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id="toc-Qing_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1730s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1730s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Qing consolidation of borderlands (1730s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1730s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burmese_reassertion_(1750s–1760s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burmese_reassertion_(1750s–1760s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Burmese reassertion (1750s–1760s)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burmese_reassertion_(1750s–1760s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_invasion_(1765–1766)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_invasion_(1765–1766)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>First invasion (1765–1766)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_invasion_(1765–1766)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_invasion_(1766–1767)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_invasion_(1766–1767)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Second invasion (1766–1767)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_invasion_(1766–1767)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Second invasion (1766–1767) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_invasion_(1766–1767)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trap_at_Bhamo–Kaungton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trap_at_Bhamo–Kaungton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Trap at Bhamo–Kaungton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trap_at_Bhamo–Kaungton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_invasion_(1767–1768)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_invasion_(1767–1768)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Third invasion (1767–1768)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Third_invasion_(1767–1768)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Third invasion (1767–1768) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Third_invasion_(1767–1768)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese_mobilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_mobilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Chinese mobilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_mobilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burmese_mobilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burmese_mobilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Burmese mobilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burmese_mobilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_offensive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_offensive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Chinese offensive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_offensive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burmese_counter-attack" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burmese_counter-attack"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Burmese counter-attack</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burmese_counter-attack-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Maymyo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Maymyo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Battle of Maymyo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Maymyo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_invasion_(1769)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_invasion_(1769)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fourth invasion (1769)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fourth_invasion_(1769)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fourth invasion (1769) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fourth_invasion_(1769)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intermission_(1768–1769)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermission_(1768–1769)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Intermission (1768–1769)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermission_(1768–1769)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_battle_plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_battle_plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Chinese battle plan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_battle_plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burmese_battle_plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burmese_battle_plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Burmese battle plan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burmese_battle_plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Truce</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Territorial_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territorial_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Territorial changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territorial_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geopolitical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geopolitical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Geopolitical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geopolitical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sino-Burmese War</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">13 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحرب الصينية البورمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحرب الصينية البورمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E2%80%93%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7_(%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AD%E0%A7%AC%E0%A7%AB%E2%80%93%E0%A7%A7%E0%A7%AD%E0%A7%AC%E0%A7%AF)" title="চীনা–বর্মি যুদ্ধ (১৭৬৫–১৭৬৯) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনা–বর্মি যুদ্ধ (১৭৬৫–১৭৬৯)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Бірмана-кітайскія войны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бірмана-кітайскія войны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="चीन-बर्मा युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीन-बर्मा युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA_-_%E1%80%99%E1%80%BC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%85%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="တရုတ် - မြန်မာ စစ်ပွဲများ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တရုတ် - မြန်မာ စစ်ပွဲများ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E7%B7%AC%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="清緬戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="清緬戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF" title="چین برمی جنگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چین برمی جنگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_sino-birmanesa_(1765%E2%80%931769)" title="Guerra sino-birmanesa (1765–1769) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra sino-birmanesa (1765–1769)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Бирмано-китайские войны – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бирмано-китайские войны" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E2%80%93%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2" title="สงครามจีน–พม่า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สงครามจีน–พม่า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in-Burma_Sava%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Çin-Burma Savaşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin-Burma Savaşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_tranh_Thanh_%E2%80%93_Mi%E1%BA%BFn" title="Chiến tranh Thanh – Miến – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến tranh Thanh – Miến" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E7%BC%85%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="清缅战争 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Qing dynasty war of expansion (1765 - 1769)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other wars between China and Burma, see <a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_wars" title="Sino-Burmese wars">Sino-Burmese wars</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png/300px-Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png/450px-Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png/600px-Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1872" /></a></span><br />Burma and China prior to the war (1765)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>December 1765 – 22 December 1769</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Modern-day <a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kachin_State" title="Kachin State">Kachin State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Burma">Upper Burma</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p>Burmese victory </p> <ul><li>Treaty of Kaungton</li> <li>Assured Burmese independence<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Siam regained independence from Burma since the war forced the Burmese to withdraw from Siam</li> <li>Solidified tripartite division of Mainland Southeast Asia between Burma, Siam, and Vietnam</li> <li>Resumption of diplomatic relations between Burma and China in 1790</li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><span data-sort-value="China"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a></span> </p> <hr /><b>Co-belligerents:</b><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya Kingdom</a> (until 1767)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Thonburi_Kingdom" title="Thonburi Kingdom">Thonburi Kingdom</a> (from 1767)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span data-sort-value="Burma"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg/23px-National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg/35px-National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg/45px-National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Burma</a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a></b></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> Liu Zao <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> Yang Yingju <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Mingrui</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> E'erdeng'e <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> Aligui <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a> (<a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><abbr title="Died of wounds">DOW</abbr></a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Arig%C5%ABn" title="Arigūn">Arigūn</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_China_%281889%E2%80%931912%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Agui" title="Agui">Agui</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ekkathat" title="Ekkathat">Ekkathat</a>  <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand_%28Ayutthaya_period%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Taksin" title="Taksin">Taksin</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg/23px-National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg/35px-National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg/45px-National_flag_of_Third_Burmese_Empire_%28Konbaung_Dynasty%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a></b></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/23px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/35px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/45px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/23px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/35px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/45px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Maha_Sithu" title="Maha Sithu">Maha Sithu</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/23px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/35px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/45px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/23px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/35px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/45px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Balamindin" title="Balamindin">Balamindin</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/23px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/35px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/45px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Teingya_Minkhaung" title="Teingya Minkhaung">Teingya Minkhaung</a></li> <li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Flag_of_Burmese_Royal_Artillery_%281853-1876%29.svg/25px-Flag_of_Burmese_Royal_Artillery_%281853-1876%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Flag_of_Burmese_Royal_Artillery_%281853-1876%29.svg/38px-Flag_of_Burmese_Royal_Artillery_%281853-1876%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Flag_of_Burmese_Royal_Artillery_%281853-1876%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Burmese_Royal_Artillery_%281853-1876%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Milard" title="Pierre de Milard">Pierre de Milard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Units involved</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg/22px-Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg/33px-Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg/44px-Plain_Yellow_Banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="465" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners Army</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Green_Standard_Army.svg/23px-Green_Standard_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Green_Standard_Army.svg/35px-Green_Standard_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Green_Standard_Army.svg/46px-Green_Standard_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="560" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai people">Tai-Shan militias</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <ul><li><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_Thailand_%281782%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Thailand_%281782%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_Thailand_%281782%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Thailand_%281782%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_Thailand_%281782%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Thailand_%281782%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Thai_armed_forces_before_1852" title="History of the Thai armed forces before 1852">Royal Siamese Army</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/23px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/35px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg/45px-War_Flag_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Burmese_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Burmese Army">Royal Burmese Army</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Bamar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamar">Bamar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> levies</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><b>First invasion:</b><br />Total strength: 5,000 foot, 1,000 horse<sup id="cite_ref-Burney_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burney-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>3,500 Green Standard<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Tai-Shan militias (balance)</li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Second invasion:</b><br /> Total: 25,000 foot, 2,500 horse<sup id="cite_ref-Burney_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burney-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p> <ul><li>14,000 Green Standard<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQing_Chronicles_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQing_Chronicles-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Tai-Shan militias (balance)</li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Third invasion:</b><br /> Total: 70,000,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p> <ul><li>30,000 bannermen and Mongols<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006102_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006102-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>12,000 Green Standard</li> <li>Tai-Shan militias (balance)</li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Fourth invasion:</b><br /> Total: 250,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </p> <ul><li>40,000 bannermen/Mongols<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Green Standard and Tai-Shan militias (balance)</li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><b>First invasion</b> Total:2,500 </p> <ul><li>2,000 foot, 200 horse (Royal Burmese Army)<sup id="cite_ref-Burney_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burney-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Shan militia at Kengtung garrison</li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Second invasion:</b><br /> Total:10,000 </p> <ul><li>4,500 foot, 200 horse (RBA)<sup id="cite_ref-Burney_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burney-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Shan national archer army(400)</li> <li>Kaungton garrison</li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Third invasion:</b><br /> Total: ~30,000 foot, 2,000 cavalry<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <hr /> <p><b>Fourth invasion:</b> <br /> Total: 150,000 royal Burma army Shan army </p> <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p>2nd campaign: ~20,000<br /> 3rd campaign: 30,000+<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> 4th campaign: 20,000+<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorge_C._Kohn200682_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge_C._Kohn200682-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> Total: 70,000+<br /> </p> 2,500 captured<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925258_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925258-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Burmese Royal horse army (3,000), Shan local army (500-2,000), Burmese army (10,000)</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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title="Battle of Maymyo">Battle of Maymyo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Sino-Burmese War</b> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">清緬戰爭</span>; <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>: <span lang="my">တရုတ်-မြန်မာ စစ်ပွဲများ</span>), also known as the <b>Qing invasions of Burma</b> or the <b>Myanmar campaign of the Qing dynasty</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a war fought between the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Konbaung dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a> (Myanmar). China under the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> launched four invasions of Burma between 1765 and 1769, which were considered one of his <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a>. Nonetheless, the war, which claimed the lives of over 70,000 Chinese soldiers and four commanders,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing dynasty had ever waged",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and one that "assured Burmese independence".