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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Khoshut_Khanate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khoshut_Khanate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Khoshut Khanate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khoshut_Khanate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_the_early_Qing_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_the_early_Qing_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Relations with the early Qing dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_the_early_Qing_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lha-bzang_Khan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lha-bzang_Khan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Lha-bzang Khan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lha-bzang_Khan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_forces_arrive_in_Tibet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_forces_arrive_in_Tibet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Qing forces arrive in Tibet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_forces_arrive_in_Tibet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1725-1761" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1725-1761"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 1725-1761 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1725-1761-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1779-1793" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1779-1793"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 1779-1793 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1779-1793-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lhasa,_1900-1909" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lhasa,_1900-1909"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Lhasa, 1900-1909 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lhasa,_1900-1909-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_in_Kham,_1904-1911" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_in_Kham,_1904-1911"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Qing in Kham, 1904-1911 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_in_Kham,_1904-1911-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Program_of_integration_of_Tibet_to_the_rest_of_China_(1905-1911)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Program_of_integration_of_Tibet_to_the_rest_of_China_(1905-1911)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Program of integration of Tibet to the rest of China (1905-1911) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Program_of_integration_of_Tibet_to_the_rest_of_China_(1905-1911)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_collapse_and_Tibet_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_collapse_and_Tibet_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Qing collapse and Tibet independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_collapse_and_Tibet_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADbet_durante_la_dinast%C3%ADa_Qing" title="Tíbet durante la dinastía Qing – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tíbet durante la dinastía Qing" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_sous_la_tutelle_des_Qing" title="Tibet sous la tutelle des Qing – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tibet sous la tutelle des Qing" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%AD%EB%82%98%EB%9D%BC_%EC%B9%98%ED%95%98_%ED%8B%B0%EB%B2%A0%ED%8A%B8" title="청나라 치하 티베트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="청나라 치하 티베트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_di_bawah_kekuasaan_Qing" title="Tibet di bawah kekuasaan Qing – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tibet di bawah kekuasaan Qing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_di_bawah_pemerintahan_Qing" title="Tibet di bawah pemerintahan Qing – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tibet di bawah pemerintahan Qing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibete_sob_o_dom%C3%ADnio_Qing" title="Tibete sob o domínio Qing – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tibete sob o domínio Qing" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet_dina_Kakawasaan_Qing" title="Tibet dina Kakawasaan Qing – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Tibet dina Kakawasaan Qing" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D" title="குயிங் ஆட்சியில் திபெத் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குயிங் ஆட்சியில் திபெத்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82_%D1%83_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81_(1642-1912)" title="Тибет у Новий час (1642-1912) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тибет у Новий час (1642-1912)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A2y_T%E1%BA%A1ng_thu%E1%BB%99c_Thanh" title="Tây Tạng thuộc Thanh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tây Tạng thuộc Thanh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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.mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-native{font-size:78%}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .infobox-subheader{background-color:#cddeff;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms td{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms table{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms tbody tr:first-child td{width:50%;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}</style><table class="infobox ib-former-subdiv vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org">Tibet under Qing rule</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader category">Protectorate and territory of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader category">1720–1912</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_dynasty_and_Tibet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Qing_dynasty_and_Tibet.jpg/220px-Qing_dynasty_and_Tibet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Qing_dynasty_and_Tibet.jpg/330px-Qing_dynasty_and_Tibet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Qing_dynasty_and_Tibet.jpg/440px-Qing_dynasty_and_Tibet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="480" /></a> Tibet within the Qing dynasty in 1820.</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lhasa" title="Lhasa">Lhasa</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tibetans" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetans">Tibetan</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style> • Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Theocracy#Tibet" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a> headed by <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> or regents under <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> protectorate<a href="#cite_note-Norbu_78-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1720</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Tibetan border established at Dri River </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1725–1726</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa uprising of 1750</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1750</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1788–1792</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British invasion of Tibet</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1903–1904</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Qing sent army for establishing direct rule</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1910–1911</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Surrender of Qing residents</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1912</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Tibet</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_Tibet.svg/20px-Flag_of_Tibet.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_Tibet.svg/30px-Flag_of_Tibet.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Flag_of_Tibet.svg/40px-Flag_of_Tibet.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="720" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Area_(administrative_division)" title="Tibet Area (administrative division)">Tibet Area</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Tibet" title="Category:History of Tibet">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">History of Tibet</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lhasa_Potala.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Potala Palace"><img alt="Potala Palace" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Lhasa_Potala.jpg/150px-Lhasa_Potala.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Lhasa_Potala.jpg/225px-Lhasa_Potala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Lhasa_Potala.jpg/300px-Lhasa_Potala.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Tibet" title="Neolithic Tibet">Neolithic Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhung" title="Zhangzhung">Zhangzhung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarlung_dynasty" title="Yarlung dynasty">Yarlung dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Fragmentation" title="Era of Fragmentation">Era of Fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Yuan rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagmodrupa_dynasty" title="Phagmodrupa dynasty">Phagmodrupa dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpungpa" title="Rinpungpa">Rinpungpa dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsangpa" title="Tsangpa">Tsangpa dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganden_Phodrang" title="Ganden Phodrang">Ganden Phodrang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Ming–Tibet relations</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">13th and 14th Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet_(1950%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Tibet (1950–present)">PRC rule</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Tibetan_history" title="Timeline of Tibetan history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_money_of_Tibet" title="Historical money of Tibet">Historical money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Tibet" title="List of rulers of Tibet">List of rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_exploration_in_Tibet" title="History of European exploration in Tibet">European exploration</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/16px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/24px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/32px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Tibet" title="Template:History of Tibet"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Tibet" title="Template talk:History of Tibet"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Tibet" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Tibet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Tibet under Qing rule<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDabringhaus2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>'s rule over <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> from 1720 to 1912. The Qing rulers incorporated Tibet into the empire along with <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">other Inner Asia territories</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001357-5">[5]</a> although the actual extent of the Qing dynasty's control over Tibet during this period has been the subject of political debate.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The Qing called Tibet a fanbu, fanbang or fanshu, which has usually been translated as "vassal", "vassal state",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200429-9">[9]</a> or "borderlands", along with areas like <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Like the preceding <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control over Tibet, while granting it a degree of political autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> By 1642, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCshi_Khan" title="Güshi Khan">Güshi Khan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut Khanate</a> had reunified Tibet under the spiritual and temporal authority of the <a href="/wiki/5th_Dalai_Lama" title="5th Dalai Lama">5th Dalai Lama</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> school, who established a civil administration known as <a href="/wiki/Ganden_Phodrang" title="Ganden Phodrang">Ganden Phodrang</a>. In 1653, the Dalai Lama travelled on a state visit to the Qing court, and was received in Beijing and "recognized as the spiritual authority of the Qing Empire".<a href="#cite_note-Szczepanski-12">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> invaded Tibet in 1717 and was subsequently <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">expelled by the Qing in 1720</a>. The Qing emperors then appointed imperial residents known as <a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">ambans</a> to Tibet, most of them ethnic <a href="/wiki/Manchus" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchus">Manchus</a>, that reported to the <a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a>, a Qing government body that oversaw the empire's frontier.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> During the Qing era, <a href="/wiki/Lhasa" title="Lhasa">Lhasa</a> was politically semi-autonomous under the <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lamas</a> or regents. Qing authorities engaged in occasional military interventions in Tibet, intervened in Tibetan frontier defense, collected tribute, stationed troops, and influenced reincarnation selection through the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a>. About half of the Tibetan lands were exempted from Lhasa's administrative rule and annexed into neighboring Chinese provinces, although most were only nominally subordinated to Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> By the late 19th century, Chinese hegemony over Tibet only existed in theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020324-16">[16]</a> In 1890, the Qing and Britain signed the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Calcutta" title="Convention of Calcutta">Anglo-Chinese Convention Relating to Sikkim and Tibet</a>, which Tibet disregarded.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> The British concluded in 1903 that Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was a "constitutional fiction",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Commission_of_Jurists195980-18">[18]</a> and proceeded to <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">invade Tibet in 1903–1904</a>. However, in the 1907 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a>, Britain and Russia recognized the Qing as <a href="/wiki/Suzerain" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzerain">suzerain</a> of Tibet and pledged to abstain from Tibetan affairs, thus fixing the status of "Chinese suzerainty" in an international document,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> although Qing China did not accept the term "suzerainty" and instead used the term "<a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>" to describe its status in Tibet since 1905.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The Qing began taking steps to reassert control,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> then <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">sent an army to Tibet for establishing direct rule</a> and occupied Lhasa in 1910.<a href="#cite_note-darjeeling-23">[23]</a> However, the Qing dynasty was overthrown during the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai revolution">Xinhai revolution</a> of 1911–1912, and after the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a> the amban delivered a letter of surrender to the <a href="/wiki/13th_Dalai_Lama" title="13th Dalai Lama">13th Dalai Lama</a> in the summer of 1912.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> The 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1913 and ruled an <a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">independent Tibet</a> until his death in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020325-24">[24]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_status">Political status</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political status">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kashag" title="Kashag">Kashag</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of Qing ambans in Tibet</a></div> The political status of Tibet during the Qing period has been described as a "Chinese protectorate,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa202033-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1972481-26">[26]</a> a "Qing protectorate,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai200983-27">[27]</a> a "Manchu protectorate,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGros201919-28">[28]</a> a "subordinate place... within the Qing Empire,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200427-29">[29]</a> a "part of an empire,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200429-9">[9]</a> a "vassal state,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200429-9">[9]</a> a "dependent state,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200928-30">[30]</a> and a "tributary or a dependency."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200429-9">[9]</a> Western historians such as Goldstein, Elliot Sperling, and Jaques Gernet have described Tibet during the Qing period as a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal state</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tributary_state" title="Tributary state">tributary</a>, or something similar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19953-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Norbu_78-1">[1]</a> Tibet was referred to by the Qing as a fanbu (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 藩部), fanbang (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 藩邦) or fanshu (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 藩属; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 藩屬), which has usually been translated as "vassal" or "vassal state". As a fanshu it fell under the jurisdiction of the Lifan Yuan, which also oversaw <a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200429-9">[9]</a> Chinese authorities referred to Tibet as a vassal state up until the 1950s, and then as an "integral" part of China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2004x-32">[32]</a> According to Jaques Gernet, the Qing gained a firm hold over Tibet in 1751, although as a protectorate, Tibet retained a large amount of internal authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1972481-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Melvyn_Goldstein" title="Melvyn Goldstein">Melvyn Goldstein</a> states there is "no question" that Tibet was subordinate to the Qing dynasty following the first decades of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199144-33">[33]</a> Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Elliot_Sperling" title="Elliot Sperling">Elliot Sperling</a> says that after the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a> (1788–1792), Tibet's subordination to the Qing was "beyond dispute" and that one of the memoirs of a Tibetan minister involved in the war states unambiguously that he was a subject of the Qing emperor. The Golden Urn system of selecting reincarnations was instituted by the Qing, and real authority over Tibet was wielded by its offices and officials. However, for most of the 19th century this authority was weak.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200427-28-34">[34]</a> After the death of the <a href="/wiki/Jamphel_Gyatso,_8th_Dalai_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamphel Gyatso, 8th Dalai Lama">8th Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso</a> in 1804, the Dalai Lamas did not exercise any real power for the next 70 years, during which monk regents reigned with the support of the Qing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGros201924-35">[35]</a> In terms of foreign recognition, Britain and Russia formally acknowledged Chinese authority over Tibet in treaties of 1906 and 1907. This was after the 1904 <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a> stirred China into becoming more directly involved in Tibetan affairs and working to integrate Tibet with "the rest of China."<a href="#cite_note-Goldstein_art4-36">[36]</a> In 1910, the Qing reasserted control over Tibet by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">occupying Lhasa</a> and deposing the 13th Dalai Lama. The Qing dynasty was overthrown in the Xinhai revolution the next year, and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> lacked the ability to continue the occupation. The 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1913 and ruled an independent Tibet until his death in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020325-24">[24]</a> The de facto independent Tibetan government (1912–1951) and Tibetan exiles promote the status of <a href="/wiki/Independent_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent nation">independent nation</a>, with only a <a href="/wiki/Patron_and_priest_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Patron and priest relationship">"priest and patron" relationship</a> between the Dalai Lama and the <a href="/wiki/Qing_emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing emperor">Qing emperor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> There are varying interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Patron_and_priest_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Patron and priest relationship">patron and priest relationship</a>, a Tibetan political theory that the relationship between Tibet and China was a symbiotic link between a spiritual leader and a lay patron, such as the relationship between the Dalai Lama and the Qing emperor. They were respectively spiritual teacher and lay patron, rather than subject and lord. Chöyön is an abbreviation of two Tibetan words: chöney, "that which is worthy of being given gifts and alms" (for example, a lama or a deity), and yöndag, "he who gives gifts to that which is worthy" (a patron).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199144-33">[33]</a> During the 1913 <a href="/wiki/Simla_Accord_(1914)" class="mw-redirect" title="Simla Accord (1914)">Simla Conference</a>, the 13th Dalai Lama's negotiators cited the priest and patron relationship to explain the lack of any clearly demarcated boundary between Tibet and the rest of China (i.e. as a religious benefactor, the Qing did not need to be hedged against).