Rights&rft.pages=305-328&rft.date=2017-07-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315088051-10&rft.isbn=978-1-315-08805-1&rft.aulast=Carbado&rft.aufirst=Devon+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315088051-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2015/06/28/418187875/long-before-same-sex-marriage-adopted-son-could-mean-life-partner">"Long Before Same-Sex Marriage, 'Adopted Son' Could Mean 'Life Partner'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Weekend_Edition_Sunday" class="mw-redirect" title="Weekend Edition Sunday">Weekend Edition Sunday</a>. 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Retrieved July 2, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Killing+the+Buddha&rft.atitle=Gays+Are+the+New+Niggers&rft.date=2009-06-26&rft.au=Osagyefo+Uhuru+Sekou&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkillingthebuddha.com%2Fmag%2Fdamnation%2Fgays-are-the-new-niggers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Yasmin Nair, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.windycitymediagroup.com/lgbt/Bayard-Rustin-A-complex-legacy/36990.html">"Bayard Rustin: A complex legacy"</a>, Windy City Times, March 3, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160414212310/http://www.windycitymediagroup.com/lgbt/Bayard-Rustin-A-complex-legacy/36990.html">Archived</a> April 14, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/25/obituaries/bayard-rustin-is-dead-at-75-pacifist-and-a-rights-activist.html">"Bayard Rustin Is Dead at 75; Pacifist and a Rights Activist"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161014062020/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/25/obituaries/bayard-rustin-is-dead-at-75-pacifist-and-a-rights-activist.html">Archived</a> October 14, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Times. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102193454/http://rustin.org/?page_id=11">"Brother Outsider — A Closer Look at Bayard Rustin, by Walter Naegle"</a>. 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Retrieved February 8, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=California+pardons+gay+civil+rights+leader+in+new+initiative&rft.date=2020-02-05&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Don&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2F86ed68022094fcef8b387f02c2aaa23c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2021" class="citation web cs1">Reid, Jada (December 17, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://screenrant.com/jeffrey-wright-obama-netflix-movie-rustin-cast-update/">"Jeffrey Wright Joins Cast Of Barack & Michelle Obama's Netflix Movie"</a>. ScreenRant. Retrieved February 8, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScreenRant&rft.atitle=Jeffrey+Wright+Joins+Cast+Of+Barack+%26+Michelle+Obama%27s+Netflix+Movie&rft.date=2021-12-17&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Jada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscreenrant.com%2Fjeffrey-wright-obama-netflix-movie-rustin-cast-update%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxelrod2021" class="citation news cs1">Axelrod, Joshua (August 17, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211111015637/https://www.post-gazette.com/ae/movies/2021/08/17/rustin-netflix-film-casting-barack-michelle-obama-higher-ground-productinos-george-c-wolfe-ma-rainey/stories/202108170093">"Netflix movie 'Rustin,' from Obamas' production company, to film in Pittsburgh"</a>. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.post-gazette.com/ae/movies/2021/08/17/rustin-netflix-film-casting-barack-michelle-obama-higher-ground-productinos-george-c-wolfe-ma-rainey/stories/202108170093">the original</a> on November 11, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pittsburgh+Post-Gazette&rft.atitle=Netflix+movie+%27Rustin%2C%27+from+Obamas%27+production+company%2C+to+film+in+Pittsburgh&rft.date=2021-08-17&rft.aulast=Axelrod&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.post-gazette.com%2Fae%2Fmovies%2F2021%2F08%2F17%2Frustin-netflix-film-casting-barack-michelle-obama-higher-ground-productinos-george-c-wolfe-ma-rainey%2Fstories%2F202108170093&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutler2022" class="citation news cs1">Cutler, Nancy (June 10, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.yahoo.com/bayard-rustin-way-nyack-street-114333275.html">"Bayard Rustin Way: Nyack street named for 'out and proud' civil rights legacy"</a>. Rockland/Westchester Journal News. Yahoo News. Retrieved July 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rockland%2FWestchester+Journal+News&rft.atitle=Bayard+Rustin+Way%3A+Nyack+street+named+for+%27out+and+proud%27+civil+rights+legacy&rft.date=2022-06-10&rft.aulast=Cutler&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yahoo.com%2Fbayard-rustin-way-nyack-street-114333275.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ww2.cityofpasadena.net/2023%20Agendas/CC%20MINUNTES/2023%2006%2005%20CC%20MIN.pdf#page=7">"City of Pasadena City Council Minutes"</a> (PDF). City of Pasadena. June 5, 2023. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=City+of+Pasadena&rft.atitle=City+of+Pasadena+City+Council+Minutes&rft.date=2023-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fww2.cityofpasadena.net%2F2023%2520Agendas%2FCC%2520MINUNTES%2F2023%252006%252005%2520CC%2520MIN.pdf%23page%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pasadenanow.com/main/council-passes-resolution-supporting-postal-stamp-honoring-martin-luther-king-confidante-once-arrested-in-pasadena">"Council Passes Resolution Supporting Postal Stamp Honoring Martin Luther King Confidante Once Arrested in Pasadena – Pasadena Now"</a>. www.pasadenanow.com. Retrieved December 27, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pasadenanow.com&rft.atitle=Council+Passes+Resolution+Supporting+Postal+Stamp+Honoring+Martin+Luther+King+Confidante+Once+Arrested+in+Pasadena+%E2%80%93+Pasadena+Now&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pasadenanow.com%2Fmain%2Fcouncil-passes-resolution-supporting-postal-stamp-honoring-martin-luther-king-confidante-once-arrested-in-pasadena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Anderson, Jervis. Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997).</li> <li>Bennett, Scott H. Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963 (Syracuse Univ. Press, 2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-3028-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8156-3028-X">0-8156-3028-X</a>.</li> <li>Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Touchstone, 1989).</li> <li>Carbado, Devon W. and Donald Weise, editors. Time on Two Crosses: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (San Francisco: Cleis Press, 2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57344-174-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57344-174-0">1-57344-174-0</a></li> <li>D'Emilio, John. Lost Prophet: Bayard Rustin and the Quest for Peace and Justice in America (New York: The Free Press, 2003).</li> <li>D'Emilio, John. Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-14269-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-14269-8">0-226-14269-8</a></li> <li>Frazier, Nishani (2017). Harambee City: Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism. University of Arkansas Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1682260186" title="Special:BookSources/1682260186">1682260186</a>.</li> <li>Haskins, James. Bayard Rustin: Behind the Scenes of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Hyperion, 1997).</li> <li>Hirschfelder, Nicole. Oppression as Process: The Case of Bayard Rustin (Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3825363902" title="Special:BookSources/3825363902">3825363902</a></li> <li>Kates, Nancy and Bennett Singer (dirs.) Brother Outsider: The Life of Bayard Rustin (2003)</li> <li>King, Martin Luther Jr.; Carson, Clayborne; Luker, Ralph & Penny A. Russell The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Volume IV: Symbol of the Movement, January 1957 – December 1958. University of California Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22231-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22231-8">0-520-22231-8</a></li> <li>Le Blanc, Paul and Michael Yates, A Freedom Budget for All Americans: Recapturing the Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in the Struggle for Economic Justice Today (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2013).</li> <li>Podair, Jerald E. "Bayard Rustin: American Dreamer" (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2009). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4513-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4513-7">978-0-7425-4513-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2000" class="citation book cs1">Levine, Daniel (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I_Nn-P_5kdcC&pg=PA150-IA3">Bayard Rustin and the civil rights movement</a>. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-2718-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-2718-X"><bdi>0-8135-2718-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bayard+Rustin+and+the+civil+rights+movement&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8135-2718-X&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI_Nn-P_5kdcC%26pg%3DPA150-IA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lewis, David L. King: A Biography. (University of Illinois Press, 1978). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-00680-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-00680-1">0-252-00680-1</a>.</li> <li>Rustin, Bayard. Down the Line: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRustinBond2012" class="citation book cs1">Rustin, Bayard; Bond, Julian (2012). I Must Resist: Bayard Rustin's Life in Letters. City Lights Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87286-578-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87286-578-5"><bdi>978-0-87286-578-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Must+Resist%3A+Bayard+Rustin%27s+Life+in+Letters&rft.pub=City+Lights+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-87286-578-5&rft.aulast=Rustin&rft.aufirst=Bayard&rft.au=Bond%2C+Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bayard_Rustin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Bayard_Rustin" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bayard_Rustin" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snccdigital.org/people/bayard-rustin/">SNCC Digital Gateway: Bayard Rustin</a>, Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee & grassroots organizing from the inside-out</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100206012755/http://stateofthereunion.com/home/season-2/bayard-rustin">Bayard Rustin – Who Is This Man?</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRund_Abdelfatah2021" class="citation podcast cs1">Rund Abdelfatah (February 25, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2021/02/22/970292302/remembering-bayard-rustin-the-man-behind-the-march-on-washington">"Remembering Bayard Rustin: The Man Behind the March on Washington"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Throughline" title="Throughline">Throughline</a> (Podcast). <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. Retrieved August 14, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Remembering+Bayard+Rustin%3A+The+Man+Behind+the+March+on+Washington&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2021-02-25&rft.au=Rund+Abdelfatah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2021%2F02%2F22%2F970292302%2Fremembering-bayard-rustin-the-man-behind-the-march-on-washington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABayard+Rustin" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/bayard-rustin">FBI file on Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quakerinfo.com/quak_br.shtml">Bayard Rustin, Civil Rights Leader, from Quakerinfo.