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burma's successful defense laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between the two countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, the Qing emperor envisaged an easy war, and sent in only the <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army troops</a> stationed in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their <a href="/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1765%E2%80%931767)" title="Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)">latest invasion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Siam</a>. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–1766 and 1766–1767 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Manchu Bannermen</a> nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital, <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a> (Inwa).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the close call, King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925254–258_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925254–258-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese, too, were preoccupied with the Chinese threat, and kept a series of garrisons along the border. Twenty years later, when Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790, the Qing unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, the main beneficiaries of this war were the <a href="/wiki/Siamese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese people">Siamese</a>, who reclaimed most of their territories in the next three years after having lost their capital <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayutthaya (city)">Ayutthaya</a> to the Burmese in 1767.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shan_State_topo.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/Shan_State_topo.PNG/200px-Shan_State_topo.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/Shan_State_topo.PNG/300px-Shan_State_topo.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/49/Shan_State_topo.PNG 2x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Topography of <a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan State</a>, where major campaigns took place</figcaption></figure> <p>The long border between <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> had long been vaguely defined. The <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> first conquered <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> borderlands between 1380 and 1388, and stamped out local resistance by the mid-1440s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernquest200661–63_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernquest200661–63-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese control of the <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan States</a> (which covered the present-day <a href="/wiki/Kachin_State" title="Kachin State">Kachin State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kayah_State" title="Kayah State">Kayah State</a>) came in 1557 when King <a href="/wiki/Bayinnaung" title="Bayinnaung">Bayinnaung</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Toungoo_dynasty" title="Toungoo dynasty">Toungoo dynasty</a> conquered all of the Shan States. The border was never demarcated in the modern sense, with local <a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Sawbwas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawbwas">sawbwas</a></i> (chiefs) at the border regions paying tribute to both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002256–262_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002256–262-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The situation turned to China's favor in the 1730s when the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> decided to impose a tighter control of Yunnan's border regions while the Burmese authority largely dissipated with the rapid decline of the Toungoo dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qing_consolidation_of_borderlands_(1730s)"><span id="Qing_consolidation_of_borderlands_.281730s.29"></span>Qing consolidation of borderlands (1730s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Qing consolidation of borderlands (1730s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Myanmar_(%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E5%9B%BD)_delegates_in_Peking_in_1761.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Myanmar_%28%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E5%9B%BD%29_delegates_in_Peking_in_1761.jpg/300px-%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Myanmar_%28%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E5%9B%BD%29_delegates_in_Peking_in_1761.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Myanmar_%28%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E5%9B%BD%29_delegates_in_Peking_in_1761.jpg/450px-%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Myanmar_%28%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E5%9B%BD%29_delegates_in_Peking_in_1761.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Myanmar_%28%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E5%9B%BD%29_delegates_in_Peking_in_1761.jpg/600px-%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Myanmar_%28%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E5%9B%BD%29_delegates_in_Peking_in_1761.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2846" data-file-height="2572" /></a><figcaption>Myanmar (缅甸国) delegates in Peking in 1761, at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="万国来朝图">万国来朝图</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> attempts for tighter control of the border were initially met with fierce resistance by the local chiefs. In 1732, the <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> government's demand of higher taxes led to several <a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> revolts at the border. Shan resistance leaders united people by saying "The lands and water are our properties. We could plow ourselves and eat our own produces. There is not a need to pay tributes to foreign government". In July 1732, a Shan army, mostly consisted of native mountaineers, laid siege to the Qing garrison at <a href="/wiki/Pu%27er_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu'er city">Pu'er</a> for 90 days. The Yunnan government responded with an overwhelming force numbered around 5,000 and lifted the siege. The Qing army pursued further west but could not put down persistent local resistance. Finally, the Qing field commanders changed their tactics by allying with neutral <i><a href="/wiki/Sawbwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawbwa">sawbwas</a></i>, granting them Qing titles and powers, including <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard</a> captainships and regional commanderships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200699–100_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch200699–100-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To complete the agreements, the third ranking officer of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> traveled to <a href="/wiki/Simao_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Simao District">Simao</a> personally and held a ceremony of allegiance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200659–80_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch200659–80-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-1730s, the <i>sawbwas</i> of the border who used to pay dual tributes, were increasingly siding with the more powerful Qing. By 1735, the year which the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> ascended the Chinese throne, ten <i>sawbwas</i> had sided with the Qing. The annexed border states ranged from <a href="/wiki/Mogaung" title="Mogaung">Mogaung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Kachin_State" title="Kachin State">Kachin State</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hsenwi_State" title="Hsenwi State">Hsenwi State</a> (<a href="/wiki/Theinni" title="Theinni">Theinni</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Kengtung_State" title="Kengtung State">Kengtung State</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kengtung" title="Kengtung">Kyaingtong</a>) in present-day <a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan State</a> to <a href="/wiki/Xishuangbanna_Dai_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture">Sipsongpanna</a> (Kyaingyun) in present-day <a href="/wiki/Xishuangbanna_Dai_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture">Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture</a>, Yunnan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884191–192,_201_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884191–192,_201-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Qing were consolidating their hold at the border, the <a href="/wiki/Toungoo_dynasty" title="Toungoo dynasty">Toungoo dynasty</a> was faced with multiple external raids and internal rebellions and could not take any reciprocal action. Throughout the 1730s, the dynasty faced <a href="/wiki/Manipur_(princely_state)" title="Manipur (princely state)">Manipuri</a> raids that reached increasingly deeper parts of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Myanmar" title="Upper Myanmar">Upper Burma</a>. In 1740, the <a href="/wiki/Mon_people" title="Mon people">Mon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Myanmar" title="Lower Myanmar">Lower Burma</a> revolted and founded the <a href="/wiki/Restored_Hanthawaddy_Kingdom" title="Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom">Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom</a>. By the mid-1740s, the authority of the Burmese king had largely dissipated. In 1752, the Toungoo dynasty was toppled by the forces of the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom which captured <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>. </p><p>By then, the Qing control of the former borderlands was unquestioned. In 1752, the Emperor issued a manuscript, <i>Qing Imperial Illustration of Tributaries</i>, saying that all "barbarian" tribes under his rule must be studied and reported their natures and cultures back to <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200668_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch200668-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burmese_reassertion_(1750s–1760s)"><span id="Burmese_reassertion_.281750s.E2.80.931760s.29"></span>Burmese reassertion (1750s–1760s)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Burmese reassertion (1750s–1760s)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alaungpaya.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Alaungpaya.JPG/220px-Alaungpaya.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Alaungpaya.JPG/330px-Alaungpaya.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Alaungpaya.JPG/440px-Alaungpaya.JPG 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alaungpaya" title="Alaungpaya">Alaungpaya</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1752, a new dynasty called <a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Konbaung</a> rose to challenge <a href="/wiki/Restored_Hanthawaddy_Kingdom" title="Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom">Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom</a>, and went on to reunite much of the kingdom by 1758. In 1758–59, King <a href="/wiki/Alaungpaya" title="Alaungpaya">Alaungpaya</a>, the founder of the dynasty, sent an expedition to the farther <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan States</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Kachin_State" title="Kachin State">Kachin State</a> and northern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Shan_State" title="Shan State">Shan State</a>), which had been annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> over two decades earlier, to reestablish <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burmese</a> authority.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Nearer Shan States had been reacquired since 1754). Three of the ten farther Shan state <i><a href="/wiki/Sawbwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawbwa">sawbwas</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Mogaung_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogaung State">Mogaung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hsenwi_State" title="Hsenwi State">Hsenwi</a>) and their militias reportedly ran away into <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and tried to persuade Qing officials to invade <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nephew of <a href="/wiki/Kengtung_State" title="Kengtung State">Kengtung</a> <i>sawbwa</i> and his followers also fled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884191–192,_201_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884191–192,_201-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Yunnan government reported the news to the Emperor in 1759, and the Qing court promptly issued an imperial edict ordering reconquest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200668_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch200668-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, the Yunnan officials, who believed that "barbarians must be conquered using barbarians", tried to resolve the matter by supporting the defected <i>sawbwas</i>. But the strategy did not work. In 1764, a Burmese army, which was on its way to <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>, was increasing its grip of the borderlands, and the <i>sawbwas</i> complained to China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, the Emperor appointed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liu_Zao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liu Zao (page does not exist)">Liu Zao</a>, a respected scholarly minister from the capital to sort out the matters. At <a href="/wiki/Kunming" title="Kunming">Kunming</a>, Liu assessed that the use of <a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a>-<a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> militias alone was not working, and that he needed to commit regular <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a> troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_invasion_(1765–1766)"><span id="First_invasion_.281765.E2.80.931766.29"></span>First invasion (1765–1766)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First invasion (1765–1766)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ava_army.