<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> There are also different interpretations of titles and symbolic gestures between Tibetan and Qing authorities. The 13th Dalai Lama, for example, knelt, but did not <a href="/wiki/Kowtow" title="Kowtow">kowtow</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi" title="Empress Dowager Cixi">Empress Dowager Cixi</a> and the young Emperor while he delivered his petition in Beijing. Chinese sources emphasize the submission of kneeling; Tibetan sources emphasize the lack of the kowtow. Titles and commands given to Tibetans by the Chinese, likewise, are variously interpreted. The Qing authorities gave the 13th Dalai Lama the title of "Loyally Submissive Vice-Regent", and ordered to follow Qing commands and communicate with the emperor only through the Manchu amban in Lhasa; but opinions vary as to whether these titles and commands reflected actual political power, or symbolic gestures ignored by Tibetans.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Some authors claim that kneeling before the Emperor followed the 17th-century precedent in the case of the 5th Dalai Lama.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Other historians indicate that the emperor treated the Dalai Lama as an equal.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> According to Sperling, the description of a "priest-patron" religious relationship governing Sino-Tibetan relations that excluded concrete political subordination is a recent phenomenon and not substantiated. The priest and patron relationship coexisted with Tibet's political subordination to the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> and Qing dynasties, despite Tibetan exile commentators having come to believe that this political subordination was a misunderstanding. Sperling describes this as a "cultural notion at work as a national idea is defined anew." Tibetan interaction with the West, assimilation of modern ideals about Tibet, and the goal of cultural preservation increasingly centered discussion of Tibet around its religious and spiritual significance. This impetus to formulate a Tibetan identity based primarily on religion has made understanding the political realities of Tibet's relationship to the Yuan and Qing dynasties difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200430-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regent">Regent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Regent">edit</a>]</div> From 1721 to 1727, Tibet was governed by <a href="/wiki/Khangchenn%C3%A9" title="Khangchenné">Khangchenné</a>, who led the Tibetan cabinet known as the <a href="/wiki/Kashag" title="Kashag">Kashag</a> under close supervision of the Chinese garrison commander stationed in Lhasa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200176-45">[45]</a> From 1728 to 1750, Tibet was a monarchy led by the princes or kings <a href="/wiki/Polhan%C3%A9_S%C3%B6nam_Topgy%C3%A9" title="Polhané Sönam Topgyé">Polhané Sönam Topgyé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gyurme_Namgyal" title="Gyurme Namgyal">Gyurme Namgyal</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013402-403-46">[46]</a> under the supervision of the Qing ambans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200183-47">[47]</a> The regents of Tibet after 1727 were recognized by the Chinese as wang (prince) but as "king" by European missionaries. Both Polhané and Gyurme were de facto rulers of Tibet who exercised power in their own name and authority without reference to the Dalai Lama. Their post was hereditary. The Kashag was merely an executive organ and provincial administration was controlled by the nominees of the rulers. Compulsory transport service was a monopoly of the regent. After 1750, the hereditary office was abolished, and regents (gyeltsap) became temporary offices again. They were appointed to oversee the government, under the supervision of the ambans,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeltscher201315-48">[48]</a> before the Dalai Lama reached the age of majority in his 18th year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013393-394-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dalai_Lama">Dalai Lama</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dalai Lama">edit</a>]</div> When the Qing dynasty installed the 7th Dalai Lama in 1720, his religious supremacy was recognized by the Tibetan government, but the Qing ignored his theoretical rights. After 1720, the government was appointed by the Qing but due to distance and bad organization, retained a large amount of internal authority. After the civil war of 1727–1728, the 7th Dalai Lama was suspected of complicity in the murder of Khangchenné, who led the Tibetan cabinet, and was exiled to Gartar Monastery in <a href="/wiki/Kham" title="Kham">Kham</a>. All temporal authority was wielded by Polhané Sönam Topgyé in the meantime. After the <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">events of 1750</a> in which the 7th Dalai Lama managed to quell the riots caused by the death of Polhané's successor at the hands of the Qing ambans, the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> of the Qing dynasty promulgated the <a href="/wiki/13-Article_Ordinance_for_the_More_Effective_Governing_of_Tibet" title="13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet">13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet</a>, granting the 7th Dalai Lama secular power.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> At the same time, the powers of the Qing ambans in Lhasa were also greatly increased.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013403-51">[51]</a> The 7th Dalai Lama then conducted government with some degree of control by the Qing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013391-392-52">[52]</a> According to The Veritable Records of the Shizong [Yongzheng] Emperor and in the Weizang tuzhi [ Topographical Description of Central Tibet ], the Dalai Lama's powers after 1751 included overseeing important decisions by ministers and appointing district governors, provincial governors, and officers based on the recommendations of the council with the approval of the ambans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392-53">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/8th_Dalai_Lama" title="8th Dalai Lama">8th</a>, <a href="/wiki/9th_Dalai_Lama" title="9th Dalai Lama">9th</a>, <a href="/wiki/10th_Dalai_Lama" title="10th Dalai Lama">10th</a>, <a href="/wiki/11th_Dalai_Lama" title="11th Dalai Lama">11th</a>, and <a href="/wiki/12th_Dalai_Lama" title="12th Dalai Lama">12th</a> Dalai Lamas from 1758 to 1875 were unimportant or died young. The 13th Dalai Lama (1875–1933) fled to <a href="/wiki/Ulaanbaatar" title="Ulaanbaatar">Urga</a> during the <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British occupation of Lhasa</a> in 1904. With the resulting treaty in 1906 recognizing China's suzerainty over Tibet, the 13th Dalai Lama visited Beijing in 1908 where he tried unsuccessfully to gain a greater degree of independence for Tibet. The Qing forces occupied Lhasa in 1910 and the 13th Dalai Lama fled to India. The Qing dynasty fell the next year and its forces withdrew from Tibet. In 1913, the 13th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa and declared himself sovereign of an independent Tibet which he ruled until his death in 1933.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020325-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein197289-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kashag">Kashag</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kashag">edit</a>]</div> The Kashag was a council of four ministers called kalön. The council existed between 1642 and 1705/6 but very little is known about its activity. Under <a href="/wiki/Lha-bzang_Khan" title="Lha-bzang Khan">Lha-bzang Khan</a> the Kashag had little power and was composed of only Mongols to the exclusion of Tibetans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392–393-55">[55]</a> In 1721, the Qing removed the indigenous civil government that had existed in Lhasa and replaced the sde srid (civil administrator/regent) with the Kashag. The council was to govern Tibet under the close supervision of the Chinese garrison commander stationed in Lhasa, who quite often interfered with the decisions of the Kashag, especially when Chinese interests were involved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200176-45">[45]</a> However, its members were composed of Tibetan nobles whose territorial ambitions caused the council to stop functioning, resulting in civil war in 1727–1728. The council was reconstituted again in 1728 as the executive organ of the regent. Each kalön was directly responsible to the regent. In the latter part of Polhané's reign they ceased to have meetings. After the Lhasa riot of 1750, the Qianlong Emperor sent an army to Tibet and reorganized the Tibetan government in 1751 with the <a href="/wiki/13-Article_Ordinance_for_the_More_Effective_Governing_of_Tibet" title="13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet">13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet</a>. The council was reconstituted as a collective administration where all decisions were to be taken only with common agreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392–393-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amban">Amban</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Amban">edit</a>]</div> The office of the two Ambans was set up in 1728. They were imperial residents of the Qing dynasty and reported to the Qing government agency known as the Lifan Yuan. Prior to that there were no permanent representatives of the Qing emperor in Tibet and the temporary representative after 1720 was withdrawn in 1723. Between 1723 and 1728, there were special missions to Lhasa but no permanent residence. The fact that two ambans with their Chinese garrison have been stationed in Lhasa since 1728 is significant because it shows that Manchu China had effectively taken over the position of the former Mongol protector of the lamaist regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200182-83-56">[56]</a> There was a senior and junior amban but the distinction was purely formal and they both held the same authority. Between the death of A'erxun in 1734 and 1748, there was only one amban. The first two ambans, Sengge and Mala, held office for five years, but thereafter ambans held office for a maximum of three years. During the rule of Polhané, the ambans' duties mainly consisted of commanding the Qing garrison and communications with Beijing on the actions of the Tibetan ruler. During the initial period they sometimes intervened in matters of foreign relations but they never interfered with the Tibetan government at that time. In 1751, the power of the ambans was increased. Besides their former duties, their directions also had to be taken by the Kashag on every important matter, giving them broad supervision over the Tibetan government. Direct intervention by the ambans was still a rare occurrence until after the Sino-Nepalese War in 1792.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013403-51">[51]</a> By 1793, the ambans were accorded the same rank as the Dalai and <a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lamas</a>, and these two high-ranking Lamas were denied the traditional right of communicating directly with the Emperor; they could only do so via the ambans. By this time the ambans were also above the Kashag and regents in regards to Tibetan political affairs. Over a period of 184 years, the amban's status changed from consultative to supervisory and finally to commanding official in Lhasa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200183-84-57">[57]</a> The staff of the ambans included one or two military officers and several clerics. The clerics' function was probably similar to that of secretaries. After 1751, a number of Manchu banner officers were added.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013404-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ganden_Phodrang" title="Ganden Phodrang">Ganden Phodrang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzungar–Qing War">Dzungar–Qing War</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Khoshut_Khanate">Khoshut Khanate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Khoshut Khanate">edit</a>]</div> Tibet had been ruled by a joint Gelug Yellow Hat sect and Khoshut Khanate government since 1642. The Khoshut <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> were originally part of the <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirats</a>. The Khoshut chief Toro-Baikhu won a power struggle against his uterine brother Chöükür in 1630, after which he named himself "Dai Güshi" <a href="/wiki/Khong_Tayiji" title="Khong Tayiji">Taiji</a>. A few years later, the Gelug Yellow Hat sect's 5th Dalai Lama called him to come to their aid against <a href="/wiki/Choghtu_Khong_Tayiji" title="Choghtu Khong Tayiji">Choghtu Khong Tayiji</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Khalkha_Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalkha Mongol">Khalkha Mongol</a> khan who aided their rivals, the <a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a> sects. The Oirats had already supported the Gelug since 1616 so Güshi was able to utilize their religious affiliation as call to arms. Shortly following a visit to Tibet in 1635, Güshi led a 10,000 strong army into <a href="/wiki/Kokonur" class="mw-redirect" title="Kokonur">Kokonor</a> and killed Choghtu. In 1637, the 5th Dalai Lama bestowed upon Güshi the title of khan, the first non-<a href="/wiki/Genghisid" class="mw-redirect" title="Genghisid">Genghisid</a> Mongol to claim the title. A mass migration of 100,000 Oirats to Kokonor ensued. By 1642, Güshi had defeated the king of Beri, <a href="/wiki/Donyo_Dorje" title="Donyo Dorje">Donyo Dorje</a>, and the ruler of Tsangpa, <a href="/wiki/Karma_Tenkyong" title="Karma Tenkyong">Karma Tenkyong</a>, uniting Tibet under the Gelug. On 13 April 1642, The 5th Dalai Lama proclaimed Güshi the khan of Tibet on 13 April 1642.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer201824-27-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004211-60">[60]</a> A governing body known as the Ganden Phodrang, named after the 5th Dalai Lama's residence in <a href="/wiki/Drepung_Monastery" title="Drepung Monastery">Drepung Monastery</a>, was set up as a Gelug led government of Tibet in 1642.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020par.&nbsp;24-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970522-524-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001200-63">[63]</a> However, there are various interpretations of the nature of the Khoshut Khanate's relationship with the government of Tibet under the Gelug. Some sources say that the khan had very little to do with the administration of Tibet and only maintained a <a href="/wiki/Priest_and_patron_relationship" title="Priest and patron relationship">priest and patron relationship</a> with the Dalai Lama. Other sources describe Mongol representatives of the khan in Tibet while he ruled in Kokonor and treated Tibet as a protectorate. One source states that Güshi sat on a lower level than the Dalai Lama during the enthronement ceremony in 1642 but the Dalai Lama was merely a figurehead until the death of the governor, <a href="/wiki/Sonam_Rapten" title="Sonam Rapten">Sonam Rapten</a>, in 1657.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970522-524-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001200-206-64">[64]</a> This is implied by descriptions in other sources of an increase in "day-to-day control of... his government" by the 5th Dalai Lama after the deaths of Sonam Rapten and Güshi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETraversFitzherbert202011-65">[65]</a> One interpretation describes the granting of all temporal powers over Tibet to the Dalai Lama, but he did not possess the power to actually administrate. An office called desi was created to carry out government while the Dalai Lama was restricted to appealing the judicial decisions of the desi, although eventually the Dalai Lama did assert his power over the government by appointing the desi. In this interpretation, the Khoshut khans had no say in government until the coup of 1705–6.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013390-392-66">[66]</a> Another source claims that the de facto administrator of civil affairs, Sonam Rapten, was selected by the khan while the Dalai Lama was relegated to religious affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer201828-29-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein197283-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relations_with_the_early_Qing_dynasty">Relations with the early Qing dynasty</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Relations with the early Qing dynasty">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5th_Dalai_Lama_having_an_audience_with_Shunzhi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/5th_Dalai_Lama_having_an_audience_with_Shunzhi.png/170px-5th_Dalai_Lama_having_an_audience_with_Shunzhi.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/5th_Dalai_Lama_having_an_audience_with_Shunzhi.png/255px-5th_Dalai_Lama_having_an_audience_with_Shunzhi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/5th_Dalai_Lama_having_an_audience_with_Shunzhi.png/340px-5th_Dalai_Lama_having_an_audience_with_Shunzhi.png 2x" data-file-width="2114" data-file-height="2499" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Potala_Palace" title="Potala Palace">Potala Palace</a> painting of the 5th Dalai Lama meeting the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> in Beijing, 1653.</figcaption></figure> In 1653, the 5th Dalai Lama visited the Qing dynasty's <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. According to Chinese sources, the emperor received the Dalai Lama in the South Park and gave him a seat and a feast. They Dalai Lama offered gifts involving local products. The visit was not characterized as a court summon. According to the autobiography of the 5th Dalai Lama, the emperor descended from his throne and took his hand. The Dalai Lama sat on a seat close to the emperor and at nearly the same height. The emperor requested the Dalai Lama drink first but they drank together after some deliberation. The emperor bestowed upon him gifts fit for a "Teacher of the Emperor".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHevia199545-69">[69]</a> The Dalai Lama was "recognized as the spiritual authority of the Qing Empire".<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> In 1674, the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> asked the Dalai Lama to send Mongol troops to help suppress <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. The Dalai Lama refused to send troops, and advised Kangxi to resolve the conflict in Yunnan by dividing China with Wu Sangui. The Dalai Lama openly professed neutrality but he exchanged gifts and letters with Wu Sangui during the war further deepening the Qing's suspicions and angering them against the Dalai Lama.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> This was a turning point for Kangxi, who began to deal with the Mongols directly, rather than through the Dalai Lama.<a href="#cite_note-Smith1167-76">[76]</a> In 1677, the Tibetan government formalized the frontier between Tibet and China with Kham ascribed to Tibet's authority.<a href="#cite_note-Ronis-77">[77]</a> The 5th Dalai Lama died in 1682. His regent, <a href="/wiki/Desi_Sangye_Gyatso" title="Desi Sangye Gyatso">Desi Sangye Gyatso</a>, concealed his death and continued to act in his name. In 1688, <a href="/wiki/Galdan_Boshugtu_Khan" title="Galdan Boshugtu Khan">Galdan Boshugtu Khan</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> defeated the <a href="/wiki/Khalkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalkha">Khalkha</a> Mongols and went on to battle Qing forces. This contributed to the loss of Tibet's role as mediator between the Mongols and the Qing emperor. Several Khalkha tribes formally submitted directly to Kangxi. Galdan retreated to Dzungaria. When Sangye Gyatso complained to Kangxi that he could not control the Mongols of <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Kokonor</a> in 1693, Kangxi annexed Kokonor, giving it the name it bears today, Qinghai. He also annexed <a href="/wiki/Tachienlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachienlu">Tachienlu</a> in eastern Kham at this time. When Kangxi finally destroyed Galdan in 1696, a Qing ruse involving the name of the Dalai Lama was involved; Galdan blamed the Dalai Lama for his ruin, still not aware of his death fourteen years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-Smith11720-78">[78]</a> About this time, some <a href="/wiki/Dzungars" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzungars">Dzungars</a> informed Kangxi that the 5th Dalai Lama had long since died. He sent envoys to Lhasa to inquire. This prompted Sangye Gyatso to make <a href="/wiki/Tsangyang_Gyatso" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsangyang Gyatso">Tsangyang Gyatso</a>, the <a href="/wiki/6th_Dalai_Lama" title="6th Dalai Lama">6th Dalai Lama</a>, public. He was enthroned in 1697.<a href="#cite_note-Smith1201-79">[79]</a> Tsangyang Gyatso enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing poetry.<a href="#cite_note-Szczepanski-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In 1702, he refused to take the vows of a Buddhist monk. The regent, under pressure from Kangxi and Lha-bzang Khan of the Khoshut, resigned in 1703.<a href="#cite_note-Smith1201-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lha-bzang_Khan">Lha-bzang Khan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Lha-bzang Khan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LhaBzangKhan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LhaBzangKhan.jpg/220px-LhaBzangKhan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/LhaBzangKhan.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="284" /></a><figcaption>Lha-bzang Khan</figcaption></figure> Lha-bzang Khan of the Khoshut rose to power under uncertain circumstances. Differing accounts ascribe his rise to the poisoning of his elder brother and killing the Tibetan regent or that his position was requested by the Dalai Lama because the elder brother was sickly while the regent was removed by the Dalai Lama himself. Lha-bzang Khan and the regent engaged in a power struggle that resulted in the khan's victory. In 1705–1706, Lha-bzang entered Lhasa, killed the regent, and deposed the 6th Dalai Lama using his hedonous lifestyle as an excuse. Lha-bzang sought the support of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty, who requested that he send the 6th Dalai Lama to Beijing. However the Dalai Lama fell ill soon after leaving Lhasa and died on the way in Amdo on 14 November 1706.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015116-118-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970524-82">[82]</a> Lha-bzang presented a monk from <a href="/wiki/Chagpori" title="Chagpori">Chagpori</a> as the true reincarnation of the 5th Dalai Lama. In 1707, this monk was installed by the <a href="/wiki/Lobsang_Yeshe,_5th_Panchen_Lama" title="Lobsang Yeshe, 5th Panchen Lama">5th Panchen Lama</a> as <a href="/wiki/Yeshe_Gyatso" title="Yeshe Gyatso">Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso</a>. This was not accepted by most of the Gelug school and it also annoyed the Khoshut chiefs. On 10 April 1710, the Kangxi Emperor recognized the new Dalai Lama by granting him a title and seal. In <a href="/wiki/Litang_County" title="Litang County">Lithang</a> in eastern Tibet, local lamas identified <a href="/wiki/Kelzang_Gyatso,_7th_Dalai_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelzang Gyatso, 7th Dalai Lama">a child</a> as the reincarnation of the 6th Dalai Lama. In 1712, the youngest son of Güshi Khan, Trashi Batur Taiji, and the third son of Boshugtu Jinong, Cagan Danjin, declared their support for the boy. Lha-bzang's efforts to invalidate the Lithang reincarnation failed. The Khoshut chiefs asked the Kangxi Emperor to officially recognize the boy but the emperor left the matter undecided. Kangxi ordered the boy and his father to be interned in <a href="/wiki/Kumbum" title="Kumbum">Kumbum</a> Monastery in Kokonor in 1715.