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030216042554/http://rustin.org/">Brother Outsider, a documentary on Rustin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/protest-patronage/">Randall Kennedy, "From Protest to Patronage." The Nation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.cjh.org//repositories/3/resources/944">Guide to the Papers of Bayard Rustin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-cast-staff/117456">Bayard Rustin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Broadway_Database" title="Internet Broadway Database">Internet Broadway Database</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187930#P1220" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu/resources/scpc-cdg-a-rustin_bayard">Bayard Rustin Collected Papers finding aid</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.swarthmore.edu/peace-collection">Swarthmore College Peace Collection</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Chestnut, Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_songs" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom songs">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="Template:VH1 Trailblazer Honors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="Template talk:VH1 Trailblazer Honors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:VH1 Trailblazer Honors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/VH1_Trailblazer_Honors" title="VH1 Trailblazer Honors">VH1 Trailblazer Honors</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2014</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Is_the_New_Black#Cast_and_characters" title="Orange Is the New Black">Orange Is the New Black cast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Kaplan" title="Roberta Kaplan">Roberta Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Abdallah_Wambere" title="John Abdallah Wambere">John Abdallah Wambere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Windsor" title="Edith Windsor">Edith Windsor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2015</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsha_Aizumi" title="Marsha Aizumi">Marsha Aizumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connor_Franta" title="Connor Franta">Connor Franta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheila_Lopez" title="Sheila Lopez">Sheila Lopez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsham_Parsi" title="Arsham Parsi">Arsham Parsi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Shepard" title="Dennis Shepard">Dennis Shepard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Shepard" title="Judy Shepard">Judy Shepard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2016</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Advocate_(LGBT_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Advocate (LGBT magazine)">The Advocate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Fierstein" title="Harvey Fierstein">Harvey Fierstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsha_P._Johnson" title="Marsha P. Johnson">Marsha P. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Subhi_Nahas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subhi Nahas (page does not exist)">Subhi Nahas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Rivera" title="Sylvia Rivera">Sylvia Rivera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2017</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Ailey" title="Alvin Ailey">Alvin Ailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Collins" title="Jason Collins">Jason Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleve_Jones" title="Cleve Jones">Cleve Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kohan" title="David Kohan">David Kohan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyndi_Lauper" title="Cyndi Lauper">Cyndi Lauper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Mutchnick" title="Max Mutchnick">Max Mutchnick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2018</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li>Sybrina Fulton</li> <li>Tracy Martin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryan_Murphy_(producer)" title="Ryan Murphy (producer)">Ryan Murphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2019</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Atwood" title="Margaret Atwood">Margaret Atwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarana_Burke" title="Tarana Burke">Tarana Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ava_DuVernay" title="Ava DuVernay">Ava DuVernay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi" title="Nancy Pelosi">Nancy Pelosi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187930#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187930#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187930#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121321856">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/49401907">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/195542/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjxqm4FTjyPPVQmk7WVYP">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/122205529">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external 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