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/40/Ava_army.jpg/220px-Ava_army.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/40/Ava_army.jpg/330px-Ava_army.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/40/Ava_army.jpg/440px-Ava_army.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a> army in a 19th-century painting</figcaption></figure> <p>In early 1765, a 20,000-strong Burmese army stationed at <a href="/wiki/Kengtung" title="Kengtung">Kengtung</a>, led by General <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Thihapate" title="Ne Myo Thihapate">Ne Myo Thihapate</a>, left Kengtung for yet another <a href="/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1765%E2%80%931767)" title="Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)">Burmese invasion of Siam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925250_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925250-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the main Burmese army gone, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liu_Zao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liu Zao (page does not exist)">Liu Zao</a> used a few minor trade disputes between local Chinese and Burmese merchants as the excuse to order an invasion of Kengtung in December 1765. The invasion force, which consisted of 3,500 <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a> troops along with <a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a>-<a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> militias,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> laid siege to Kengtung but could not match battle-hardened Burmese troops at the Kengtung garrison, led by General <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese lifted the siege and pursued the invaders into <a href="/wiki/Ning%27er_Hani_and_Yi_Autonomous_County" title="Ning'er Hani and Yi Autonomous County">Pu'er Prefecture</a>, and defeated them there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ne Myo Sithu left a reinforced garrison, and returned to <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a> in April 1766.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884192_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884192-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Governor Liu, in his embarrassment, first tried to conceal what had happened. When the Emperor became suspicious, he ordered Liu's immediate recall and demotion. Instead of complying, Liu committed suicide by slicing his throat with a stationery knife, writing as blood was pouring from his neck: "There is no way to pay back the emperor's favor. I deserve death with my crime". While this kind of suicide in the face of bureaucratic failure apparently was not unusual in <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> China, it reportedly enraged the Emperor nonetheless. Sorting out the <i>Mien</i> (the Chinese word for "Burmese") was now a matter of imperial prestige. The Emperor now appointed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yang_Yingju&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yang Yingju (page does not exist)">Yang Yingju</a>, an experienced frontier officer with long service in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_invasion_(1766–1767)"><span id="Second_invasion_.281766.E2.80.931767.29"></span>Second invasion (1766–1767)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Second invasion (1766–1767)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg/210px-Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg/315px-Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg/420px-Emperor_qianlong_blue_banner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>'s bannermen</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yang_Yingju&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yang Yingju (page does not exist)">Yang Yingju</a> arrived in the summer of 1766 to take command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the invasion of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liu_Zao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liu Zao (page does not exist)">Liu Zao</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kengtung_State" title="Kengtung State">Kengtung</a>, which was located far away from the Burmese heartland, Yang was determined to strike <a href="/wiki/Upper_Myanmar" title="Upper Myanmar">Upper Burma</a> directly. He reportedly planned to place a <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> claimant on the Burmese throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yang's planned path of invasion was via <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a> and down the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy River</a> to <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>. The Burmese knew the route of invasion in advance, and were prepared. <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a>'s plan was to lure the Chinese into Burmese territory, and then surround them. The Burmese commander in the field <a href="/wiki/Balamindin" title="Balamindin">Balamindin</a> was ordered to give up Bhamo, and instead stay at the Burmese stockade at <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a>, a few miles south of Bhamo on the Irrawaddy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kaungton fort had been especially equipped with the cannon corps led by <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> gunners (captured at the battle of <a href="/wiki/Thanlyin" title="Thanlyin">Thanlyin</a> in 1756). To reinforce them, another army led by <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> and posted at the easternmost Burmese garrison at <a href="/wiki/Jinghong" title="Jinghong">Kenghung</a> (present-day Jinghong, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>), was ordered to march to the Bhamo theater across the northern <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884195_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884195-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trap_at_Bhamo–Kaungton"><span id="Trap_at_Bhamo.E2.80.93Kaungton"></span>Trap at Bhamo–Kaungton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Trap at Bhamo–Kaungton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As planned, the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> troops easily captured <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a> in December 1766, and established a supply base. The Chinese then proceeded to lay siege to the Burmese garrison at <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a>. But <a href="/wiki/Balamindin" title="Balamindin">Balamindin</a>'s defenses held off repeated Chinese assaults. Meanwhile, two Burmese armies, one led by <a href="/wiki/Maha_Sithu" title="Maha Sithu">Maha Sithu</a>, and another led by <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a>, surrounded the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a>'s army also arrived and took position near Bhamo to block the escape route back to <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>. </p><p>The impasse did not favor the Chinese troops who were utterly unprepared to fight in the tropical weather of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Myanmar" title="Upper Myanmar">Upper Burma</a>. Thousands of Chinese soldiers reportedly were struck down by <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>. One Qing report stated that 800 out of 1,000 soldiers in one garrison had died of disease, and that another 100 were ill.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the Chinese army greatly weakened, the Burmese then launched their offensive. First, <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a> easily retook the lightly held <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a>. The main Chinese army was now totally holed up in the <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a>-Bhamo corridor, cut off from all supplies. The Burmese then proceeded to attack the main Chinese army from two sides— <a href="/wiki/Balamindin" title="Balamindin">Balamindin's</a> army out of Kaungton fort, and Ne Myo Sithu's army from the north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese retreated eastwards and then northwards where another Burmese army led by <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> was waiting. The two other Burmese armies also followed up, and the Chinese army was destroyed entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maha_Sithu" title="Maha Sithu">Maha Sithu</a>'s army which had been guarding the western flank of the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy River</a>, then marched north of <a href="/wiki/Myitkyina" title="Myitkyina">Myitkyina</a> and defeated other lightly held Chinese garrisons at the border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese armies proceeded to occupy eight Chinese <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan states</a> within <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Victorious Burmese armies returned to <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a> with the captured guns, muskets and prisoners in early May.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884195_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884195-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Kunming" title="Kunming">Kunming</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yang_Yingju&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yang Yingju (page does not exist)">Yang Yingju</a> began resorting to lies. He reported that <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a> had been occupied; that its inhabitants had begun wearing <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-style <a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">pigtails</a>; and that the Burmese commander, <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a>, after losing 10,000 men had sued for peace. He recommended that the emperor graciously accept the peace offer to restore the normal trade relations between the two countries. The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> however realized the falsity of the report, and ordered Yang back to <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. On his arrival, Yang committed suicide at the order of the Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Third_invasion_(1767–1768)"><span id="Third_invasion_.281767.E2.80.931768.29"></span>Third invasion (1767–1768)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Third invasion (1767–1768)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_mobilization">Chinese mobilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chinese mobilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the two defeats, the Qing emperor and his court could not comprehend how a relatively small country like <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> could resist the might of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002256–262_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002256–262-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the Emperor, it was time for the <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchus</a> themselves to come into the picture. He had always doubted the battle-worthiness of his Chinese <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard</a> armies. The Manchus saw themselves as a warlike and conquering race and the Chinese as an occupied people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He commissioned a study of the first two invasions, and the report reinforced his biases—that the low battle-worthiness of the Green Standard armies was the reason for the failures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1767, the Emperor appointed the veteran Manchu commander <a href="/wiki/Ming_Rui" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Rui">Ming Rui</a>, a son-in-law of his, as governor-general of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, and head of the Burma campaign. Ming Rui had seen battle against <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a> in the northwest and was in command of the strategically key post of <a href="/wiki/Ili_Kazakh_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture">Ili</a> (in present-day <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>). His appointment meant that this was no longer a border dispute but a full-fledged war. Ming Rui arrived in Yunnan in April. An invasion force consisting of <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> and elite <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> troops rushed down from northern China and <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>. Thousands of <a href="/wiki/Green_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Standards">Green Standards</a> from Yunnan and <a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a>-<a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> militias accompanied this force.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Provinces throughout China were mobilized to provide supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total strength of the invasion force was 50,000 men, the vast majority being infantry. The mountains and thick jungles of <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> kept the use of <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> forces to a minimum.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> court now seriously considered the threat of illnesses among its troops; as a precaution, the campaign was planned for the winter months when diseases were believed to be less prevalent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burmese_mobilization">Burmese mobilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Burmese mobilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Burmese now faced the largest Chinese army yet mobilized against them. Yet King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> did not seem to realize the gravity of the situation. Throughout the first two invasions, he had steadfastly refused to recall the main Burmese armies, which had been battling in <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a> since January 1765, and laying siege to the Siamese capital of <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayutthaya (city)">Ayutthaya</a> since January 1766. Throughout 1767, when the Chinese were mobilizing for their most serious invasion yet, the Burmese were still focused on defeating the Siamese. Even after the Siamese capital was finally captured in April 1767, Hsinbyushin kept part of the troops in Siam during the rainy season months in order to mop up the remaining Siamese resistance during the winter months later that year. He actually allowed many <a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laotian</a> battalions to <i>demobilize</i> at the start of the rainy season.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925253_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925253-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result, when the invasion did come in November 1767, the Burmese defenses had not been upgraded to meet a much larger and a more determined foe. The Burmese command looked much like that of the second invasion. <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> again assigned the same commanders of the second invasion to face off against the Chinese. <a href="/wiki/Maha_Sithu" title="Maha Sithu">Maha Sithu</a> led the main Burmese army, and was the overall commander of the Chinese theater, with <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a> commanding two other Burmese armies. <a href="/wiki/Balamindin" title="Balamindin">Balamindin</a> again commanded the <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a> fort.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given that the main Burmese army was only about 7,000 strong,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the entire Burmese defense at the start of the third invasion was most likely no more than 20,000. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Third_Qing_Burmese_war.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Third_Qing_Burmese_war.PNG/300px-Third_Qing_Burmese_war.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Third_Qing_Burmese_war.PNG/450px-Third_Qing_Burmese_war.