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015119-121-83">[83]</a> Three Gelug abbots in Lhasa invited the Dzungars to help them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001285-84">[84]</a> In 1717, the Dzungar prince Tseren Dondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate, deposed Yeshe Gyatso,installed the boy from Lithang as the <a href="/wiki/7th_Dalai_Lama" title="7th Dalai Lama">7th Dalai Lama</a>, killed Lha-bzang Khan, and looted Lhasa. The Dzungars did not bring the boy to Lhasa and terrorized the populace, losing them the support of the Gelugpa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015121-122-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stein858-86">[86]</a> A Qing invasion in 1718 was annihilated by the Dzungars in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Salween_River" title="Battle of the Salween River">Battle of the Salween River</a>, not far from Lhasa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001288-87">[87]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">second and larger expedition</a> of joint Qing and Tibetan forces (led by Polhané Sönam Topgyé the governor of Western Tibet) expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001290-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smith125-89">[89]</a> They brought the boy with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qing_forces_arrive_in_Tibet">Qing forces arrive in Tibet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Qing forces arrive in Tibet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Dzungar_wars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Qing_Dzungar_wars.jpg/290px-Qing_Dzungar_wars.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Qing_Dzungar_wars.jpg/435px-Qing_Dzungar_wars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Qing_Dzungar_wars.jpg/580px-Qing_Dzungar_wars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1061" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Map showing <a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">wars</a> between Qing Dynasty and <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bum_La_boundary_pillar.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bum_La_boundary_pillar.png/220px-Bum_La_boundary_pillar.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bum_La_boundary_pillar.png/330px-Bum_La_boundary_pillar.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Bum_La_boundary_pillar.png/440px-Bum_La_boundary_pillar.png 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Boundary pillar between Tibet and China at Bum La (Ningching Shan), west of <a href="/wiki/Batang,_Batang_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Batang, Batang County">Batang</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eric_Teichman" title="Eric Teichman">Teichman</a>, 1922)</figcaption></figure> At that time, a Qing protectorate in Tibet (described by Stein as "sufficiently mild and flexible to be accepted by the Tibetan government") was initiated with a garrison at Lhasa. The area of Kham east of the Dri River (<a href="/wiki/Jinsha_River" title="Jinsha River">Jinsha River</a>—Upper <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>) was annexed to <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> in 1726-1727 through a treaty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020par.&nbsp;28-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stein858-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1996127-92">[92]</a> In 1721, the Qing expanded their protectorate in Lhasa with a council (the Kashag) of three Tibetan ministers, headed by Kangchennas. A Khalkha prince was made amban, the official representative of Qing in Tibet. Another Khalkha directed the military. The Dalai Lama's role at this time may have been purely symbolic in China's eyes, but it wasn't to the Dalai Lama nor to the Ganden Phodrang government<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1991328_ff-93">[93]</a> or the Tibetan people, who viewed the Qing as a "patron". The Dalai Lama was also still highly influential because of the Mongols' religious beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-Smith126-94">[94]</a> The Qing came as patrons of the <a href="/wiki/Khoshut" title="Khoshut">Khoshut</a>, liberators of Tibet from the Dzungar, and supporters of the Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso, but when they tried to replace the Khoshut as rulers of Kokonor and Tibet, they earned the resentment of the Khoshut and also the Tibetans of Kokonor. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lobsang_Danjin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lobsang Danjin (page does not exist)">Lobsang Danjin</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobsang_Tendzin" class="extiw" title="fr:Lobsang Tendzin">fr</a>], a grandson of Güshi Khan, led a rebellion in 1723, when 200,000 Tibetans and Mongols attacked <a href="/wiki/Xining" title="Xining">Xining</a>. The Qing called in troops from Sichuan and suppressed the rebellion in less than a year. Polhané blocked the rebels' retreat from Qing retaliation. The rebellion was brutally suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_1256-95">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a> troops were garrisoned at multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, throughout the Dzungar war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201130-96">[96]</a> Green Standard troops and Manchu <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Bannermen</a> were both part of the Qing force that fought in Tibet in the war against the Dzungars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai200981-97">[97]</a> The Sichuan commander <a href="/wiki/Yue_Zhongqi" title="Yue Zhongqi">Yue Zhongqi</a> (a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Yue_Fei" title="Yue Fei">Yue Fei</a>) entered Lhasa first when the 2,000 Green Standard soldiers and 1,000 Manchu soldiers of the "Sichuan route" seized Lhasa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai200981–82-98">[98]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Mark_Elliott_(historian)" title="Mark Elliott (historian)">Mark C. Elliott</a>, after 1728 the Qing used Green Standard troops to man the garrison in Lhasa rather than Bannermen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001412-99">[99]</a> According to Evelyn S. Rawski, both Green Standard Army and Bannermen made up the Qing garrison in Tibet.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> According to Sabine Dabringhaus, Green Standard Chinese soldiers numbering more than 1,300 were stationed by the Qing in Tibet to support the 3,000-strong Tibetan army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDabringhaus2014123-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1725-1761">1725-1761</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1725-1761">edit</a>]</div> The Kangxi Emperor was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> in 1722. In 1725, amidst a series of Qing transitions reducing Qing forces in Tibet and consolidating control of Amdo and Kham, Kangchennas received the title of Prime Minister. The Emperor ordered the conversion of all <a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> to Gelug. This persecution created a rift between Polhanas, who had been a Nyingma monk, and Kangchennas. Both of these officials, who represented Qing interests, were opposed by the Lhasa nobility, who had been allied with the Dzungars and were anti-Qing. They killed Kangchennas and took control of Lhasa in 1727, and Polhanas fled to his native <a href="/wiki/Ngari_Prefecture" title="Ngari Prefecture">Ngari</a>. Polhanas gathered an army and retook Lhasa in July 1728 against opposition from the Lhasa nobility and their allies.<a href="#cite_note-Smith12631-102">[102]</a> Qing troops arrived in Lhasa in September, and punished the anti-Qing faction by executing entire families, including women and children. The Dalai Lama was sent to Lithang Monastery<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001293-103">[103]</a> in Kham. The Panchen Lama was brought to Lhasa and was given temporal authority over central Tsang and western Ngari Prefecture, creating a territorial division between the two high lamas that was to become a long-lasting feature of Chinese policy toward Tibet. Two ambans were established in Lhasa, with increased numbers of Qing troops. Over the 1730s, Qing troops were again reduced, and Polhanas gained more power and authority. The Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa in 1735, but temporal power remained with Polhanas. The Qing found Polhanas to be a loyal agent and an effective ruler over a stable Tibet, so he remained dominant until his death in 1747.<a href="#cite_note-Smith12631-102">[102]</a> The Qing made the region of Amdo into the province of <a href="/wiki/Qinghai" title="Qinghai">Qinghai</a> in 1724,<a href="#cite_note-Stein858-86">[86]</a> and a treaty of 1727<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020-104">[104]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] led to the incorporation of eastern Kham into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728.<a href="#cite_note-wang-105">[105]</a> The Qing government sent a resident commissioner (amban) to Lhasa. A stone monument regarding the boundary between Tibet and neighbouring Chinese provinces, agreed upon by Lhasa and Beijing in 1726, was placed atop a mountain, and survived into at least the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-106">[106]</a> This boundary, which was used until 1865, delineated the Dri River in Kham as the frontier between Tibet and Qing China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020-104">[104]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] Territory east of the boundary was governed by Tibetan chiefs who were answerable to China.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg/240px-Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg/360px-Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg/480px-Qing_Empire_circa_1820_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="849" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>The Qing Empire, at the time when the Qing began to rule these areas.</figcaption></figure> Polhanas' son Gyurme Namgyal took over upon his father's death in 1747. The ambans became convinced that he was going to lead a rebellion, so they assassinated him independently from Beijing's authority.<a href="#cite_note-Szczepanski-12">[12]</a> News of the murders leaked out and an uprising broke out in the city during which the residents of Lhasa avenged the regent's death by killing both ambans. The Dalai Lama stepped in and restored order in Lhasa, while it was thought that further uprisings would result in harsh retaliation from China.<a href="#cite_note-Szczepanski-12">[12]</a> The Qianlong Emperor (Yongzheng's successor) sent a force of 800, which executed Gyurme Namgyal's family and seven members of the group that allegedly killed the ambans. Temporal power was reasserted by the Dalai Lama in 1750. But the Qing Emperor re-organized the Tibetan government again with the <a href="/wiki/13-Article_Ordinance_for_the_More_Effective_Governing_of_Tibet" title="13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet">13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet</a> and appointed new ambans.<a href="#cite_note-Smith1312-108">[108]</a> The powers of the Qing ambans in Lhasa were greatly increased. The ambans by this time had a broad right of supervision on the actions of the government,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013403-51">[51]</a> although the Qianlong Emperor was later disappointed with their performance and decided to further enhance their status.<a href="#cite_note-wang-105">[105]</a> The number of soldiers in Tibet was kept at about 2,000. The defensive duties were partly helped out by a local force which was reorganized by the amban, and the Tibetan government continued to manage day-to-day affairs as before. The Emperor reorganized the Kashag to have four Kalöns in it.<a href="#cite_note-Wang_170-3-109">[109]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work" title="Template:Harvard citation documentation">citation not found</a>] He also used Tibetan Buddhist iconography to try and bolster support among Tibetans, whereby six <a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">thangkas</a> portrayed the Qing Emperor as <a href="/wiki/Manjusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Manjusri">Manjuśrī</a> and Tibetan records of the time referred to him by that name.<a href="#cite_note-Stein858-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The 7th Dalai Lama died in 1757. Afterwards, an assembly of lamas decided to institute the office of regent, to be held by an incarnate lama "until the new Dalai Lama attained his majority and could assume his official duties". The Seventh Demo, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ngawang_Jampel_Delek_Gyatso&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ngawang Jampel Delek Gyatso (page does not exist)">Ngawang Jampel Delek Gyatso</a>, was selected unanimously. The <a href="/wiki/Jamphel_Gyatso,_8th_Dalai_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamphel Gyatso, 8th Dalai Lama">8th Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso</a>, was born in 1758 in Tsang. The Panchen Lama helped in the identification process, while Jampal Gyatso was recognized in 1761, then brought to Lhasa for his enthronement, presided over by the Panchen Lama, in 1762.<a href="#cite_note-Maher-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1779-1793">1779-1793</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1779-1793">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></div> In 1779, the 6th Panchen Lama, fluent also in <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Farsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Farsi">Persian</a> and well disposed to both Catholic missionaries in Tibet and <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> agents in India,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] was invited to Peking for the celebration of the Emperor's 70th birthday.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003938-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The "priest and patron" relationship between Tibet and Qing China was underscored by Emperor prostrating "to his spiritual father".<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In the final stages of his visit, after instructing the Emperor, the Panchen Lama contracted <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and died in 1780 in Beijing. The following year, the 8th Dalai Lama assumed political power in Tibet. Problematic relations with Nepal led in 1788 to <a href="/wiki/Gorkha_Kingdom" title="Gorkha Kingdom">Gorkha Kingdom</a> invasions of Tibet, sent by <a href="/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_of_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahadur Shah of Nepal">Bahadur Shah</a>, the Regent of <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>. Again in 1791, <a href="/wiki/Shigatse" title="Shigatse">Shigatse</a> was occupied by the Gorkas as was the great <a href="/wiki/Tashilhunpo" class="mw-redirect" title="Tashilhunpo">Tashilhunpo</a> Monastery, the seat of the Panchen Lamas which was sacked and destroyed. During the first incursion, the Qing Manchu amban in Lhasa spirited away to safety both the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>] but otherwise made no attempt to defend the country, though urgent dispatches to Beijing warned that alien powers had designs on the region, and threatened Qing Manchu interests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003938-112">[112]</a> At that time, the Qing army found that the Nepalese forces had melted away, and no fighting was necessary. After the second Gorka incursion in 1791, another force of Manchus and Mongols joined by a strong contingents of Tibetan soldiers (10,000 of 13,000) supplied by local chieftains, repelled the invasion and pursued the Gorkhas to the <a href="/wiki/Kathmandu_Valley" title="Kathmandu Valley">Kathmandu Valley</a>. Nepal conceded defeat and returned all the treasure they had plundered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003938-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeltscher2013244–246-115">[115]</a> The Qianlong emperor was disappointed with the results of <a href="/wiki/13-Article_Ordinance_for_the_More_Effective_Governing_of_Tibet" title="13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet">his 1751 decree</a> and the performance of the ambans. Another decree followed, contained in the <a href="/wiki/29-Article_Ordinance_for_the_More_Effective_Governing_of_Tibet" title="29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet">29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet</a> of 1793. It was designed to enhance the ambans' status, and ordered them to control border inspections, and serve as conduits through which the Dalai Lama and his cabinet were to communicate. Imperial China seized more power from the Tibetan authorities with each intervention on behalf of the Dalai Lama, and with this decree China created a much stricter form of <a href="/wiki/Indirect_rule" title="Indirect rule">indirect rule</a> in Lhasa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200184-116">[116]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Finding_of_a_Dalai_Lama.5.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Finding_of_a_Dalai_Lama.5.jpeg/170px-Finding_of_a_Dalai_Lama.5.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Finding_of_a_Dalai_Lama.5.jpeg/255px-Finding_of_a_Dalai_Lama.5.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Finding_of_a_Dalai_Lama.5.jpeg/340px-Finding_of_a_Dalai_Lama.5.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="859" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lungtok_Gyatso" class="mw-redirect" title="Lungtok Gyatso">Lungtok Gyatso</a>, 9th Dalai Lama, with lamas and monks, and ambans inattendance, around 1808.</figcaption></figure> The 29-article decree instituted the Golden Urn system<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShakabpa2010486–487-117">[117]</a> which contradicted the traditional Tibetan method of locating and recognizing incarnate lamas. The same decree also elevated ambans above the Kashag and above the regents in regards to Tibetan political affairs. The decree prohibited the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama from petitioning the Chinese Emperor directly whereas petitions were decreed to pass through the ambans. The ambans were to take control of Tibetan frontier defense and foreign affairs. Tibetan authorities' foreign correspondence, even with the Mongols of Kokonor (present-day Qinghai), were to be approved by the ambans, whom were decreed as commanders of the Qing garrison, and the Tibetan army whose strength was set at 3000 men. Trade was also decreed as restricted and travel documents were to be issued by the ambans. The ambans were to review all judicial decisions. The Tibetan currency, which had been the source of trouble with Nepal, was to be taken under Beijing's supervision.<a href="#cite_note-wsmith134-135-118">[118]</a> The 29-article decree also controlled the traditional methods used to recognize and enthrone both the incarnate Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama, by means of a lottery administered by the ambans in Lhasa. The Emperor wanted to control the recognition process of incarnate lamas because the Gelug school of the Dalai Lamas was the official religion of his Qing court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001358-119">[119]</a> Another purpose was to have the Mongol grand-lama Qubilγan found in Tibet rather than from the <a href="/wiki/Descent_from_Genghis_Khan" title="Descent from Genghis Khan">descendants of Genghis Khan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaveirne200489-120">[120]</a> With the decreed lottery system, the names of candidates were written on folded slips of paper which were placed in a golden urn (Mongol altan bumba; Tibetan gser bum:Chinese jīnpíng:金瓶).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198944,_n.13-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaveirne200489-120">[120]</a> According to Warren Smith, the 29-article decree's directives were either never fully implemented, or quickly discarded, as the Qing were more interested in a symbolic gesture of authority than actual sovereignty; the relationship between Qing and Tibet was one between states, or between an empire and a semi-autonomous state.<a href="#cite_note-wsmith137-122">[122]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Elliot_Sperling" title="Elliot Sperling">Elliot Sperling</a> states that the subordination place of Tibet within the Qing Empire by this time was beyond dispute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200427-29">[29]</a> Despite this attempt to further control Tibet's secular and spiritual ruling classes, the Emperor's urn was not always used or politely ignored in such cases.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The Tibetans left some question regarding the urn's usage to highlight Tibetan autonomy when the Qing powers were strong,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008102-124">[124]</a> but Qing emperors had the final say in recognizing new incarnations through the system of the Golden Urn.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> At times, the selection was approved after the fact by the Emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld199647-126">[126]</a> The Emperor's urn was formally used at other times,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaveirne200489-120">[120]</a> and there was suggestion that the Tibetans were more willing to employ the urn to maintain a semblance of Qing's protection when the imperial power was weaker.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008102-124">[124]</a> The 11th Dalai Lama was selected by the Golden Urn method.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld199647-126">[126]</a> While the 12th Dalai Lama was recognized by traditional Tibetan methods, he was confirmed by the urn.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001369–370-128">[128]</a> There was an open pretense that the urn was used for the 10th Dalai Lama, when it was actually not used.<a href="#cite_note-smith138-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> The Qing government was alarmed by the British defeat of Nepal in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Nepalese_War" title="Anglo-Nepalese War">Anglo-Nepalese War</a> and the re-establishment of a British resident in Nepal's capital <a href="/wiki/Kathmandu" title="Kathmandu">Kathmandu</a> because the Nepalese, in an effort to obtain aids from Qing China, gave false information to the Qing government, claiming that the British demanded free passage through Nepalese territory to Tibet and that they were ordering Nepal to transfer her tribute from China to the <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Indian government</a> (then under the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>). In order to learn more about what had occurred, Qing China dispatched an imperial high commissioner to Tibet in charge of a small military force. When the Qing imperial commissioner discovered the truth, he declined to aid Nepal and instead restricted himself to expressing his desire that the Indian government could decide it was time to withdraw its resident from Kathmandu. The Qing imperial commissioner let the matter go and left for China proper in 1817 after the British said they would do so if China sent a resident to Nepal to stop Anglo-Nepalese tensions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008396–397-130">[130]</a> In 1837, a minor Kham chieftain <a href="/wiki/Gombo_Namgye" class="mw-redirect" title="Gombo Namgye">Gompo Namgyal</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Nyarong" title="Nyarong">Nyarong</a>, began expanding his control regionally and launched offensives against the <a href="/wiki/Hor_States" title="Hor States">Hor States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Lithang" title="Chiefdom of Lithang">Chiefdom of Lithang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Derge" title="Kingdom of Derge">Kingdom of Derge</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Chakla" title="Kingdom of Chakla">Kingdom of Chakla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Bathang" title="Chiefdom of Bathang">Chiefdom of Bathang</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Ronis-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020-104">[104]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] which were considered <a href="/wiki/Tusi" title="Tusi">Tusi</a> under the umbrella of the Qing Empire.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Qing China sent troops in against Namgyal in 1849 but the campaign was unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-Tsomu-133">[133]</a> They tried to negotiate and additional troops were not dispatched. Qing military posts were present along the historic trading route between Beijing and Lhasa, but "did not have any authority over the native chiefs".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020-104">[104]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] By 1862, Namgyal blocked trade routes from China to Lhasa, and sent troops to <a href="/wiki/Chamdo" title="Chamdo">Chamdo</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Drayab&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Drayab (page does not exist)">Drayab</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ronis-77">[77]</a> The Kingdom of Derge and another had appealed to both the Lhasa and the Qing imperial governments for help against Namgyal. During the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyarong_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nyarong War (page does not exist)">Nyarong War</a>, the Tibetan authorities sent an army in 1863, and defeated Namgyal then killed him at his Nyarong fort by 1865. Afterward, Lhasa asserted its authority over parts of northern Kham and established the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Office_of_the_Tibetan_High_Commissioner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Office of the Tibetan High Commissioner (page does not exist)">Office of the Tibetan High Commissioner</a> to govern.<a href="#cite_note-Ronis-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tsomu-133">[133]</a> Lhasa reclaimed Nyarong, Degé and the Hor States north of Nyarong. China recalled the imperial forces.<a href="#cite_note-Tsomu-133">[133]</a> Nepal was a tributary state to China from 1788 to 1908.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work" title="Template:Harvard citation documentation">citation not found</a>] In the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Thapathali" title="Treaty of Thapathali">Treaty of Thapathali</a> signed in 1856 that concluded the <a href="/wiki/Nepalese-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepalese-Tibetan War">Nepalese-Tibetan War</a>, Tibet and Nepal agreed to "regard the Chinese Emperor as heretofore with respect."<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Michael van Walt van Praag, legal advisor to the <a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a>,<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> claims that 1856 treaty provided for a Nepalese mission, namely Vakil, in Lhasa which later allowed Nepal to claim a diplomatic relationship with Tibet in its application for United Nations membership in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> However, the status of Nepalese mission as diplomatic is disputed<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld1996257-139">[139]</a> and the Nepalese Vakils stayed in Tibet until the 1960s when Tibet had been annexed by the People's Republic of China for more than a decade.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> In 1841, the <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/wiki/Dogra_dynasty" title="Dogra dynasty">Dogra dynasty</a> attempted to establish their authority on <a href="/wiki/%C3%9C-Tsang" title="Ü-Tsang">Ü-Tsang</a> but were defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Sikh War">Sino-Sikh War</a> (1841–1842). In the mid-19th century, arriving with an amban, a community of Chinese troops from Sichuan that had married Tibetan women settled down in the Lubu neighborhood of Lhasa, where their descendants established a community and assimilated into Tibetan culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeh200960-142">[142]</a> Another community, Hebalin, was where Chinese Muslim troops and their wives and offspring lived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeh2013283-143">[143]</a> In 1879, the 13th Dalai Lama was enthroned, but did not assume full temporal control until 1895, after the <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Assembly_of_the_Tibetan_Government&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Assembly of the Tibetan Government (page does not exist)">National Assembly of the Tibetan Government</a> (tshongs 'du rgyas 'dzom) unanimously called for him to assume power. Before that time, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> increased their interest in Tibet, and a number of Indians entered the region, first as explorers and then as traders. The British sent a mission with a military escort through Sikkim in 1885, whose entry was refused by Tibet and the British withdrew. Tibet then organized an army to be stationed at the border, led by Dapon Lhading (mda' dpon lha sding, d.u.) and Tsedron Sonam Gyeltsen (rtse mgron bsod nams rgyal mtshan, d.u.) with soldiers from southern <a href="/wiki/Kongpo" title="Kongpo">Kongpo</a> and those from Kham's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Drakyab&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Drakyab (page does not exist)">Drakyab</a>. At a pass between Sikkim and Tibet, which Tibet considered a part of Tibet, the British attacked in 1888. Following the attack, the British and Chinese signed the 1890 <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Calcutta" title="Convention of Calcutta">Anglo-Chinese Convention Relating to Sikkim and Tibet</a>,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> which Tibet disregarded as it did "all agreements signed between China and Britain regarding Tibet, taking the position that it was for Lhasa alone to negotiate with foreign powers on Tibet's behalf".<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-powers80-145">[145]</a> Qing China and Britain had also concluded an earlier treaty in 1886, the "Convention Relating to Burmah and Thibet"<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> as well as a later treaty in 1893.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Regardless of those treaties, Tibet continued to bar British envoys from its territory. Then in 1896, the Qing Governor of Sichuan attempted to gain control of the Nyarong valley in Kham during a military attack led by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Wanshun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhou Wanshun (page does not exist)">Zhou Wanshun</a>. The Dalai Lama circumvented the amban and a secret mission led by Sherab Chonpel (shes rab chos 'phel, d.u.) was sent directly to Beijing with a demand for the withdrawal of Chinese forces. The Qing Guangxu Emperor agreed, and the "territory was returned to the direct rule of Lhasa".<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lhasa,_1900-1909">Lhasa, 1900-1909</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Lhasa, 1900-1909">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a> and <a href="/wiki/13th_Dalai_Lama" title="13th Dalai Lama">13th Dalai Lama</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Littell%27s_Living_Age/Volume_137/Issue_1775/Tibet" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Littell's Living Age/Volume 137/Issue 1775/Tibet">"Tibet" (1878) is an account of early British attempts to gain influence in Tibet.</a></div></div></div> </div> At the beginning of the 20th century the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empires</a> were competing for supremacy in Central Asia. During "<a href="/wiki/The_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Game">the Great Game</a>", a period of rivalry between Russia and Britain, the British desired a representative in Lhasa to monitor and offset Russian influence. Years earlier, the Dalai Lama had developed an interest in Russia through his debating partner, Buriyat Lama <a href="/wiki/Agvan_Dorjiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Agvan Dorjiev">Agvan Dorjiev</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> Then in 1901, Dorjiev had delivered letters from Tibet to the Tzar, namely a formal letter of appreciation from the Dalai Lama, and another from the Kashak directly soliciting support against the British.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> Dorjiev's journey to Russia was seen as a threat by British interests in India, despite Russian statements they would not intervene. After realizing the Qing lacked any real authority in Tibet,<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> a British expedition was dispatched in 1904, officially to resolve border disputes between Tibet and <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>. The expedition quickly turned into an invasion which captured Lhasa. For the first time and in response to the invasion, the Chinese foreign ministry asserted that China was sovereign over Tibet, the first clear statement of such a claim.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Before the British invasion force arrived in Lhasa, the 13th Dalai Lama escaped to seek alliances for Tibet. The Dalai Lama travelled first to Mongolia and requested help from Russia against China and Britain, and learned in 1907 that Britain and Russia signed a non-interference in Tibet agreement. This essentially removed Tibet from the so-called "Great Game". The Dalai Lama received a dispatch from Lhasa, and was about to return there from Amdo in the summer of 1908 when he decided to go Beijing instead, where he was received with a ceremony appropriately "accorded to any independent sovereign", as witnessed by U.S. Ambassador to China William Rockwell.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> Tibetan affairs were discussed directly with Qing Dowager Empress Cixi, then together with the young Emperor. Cixi died in November 1908 during the state visit, and the Dalai Lama performed the funeral rituals.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> The Dalai Lama also made contacts with Japanese diplomats and military advisors.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Dalai Lama returned from his search for support against China and Britain to Lhasa in 1909, and initiated reforms to establish a standing Tibetan army while consulting with Japanese advisors. Treaties were signed between the British and the Tibetans, then between China and Britain. The 1904 document was known as the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Lhasa">Convention Between Great Britain and Tibet</a>. The main points of the treaty allowed the British to trade in <a href="/wiki/Yadong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yadong">Yadong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gyantse" title="Gyantse">Gyantse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gartok" title="Gartok">Gartok</a> while Tibet was to pay a large indemnity of 7,500,000 <a href="/wiki/Rupee" title="Rupee">rupees</a>, later reduced by two-thirds, with the <a href="/wiki/Chumbi_Valley" title="Chumbi Valley">Chumbi Valley</a> ceded to Britain until the imdenity was received. Further provisions recognised the <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>-Tibet border and prevented Tibet from entering into relations with other foreign powers. As a result, British economic influence expanded further in Tibet, while at the same time Tibet remained under the first claim in 1904 of "sovereignty" by the Qing dynasty of China.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>] The Anglo-Tibetan treaty was followed by a 1906 <a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a>, by which the "Government of Great Britain engages not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet. The Government of China also undertakes not to permit any other foreign State to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet."<a href="#cite_note-anglochinese1906-150">[150]</a> Moreover, Beijing agreed to pay London 2.5 million rupees which Lhasa was forced to agree upon in the Anglo-Tibetan treaty of 1904.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1995-151">[151]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] As the Dalai Lama had learned during his travels for support, in 1907 Britain and Russia agreed that in "conformity with the admitted principle of the 1904 <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> of China over Tibet",<a href="#cite_note-anglorussian1907-152">[152]</a> (from 1904), both nations "engage not to enter into negotiations with Tibet except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government."<a href="#cite_note-anglorussian1907-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qing_in_Kham,_1904-1911">Qing in Kham, 1904-1911</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Qing in Kham, 1904-1911">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lhasa,_Amban%27s_Yamen_from_Southeast.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lhasa%2C_Amban%27s_Yamen_from_Southeast.jpg/220px-Lhasa%2C_Amban%27s_Yamen_from_Southeast.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lhasa%2C_Amban%27s_Yamen_from_Southeast.jpg/330px-Lhasa%2C_Amban%27s_Yamen_from_Southeast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lhasa%2C_Amban%27s_Yamen_from_Southeast.jpg/440px-Lhasa%2C_Amban%27s_Yamen_from_Southeast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4949" data-file-height="3448" /></a><figcaption>Lhasa Amban's yamen from Southeast around 1900–1901.</figcaption></figure> Soon after the British invasion of Tibet, the Qing rulers in China were alarmed. They sent the imperial official Feng Quan (凤全) to Kham to begin reasserting Qing control. Feng Quan's initiatives in Kham of land reforms and reductions to the number of monks<a href="#cite_note-Tsomu-133">[133]</a> led to an uprising by monks at a Batang monastery in the Chiefdom of Batang.<a href="#cite_note-Ronis-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tsomu-133">[133]</a> Tibetan control of the Batang region of Kham in eastern Tibet appears to have continued uncontested following a 1726-1727 treaty.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-106">[106]</a> In Batang's uprising, Feng Quan was killed, as were Chinese farmers and their fields were burned.<a href="#cite_note-Ronis-77">[77]</a> The British invasion through Sikkim triggered a Khampa reaction, where chieftains attacked and French missionaries, Manchu and Han Qing officials, and Christian converts were killed.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> French Catholic missionaries<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Père Pierre-Marie Bourdonnec and Père Jules Dubernard<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> were killed around the <a href="/wiki/Mekong" title="Mekong">Mekong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-google21-157">[157]</a> In response, Beijing appointed army commander <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Erfeng" title="Zhao Erfeng">Zhao Erfeng</a>, the Governor of <a href="/wiki/Xining" title="Xining">Xining</a>, to "reintegrate" Tibet into China. Known of as "the Butcher of Kham"<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> Zhao was sent in either 1905 or 1908<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Punitive_expedition" title="Punitive expedition">punitive expedition</a>. His troops executed monks<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020-104">[104]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] destroyed a number of monasteries in Kham and <a href="/wiki/Amdo" title="Amdo">Amdo</a>, and an early form of "sinicization" of the region began.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198946f-160">[160]</a> Later, around the time of the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, Zhao's soldiers mutinied and beheaded him.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work" title="Template:Harvard citation documentation">citation not found</a>]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198958f-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Program_of_integration_of_Tibet_to_the_rest_of_China_(1905-1911)">Program of integration of Tibet to the rest of China (1905-1911)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Program of integration of Tibet to the rest of China (1905-1911)">edit</a>]</div> From 1905, China temporarily took back the control of Tibet as suzerain power, until the revolution of <a href="/wiki/1911" title="1911">1911</a> which marked the collapse of the Qing Empire and the installation of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912-1949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912-1949)">Republic of China</a>. After obtaining the departure of the British troops in return for an indemnity payment, the Qing dynasty, although weakened, decided to play a more active role in the conduct of Tibetan affairs. To preserve its interests, it implemented, from 1905 to 1911,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence19937-163">[163]</a> a program of integration of Tibet to the rest of China at the political, economic and cultural levels.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Plans were laid to build a railway line connecting Sichuan to Tibet,<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> to form an army of six thousand men and to secularise the Tibetan government by creating non-ecclesiastical governmental commissions. A mint was to be established, roads and telephone lines were to be built and local resources were to be exploited. In Lhasa, a Chinese school opened in 1907 and a military college in 1908.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> A Chinese postal service with five post offices was established in central Tibet and the first stamps were issued (with inscriptions in Chinese and Tibetan).<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> In 1909, a bilingual newspaper, the Vernacular newspaper of Tibet, the first of its kind, was printed in Lhasa on presses imported from Calcutta. It appeared every ten days and each issue was printed in 300 or 400 copies.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Its objective, at the same time educational and of propaganda, was to facilitate the administrative reforms engaged by Lian Yu and Zhang Yintang.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> This program was however reduced to nothing by the outbreak of the Chinese revolution in 1911, the collapse of the Qing empire and the elimination of Chao Ehr-feng.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> For Hsaio-ting Lin, the series of reforms initiated by Chao Ehr-feng can be seen as the first attempt at state-building by modern China in its southwestern marches.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Before the collapse of the Qing Empire, the Swedish explorer <a href="/wiki/Sven_Hedin" title="Sven Hedin">Sven Hedin</a> returned in 1909 from a three-year-long expedition to Tibet, having mapped and described a large part of inner Tibet. During his travels, he visited the 9th Panchen Lama. For some of the time, Hedin had to camouflage himself as a Tibetan shepherd (because he was European).<a href="#cite_note-Faderneslandet-174">[174]</a> In an interview following a meeting with the Russian czar he described the situation in 1909 as follows: <blockquote>"Currently, Tibet is in the cramp-like hands of China's government. The Chinese realize that if they leave Tibet for the Europeans, it will end its isolation in the East. That is why the Chinese prevent those who wish to enter Tibet. The Dalai Lama is currently also in the hands of the Chinese Government"... "Mongols are fanatics. They adore the Dalai Lama and obey him blindly. If he tomorrow orders them go to war against the Chinese, if he urges them to a bloody revolution, they will all like one man follow him as their ruler. China's government, which fears the Mongols, hooks on to the Dalai Lama."... "There is calm in Tibet. No ferment of any kind is perceptible" (translated from Swedish).<a href="#cite_note-Faderneslandet-174">[174]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qing_collapse_and_Tibet_independence">Qing collapse and Tibet independence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Qing collapse and Tibet independence">edit</a>]</div> In February 1910, the Qing General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhong_Ying&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhong Ying (page does not exist)">Zhong Ying</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhong_Ying" class="extiw" title="zh:Zhong Ying">zh</a>] sent another army to Tibet during <a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">its attempt to establish direct rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-darjeeling-23">[23]</a> After the Dalai Lama was told he was to be "arrested", he escaped from Lhasa to India and remained for three months. Reports arrived of Lhasa's sacking, and the arrests of government officials. He was later informed by letter that Qing China had "deposed" him.