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Third_Qing_Burmese_war.PNG 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>Main battle routes of the third invasion (1767–1768)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_offensive">Chinese offensive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chinese offensive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goteik_Gorge" title="Battle of Goteik Gorge">Battle of Goteik Gorge</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a> planned a two-pronged invasion as soon as the rainy season ended. The main Chinese army, led by Ming Rui himself, was to approach <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a> through <a href="/wiki/Hsenwi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsenwi">Hsenwi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lashio" title="Lashio">Lashio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hsipaw_State" title="Hsipaw State">Hsipaw</a>, and down the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Namtu_River&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Namtu River (page does not exist)">Namtu River</a>. The main invasion route was the same route followed by the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> forces a century earlier, chasing the <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Youlang,_Prince_of_Gui" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui">Yongli Emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ming_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Ming dynasty">Southern Ming dynasty</a>. The second army, led by General <a href="/w/index.php?title=E%27erdeng%27e&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="E'erdeng'e (page does not exist)">E'erdeng'e</a> (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%8D%E7%88%BE%E7%99%BB%E9%A1%8D" class="extiw" title="zh:額爾登額">額爾登額</a>, or possibly <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%8D%E7%88%BE%E6%99%AF%E9%A1%8D" class="extiw" title="zh:額爾景額">額爾景額</a>) was to try the <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a> route again.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196028_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196028-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ultimate objective was for both armies to clamp themselves in a pincer action on the Burmese capital of Ava.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese plan was to hold the second Chinese army in the north at <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a> with the army led by <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a>, and meet the main Chinese army in the northeast with two armies led by <a href="/wiki/Maha_Sithu" title="Maha Sithu">Maha Sithu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, everything went according to plan for the Qing. The third invasion began in November 1767 as the smaller Chinese army attacked and occupied <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a>. Within eight days, <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a>'s main army occupied the <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hsenwi_State" title="Hsenwi State">Hsenwi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hsipaw_State" title="Hsipaw State">Hsipaw</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ming Rui made <a href="/wiki/Theinni" title="Theinni">Hsenwi</a> a supply base, and assigned 5,000 troops to remain at Hsenwi and guard the rear. He then led a 15,000-strong army in the direction of <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>. In late December, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Goteik_Gorge" title="Battle of Goteik Gorge">Goteik Gorge</a> (south of <a href="/wiki/Hsipaw" title="Hsipaw">Hsipaw</a>), the two main armies faced off and the first major battle of the third invasion ensued. Outnumbered two-to-one, <a href="/wiki/Maha_Sithu" title="Maha Sithu">Maha Sithu</a>'s main Burmese army was thoroughly routed by Ming Rui's <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Bannermen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> too was repulsed at Hsenwi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884196–198_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884196–198-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The news of the disaster at the Goteik Gorge reached Ava. King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> finally realized the gravity of the situation, and urgently recalled Burmese armies from <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925253_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925253-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having smashed through the main Burmese army, <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a> pressed on full-steam ahead, overrunning one town after another, and reached <a href="/wiki/Singu" title="Singu">Singu</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy River</a>, 30 miles north of <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a> at the beginning of 1768. The only bright spot for the Burmese was that the northern invasion force, which was to come down the Irrawaddy to join up with Ming Rui's main army, had been held off at <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burmese_counter-attack">Burmese counter-attack</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Burmese counter-attack"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Ava_Capital_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a2/Map_of_Ava_Capital_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.jpg/280px-Map_of_Ava_Capital_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a2/Map_of_Ava_Capital_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.jpg/420px-Map_of_Ava_Capital_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a2/Map_of_Ava_Capital_of_Konbaung_Dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="287" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> famously did not panic at the prospect of a large Chinese army, numbering around 30,000 men<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006102_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006102-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200829_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200829-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at his doorstep. The court urged the king to flee, but he scornfully refused, saying he and his brother princes, sons of <a href="/wiki/Alaungpaya" title="Alaungpaya">Alaungpaya</a>, would fight the Chinese single-handed if they had to. Instead of defending the capital, Hsinbyushin calmly sent an army to take up position outside <a href="/wiki/Singu" title="Singu">Singu</a>, personally leading his men toward the front line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It turned out that <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a> had overstretched himself, and was in no position to proceed any farther. He was now too far away from his main supply base at <a href="/wiki/Theinni" title="Theinni">Hsenwi</a>, hundreds of miles away in the northern <a href="/wiki/Shan_Hills" title="Shan Hills">Shan Hills</a>. The Burmese guerrilla attacks on the long supply lines across the jungles of the Shan Hills were seriously hampering the Qing army's ability to proceed. Burmese guerrilla operations were directed by General <a href="/wiki/Teingya_Minkhaung" title="Teingya Minkhaung">Teingya Minkhaung</a>, a deputy of <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a>. Ming Rui now resorted to defensive tactics, playing for time to enable the northern army to come to his relief. But it was not to be. The northern army had suffered heavy casualties in their repeated attacks against the <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a> fort. Its commander <a href="/w/index.php?title=E%27erdeng%27e&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="E'erdeng'e (page does not exist)">E'erdeng'e</a>, against the express orders of Ming Rui, retreated back to <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The commander was later publicly shamed and executed (sliced to death) on the orders of the Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004178_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004178-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The situation turned worse for <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a>. By early 1768, battle-hardened Burmese reinforcements from <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a> had begun to arrive back. Bolstered by the reinforcements, two Burmese armies led by <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ne_Myo_Sithu" title="Ne Myo Sithu">Ne Myo Sithu</a> succeeded in retaking <a href="/wiki/Theinni" title="Theinni">Hsenwi</a>. The Qing commander at Hsenwi committed suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main Qing army was now cut off from all supplies. It was now March 1768.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands of Bannermen from the freezing grasslands along the Russian border, began dying of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> as well as Burmese attacks in the furnace-like hot weather of central Burma. Ming Rui gave up all hope of proceeding toward <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>, and instead tried to make it back to <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> with as many of his soldiers as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Maymyo">Battle of Maymyo</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Battle of Maymyo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maymyo" title="Battle of Maymyo">Battle of Maymyo</a></div> <p>In March 1768, <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a> began his retreat, pursued by a Burmese army of 10,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. The Burmese then tried to encircle the Chinese by splitting the army into two. <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> had now assumed the overall command, replacing <a href="/wiki/Maha_Sithu" title="Maha Sithu">Maha Sithu</a>. The smaller army, led by Maha Sithu, continued to pursue Ming Rui while the larger army led by Maha Thiha Thura advanced through the mountainous route to emerge directly behind the Chinese. Through careful maneuvering, the Burmese managed to achieve complete encirclement of the Chinese at modern-day <a href="/wiki/Pyinoolwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyinoolwin">Pyin Oo Lwin</a> (Maymyo), about 50 miles northeast of <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>. Over the course of three days of bloody fighting at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maymyo" title="Battle of Maymyo">Battle of Maymyo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Bannerman</a> army was completely annihilated. The slaughter was such that the Burmese could hardly grip their swords as the hilts were slippery with enemy blood.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the original 30,000 men of the main army, only 2,500 of then remained alive and were captured. The rest had been killed either on the battlefield, through disease or through execution after their surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ming Rui himself was severely wounded in battle. Only a small group managed to break through and escaped the carnage. Ming Rui himself could have escaped with that group. Instead, he cut off his <a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">queue</a> and sent it to the Emperor as a token of his loyalty by those who were escaping. He then hanged himself on a tree.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the end, only a few dozen of the main army returned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fourth_invasion_(1769)"><span id="Fourth_invasion_.281769.29"></span>Fourth invasion (1769)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fourth invasion (1769)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intermission_(1768–1769)"><span id="Intermission_.281768.E2.80.931769.29"></span>Intermission (1768–1769)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Intermission (1768–1769)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> had sent <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Bannermen</a> assuming an easy victory. He had begun making plans about how he would administer his newest territory. For weeks, the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> court had heard nothing, and then the news finally came. The Emperor was shocked and ordered an immediate halt to all military actions until he could decide what next to do. Generals returning from the front line cautioned that there was no way <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> could be conquered. But there was no real choice but to press on. Imperial prestige was at stake.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Emperor turned to one of his most trusted advisers, the chief grand councilor <a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a>, Ming Rui's uncle. Back in the 1750s, Fuheng had been one of the few senior officials who had fully backed the Emperor's decision to eliminate the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_people" title="Dzungar people">Dzungars</a> at a time when most believed that war was too risky. On 14 April 1768, the imperial court announced the death of Ming Rui and the appointment of Fuheng as the new chief commander of the Burma campaign. <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> generals <a href="/wiki/Agui" title="Agui">Agui</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aligun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aligun (page does not exist)">Aligun</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suhede&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suhede (page does not exist)">Suhede</a> were appointed as his deputies. Now, the top rung of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> military establishment prepared for a final showdown with the Burmese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before any fighting resumed, some on the Chinese side sent out peace feelers to the court of <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>. The Burmese also sent signals that they would like to give diplomacy a chance, given their preoccupations in <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>. But the Emperor, with <a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a>'s encouragement, made it clear that no compromise with the Burmese could be made. The dignity of the state demanded a full surrender. His aim was to establish direct Qing rule over all Burmese possessions. Emissaries were sent to Siam and <a href="/wiki/Laotian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Laotian people">Laotian</a> states informing them of the Chinese ambition and seeking an alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ava now fully expected another major invasion. King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> had now brought most of the troops back from <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a> to face the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Burmese fully preoccupied with the Chinese threat, the Siamese resistance retook <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya Kingdom</a> in 1768 and went on to reconquer all of their territories throughout 1768 and 1769. For the Burmese, their hard-fought gains of the prior three years (1765–1767) in Siam had gone to waste but there was little they could do. The survival of their kingdom was now at stake. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_Navy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Qing_Navy.jpg/280px-Qing_Navy.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Qing_Navy.jpg/420px-Qing_Navy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Qing_Navy.jpg/560px-Qing_Navy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> flotilla</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_account_of_an_embassy_to_the_kingdom_of_Ava_00493-s.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/An_account_of_an_embassy_to_the_kingdom_of_Ava_00493-s.gif/280px-An_account_of_an_embassy_to_the_kingdom_of_Ava_00493-s.gif" decoding="async" width="280" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/An_account_of_an_embassy_to_the_kingdom_of_Ava_00493-s.gif/420px-An_account_of_an_embassy_to_the_kingdom_of_Ava_00493-s.