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198949ff-175">[175]</a> After the Dalai Lama's return to Tibet at a location outside of Lhasa, the collapse of the Qing dynasty began due to the <a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a> in October 1911. After the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil the Qing amban submitted a formal letter of surrender to the Dalai Lama in the summer of 1912.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> On 13 February 1913, the Dalai Lama declared Tibet an independent state, and announced that what he described as the historic "<a href="/wiki/Priest_and_patron_relationship" title="Priest and patron relationship">priest and patron relationship</a>" with China had ended.<a href="#cite_note-Shakya-17">[17]</a> The amban and China's military were expelled, and all Chinese residents in Tibet were given a required departure limit of three years. All remaining Qing forces left Tibet by 1913. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet under Yuan rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Ming–Tibet relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing dynasty in Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan under Qing rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzungar–Qing War">Dzungar–Qing War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Tibet" title="List of rulers of Tibet">List of rulers of Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">History of Tibet</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Norbu_78-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norbu_78_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norbu_78_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorbu2001">Norbu 2001</a>, p. 78: "Professor Luciano Petech, who wrote a definitive history of Sino—Tibetan relations in eighteenth century, terms Tibet's status during this time as a Chinese "protectorate". This may be a fairly value-neutral description of Tibet's status during the eighteenth century..." </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1995">Goldstein 1995</a>, p. 3: "During that time the Qing Dynasty sent armies into Tibet on four occasions, reorganized the administration of Tibet and established a loose protectorate." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDabringhaus2014-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDabringhaus2014_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDabringhaus2014">Dabringhaus 2014</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDi_Cosmo2009" class="citation cs2">Di Cosmo, Nicola (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298039160">"The Qing and Inner Asia: 1636–1800"</a>, in Nicola Di Cosmo; Allen J. Frank; Peter B. Golden (eds.), The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, Cambridge University Press – via ResearchGate</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Qing+and+Inner+Asia%3A+1636%E2%80%931800&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Inner+Asia%3A+The+Chinggisid+Age&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Di+Cosmo&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F298039160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001357-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001357_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 357. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapstein2013" class="citation cs2">Kapstein, Matthew (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ATDfnllvPHIC&pg=PT134">The Tibetans</a>, Wiley, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1118725375" title="Special:BookSources/978-1118725375"><bdi>978-1118725375</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tibetans&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1118725375&rft.aulast=Kapstein&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DATDfnllvPHIC%26pg%3DPT134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLamb1989">Lamb 1989</a>, pp. 2–3: "From the outset, it became apparent that a major problem lay in the nature of Tibet's international status. Was Tibet part of China? Neither the Tibetans nor the Chinese were willing to provide a satisfactory answer to this question." </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperling2004">Sperling 2004</a>, p. ix: "The status of Tibet is at the core of the dispute, as it has been for all parties drawn into it over the past century. China maintains that Tibet is an inalienable part of China. Tibetans maintain that Tibet has historically been an independent country. In reality, the conflict over Tibet's status has been a conflict over history." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200429-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200429_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200429_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200429_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200429_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200429_9-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperling2004">Sperling 2004</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHau2022" class="citation cs2">Hau, Caroline (2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qiKbEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT19">Siting Postcoloniality</a>, Duke University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781478023951" title="Special:BookSources/9781478023951"><bdi>9781478023951</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Siting+Postcoloniality&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781478023951&rft.aulast=Hau&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqiKbEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheng2023" class="citation cs2">Cheng, Hong (2023), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1GqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">The Theory and Practice of the East Asian Library</a>, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781527592025" title="Special:BookSources/9781527592025"><bdi>9781527592025</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+and+Practice+of+the+East+Asian+Library&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781527592025&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Hong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt1GqEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Szczepanski-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Szczepanski_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szczepanski_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szczepanski_12-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szczepanski_12-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzczepanski2018" class="citation web cs1">Szczepanski, Kallie (31 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/tibet-and-china-history-195217">"Was Tibet Always Part of China?"</a>. ThoughtCo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo&rft.atitle=Was+Tibet+Always+Part+of+China%3F&rft.date=2018-05-31&rft.aulast=Szczepanski&rft.aufirst=Kallie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Ftibet-and-china-history-195217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Emblems of Empire: Selections from the Mactaggart Art Collection, by John E. Vollmer, Jacqueline Simcox, p154 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCentral_Tibetan_Administration1994">Central Tibetan Administration 1994</a>, p. 26: "The ambans were not viceroys or administrators, but were essentially ambassadors appointed to look after Manchu interests, and to protect the Dalai Lama on behalf of the emperor." </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlieger2015" class="citation book cs1">Klieger, P. Christiaan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-B0oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71">Greater Tibet: An Examination of Borders, Ethnic Boundaries, and Cultural Areas</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498506458" title="Special:BookSources/9781498506458"><bdi>9781498506458</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greater+Tibet%3A+An+Examination+of+Borders%2C+Ethnic+Boundaries%2C+and+Cultural+Areas&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781498506458&rft.aulast=Klieger&rft.aufirst=P.+Christiaan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-B0oCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020324-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020324_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchoppa2020">Schoppa 2020</a>, p. 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-Shakya-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shakya_17-12">m</a> Tsering Shakya, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Thirteenth-Dalai-Lama-Tubten-Gyatso/3307">"The Thirteenth Dalai Lama, Tubten Gyatso"</a> Treasury of Lives, accessed May 11, 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Commission_of_Jurists195980-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInternational_Commission_of_Jurists195980_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Commission_of_Jurists1959">International Commission of Jurists (1959)</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2007" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Jayanta (2007). Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World. Pearson Education. p. 197.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+India%27s+International+Relations%2C+1700+to+2000%3A+South+Asia+and+the+World&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Jayanta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlieger2015" class="citation book cs1">Klieger, P. Christiaan (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-B0oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74">Greater Tibet: An Examination of Borders, Ethnic Boundaries, and Cultural Areas</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498506458" title="Special:BookSources/9781498506458"><bdi>9781498506458</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greater+Tibet%3A+An+Examination+of+Borders%2C+Ethnic+Boundaries%2C+and+Cultural+Areas&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781498506458&rft.aulast=Klieger&rft.aufirst=P.+Christiaan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-B0oCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDolma2020" class="citation book cs1">Dolma, Tenzin (2020). Reviews on Tibetan Political History: A Compilation of Tibet Journal Articles. Library of Tibetan Works & Archives. p. 76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reviews+on+Tibetan+Political+History%3A+A+Compilation+of+Tibet+Journal+Articles&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Library+of+Tibetan+Works+%26+Archives&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Dolma&rft.aufirst=Tenzin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> India Quarterly (volume 7), by Indian Council of World Affairs, p120 </li> <li id="cite_note-darjeeling-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-darjeeling_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-darjeeling_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRai2022" class="citation book cs1">Rai, C (2022). Darjeeling: The Unhealed Wound. Blue Rose Publishers. p. 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darjeeling%3A+The+Unhealed+Wound&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Blue+Rose+Publishers&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Rai&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020325-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020325_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020325_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppa2020325_24-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchoppa2020">Schoppa 2020</a>, p. 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoppa202033-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoppa202033_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchoppa2020">Schoppa 2020</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGernet1972481-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1972481_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGernet1972481_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGernet1972">Gernet 1972</a>, p. 481. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai200983-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai200983_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDai2009">Dai 2009</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGros201919-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGros201919_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGros2019">Gros 2019</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200427-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200427_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200427_29-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperling2004">Sperling 2004</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200928-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200928_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperling2009">Sperling 2009</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19953-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein19953_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1995">Goldstein 1995</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling2004x-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling2004x_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperling2004">Sperling 2004</a>, p. x. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199144-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199144_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein199144_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1991">Goldstein 1991</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200427-28-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200427-28_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperling2004">Sperling 2004</a>, p. 27-28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGros201924-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGros201924_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGros2019">Gros 2019</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldstein_art4-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_art4_36-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/article/art4.html">Tibet, China and the United States: Reflections on the Tibet Question by Melvyn C. Goldstein</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061106021854/http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/article/art4.html">Archived</a> 2006-11-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMehra1974">Mehra 1974</a>, pp. 182–183: The statement of Tibetan claims at the <a href="/wiki/1914_Simla_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="1914 Simla Conference">1914 Simla Conference</a> read: "Tibet and China have never been under each other and will never associate with each other in future. It is decided that Tibet is an independent state." </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTraversFitzherbert2020">Travers & Fitzherbert 2020</a>: '[From 1642], as a Buddhist government, the Ganden Phodrang's choice to relinquish... the military defence of its territory to foreign troops, first Mongol and later Sino-Manchu, in the framework of “patron-preceptor” (mchod yon) relationships, created a structural situation involving long-term contacts and cooperation between Tibetans and "foreign" military cultures.' </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2011" class="citation journal cs1">Chang, Simon T. (2011). "A 'realist' hypocrisy? Scripting sovereignty in Sino–Tibetan relations and the changing posture of Britain and the United States". Asian Ethnicity. 12 (3): 323–335. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14631369.2011.605545">10.1080/14631369.2011.605545</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1463-1369">1463-1369</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145298893">145298893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Ethnicity&rft.atitle=A+%27realist%27+hypocrisy%3F+Scripting+sovereignty+in+Sino%E2%80%93Tibetan+relations+and+the+changing+posture+of+Britain+and+the+United+States&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=323-335&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145298893%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1463-1369&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14631369.2011.605545&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Simon+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> The History of Tibet: Volume III The Modern Period: 1895-1959 edited by Alex McKay, London and New York: Routledge Curzon (2003), p.9 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010425201257/http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/13th.html">"A wall painting showing the 13th Dalai Lama kneeling before the Dowager Queen"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/13th.html">the original</a> on 2001-04-25. Retrieved 2008-04-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+wall+painting+showing+the+13th+Dalai+Lama+kneeling+before+the+Dowager+Queen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcc.purdue.edu%2F~wtv%2Ftibet%2F13th.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrunfeld1996">Grunfeld 1996</a>, p. 42 reads in part "Both (Tibetan and Chinese) accounts agree that the Dalai Lama was exempt from the traditional kowtow symbolizing total subservience; he was, however, required to kneel before the emperor." </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaird2006" class="citation cs2">Laird, Thomas (2006), The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, New York: Grove Press, pp. 170–174, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-1827-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-1827-1"><bdi>978-0-8021-1827-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Tibet%3A+Conversations+with+the+Dalai+Lama&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=170-174&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-1827-1&rft.aulast=Laird&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperling200430-44"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperling200430_44-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSperling2004">Sperling 2004</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200176-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200176_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200176_45-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorbu2001">Norbu 2001</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013402-403-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013402-403_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 402-403. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200183-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200183_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorbu2001">Norbu 2001</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeltscher201315-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeltscher201315_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeltscher2013">Teltscher 2013</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013393-394-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013393-394_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 393-394. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2017" class="citation book cs1">Li, Qing (2017). The Evolutation and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa. Springer. p. 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolutation+and+Preservation+of+the+Old+City+of+Lhasa&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Qing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013403-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013403_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013403_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013403_51-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 403. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013391-392-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013391-392_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 391-392. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 392. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein197289-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein197289_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStein1972">Stein 1972</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392–393-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392–393_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013392–393_55-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 392–393. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200182-83-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200182-83_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorbu2001">Norbu 2001</a>, p. 82-83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200183-84-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200183-84_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorbu2001">Norbu 2001</a>, p. 83-84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013404-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013404_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 404. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer201824-27-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpencer201824-27_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpencer2018">Spencer 2018</a>, p. 24-27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004211-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtwood2004211_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtwood2004">Atwood 2004</a>, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020par.&nbsp;24-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarri2020par.&nbsp;24_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGarri2020">Garri 2020</a>, par. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970522-524-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970522-524_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970522-524_62-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 522-524. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001200-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001200_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, p. 200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001200-206-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001200-206_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, p. 200-206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETraversFitzherbert202011-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETraversFitzherbert202011_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTraversFitzherbert2020">Travers & Fitzherbert 2020</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech2013390-392-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech2013390-392_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetech2013">Petech 2013</a>, p. 390-392. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer201828-29-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpencer201828-29_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpencer2018">Spencer 2018</a>, p. 28-29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein197283-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein197283_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStein1972">Stein 1972</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHevia199545-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHevia199545_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHevia1995">Hevia 1995</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzczepanski2018" class="citation web cs1">Szczepanski, Kallie (31 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/tibet-and-china-history-195217">"Was Tibet Always Part of China?"</a>. ThoughtCo.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo&rft.atitle=Was+Tibet+Always+Part+of+China%3F&rft.date=2018-05-31&rft.aulast=Szczepanski&rft.aufirst=Kallie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Ftibet-and-china-history-195217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellens2011" class="citation book cs1">Wellens, Koen (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ju7-CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA36">Religious Revival in the Tibetan Borderlands: The Premi of Southwest China</a>. University of Washington Press. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295801551" title="Special:BookSources/978-0295801551"><bdi>978-0295801551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Revival+in+the+Tibetan+Borderlands%3A+The+Premi+of+Southwest+China&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0295801551&rft.aulast=Wellens&rft.aufirst=Koen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dju7-CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDai2011" class="citation book cs1">Dai, Yingcong (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A9YTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42">The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing</a>. University of Washington Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295800707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0295800707"><bdi>978-0295800707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sichuan+Frontier+and+Tibet%3A+Imperial+Strategy+in+the+Early+Qing&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0295800707&rft.aulast=Dai&rft.aufirst=Yingcong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA9YTCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaChenLi1994" class="citation book cs1">Ya, Hanzhang; Chen, Guansheng; Li, Peizhuan (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biopanchenerdenisyahanzhang">Biographies of the Tibetan spiritual leaders Panchen Erdenis</a>. Foreign Languages Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7119016873" title="Special:BookSources/7119016873"><bdi>7119016873</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographies+of+the+Tibetan+spiritual+leaders+Panchen+Erdenis&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=7119016873&rft.aulast=Ya&rft.aufirst=Hanzhang&rft.au=Chen%2C+Guansheng&rft.au=Li%2C+Peizhuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiopanchenerdenisyahanzhang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng2001" class="citation book cs1">Zheng, Shan (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HkswAQAAIAAJ">A history of development of Tibet</a>. Foreign Languages Press. p. 229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7119018655" title="Special:BookSources/7119018655"><bdi>7119018655</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+development+of+Tibet&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=7119018655&rft.aulast=Zheng&rft.aufirst=Shan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHkswAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kCk8AQAAIAAJ">Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko: (the Oriental Library), Issues 56–59</a>. Tôyô Bunko. 1998. p. 135.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+the+Research+Department+of+the+Toyo+Bunko%3A+%28the+Oriental+Library%29%2C+Issues+56%E2%80%9359&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=T%C3%B4y%C3%B4+Bunko.&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkCk8AQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith1167-76"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith1167_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, pp. 116–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ronis-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ronis_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ronis_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ronis_77-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ronis_77-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ronis_77-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ronis_77-5">f</a> Jann Ronis, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://texts.shanti.virginia.edu/content/overview-kham-eastern-tibet-historical-polities#n9">"An Overview of Kham (Eastern Tibet) Historical Polities"</a>, The University of Virginia </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith11720-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith11720_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, pp. 117–120 </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith1201-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1201_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1201_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, pp. 120–1 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Karenina Kollmar-Paulenz, Kleine Geschichte Tibets, München 2006, pp. 109–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015116-118-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015116-118_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchwieger2015">Schwieger 2015</a>, p. 116-118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970524-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrousset1970524_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrousset1970">Grousset 1970</a>, p. 524. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015119-121-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015119-121_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchwieger2015">Schwieger 2015</a>, p. 119-121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001285-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001285_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015121-122-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwieger2015121-122_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchwieger2015">Schwieger 2015</a>, p. 121-122. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stein858-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stein858_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stein858_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stein858_86-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stein858_86-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRolf_Alfred_Stein1972" class="citation book cs1">Rolf Alfred Stein (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U7j758TsI8IC&pg=PA85">Tibetan Civilization</a>. Stanford University Press. pp. 85–88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0901-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0901-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-0901-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibetan+Civilization&rft.pages=85-88&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0901-9&rft.au=Rolf+Alfred+Stein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU7j758TsI8IC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001288-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001288_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, p. 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001290-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001290_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, p. 290. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith125-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith125_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, p. 125 </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48–9. Shambhala. Boston & London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87773-376-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87773-376-7">0-87773-376-7</a> (pbk) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020par.&nbsp;28-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarri2020par.&nbsp;28_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGarri2020">Garri 2020</a>, par. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1996127-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1996127_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1991328_ff-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1991328_ff_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1991">Goldstein 1991</a>, pp. 328 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith126-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith126_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, p. 126 </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith_1256-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith_1256_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, pp. 125–6 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang201130-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang201130_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang2011">Wang 2011</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai200981-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai200981_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDai2009">Dai 2009</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai200981–82-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai200981–82_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDai2009">Dai 2009</a>, pp. 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001412-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001412_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFElliott2001">Elliott 2001</a>, p. 412. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastemperorssoc00raws/page/251">Rawski 1998</a>, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDabringhaus2014123-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDabringhaus2014123_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDabringhaus2014">Dabringhaus 2014</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith12631-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith12631_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith12631_102-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, pp. 126–131 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001293-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001293_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, p. 293. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarri2020-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarri2020_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarri2020_104-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarri2020_104-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarri2020_104-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarri2020_104-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFGarri2020">Garri 2020</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-wang-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wang_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wang_105-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Wang_Lixiong" title="Wang Lixiong">Wang Lixiong</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newleftreview.net/NLR24805.shtml">Reflections on Tibet</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060620102220/http://newleftreview.net/NLR24805.shtml">Archived</a> 2006-06-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "New Left Review" 14, March–April 2002:'"Tibetan local affairs were left to the willful actions of the Dalai Lama and the shapes [Kashag members]", he said. "The Commissioners were not only unable to take charge, they were also kept uninformed. This reduced the post of the Residential Commissioner in Tibet to name only." In response, the Qing court issued in 1793 an imperial decree, the Twenty-Nine Articles on the Reconstruction of Tibetan Domestic Affairs, which consolidated the Commissioner’s authority over administrative, military and religious appointments, foreign affairs, finance, taxation and the criminal justice system.' </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated3-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_106-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazlitt1852" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_R%C3%A9gis_Huc" title="Évariste Régis Huc">Huc, Évariste Régis</a> (1852), <a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt_(registrar)" title="William Hazlitt (registrar)">Hazlitt, William</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/travelsintartary02huce/page/n9">Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China during the Years 1844–5–6</a>, vol. I, London: National Illustrated Library, p. 123</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travels+in+Tartary%2C+Thibet%2C+and+China+during+the+Years+1844%E2%80%935%E2%80%936&rft.place=London&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=National+Illustrated+Library&rft.date=1852&rft.aulast=Huc&rft.aufirst=%C3%89variste+R%C3%A9gis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftravelsintartary02huce%2Fpage%2Fn9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Chapman, F. Spencer. (1940). Lhasa: The Holy City, p. 135. Readers Union Ltd., London. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith1312-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Smith1312_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, pp. 191–2 </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang_170-3-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Wang_170-3_109-0">^</a> Wang 2001, pp. 170–3 </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchirokauerBrown2006" class="citation book cs1">Schirokauer, Conrad; Brown, Miranda (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_FL0PQAACAAJ">A Brief History of Chinese Civilization</a>. Wadsworth. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-91506-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-91506-4"><bdi>978-0-618-91506-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-618-91506-4&rft.aulast=Schirokauer&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rft.au=Brown%2C+Miranda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_FL0PQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maher-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Maher_111-0">^</a> Derek Maher, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Eighth-Dalai-Lama-Jampel-Gyatso/2339">"The Eighth Dalai Lama, Jampel Gyatso"</a> Treasury of Lives, accessed May 17, 2021 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMote2003938-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003938_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003938_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMote2003938_112-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMote2003">Mote 2003</a>, p. 938. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> The journey and meeting is described in <a href="#CITEREFTeltscher2013">Teltscher 2013</a>, pp. 208–226. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> In regard to kowtowing, Shakabpa writes: 'As they were leaving, the emperor came to visit the all-seeing Rimpoché. As the Emperor was to remain there for three days, he went to prostrate to his spiritual father at a place called Tungling.' <a href="#CITEREFShakabpa2010">Shakabpa 2010</a>, p. 500. Shakabka reads this event as illustrating the Preceptor-Patron relationship between China and Tibet. The Emperor wrote a letter which read: 'The wheel of doctrine will be turned throughout the world through the powerful scripture foretold to endure as long as the sky. Next year, you will come to honor the day of by birth, enhancing my state of mind. I am enjoying thinking about your swiftly impending arrival. On the way, Panchen Ertini, you will bring about happiness through spreading Buddhism and affecting the welfare of Tibet and Mongolia. I am presently learning the Tibetan language. When we meet directly, I will speak with you with great joy.' <a href="#CITEREFShakabpa2010">Shakabpa 2010</a>, p. 497. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeltscher2013244–246-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeltscher2013244–246_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeltscher2013">Teltscher 2013</a>, pp. 244–246. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorbu200184-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorbu200184_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorbu2001">Norbu 2001</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShakabpa2010486–487-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShakabpa2010486–487_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShakabpa2010">Shakabpa 2010</a>, pp. 486–487. </li> <li id="cite_note-wsmith134-135-118"><a href="#cite_ref-wsmith134-135_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, pp. 134–135 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001358-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001358_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, p. 358. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaveirne200489-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaveirne200489_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaveirne200489_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaveirne200489_120-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaveirne2004">Taveirne 2004</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198944,_n.13-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198944,_n.13_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1989">Goldstein 1989</a>, p. 44, n.13. </li> <li id="cite_note-wsmith137-122"><a href="#cite_ref-wsmith137_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, p. 137 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, p. 151 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008102-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008102_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008102_124-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFairbank2008">Fairbank 2008</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellens2010" class="citation book cs1">Wellens, Koen (2010). Religious Revival in the Tibetan Borderlands: The Premi of Southwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295801551" title="Special:BookSources/9780295801551"><bdi>9780295801551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Revival+in+the+Tibetan+Borderlands%3A+The+Premi+of+Southwest+China&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780295801551&rft.aulast=Wellens&rft.aufirst=Koen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld199647-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld199647_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld199647_126-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrunfeld1996">Grunfeld 1996</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, p. 140, n.  59 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMullin2001369–370-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMullin2001369–370_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMullin2001">Mullin 2001</a>, pp. 369–370. </li> <li id="cite_note-smith138-129"><a href="#cite_ref-smith138_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1996">Smith 1996</a>, p. 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008396–397-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFairbank2008396–397_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFairbank2008">Fairbank 2008</a>, pp. 396–397. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2022" class="citation book cs1">Li, Jianglin (2022). When the Iron Bird Flies: China's Secret War in Tibet. Stanford University Press. p. 322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781503629790" title="Special:BookSources/9781503629790"><bdi>9781503629790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+the+Iron+Bird+Flies%3A+China%27s+Secret+War+in+Tibet&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781503629790&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Jianglin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWouters2022" class="citation book cs1">Wouters, Jelle (2022). Routledge Handbook of Highland Asia. Taylor & Francis. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000598582" title="Special:BookSources/9781000598582"><bdi>9781000598582</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+Highland+Asia&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9781000598582&rft.aulast=Wouters&rft.aufirst=Jelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tsomu-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tsomu_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsomu_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsomu_133-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsomu_133-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsomu_133-4">e</a> Yudru Tsomu, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23483312">"Taming the Khampas: The Republican Construction of Eastern Tibet"</a> Modern China Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3 (May 2013), pp. 319-344 </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Ashley Eden, British Envoy and Special Commissioner to Sikkim, dispatch to the Secretary of the Government of Bengal, April 1861, quoted in Taraknath Das, British Expansion in Tibet, p12, saying "Nepal is tributary to China, Tibet is tributary to China, and Sikkim and Bhutan are tributary to Tibet" </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Wang 2001, pp. 239–240 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties5.html">Treaty Between Tibet and Nepal, 1856</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Justice_Center" title="Tibet Justice Center">Tibet Justice Center</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090911234453/http://www.tibetjustice.org/about/history.html">"History of Tibet Justice Center"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibetjustice.org/about/history.html">the original</a> on 2009-09-11. Retrieved 2015-02-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Tibet+Justice+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tibetjustice.org%2Fabout%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Walt van Praag, Michael C. van. The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law, Boulder, 1987, pp. 139–40 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld1996257-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrunfeld1996257_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrunfeld1996">Grunfeld 1996</a>, p. 257. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Li, T.T., The Historical Status of Tibet, King's Crown Press, New York, 1956 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/tyfls/tyfl/2631/t15491.htm">Sino-Nepal Agreement of 1956</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeh200960-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeh200960_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeh2009">Yeh 2009</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYeh2013283-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYeh2013283_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYeh2013">Yeh 2013</a>, p. 283. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties9.html">Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Treaties and Conventions Relating to Tibet – Convention Between Great Britain and China Relating to Sikkim and Tibet (1890) ...</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-powers80-145"><a href="#cite_ref-powers80_145-0">^</a> Powers 2004, pg. 80 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties8.html">Tibet Justice Center – Legal Materials on Tibet – Treaties and Conventions Relating to Tibet – Convention Relating to Burmah and Thibet (1886) </a> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122124730/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Treaties/Tibet/Treaty1893.htm">"Project South Asia"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Treaties/Tibet/Treaty1893.htm">the original</a> on 2008-11-22. Retrieved 2015-02-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Project+South+Asia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mssu.edu%2Fprojectsouthasia%2Fhistory%2Fprimarydocs%2FTreaties%2FTibet%2FTreaty1893.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Michael C. Van Walt Van Praag. The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law, p. 37. (1987). London, Wisdom Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-0394-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-0394-9">978-0-8133-0394-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexandrowicz-Alexander1954" class="citation journal cs1">Alexandrowicz-Alexander, Charles Henry (1954). "The Legal Position of Tibet". The American Journal of International Law. 48 (2): 265–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2194374">10.2307/2194374</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9300">0002-9300</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2194374">2194374</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146988493">146988493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=The+Legal+Position+of+Tibet&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=265-274&rft.date=1954&rft.issn=0002-9300&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146988493%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2194374%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2194374&rft.aulast=Alexandrowicz-Alexander&rft.aufirst=Charles+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-anglochinese1906-150"><a href="#cite_ref-anglochinese1906_150-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties11.html">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1995-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1995_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1995">Goldstein 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-anglorussian1907-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anglorussian1907_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-anglorussian1907_152-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties12.html">Convention Between Great Britain and Russia (1907)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBray2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bray, John (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info-buddhism.com/Christian_Missionary_Engagement_with_Tibet-John_Bray.html">"Sacred Words and Earthly Powers: Christian Missionary Engagement with Tibet"</a>. The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan. fifth series (3). Tokyo: John Bray & The Asian Society of Japan: 93–118. Retrieved 13 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Transactions+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Japan&rft.atitle=Sacred+Words+and+Earthly+Powers%3A+Christian+Missionary+Engagement+with+Tibet&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=93-118&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Bray&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finfo-buddhism.com%2FChristian_Missionary_Engagement_with_Tibet-John_Bray.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuttle2005" class="citation book cs1">Tuttle, Gray (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GRRynCRRCkwC&pg=PA45">Tibetan Buddhists in the Making of Modern China</a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231134460" title="Special:BookSources/0231134460"><bdi>0231134460</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibetan+Buddhists+in+the+Making+of+Modern+China&rft.pages=45&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0231134460&rft.aulast=Tuttle&rft.aufirst=Gray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGRRynCRRCkwC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mission-thibet.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=74:histoire-de-la-mission-a-tsechung&catid=25&Itemid=230">Mission-Thibet</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyal_Horticultural_Society_(Great_Britain)1996" class="citation book cs1">Royal Horticultural Society (Great Britain) (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGhMAAAAYAAJ&q=Pere+Bourdonnee++Pere+Dubernard+Roman+Catholic+Mission+atTsekon+before+their+murder+++22+July+1905">The Garden, Volume 121</a>. Published for the Royal Horticultural Society by New Perspectives Pub. Ltd. p. 274. Retrieved 2011-06-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Garden%2C+Volume+121&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=Published+for+the+Royal+Horticultural+Society+by+New+Perspectives+Pub.+Ltd.&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Royal+Horticultural+Society+%28Great+Britain%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlGhMAAAAYAAJ%26q%3DPere%2BBourdonnee%2B%2BPere%2BDubernard%2BRoman%2BCatholic%2BMission%2BatTsekon%2Bbefore%2Btheir%2Bmurder%2B%2B%2B22%2BJuly%2B1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988">(Original from Cornell University) </li> <li id="cite_note-google21-157"><a href="#cite_ref-google21_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEric_Teichman1922" class="citation book cs1">Eric Teichman (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sJ8KAQAAIAAJ&q=french+catholic+priests+were+killed+near+tsekou+on+the+mekong+lamas+and+tribesmen">Travels of a consular officer in eastern Tibet: together with a history of the relations between China, Tibet and India</a>. University Press. p. 248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780598963802" title="Special:BookSources/9780598963802"><bdi>9780598963802</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2011-06-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travels+of+a+consular+officer+in+eastern+Tibet%3A+together+with+a+history+of+the+relations+between+China%2C+Tibet+and+India&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1922&rft.isbn=9780598963802&rft.au=Eric+Teichman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsJ8KAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dfrench%2Bcatholic%2Bpriests%2Bwere%2Bkilled%2Bnear%2Btsekou%2Bon%2Bthe%2Bmekong%2Blamas%2Band%2Btribesmen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988">(Original from the University of California). </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> FOSSIER Astrid, Paris, 2004 "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irenees.net/en/fiches/analyse/fiche-analyse-52.html">L’Inde des britanniques à Nehru : un acteur clé du conflit sino-tibétain</a>." </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Karenina Kollmar-Paulenz, Kleine Geschichte Tibets, München 2006, p. 140f </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198946f-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198946f_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1989">Goldstein 1989</a>, pp. 46f. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Hilton 2000, p. 115 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198958f-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198958f_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1989">Goldstein 1989</a>, pp. 58f. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpence19937-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpence19937_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpence1993">Spence 1993</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1997">Goldstein 1997</a>, p. 26: "The invasion of Tibet and the Lhasa Convention of 1904 dramatically altered Chinese policy toward Tibet. Until then, the Qing dynasty had shown no interest in directly administering or sinicizing Tibet. The British thrusts now suggested to Beijing that unless it took prompt action, its position as overlord in Tibet might be lost, and with Tibet under the British sphere of influence the English would be looking down from the Tibetan plateau on Sichuan, one of China's most important provinces. The Qing dynasty, although enfeebled and on the brink of collapse, responded with surprising vigor. Beijing got the British troops to leave Tibetan soil quickly by paying the indemnity to Britain itself and began to take a more active role in day-to-day Tibetan affairs. Britain's casual invasion of Tibet, therefore, stimulated China to protect its national interests by beginning a program of closer cultural, economic, and political integration of Tibet with the rest of China." </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpence1993">Spence 1993</a>, p. 7: "During this period three Chinese proposals threatened radically to transform the status of Tibet: the construction of a railroad from Szechuan to Tibet, the enrolment and instruction of Tibetans into the Chinese army, and the transformation of Tibet into a Chinese province." </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1989">Goldstein 1989</a>, p. 47: "The ambans also set out to transform the government in Tibet and to sinicize the elite. Plans were laid to train a large army and secularize the Tibetan government by creating lay governmental boards. Roads and telegraph lines were planned, and resource exploitation was considered; a Chinese school was opened in Lhasa in 1907, and a military college in 1908." </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Laurent Deshayes, Histoire du Tibet, Fayard, 1997, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1997">Goldstein 1997</a>, p. 28: "A Chinese postal service was established and Tibet's first stamps were produced (in Chinese and Tibetan script)." </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Geoffrey Flack, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tibetanpost.com/tpost.php?op=subsection&id=9">Chinese Imperial</a>: "For approximately two years, five Chinese Post Offices operated in Central Tibet and a Chinese Post Office at Chambo (Eastern Tibet) was open in 1913 and 1914. Initially the Post Office used regular Chinese Imperial stamps, but in 1911 a set of eleven stamps (surcharged in three languages) was introduced for Tibet." </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Bai Rusheng, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.tibet.cn/culture/tibetology/200801/t20080117_355641.htm">The earliest Tibetan newspaper in Tibet</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151117030936/http://en.tibet.cn/culture/tibetology/200801/t20080117_355641.htm">Archived</a> 2015-11-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, China Tibet Information Center, 2005-07-01: "The Vernacular Paper in Tiber was a publication appearing once every ten days, with 300 to 400 copies per issue." </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Bai Runsheng, op. cit.: "But in Tibet the old customs had taken such a deep root that it was difficult to get effective results through administrative reformation. So Lian Yu and Zhang Yintang thought that to publish a newspaper in the vernacular language would get better results than to make speeches in narrow spheres. This was why they founded the Vernacular Paper in Tibet." Aiming at educating people in patriotism and intelligence. The paper took "Xun Bao", a newspaper of Sichuan, and other government-funded newspaper of other provinces as its models, It was the first modern newspaper in Tibetan areas." </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpence1993">Spence 1993</a>, p. 7: "This Chinese forward movement disintegrated with he outbreak of the 1911 revolution in China and the subsequent public execution of Chao Ehr-feng in December 1911." </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Hsaio-ting Lin, Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49, 1971, UBC Press, 2011, 304 p., pp. 9-10: "With hindsight, the series of reforms launched by Zhao Erfeng in the final days of the Qing can be regarded as modern China's first state-building attempt in its southwest border regions. This effort was suspended as a result of the collapse of the Qing court." </li> <li id="cite_note-Faderneslandet-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Faderneslandet_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Faderneslandet_174-1">b</a> The Swedish newspaper Fäderneslandet, 1909-01-16 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198949ff-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein198949ff_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1989">Goldstein 1989</a>, pp. 49ff. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tibet_under_Qing_rule&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtwood2004" class="citation cs2">Atwood, Christopher P. 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(2003), Imperial China: 900 - 1800, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. 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(2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4eQKAAAAYAAJ">The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnation</a>, Clear Light Pub, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57416-039-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57416-039-0"><bdi>978-1-57416-039-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fourteen+Dalai+Lamas%3A+A+Sacred+Legacy+of+Reincarnation&rft.pub=Clear+Light+Pub&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-57416-039-0&rft.aulast=Mullin&rft.aufirst=Glenn+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4eQKAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorbu2001" class="citation cs2">Norbu, Dawa (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EGqyIgOlUCIC&pg=PA169">China's Tibet Policy</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-79793-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-79793-4"><bdi>978-1-136-79793-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Tibet+Policy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-136-79793-4&rft.aulast=Norbu&rft.aufirst=Dawa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEGqyIgOlUCIC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetech2013" class="citation cs2">Petech, Luciano (2013), "23. The Administration of Tibet During the First Half-Century of Chinese Protectorate", The Tibetan History Reader, Columbia University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=23.+The+Administration+of+Tibet+During+the+First+Half-Century+of+Chinese+Protectorate&rft.btitle=The+Tibetan+History+Reader&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Petech&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShakabpa2010" class="citation cs2">Shakabpa, Tsepon Wangchuk Deden (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGyrymfDdI0C">One Hundred Thousand Moons: An Advanced Political History of Tibet</a>, translated by Maher, Derek F., BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17732-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17732-1"><bdi>978-90-04-17732-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Hundred+Thousand+Moons%3A+An+Advanced+Political+History+of+Tibet&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-17732-1&rft.aulast=Shakabpa&rft.aufirst=Tsepon+Wangchuk+Deden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlGyrymfDdI0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoppa2020" class="citation cs2">Schoppa, R. 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Department of History and Politics, Faculty of Arts, University of Wollongong.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=British+policy+and+the+%27development%27+of+Tibet+1912-1933&rft.inst=Department+of+History+and+Politics%2C+Faculty+of+Arts%2C+University+of+Wollongong&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fro.uow.edu.au%2Ftheses%2F1433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpencer2018" class="citation cs2">Spencer, Haines R. (2018), "Charismatic Authority in Context: An Explanation of Guushi Khan's Swift Rise to Power in the Early 17th Century", Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mongolica%3A+An+International+Journal+of+Mongolian+Studies&rft.atitle=Charismatic+Authority+in+Context%3A+An+Explanation+of+Guushi+Khan%27s+Swift+Rise+to+Power+in+the+Early+17th+Century&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Haines+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperling2004" class="citation cs2">Sperling, Elliot (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190203181941/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/system/tdf/private/PS007.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=32008">The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics</a> (PDF), East-West Center Washington, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932728-12-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932728-12-5"><bdi>978-1-932728-12-5</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eastwestcenter.org/system/tdf/private/PS007.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=32008">the original</a> (PDF) on 2019-02-03, retrieved 2021-05-15</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tibet-China+Conflict%3A+History+and+Polemics&rft.pub=East-West+Center+Washington&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-932728-12-5&rft.aulast=Sperling&rft.aufirst=Elliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eastwestcenter.org%2Fsystem%2Ftdf%2Fprivate%2FPS007.pdf%3Ffile%3D1%26type%3Dnode%26id%3D32008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperling2009" class="citation cs2">Sperling, Elliott (2009), Tibet and China: The Interpretation of History Since 1950</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tibet+and+China%3A+The+Interpretation+of+History+Since+1950&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Sperling&rft.aufirst=Elliott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein1972" class="citation cs2">Stein, R.A. (1972), "Tibetan Civilization", The Geographical Journal, 138 (4), Faber and Faber LTD: 501, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972GeogJ.138..501W">1972GeogJ.138..501W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1795516">10.2307/1795516</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1795516">1795516</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Geographical+Journal&rft.atitle=Tibetan+Civilization&rft.volume=138&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=501&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1795516%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1795516&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972GeogJ.138..501W&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=R.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaveirne2004" class="citation cs2">Taveirne, Patrick (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2japTNPRNAC">Han-Mongol Encounters and Missionary Endeavors: A History of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874-1911</a>, Leuven University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-365-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-365-7"><bdi>978-90-5867-365-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Han-Mongol+Encounters+and+Missionary+Endeavors%3A+A+History+of+Scheut+in+Ordos+%28Hetao%29+1874-1911&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-5867-365-7&rft.aulast=Taveirne&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2japTNPRNAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeltscher2013" class="citation cs2">Teltscher, Kate (2013), The High Road to China, Bloomsbury Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408846759" title="Special:BookSources/9781408846759"><bdi>9781408846759</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+High+Road+to+China&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781408846759&rft.aulast=Teltscher&rft.aufirst=Kate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraversFitzherbert2020" class="citation cs2">Travers, Alice; Fitzherbert, Solomon George (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02511607/document">"Introduction: The Ganden Phodrang's Military Institutions and Culture between the 17th and the 20th Centu-ries, at a Crossroads of Influences"</a>, Revue d'Études Tibétaines, 53, CNRS: 7–28</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27%C3%89tudes+Tib%C3%A9taines&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+Ganden+Phodrang%27s+Military+Institutions+and+Culture+between+the+17th+and+the+20th+Centu-ries%2C+at+a+Crossroads+of+Influences&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=7-28&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Travers&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft.au=Fitzherbert%2C+Solomon+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-02511607%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2011" class="citation cs2">Wang, Xiuyu (28 November 2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K5pBedqHEtcC">China's Last Imperial Frontier: Late Qing Expansion in Sichuan's Tibetan Borderlands</a>, Lexington Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-6810-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-6810-3"><bdi>978-0-7391-6810-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Last+Imperial+Frontier%3A+Late+Qing+Expansion+in+Sichuan%27s+Tibetan+Borderlands&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2011-11-28&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-6810-3&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Xiuyu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK5pBedqHEtcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeh2009" class="citation cs2">Yeh, Emily T. (13 January 2009), "Living together in Lhasa: Ethnic relations, coercive amity, and subaltern cosmopolitanism", in Mayaram, Shail (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-d6PAgAAQBAJ">The Other Global City</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-85150-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-85150-7"><bdi>978-1-135-85150-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Living+together+in+Lhasa%3A+Ethnic+relations%2C+coercive+amity%2C+and+subaltern+cosmopolitanism&rft.btitle=The+Other+Global+City&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009-01-13&rft.isbn=978-1-135-85150-7&rft.aulast=Yeh&rft.aufirst=Emily+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-d6PAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeh2013" class="citation