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/An_account_of_an_embassy_to_the_kingdom_of_Ava_00493-s.gif/560px-An_account_of_an_embassy_to_the_kingdom_of_Ava_00493-s.gif 2x" data-file-width="1242" data-file-height="908" /></a><figcaption>A Burmese war-boat on the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy River</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_battle_plan">Chinese battle plan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Chinese battle plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a> arrived in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> in April, 1769 to take command of a 60,000-strong force. He studied past <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> expeditions to form his battle plan, which called for a three-pronged invasion via <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy River</a>. The first army would attack Bhamo and <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a> head-on, which he knew would be difficult. But two other larger armies would bypass Kaungton and march down the Irrawaddy, one on each bank of the river, to <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>. The twin invading armies on each side of the river would be accompanied by war boats manned by thousands of sailors from the <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> navy. To avoid a repeat of <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a>'s mistake, he was determined to guard his supply and communication lines, and advance at a sustainable pace. He avoided an invasion route through the jungles of the <a href="/wiki/Shan_Hills" title="Shan Hills">Shan Hills</a> so as to minimize the Burmese guerrilla attacks on his supply lines. He also brought in a full regiment of carpenters who would build fortresses and boats along the invasion route.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burmese_battle_plan">Burmese battle plan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Burmese battle plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the Burmese, the overall objective was to stop the enemy at the border, and prevent another Chinese penetration into their heartland. <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> was the overall commander, the role which he had assumed since the second half of the third invasion. As usual, <a href="/wiki/Balamindin" title="Balamindin">Balamindin</a> commanded the <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a> fort. In the last week of September, three Burmese armies were dispatched to meet the three Chinese armies head-on. A fourth army was organized with the sole purpose of cutting the enemy supply lines. King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> had also organized a flotilla of war boats to meet the Chinese war boats.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese defenses now included <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> musketeers and gunners under the command of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Milard" title="Pierre de Milard">Pierre de Milard</a>, governor of <a href="/wiki/Natogyi_Township" title="Natogyi Township">Tabe</a>, who had arrived back from the Siamese theater. Based on their troop movements, the Burmese knew at least the general direction from where the massive invasion force would come. Maha Thiha Thura moved upriver by boat toward <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion">Invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the Burmese armies marched north, <a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a>, against the advice of his officers, decided not to wait until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Monsoon season">monsoon season</a>. It clearly was a calculated gamble; he had wanted to strike before the Burmese arrived but he had also hoped that "miasma would not be everywhere."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So in October 1768, towards the end of (but still during) the monsoon season, Fuheng launched the largest invasion yet. The three Chinese armies jointly attacked and captured <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a>. They proceeded south and built a massive fortress near <a href="/wiki/Shwenyaungbin" title="Shwenyaungbin">Shwenyaungbin</a> village, 12 miles east of the Burmese fortress at <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a>. As planned, the carpenters duly built hundreds of war boats to sail down the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But almost nothing went according to plan. One army did cross over to the western bank of the <a href="/wiki/Irrawaddy_River" title="Irrawaddy River">Irrawaddy</a>, as planned. But the commander of that army did not want to march far away from the base. When the Burmese army assigned to guard the west bank approached, the Chinese retreated back to the east bank. Likewise, the army assigned to march down the eastern bank also did not proceed. This left the Chinese flotilla exposed. The Burmese flotilla came up the river and attacked and sank all the Chinese boats. The Chinese armies now converged on attacking <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a>. But for four consecutive weeks, the Burmese put up a remarkable defense, withstanding gallant charges by the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Bannermen</a> to scale the walls.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A little over a month into the invasion, the entire <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> invasion force was bogged down at the border. Predictably, many Chinese soldiers and sailors fell ill, and began to die in large numbers. <a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a> himself was struck down by fever.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More ominously for the Chinese, the Burmese army sent to cut the enemy line of communication also achieved its purpose, and closed in on the Chinese armies from the rear. By early December, the Chinese forces were completely encircled. The Burmese armies then attacked the Chinese fort at <a href="/wiki/Shwenyaungbin" title="Shwenyaungbin">Shwenyaungbin</a>, which fell after a fierce battle. The fleeing Chinese troops fell back into the pocket near <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a> where other Chinese forces were stationed. The Chinese armies were now trapped inside the corridor between the Shwenyaungbin and Kaungton forts, completely surrounded by rings of Burmese forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Truce">Truce</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Truce"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qing_General_Fu_Heng.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Qing_General_Fu_Heng.jpg/150px-Qing_General_Fu_Heng.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Qing_General_Fu_Heng.jpg/225px-Qing_General_Fu_Heng.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Qing_General_Fu_Heng.jpg/300px-Qing_General_Fu_Heng.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="942" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of War">Military Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Chinese command, which had already lost 20,000 men, and a quantity of arms and ammunition, now asked for terms. The Burmese staff were averse to granting terms, saying that the Chinese were surrounded like cattle in a pen, they were starving, and in a few days, they could be wiped out to a man. But <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a>, who oversaw the annihilation of <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a>'s army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maymyo" title="Battle of Maymyo">Battle of Maymyo</a> in 1768, realized that another wipe-out would merely stiffen the resolve of the Chinese government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a> was said to have said:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967181–183_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967181–183-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i>Comrades, unless we make peace, yet another invasion will come. And when we have defeated it, yet another will come. Our nation cannot go on just repelling invasion after invasion of the Chinese for we have other things to do. Let us stop the slaughter, and let their people and our people live in peace.</i></dd></dl> <p>He pointed out to his commanders that war with the Chinese was quickly becoming a cancer that would finally destroy the nation. Compared to Chinese losses, Burmese losses were light but considered in proportion to the population, they were heavy. The commanders were not convinced but <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a>, on his own responsibility, and without informing the king, demanded that the Chinese agree to the following terms:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967181–183_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967181–183-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The Chinese would surrender all the <i><a href="/wiki/Sawbwas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawbwas">sawbwas</a></i> and other rebels and fugitives from Burmese justice who had taken shelter in Chinese territory;</li> <li>The Chinese would undertake to respect Burmese sovereignty over those <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan states</a> that had been historically part of <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>;</li> <li>All prisoners of war would be released;</li> <li>The emperor of China and the king of Burma would resume friendly relations, regularly exchanging embassies bearing letters of good will and presents.</li></ol> <p>The Chinese commanders decided to agree to the terms. At <a href="/wiki/Kaungton" title="Kaungton">Kaungton</a>, on 13 December 1769<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (or 22 December 1769),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under a 7-roofed <a href="/wiki/Pyathat" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyathat">pyathat</a> hall, 14 Burmese and 13 Chinese officers signed a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> (known as the Treaty of Kaungton). The Chinese burned their boats and melted down their cannon. Two days later, as the Burmese stood to arms and looked down, starved Chinese soldiers marched sullenly away up the <a href="/wiki/Taping_River" title="Taping River">Taping River</a> valley; they began to perish of hunger by thousands in the passes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_2">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> was not pleased with the treaty. He did not accept the Chinese commanders' explanation that the fourth stipulation—exchange of embassies bearing presents—amounted to Burmese submission and tribute. He did not permit the surrender of the <i><a href="/wiki/Sawbwas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawbwas">sawbwas</a></i> or other fugitives nor the resumption of trade between the two countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967182_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967182-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Ava</a>, King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> was furious that his generals had acted without his knowledge, and tore up his copy of the treaty. Knowing that the king was angry, the Burmese armies were afraid to return to the capital. In January 1770, they marched to <a href="/wiki/Manipur" title="Manipur">Manipur</a> where a rebellion had begun, taking advantage of Burmese troubles with the Chinese. After a three days' battle near <a href="/w/index.php?title=Langthabal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Langthabal (page does not exist)">Langthabal</a>, the Manipuris were defeated, and their <a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">raja</a> fled to <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>. The Burmese raised their nominee to the throne and returned. The king's anger had subsided; after all, they had won victories and preserved his throne. Still, the king sent <a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a>, the decorated general, whose daughter was married to Hsinbyushin's son and heir-apparent <a href="/wiki/Singu_Min" title="Singu Min">Singu</a>, a woman's dress to wear, and exiled him and other generals to the <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan states</a>. He would not allow them to see him. He also exiled ministers who dared to speak on their behalf.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925257–258_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925257–258-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although hostilities ceased, an uneasy truce ensued. None of the points in the treaty was honored by both sides. Because the Chinese did not return the <i><a href="/wiki/Sawbwas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawbwas">sawbwas</a></i>, the Burmese did not return the 2,500 Chinese prisoners of war, who were resettled. The Qing had lost some of the generation's most important frontier experts, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yang_Yingju&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yang Yingju (page does not exist)">Yang Yingju</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Ming Rui</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aligun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aligun (page does not exist)">Aligun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fuheng" title="Fuheng">Fuheng</a> (who eventually died of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> in 1770). The war cost the Qing treasury 9.8 million silver <i><a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">taels</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, the Emperor kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Burmese for years were preoccupied with another impending invasion by the Chinese, and kept a series of garrisons along the border. The high casualties of the war (in terms of the population size) and the ongoing need to guard the northern border seriously hampered the Burmese military's capability to renew warfare in <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>. It would be another five years when the Burmese sent another invasion force to Siam. </p><p>It would be another twenty years when Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790. The resumption was brokered by the <a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a>-<a href="/wiki/Shan_people" title="Shan people">Shan</a> nobles and <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> officials who wanted to see trade resume. To the Burmese, then under King <a href="/wiki/Bodawpaya" title="Bodawpaya">Bodawpaya</a>, the resumption was on equal terms, and they considered the exchange of presents as part of diplomatic etiquette, not as tribute. To the Chinese however, all of these diplomatic missions were considered <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tributaries of Imperial China">tributary missions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967182_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967182-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Emperor viewed the resumption of relations as Burmese submission, and unilaterally claimed victory and included the Burma campaign in his list of <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territorial_changes">Territorial changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Territorial changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>'s successful defense laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between the two countries. The border still was not demarcated, and the borderlands were still overlapping spheres of influence. After the war, Burma remained in possession of <i><a href="/wiki/Koshanpye" title="Koshanpye">Koshanpye</a></i>, the nine states above <a href="/wiki/Bhamo" title="Bhamo">Bhamo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925259_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925259-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least down to the eve of the <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="First Anglo-Burmese War">First Anglo-Burmese War</a> in 1824, the Burmese exerted authority over the southern <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> borderlands, as far as Kenghung (present-day <a href="/wiki/Jinghong" title="Jinghong">Jinghong</a>, Yunnan).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman200332_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman200332-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, Chiang Huang (<a href="/wiki/Jinghong" title="Jinghong">Jinghong</a>) of southern Yunnan remained as authority of Burma until British occupied the whole Burma in 1886. Likewise, the Chinese exercised a degree of control over the borderlands, including present-day northeastern <a href="/wiki/Kachin_State" title="Kachin State">Kachin State</a>. Overall, the Burmese were able to push back the line of control up to one that existed before the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> consolidation drive of the 1730s. </p><p>However, the war also forced the Burmese to withdraw from <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>. Their victory over the Qing is described as a moral victory. Historian <a href="/wiki/G.E._Harvey" title="G.E. Harvey">G.E. Harvey</a> writes: <i>"Their other victories were over states on their own level such as Siam; this was won over an empire. <a href="/wiki/Alaungpaya" title="Alaungpaya">Alaungpaya</a>'s crusade against the <a href="/wiki/Mon_people" title="Mon people">Mons</a> was stained with treachery; the great siege of <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya</a> was a magnificent <a href="/wiki/Dacoity" title="Dacoity">dacoity</a>"</i>, though he described the Sino-Burmese war "a righteous war of defense against the invader".