cs2">Yeh, Emily T. (25 October 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdKRAQAAQBAJ">Taming Tibet: Landscape Transformation and the Gift of Chinese Development</a>, Cornell University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-6978-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-6978-7"><bdi>978-0-8014-6978-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taming+Tibet%3A+Landscape+Transformation+and+the+Gift+of+Chinese+Development&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2013-10-25&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-6978-7&rft.aulast=Yeh&rft.aufirst=Emily+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBdKRAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATibet+under+Qing+rule" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tibet_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tibet_topics" title="Template:Tibet topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tibet_topics" title="Template talk:Tibet topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tibet_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tibet topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tibet_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Tibet-related_articles" title="Index of Tibet-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet" title="History of Tibet">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Tibetan_history" title="Timeline of Tibetan history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Tibet" title="List of rulers of Tibet">List of rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_exploration_in_Tibet" title="History of European exploration in Tibet">European exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_money_of_Tibet" title="Historical money of Tibet">Historical money</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Tibet" title="Neolithic Tibet">Prehistory (Neolithic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhung" title="Zhangzhung">Zhangzhung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarlung_dynasty" title="Yarlung dynasty">Yarlung dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Empire (7th–9th century)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Tibetan_Empire" title="Timeline of the Tibetan Empire">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_Tibet" title="List of emperors of Tibet">List of emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_L%C3%B6nchen_of_the_Tibetan_Empire" title="List of Lönchen of the Tibetan Empire">Lönchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Tang–Tibet relations">Relations with Tang (618–907)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Fragmentation" title="Era of Fragmentation">Era of Fragmentation (9th–13th century)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guge" title="Guge">Guge kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsongkha" title="Tsongkha">Tsongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Song–Tibet relations">Relations with Song (960–1279)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Yuan dynasty rule (1270–1350)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Buddhist_and_Tibetan_Affairs" title="Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs">Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagmodrupa_dynasty" title="Phagmodrupa dynasty">Phagmodrupa dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Relations with Ming (1368–1644)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpungpa" title="Rinpungpa">Rinpungpa dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsangpa" title="Tsangpa">Tsangpa dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganden_Phodrang" title="Ganden Phodrang">Ganden Phodrang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashag" title="Kashag">Kashag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut Khanate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qing dynasty rule (1720–1912)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of Qing ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_(1912%E2%80%931951)" title="Tibet (1912–1951)">Post-Qing to 1950</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Army" title="Tibetan Army">Tibetan Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tibet_(1950%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Tibet (1950–present)">People's Republic of China (PRC) rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">PRC annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_political_leaders_of_Tibet" title="List of modern political leaders of Tibet">political leaders</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; font-weight:normal;">Wars and conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_attack_on_Songzhou" title="Tibetan attack on Songzhou">Tibetan attack on Songzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dafei_River" title="Battle of Dafei River">Battle of Dafei River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet">Mongol invasions of Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet%E2%80%93Ladakh%E2%80%93Mughal_war" title="Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war">Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dartsedo" title="Battle of Dartsedo">Battle of Dartsedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Salween_River" title="Battle of the Salween River">Battle of the Salween River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinchuan_campaigns" title="Jinchuan campaigns">Jinchuan campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogra–Tibetan War">Dogra–Tibetan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal-Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepal-Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal-Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_War" title="Qinghai–Tibet War">Qinghai–Tibet War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938%E2%80%931939_German_expedition_to_Tibet" title="1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet">1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_Japanese_expedition_to_Tibet" title="1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet">1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chamdo" title="Battle of Chamdo">Battle of Chamdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_and_uprisings_in_Tibet_since_1950" title="Protests and uprisings in Tibet since 1950">Protests and uprisings since 1950</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">1987–1989 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Tibetan_unrest" title="2008 Tibetan unrest">2008 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-immolation_protests_by_Tibetans_in_China" title="Self-immolation protests by Tibetans in China">Self-immolation protests by Tibetans in China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Frontier_Force" title="Special Frontier Force">Special Frontier Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; font-weight:normal;">Documents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ladakh_Chronicles#Treaty_of_Tingmosgang_(1684)" title="Ladakh Chronicles">Treaty of Tingmosgang (1684)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13-Article_Ordinance_for_the_More_Effective_Governing_of_Tibet" title="13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet">13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1751)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/29-Article_Ordinance_for_the_More_Effective_Governing_of_Tibet" title="29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet">29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1793)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Chushul" title="Treaty of Chushul">Treaty of Chushul (1842)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Thapathali" title="Treaty of Thapathali">Treaty of Thapathali (1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Calcutta" title="Convention of Calcutta">Convention of Calcutta (1890)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Lhasa" title="Convention of Lhasa">Treaty of Lhasa (1904)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_friendship_and_alliance_between_the_Government_of_Mongolia_and_Tibet" title="Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet">Treaty of friendship and alliance with Mongolia (1913)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simla_Convention" title="Simla Convention">Simla Accord (1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Point_Agreement" title="Seventeen Point Agreement">Seventeen Point Agreement (1951)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_Agreement_1954" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Indian Agreement 1954">Sino-Indian Trade Agreement over Tibetan Border (1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/70,000_Character_Petition" title="70,000 Character Petition">70,000 Character Petition (1962)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorandum_on_Genuine_Autonomy" title="Memorandum on Genuine Autonomy">Memorandum on Genuine Autonomy</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Tibet" title="Geography of Tibet">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Flora_of_Tibet" title="Category:Flora of Tibet">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fauna_of_Tibet" title="Category:Fauna of Tibet">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_Tibet" title="Category:Environment of Tibet">Environment</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Tibet" title="Category:Mountains of Tibet">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Kailash" title="Mount Kailash">Kailash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhotse" title="Lhotse">Lhotse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Changtse" title="Changtse">Changtse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namcha_Barwa" title="Namcha Barwa">Namcha Barwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanggula_Mountains" title="Tanggula Mountains">Tanggula</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rivers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yarlung_Tsangpo" title="Yarlung Tsangpo">Yarlung Tsangpo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yarlung_Tsangpo_Grand_Canyon" title="Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongbuk_Glacier" title="Rongbuk Glacier">Rongbuk Glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changtang" title="Changtang">Changtang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chang_Tang_Nature_Reserve" title="Chang Tang Nature Reserve">Nature Reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Valleys_of_Tibet" title="Category:Valleys of Tibet">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Traditional regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amdo" title="Amdo">Amdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kham" title="Kham">Kham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9C-Tsang" title="Ü-Tsang">Ü-Tsang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ngari_Prefecture" title="Ngari Prefecture">Ngari</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_political_leaders_of_Tibet" title="List of modern political leaders of Tibet">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibetan_Administration" title="Central Tibetan Administration">Central Tibetan Administration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Central_Tibetan_Administration" title="Parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration">Parliament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_Tibet" title="Etymology of Tibet">Etymology of Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Tibet" title="Foreign relations of Tibet">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Tibet" title="LGBT rights in Tibet">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patron_and_priest_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Patron and priest relationship">Patron and priest relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Area_(administrative_division)" title="Tibet Area (administrative division)">Tibet Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_independence_movement" title="Tibetan independence movement">Independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Tibet_controversy" title="Serfdom in Tibet controversy">Serfdom controversy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serfs%27_Emancipation_Day" title="Serfs' Emancipation Day">Serfs' Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Sovereignty debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Tibetan_program" title="CIA Tibetan program">CIA Tibetan program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="India–Tibet relations">India–Tibet relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibet#Government" title="Tibet">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region#Government" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Regional Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Government_of_Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="People's Government of Tibet Autonomous Region">TAR People's Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region_People%27s_Congress" title="Tibet Autonomous Region People's Congress">TAR People's Congress</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Tibet" title="Economy of Tibet">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Tibet" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Tibet">Postage and postal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Highway_109" title="China National Highway 109">Qinghai-Tibet Highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_railway" title="Qinghai–Tibet railway">Qinghai–Tibet railway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Tibet" title="Education in Tibet">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet" title="Religion in Tibet">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_(Tibetan_Buddhist_school)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)">Sakya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Preceptor" title="Imperial Preceptor">Imperial Preceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dpon-chen" title="Dpon-chen">Dpon-chen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagyu" title="Kagyu">Kagyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonang" title="Jonang">Jonang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganden_Tripa" title="Ganden Tripa">Ganden Tripa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dalai_Lamas" title="List of Dalai Lamas">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhamo_La-tso" title="Lhamo La-tso">Lhamo La-tso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Panchen_Lamas" title="List of Panchen Lamas">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Tibet" title="Catholic Church in Tibet">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Muslims" title="Tibetan Muslims">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinicization_of_Tibet" title="Sinicization of Tibet">Sinicization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Social classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_people" title="Tibetan people">Tibetan people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changpa" title="Changpa">Changpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yolmo_people" title="Yolmo people">Yolmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_diaspora" title="Tibetan diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_name" title="Tibetan name">Names</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of Tibet">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_art" title="Tibetan art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_rug" title="Tibetan rug">rugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">thangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_tsakli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan tsakli">tsakli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mandala" title="Sand mandala">sand mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_wall_paintings" title="Tibetan Buddhist wall paintings">wall paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murals_on_Tibetan_Buddhist_monasteries" title="Murals on Tibetan Buddhist monasteries">wall murals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_calendar" title="Tibetan calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_cuisine" title="Tibetan cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Tibet" title="Emblem of Tibet">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_festivals" title="Tibetan festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Tibet" title="Flag of Tibet">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Major_National_Historical_and_Cultural_Sites_in_Tibet" title="List of Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Tibet">Historical and cultural sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khata" title="Khata">Khata (ceremonial scarf)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_literature" title="Tibetan literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Annals" title="Tibetan Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Tibetan_Chronicle" title="Old Tibetan Chronicle">Chronicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Tibetan_writers" title="List of Tibetan writers">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tibet" title="Music of Tibet">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetology" title="Tibetology">Tibetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Tibetan_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Tibetan medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Tibet" title="Outline of Tibet">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Tibet-related_articles" title="Index of Tibet-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tibet" title="Category:Tibet">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;">(1616–1683)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;">(1683–1799)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;">(1801–1900)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;">(1901–1912)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces & mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society & culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a> </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qing_(People%27s_Republic)" title="History of Qing (People's Republic)">History of Qing (People's Republic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">Treaty ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inner_Asia_history_series" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Inner_Asia" title="Template:Inner Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Inner_Asia" title="Template talk:Inner Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Inner_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Inner Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inner_Asia_history_series" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> history series</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_empire" title="Nomadic empire">Nomadic empires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zubu" title="Zubu">Zubu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kyrgyz_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_confederation" title="Tatar confederation">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol">Khamag Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_Mongolia_(orthographic_projection).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Approximate range of Inner Asia"><img alt="Approximate range of Inner Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png/120px-Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png/180px-Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png/240px-Greater_Mongolia_%28orthographic_projection%29.png 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="484" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese empires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Han dynasty in Inner Asia">Han</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Xiongnu_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Han–Xiongnu War">against Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Official_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Chief Official of the Western Regions">Chief Official</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Tang dynasty in Inner Asia">Tang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_campaigns_against_the_Western_Turks" title="Tang campaigns against the Western Turks">against Western Turks</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tang_campaign_against_the_Eastern_Turks" title="Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks">Eastern Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Tang–Tibet relations">against Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_North" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the North">Mongolian Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beiting_Protectorate" title="Beiting Protectorate">Beiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Tarim Basin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Western Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Liao" title="Northern Liao">Northern Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Liao" title="Eastern Liao">Eastern Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Liao" title="Later Liao">Later Liao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia">Yuan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">against Northwest khanates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Yuan_rule" title="Manchuria under Yuan rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Yuan_rule" title="Mongolia under Yuan rule">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Yuan_rule" title="Tibet under Yuan rule">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Ming dynasty in Inner Asia">Ming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor%27s_campaigns_against_the_Mongols" title="Yongle Emperor's campaigns against the Mongols">against Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Turpan_conflict" title="Ming–Turpan conflict">against Turpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Ming_rule" title="Manchuria under Ming rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming%E2%80%93Tibet_relations" title="Ming–Tibet relations">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">against Dzungar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Inner_Asia" title="The Cambridge History of Inner Asia">The Cambridge History of Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Central_Asia" title="Greater Central Asia">Greater Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartary" title="Tartary">Tartary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Tartary" title="Chinese Tartary">Chinese Tartary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a></li> <li><a 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