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925257–258_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925257–258-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geopolitical">Geopolitical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Geopolitical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main beneficiaries of the war were the Siamese, who took full advantage of the Burmese absence to reclaim their lost territories and independence. By 1770, they had reconquered most of the pre-1765 territories. Only <a href="/wiki/Tenasserim_Hills" title="Tenasserim Hills">Tenasserim</a> remained in Burmese hands. Preoccupied by the Chinese threat, and recovering from the depletion of manpower from the war, King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a> left <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a> alone even as Siam continued to consolidate its gains (he was finally forced to send Burmese armies to Siam in 1775 in response to a Siamese-backed rebellion in <a href="/wiki/Lan_Na" title="Lan Na">Lan Na</a> a year earlier). In the following decades, Siam would become a power in its own right, swallowing up Lan Na, the <a href="/wiki/Laotians" class="mw-redirect" title="Laotians">Laotian</a> states, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From a wider geopolitical standpoint, the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a>, who hitherto had never faced defeat, now had to accept—albeit grudgingly—that there were limits to Qing power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002265–266_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002265–266-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A historian of Chinese military history, Marvin Whiting, writes that the Burmese success <i>probably</i> saved the independence of other states in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a>, the war highlighted limits to their military power. The Emperor blamed the low battle-worthiness of his <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard</a> armies for the first two failed invasions. But he was to concede later that his <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Bannermen</a> too were less suited to fighting in <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a> than in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002265–266_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002265–266-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite sending in 50,000 and 60,000 troops in the last two invasions, the Qing command lacked up-to-date information about invasion routes, and had to consult centuries-old maps to form their battle plan. This unfamiliarity exposed their supply and communication lines to repeated Burmese attacks, and allowed their main armies to be encircled in the last three invasions. The Burmese <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorched earth policy">scorched earth policy</a> meant that the Chinese were vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Supply_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply line">supply line</a> cuts. Perhaps most importantly, the Qing soldiers proved ill-suited to fight in the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_climate" title="Tropical climate">tropical climate</a> of Burma. In the last three invasions, thousands of Chinese troops became ill with <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and other tropical diseases, and many perished as a result. This neutralized the Chinese advantage of superior numbers, and allowed the Burmese to engage the Chinese armies head-to-head towards the end of the campaigns. </p><p>The war is considered the peak of <a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Konbaung</a> military power. Historian <a href="/wiki/Victor_Lieberman" title="Victor Lieberman">Victor Lieberman</a> writes: <i>"These near simultaneous victories over <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a> (1767) and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (1765–1769) testified to a truly astonishing elan unmatched since <a href="/wiki/Bayinnaung" title="Bayinnaung">Bayinnaung</a>."</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003184_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003184-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Burmese military proved that they were able and willing to take on a far superior enemy, using their familiarity with the terrain and the weather to their maximum advantage (the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maymyo" title="Battle of Maymyo">Battle of Maymyo</a> is now a military case study of infantry fighting against a larger army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>Yet it proved that there were limits to the Burmese military power. The Burmese learned that they could not fight two simultaneous wars, especially if one of them was against the world's largest military. King <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">Hsinbyushin</a>'s reckless decision to fight a two-front war nearly cost the kingdom its independence. Moreover, their losses, while smaller than <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> losses, were heavy in proportion to their much smaller size of population, hampering their military capability elsewhere. <a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Konbaung</a>'s military power would plateau in the following decades. It made no progress against <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a>. Its later conquests came only against smaller kingdoms to the west — <a href="/wiki/Rakhine_State" title="Rakhine State">Arakan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manipur_(princely_state)" title="Manipur (princely state)">Manipur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/32px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/48px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg/64px-Flag_of_Myanmar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Myanmar" title="Portal:Myanmar">Myanmar portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">Mongol invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1765%E2%80%931767)" title="Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)">Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Burmese_War" title="First Anglo-Burmese War">First Anglo-Burmese War</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Burney-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burney_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burney_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burney_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burney_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFBurney1840">Burney 1840</a>, pp. 171–173); from Burmese sources; figures adjusted down by one magnitude per G.E. Harvey's analysis in his <i>History of Burma</i> (1925) in the section Numerical Note (pp. 333–335).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">~20,000 at the beginning, plus additional 10,000 men and 2,000 cavalry towards the end</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFBurney1840">Burney 1840</a>, pp. 180–181) and (<a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, pp. 333–335). Burney citing Burmese sources gives the Chinese strength as 500,000-foot and 50,000 cavalry and states the Burmese strength to be 64,000-foot and 1200 cavalry. These numbers are certainly exaggerated. Per Harvey (pp. 333–335), the Burmese numbers should be reduced by an order of magnitude, which gives the Chinese strength as about 55,000 which is in line with the 60,000 figure from Chinese sources. Moreover, the Burmese figure of ~65,000 was also exaggerated though probably not by a factor of ten. Per Harvey's analysis, the most the Konbaung kings could have raised was 60,000, even that in early 19th century when they had a larger empire than Hsinbyushin's. Hsinbyushin could not have raised 60,000 since Burma had been at war since 1740 and many able men had already perished. The most he could have raised was no more than 40,000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The number is derived from the fact that only a few dozens of the 30,000 strong main army managed to return to Yunnan. (See e.g. (<a href="#CITEREFMyint-U2006">Myint-U 2006</a>, pp. 102–103).) This figure does not include casualties suffered by the northern army.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFErika2007" class="citation journal cs1">Erika, Masuda (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=cba2879ea4fcfc4fe9476306890f153dc0aca0ef">"The Fall of Ayutthaya and Siam's Disrupted Order of Tribute to China (1767-1782)"</a>. <i>Taiwan Journal of Southeast Asian Studies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taiwan+Journal+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Fall+of+Ayutthaya+and+Siam%27s+Disrupted+Order+of+Tribute+to+China+%281767-1782%29&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Erika&rft.aufirst=Masuda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fdocument%3Frepid%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf%26doi%3Dcba2879ea4fcfc4fe9476306890f153dc0aca0ef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAung-ThwinAung-Thwin2013" class="citation book cs1">Aung-Thwin, Michael; Aung-Thwin, Maitrii (15 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V3kfNYXwaGsC"><i>A History of Myanmar since Ancient Times: Traditions and Transformations</i></a>. Reaktion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-939-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-939-2"><bdi>978-1-86189-939-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Myanmar+since+Ancient+Times%3A+Traditions+and+Transformations&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2013-10-15&rft.isbn=978-1-86189-939-2&rft.aulast=Aung-Thwin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Aung-Thwin%2C+Maitrii&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV3kfNYXwaGsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErika2007" class="citation journal cs1">Erika, Masuda (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=cba2879ea4fcfc4fe9476306890f153dc0aca0ef">"The Fall of Ayutthaya and Siam's Disrupted Order of Tribute to China (1767-1782)"</a>. <i>Taiwan Journal of Southeast Asian Studies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taiwan+Journal+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Fall+of+Ayutthaya+and+Siam%27s+Disrupted+Order+of+Tribute+to+China+%281767-1782%29&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Erika&rft.aufirst=Masuda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fdocument%3Frepid%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf%26doi%3Dcba2879ea4fcfc4fe9476306890f153dc0aca0ef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhiting2002480–481_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhiting2002">Whiting 2002</a>, pp. 480–481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006103_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiersch2006">Giersch 2006</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiersch2006">Giersch 2006</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQing_Chronicles-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQing_Chronicles_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQing_Chronicles">Qing Chronicles</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200827–31_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaskew2008">Haskew 2008</a>, pp. 27–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006102-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006102_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006102_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiersch2006">Giersch 2006</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967180–183_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHtin_Aung1967">Htin Aung 1967</a>, pp. 180–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge_C._Kohn200682-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorge_C._Kohn200682_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeorge_C._Kohn2006">George C. Kohn 2006</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925258-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925258_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004145-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004145_17-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDai2004">Dai 2004</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch2006101–110_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiersch2006">Giersch 2006</a>, pp. 101–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196027–29_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall1960">Hall 1960</a>, pp. 27–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925254–258-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925254–258_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, p. 254–258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernquest200661–63-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFernquest200661–63_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFernquest2006">Fernquest 2006</a>, pp. 61–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002256–262-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002256–262_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002256–262_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodside2002">Woodside 2002</a>, pp. 256–262.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch200699–100-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200699–100_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiersch2006">Giersch 2006</a>, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch200659–80-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200659–80_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiersch2006">Giersch 2006</a>, pp. 59–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884191–192,_201-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884191–192,_201_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884191–192,_201_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhayre1884">Phayre 1884</a>, pp. 191–192, 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiersch200668-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200668_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiersch200668_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiersch2006">Giersch 2006</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006100–101_27-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMyint-U2006">Myint-U 2006</a>, pp. 100–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925250-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925250_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962310–314_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKyaw_Thet1962">Kyaw Thet 1962</a>, pp. 310–314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884192-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884192_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhayre1884">Phayre 1884</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884195-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884195_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884195_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhayre1884">Phayre 1884</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967177–178_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHtin_Aung1967">Htin Aung 1967</a>, pp. 177–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006102–103_33-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMyint-U2006">Myint-U 2006</a>, pp. 102–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925253-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925253_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925253_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, p. 253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKyaw_Thet1962314–318_35-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKyaw_Thet1962">Kyaw Thet 1962</a>, pp. 314–318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHtin_Aung1967">Htin Aung 1967</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall196028-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall196028_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall1960">Hall 1960</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967178–179_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHtin_Aung1967">Htin Aung 1967</a>, pp. 178–179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884196–198-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhayre1884196–198_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhayre1884">Phayre 1884</a>, pp. 196–198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskew200829-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaskew200829_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaskew2008">Haskew 2008</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925255–257_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, p. 255–257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDai2004178-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDai2004178_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDai2004">Dai 2004</a>, pp. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMyint-U2006103–104_43-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMyint-U2006">Myint-U 2006</a>, pp. 103–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967181–183-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967181–183_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967181–183_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHtin_Aung1967">Htin Aung 1967</a>, pp. 181–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967182-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967182_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHtin_Aung1967182_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHtin_Aung1967">Htin Aung 1967</a>, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925257–258-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925257–258_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925257–258_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, pp. 257–258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925259-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey1925259_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey1925">Harvey 1925</a>, p. 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman200332-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman200332_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2003">Lieberman 2003</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002265–266-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002265–266_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002265–266_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodside2002">Woodside 2002</a>, pp. 265–266.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman2003184-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003184_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2003">Lieberman 2003</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sino-Burmese_War&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurney1840" class="citation book cs1">Burney, Col. Henry (August 1840). <i>Four Years' War between Burmah and China</i>. Vol. 9. Canton: Printed for Proprietors.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Four+Years%27+War+between+Burmah+and+China&rft.place=Canton&rft.pub=Printed+for+Proprietors&rft.date=1840-08&rft.aulast=Burney&rft.aufirst=Col.+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDai2004" class="citation journal cs1">Dai, Yingcong (2004). "A Disguised Defeat: The Myanmar Campaign of the Qing Dynasty". <i>Modern Asian Studies</i>. <b>38</b>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">145–</span>189. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0026749x04001040">10.1017/s0026749x04001040</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145784397">145784397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=A+Disguised+Defeat%3A+The+Myanmar+Campaign+of+the+Qing+Dynasty&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E189&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0026749x04001040&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145784397%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dai&rft.aufirst=Yingcong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernquest2006" class="citation journal cs1">Fernquest, Jon (Autumn 2006). "Crucible of War: Burma and the Ming in the Tai Frontier Zone (1382–1454)". <i>SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research</i>. <b>4</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SOAS+Bulletin+of+Burma+Research&rft.atitle=Crucible+of+War%3A+Burma+and+the+Ming+in+the+Tai+Frontier+Zone+%281382%E2%80%931454%29&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Fernquest&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiersch2006" class="citation book cs1">Giersch, Charles Patterson (2006). <i>Asian borderlands: the transformation of Qing China's Yunnan frontier</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-02171-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-02171-1"><bdi>0-674-02171-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+borderlands%3A+the+transformation+of+Qing+China%27s+Yunnan+frontier&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-674-02171-1&rft.aulast=Giersch&rft.aufirst=Charles+Patterson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1960" class="citation book cs1">Hall, D.G.E. (1960). <i>Burma</i> (3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-3503-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-3503-1"><bdi>978-1-4067-3503-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Burma&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Hutchinson+University+Library&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-1-4067-3503-1&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=D.G.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1925" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, G. E. (1925). <i>History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824</i>. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Burma%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+10+March+1824&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Frank+Cass+%26+Co.+Ltd.&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaskew2008" class="citation book cs1">Haskew, Michael E., Christer Joregensen, Eric Niderost, Chris McNab (2008). <i>Fighting techniques of the Oriental world, AD 1200–1860: equipment, combat skills, and tactics</i> (Illustrated ed.). Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-38696-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-38696-2"><bdi>978-0-312-38696-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fighting+techniques+of+the+Oriental+world%2C+AD+1200%E2%80%931860%3A+equipment%2C+combat+skills%2C+and+tactics&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-312-38696-2&rft.au=Haskew%2C+Michael+E.%2C+Christer+Joregensen%2C+Eric+Niderost%2C+Chris+McNab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHtin_Aung1967" class="citation book cs1">Htin Aung, Maung (1967). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofburma00htin"><i>A History of Burma</i></a></span>. New York and London: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Burma&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Htin+Aung&rft.aufirst=Maung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofburma00htin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJung1971" class="citation news cs1">Jung, Richard J. K. (1971). "The Sino-Burmese War, 1766–1770: War and Peace Under the Tributary System". <i>Papers on China</i>. Vol. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+on+China&rft.atitle=The+Sino-Burmese+War%2C+1766%E2%80%931770%3A+War+and+Peace+Under+the+Tributary+System&rft.volume=24&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_C._Kohn2006" class="citation book cs1">George C. Kohn (2006). <i>Dictionary of wars</i>. Checkmark Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-6578-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-6578-0"><bdi>0-8160-6578-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+wars&rft.pub=Checkmark+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8160-6578-0&rft.au=George+C.+Kohn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKyaw_Thet1962" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kyaw Thet (1962). <i>History of Union of Burma</i> (in Burmese). <a href="/wiki/Yangon" title="Yangon">Yangon</a>: Yangon University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Union+of+Burma&rft.place=Yangon&rft.pub=Yangon+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.au=Kyaw+Thet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieberman2003" class="citation book cs1">Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). <i>Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80496-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80496-7"><bdi>978-0-521-80496-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strange+Parallels%3A+Southeast+Asia+in+Global+Context%2C+c.+800%E2%80%931830%2C+volume+1%2C+Integration+on+the+Mainland&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80496-7&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=Victor+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyint-U2006" class="citation book cs1">Myint-U, Thant (2006). <i>The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma</i>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-16342-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-16342-6"><bdi>978-0-374-16342-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+River+of+Lost+Footsteps%E2%80%94Histories+of+Burma&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-374-16342-6&rft.aulast=Myint-U&rft.aufirst=Thant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhayre1884" class="citation book cs1">Sir Arthur Purves Phayre (1884). <i>History of Burma: including Burma proper, Pegu, Taungu, Tenasserim, and Arakan. From the earliest time to the end of the first war with British India</i>. Trübner & co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Burma%3A+including+Burma+proper%2C+Pegu%2C+Taungu%2C+Tenasserim%2C+and+Arakan.+From+the+earliest+time+to+the+end+of+the+first+war+with+British+India&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner+%26+co.&rft.date=1884&rft.au=Sir+Arthur+Purves+Phayre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiting2002" class="citation book cs1">Whiting, Marvin C. (2002). <i>Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC – 1912 AD</i>. iUniverse. pp. <span class="nowrap">480–</span>481. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-22134-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-22134-9"><bdi>978-0-595-22134-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imperial+Chinese+Military+History%3A+8000+BC+%E2%80%93+1912+AD&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E480-%3C%2Fspan%3E481&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-595-22134-9&rft.aulast=Whiting&rft.aufirst=Marvin+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodside2002" class="citation book cs1">Woodside, Alexander (2002). Willard J. Peterson (ed.). <i>The Cambridge history of China: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Volume 9</i>. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6"><bdi>978-0-521-24334-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+China%3A+The+Ch%27ing+Empire+to+1800%2C+Volume+9&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24334-6&rft.aulast=Woodside&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQing_Chronicles" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i>, Chapter 327, Biographies 114 《清史稿》卷327 列傳一百十四<i><span></span></i> (in Chinese). China.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Draft+History+of+Qing%2C+Chapter+327%2C+Biographies+114+%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E5%8F%B2%E7%A8%BF%E3%80%8B%E5%8D%B7327+%E5%88%97%E5%82%B3%E4%B8%80%E7%99%BE%E5%8D%81%E5%9B%9B&rft.place=China&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASino-Burmese+War" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_topics313" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_topics313" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="History of the Qing dynasty">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Early <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1616–1683)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_unification" title="Jurchen unification">Jurchen unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">Later Jin invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Qing invasion of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing" title="Transition from Ming to Qing">Transition from Ming to Qing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass" title="Battle of Shanhai Pass">Battle of Shanhai Pass</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Clearance" title="Great Clearance">Great Clearance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penghu" title="Battle of Penghu">Battle of Penghu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Three_Feudatories" title="Revolt of the Three Feudatories">Revolt of the Three Feudatories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing</a> <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1683–1799)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Russian_border_conflicts" title="Sino-Russian border conflicts">Sino-Russian border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar%E2%80%93Qing_Wars" title="Dzungar–Qing Wars">Dzungar–Qing Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1720)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy" title="Chinese Rites controversy">Chinese Rites controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Altishahr_Khojas" title="Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas">Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afaqi_Khoja_revolts" title="Afaqi Khoja revolts">Afaqi Khoja revolts</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sino-Burmese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Shuangwen_rebellion" title="Lin Shuangwen rebellion">Lin Shuangwen rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_H%E1%BB%93i-%C4%90%E1%BB%91ng_%C4%90a" title="Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa">Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Nepalese_War" title="Sino-Nepalese War">Sino-Nepalese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1795%E2%80%931806)" title="Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)">Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">19th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1801–1900)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Trigrams_uprising_of_1813" title="Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813">Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Opium_War" title="First Opium War">First Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogra%E2%80%93Tibetan_war" title="Dogra–Tibetan war">Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian_Rebellion" title="Nian Rebellion">Nian Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931856)" title="Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)">Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Swords_Society" title="Small Swords Society">Small Swords Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1854%E2%80%931873)" title="Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)">Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Tibet_War_(1855%E2%80%931856)" title="Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)">Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthay_Rebellion" title="Panthay Rebellion">Panthay Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punti%E2%80%93Hakka_Clan_Wars" title="Punti–Hakka Clan Wars">Punti–Hakka Clan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_Annexation" title="Amur Annexation">Amur Annexation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Restoration" title="Tongzhi Restoration">Tongzhi Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%931877)" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)">Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudan_incident" title="Mudan incident">Mudan incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre" title="Tianjin Massacre">Tianjin Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margary_Affair" title="Margary Affair">Margary Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Chinese_Famine_of_1876%E2%80%931879" title="Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879">Northern Chinese Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_reconquest_of_Xinjiang" title="Qing reconquest of Xinjiang">Qing reconquest of Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikkim_expedition" title="Sikkim expedition">Sikkim expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindandao_incident" title="Jindandao incident">Jindandao incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongche_Shangshu_movement" title="Gongche Shangshu movement">Gongche Shangshu movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1895%E2%80%931896)" title="Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)">Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days%27_Reform" title="Hundred Days' Reform">Hundred Days' Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">Third plague pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lanterns_(Boxer_Uprising)" title="Red Lanterns (Boxer Uprising)">Red Lanterns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_decree_of_declaration_of_war_against_foreign_powers" title="Imperial decree of declaration of war against foreign powers">Declaration of war</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">20th century <div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1901–1912)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Qing_reforms" title="Late Qing reforms">Late Qing reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_expedition_to_Tibet" title="British expedition to Tibet">British expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batang_uprising" title="Batang uprising">1905 Batang uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preparative_Constitutionalism" title="Preparative Constitutionalism">Preparative Constitutionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_parliamentary_election" title="1909 Chinese parliamentary election">1909 Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1909_Chinese_provincial_elections" title="1909 Chinese provincial elections">1909 Provincial Assembly elections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expedition_to_Tibet_(1910)" title="Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)">Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_plague" title="Manchurian plague">Manchurian plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railway_Protection_Movement" title="Railway Protection Movement">Railway Protection Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">1911 Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuchang_Uprising" title="Wuchang Uprising">Wuchang Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Lhasa_turmoil" title="Xinhai Lhasa turmoil">Xinhai Lhasa turmoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1911" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1911">Mongolian Revolution of 1911</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution_in_Xinjiang" title="1911 Revolution in Xinjiang">1911 Revolution in Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Edict_of_the_Abdication_of_the_Qing_Emperor" title="Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor">Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Favourable_Treatment_of_the_Great_Qing_Emperor_after_His_Abdication" title="Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor after His Abdication">Articles of Favourable Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Government of the Qing dynasty">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emperors_family_tree_(late)#Qing_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese emperors family tree (late)">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Advisory Council (Qing dynasty)">Advisory Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amban" title="Amban">Amban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Consultative Bureau">Consultative Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_of_Solid_Gold" title="Cup of Solid Gold">Cup of Solid Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dates_of_establishment_of_diplomatic_relations_with_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the Qing dynasty">Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da-Qing_Bank" title="Da-Qing Bank">Da-Qing Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_Council_of_Princes_and_Ministers" title="Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers">Deliberative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty">Diplomatic missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Flag of the Qing dynasty">Flag of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Grand Council (Qing dynasty)">Grand Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Legal_Code" title="Great Qing Legal Code">Great Qing Legal Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Clan_Court" title="Imperial Clan Court">Imperial Clan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Commissioner_(China)" title="Imperial Commissioner (China)">Imperial Commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Household_Department" title="Imperial Household Department">Imperial Household Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifan_Yuan" title="Lifan Yuan">Lifan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Posts_and_Communications" title="Ministry of Posts and Communications">Ministry of Posts and Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Gates_Infantry_Commander" title="Nine Gates Infantry Commander">Nine Gates Infantry Commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coordinator_and_provincial_governor" title="Grand coordinator and provincial governor">Provincial governor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_military_commander" title="Provincial military commander">Provincial military commander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Constitution_(1908)" class="mw-redirect" title="Principles of the Constitution (1908)">Principles of the Constitution (1908)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty">Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ejen" title="Ejen">Ejen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroys_in_China" title="Viceroys in China">Viceroys</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Zhili" title="Viceroy of Zhili">Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaan-Gan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangjiang" title="Viceroy of Liangjiang">Liangjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Huguang" title="Viceroy of Huguang">Huguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Sichuan" title="Viceroy of Sichuan">Sichuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Min-Zhe" title="Viceroy of Min-Zhe">Min-Zhe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Liangguang" title="Viceroy of Liangguang">Liangguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Yun-Gui" title="Viceroy of Yun-Gui">Yun-Gui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces" title="Viceroy of the Three Eastern Provinces">Three Eastern Provinces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongli_Yamen" title="Zongli Yamen">Zongli Yamen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Military of the Qing dynasty">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ever_Victorious_Army" title="Ever Victorious Army">Ever Victorious Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Guards_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Imperial Guards (Qing dynasty)">Imperial Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm_Battalion" title="Firearm Battalion">Firearm Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peking_Field_Force" title="Peking Field Force">Peking Field Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Army" title="New Army">New Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hushenying" title="Hushenying">Hushenying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuishiying" title="Shuishiying">Shuishiying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuwei_Corps" title="Wuwei Corps">Wuwei Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Ying" title="Yong Ying">Yong Ying</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Army" title="Chu Army">Chu Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huai_Army" title="Huai Army">Huai Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Army" title="Xiang Army">Xiang Army</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chinese_Navy" title="Imperial Chinese Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Special regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria_under_Qing_rule" title="Manchuria under Qing rule">Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia_under_Qing_rule" title="Mongolia under Qing rule">Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mongolia_during_Qing" title="Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing">Administrative divisions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet_under_Qing_rule" title="Tibet under Qing rule">Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Urn" title="Golden Urn">Golden Urn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">List of ambans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Timeline of Xinjiang under Qing rule">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_of_Ili" title="General of Ili">General of Ili</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Qing_rule" title="Taiwan under Qing rule">Taiwan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_House_of_Imperial_Envoys" title="Guest House of Imperial Envoys">Guest House of Imperial Envoys</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Palaces &<br />mausoleums</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">Chengde Mountain Resort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetu_Ala" title="Hetu Ala">Hetu Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Palace" title="Mukden Palace">Mukden Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Qing_tombs" title="Western Qing tombs">Western Qing tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuling_Mausoleum" title="Fuling Mausoleum">Fuling Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mausoleum_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)">Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Tombs_of_the_Ming_and_Qing_Dynasties" title="Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties">Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Society &<br />culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changzhou_School_of_Thought" title="Changzhou School of Thought">Changzhou School of Thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Classics_Collection_of_Ancient_China" title="Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China">Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibao" title="Dibao">Dibao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Economy of the Qing dynasty">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Qing_dynasty%27s_economic_performance" title="Criticism of Qing dynasty's economic performance">performance criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Wangs" title="Four Wangs">Four Wangs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ming" title="History of Ming">History of Ming</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary" title="Kangxi Dictionary">Kangxi Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaozheng" title="Kaozheng">Kaozheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu Han Imperial Feast">Manchu Han Imperial Feast</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peiwen_Yunfu" title="Peiwen Yunfu">Peiwen Yunfu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_official_headwear" title="Qing official headwear">Qing official headwear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_poetry" title="Qing poetry">Qing poetry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Tang_Poems" title="Complete Tang Poems">Complete Tang Poems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queue_(hairstyle)" title="Queue (hairstyle)">Queue</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Researches_on_Manchu_Origins" title="Researches on Manchu Origins">Researches on Manchu Origins</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Edict_of_the_Kangxi_Emperor" title="Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor">Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Shamanism during the Qing dynasty">Shamanism during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Islam during the Qing dynasty">Islam during the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu_Zongmu_Tiyao" title="Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao">Annotated Bibliography</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_China_before_the_People%27s_Republic#Qing_dynasty" title="List of treaties of China before the People's Republic">Treaties</a><br /></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kyakhta_(1727)" title="Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)">Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burlingame_Treaty" title="Burlingame Treaty">Burlingame Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chefoo_Convention" title="Chefoo Convention">Chefoo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_Between_Great_Britain_and_China_Respecting_Tibet" title="Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet">Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory" title="Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory">Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Peking" title="Convention of Peking">Convention of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Tientsin" title="Convention of Tientsin">Convention of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%E2%80%93Lobanov_Treaty" title="Li–Lobanov Treaty">Li–Lobanov Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Portuguese_Treaty_of_Peking" title="Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking">Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Bogue" title="Treaty of the Bogue">Treaty of the Bogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Canton" title="Treaty of Canton">Treaty of Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kulja" title="Treaty of Kulja">Treaty of Kulja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking" title="Treaty of Nanking">Treaty of Nanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tarbagatai" title="Treaty of Tarbagatai">Treaty of Tarbagatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tientsin" title="Treaty of Tientsin">Treaty of Tientsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia" title="Treaty of Wanghia">Treaty of Wanghia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Whampoa" title="Treaty of Whampoa">Treaty of Whampoa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_coinage" title="Qing dynasty coinage">Coinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiqian" title="Zhiqian">Zhiqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Tongbao" title="Kangxi Tongbao">Kangxi Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongqian" title="Hongqian">Hongqian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Copper_Coin" title="Great Qing Copper Coin">Great Qing Copper Coin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Gold_Coin" title="Great Qing Gold Coin">Great Qing Gold Coin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Paper_money_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Paper money of the Qing dynasty">Paper money</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qing_Treasure_Note" title="Great Qing Treasure Note">Great Qing Treasure Note</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubu_Guanpiao" title="Hubu Guanpiao">Hubu Guanpiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banknotes_of_the_Da_Qing_Bank" title="Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank">Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">Aisin Gioro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">Anti-Qing sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Chuang Guandong</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing" title="Draft History of Qing">Draft History of Qing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qing_(People%27s_Republic)" title="History of Qing (People's Republic)">History of Qing (People's Republic)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Legacy of the Qing dynasty">Legacy of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Names of the Qing dynasty">Names of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_late_anti-Qing_rebellions" title="Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions">Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_ports" title="Treaty ports">Treaty ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Palisade" title="Willow Palisade">Willow Palisade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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{\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-jlllc","timestamp":"20250214040532","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Sino-Burmese War","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Burmese_War","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3237019","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3237019","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2010-12-11T16:00:42Z","dateModified":"2025-01-28T00:53:19Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a0\/Qing_and_Konbaung_before_Sino_Burmese_War.png","headline":"1765 Qing-Konbaung conflict"}</script> </body> </html>