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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single_Fibre_Endomicroscopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single_Fibre_Endomicroscopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Single Fibre Endomicroscopes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single_Fibre_Endomicroscopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fibre_Bundle_Endomicroscopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fibre_Bundle_Endomicroscopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Fibre Bundle Endomicroscopes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fibre_Bundle_Endomicroscopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distal_Scanning_Endomicroscopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distal_Scanning_Endomicroscopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Distal Scanning Endomicroscopes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distal_Scanning_Endomicroscopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Confocal_Endomicroscopes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Confocal_Endomicroscopes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Non-Confocal Endomicroscopes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Confocal_Endomicroscopes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commercial_Products" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercial_Products"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Commercial Products</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercial_Products-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><b>Endomicroscopy</b> is a technique for obtaining <a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a>-like images from inside the human body in real-time,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jabbour_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabbour-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a process known as ‘optical biopsy’.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sonn_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonn-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It generally refers to <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope" title="Fluorescence microscope">fluorescence</a> <a href="/wiki/Confocal_microscopy" title="Confocal microscopy">confocal microscopy</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Two-photon_excitation_microscopy" title="Two-photon excitation microscopy">multi-photon microscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">optical coherence tomography</a> have also been adapted for endoscopic use.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jung_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jung-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Myaing_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myaing-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercially available clinical and pre-clinical endomicroscopes can achieve a resolution on the order of a micrometre, have a field-of-view of several hundred μm, and are compatible with <a href="/wiki/Fluorophore" title="Fluorophore">fluorophores</a> which are excitable using 488 nm laser light. The main clinical applications are currently in imaging of the tumour margins of the brain and <a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastro-intestinal tract</a>, particularly for the diagnosis and characterisation of <a href="/wiki/Barrett%27s_esophagus" title="Barrett's esophagus">Barrett’s Esophagus</a>, pancreatic cysts and colorectal lesions. A number of pre-clinical and transnational applications have been developed for endomicroscopy as it enables researchers to perform live animal imaging. Major pre-clinical applications are in <a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastro-intestinal tract</a>, toumour margin detection, uterine complications, ischaemia, live imaging of cartilage and tendon and organoid imaging. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principles">Principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conventional, widefield microscopy is generally unsuitable for imaging thick tissue because the images are corrupted by a blurred, out-of-focus background signal.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Endomicroscopes achieve optical sectioning (removal of the background intensity) using the <a href="/wiki/Confocal_microscopy" title="Confocal microscopy">confocal principle</a> - each image frame is assembled in a point-by-point fashion by scanning a laser spot rapidly over the tissue. In table-top confocal microscopes the <a href="/wiki/Laser_scanning" title="Laser scanning">scanning</a> is usually performed using bulky galvanometer or resonant scanning mirrors. Endomicroscopes either have a miniaturised scanning head at the distal tip of the imaging probe, or perform the scanning outside of the patient and use an imaging fibre bundle to transfer the scan pattern to the tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabbour_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabbour-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Single_Fibre_Endomicroscopes">Single Fibre Endomicroscopes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Single Fibre Endomicroscopes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Single fibre confocal endomicroscopes use the tip of an optical fibre as a spatial filter, enabling miniaturisation of the microscope. 488nm blue laser passes from the source through an optical fibre to a flexible hand-held probe. Optics in the probe focus the laser to a spot in the tissue, exciting fluorescence. Emitted light is captured into the optical fibre and passed through an optical filter to a detector. An image is generated by scanning the focused spot throughout the image plane and compiling the point intensity measurements. The image plane can be translated up and down in the sample, allowing generation of 3D image stacks.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Single fibre endomicroscopes have similar resolution of a conventional confocal microscope.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fibre_Bundle_Endomicroscopes">Fibre Bundle Endomicroscopes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fibre Bundle Endomicroscopes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fibre bundles were originally developed for use in flexible <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have since been adapted for use in endomicroscopy.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goualher_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goualher-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They consist of a large number (up to tens of thousands) of fibre cores inside a single shared cladding, are flexible, and have diameters on the order of a millimetre. In a coherent fibre bundle the relative positions of the cores are maintained along the fibre, meaning that an image projected onto one end of the bundle will be transferred to the other end without scrambling. Therefore, if one end of the bundle is placed at the focus of a table-top confocal microscope, the bundle will act as a flexible extension and allow endoscopic operation. Since only the cores, and not the cladding, transmit light, image processing must be applied to remove the resulting honeycomb-like appearance of the images.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each core essentially acts as an image pixel, and so the spacing between fibre cores limits the resolution. The addition of micro-optics at the distal tip of the bundle allows for magnification and hence higher resolution imaging, but at the cost of reducing the field-of-view. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distal_Scanning_Endomicroscopes">Distal Scanning Endomicroscopes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Distal Scanning Endomicroscopes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Distal scanning endomicroscopes incorporate a miniature 2D scanning apparatus into the imaging probe. The laser excitation and returning fluorescent emission are sent to and received from the scanning head using an optical fibre. Most experimental devices have either used <a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">MEMS</a> scanning mirrors,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or direct translation of the fibre using electromagnetic actuation.<sup id="cite_ref-Polglase_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polglase-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Confocal_Endomicroscopes">Non-Confocal Endomicroscopes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Non-Confocal Endomicroscopes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Widefield endomicroscopes (i.e. non-depth sectioning microscopes) have been developed for select applications,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the imaging of cells <i>ex vivo</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Optical coherence tomography and multi-photon microscopy have both been demonstrated endoscopically.<sup id="cite_ref-Huo_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huo-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhang_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhang-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Xi_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xi-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Successful implementations have used distal scanning rather than fibre bundles due to problems with <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a> and light loss. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commercial_Products">Commercial Products</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Commercial Products"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Four endomicroscope products have been developed: The fluorescence in vivo endomicroscope - FIVE2 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Optiscan_Imaging&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Optiscan Imaging (page does not exist)">OptiScan Imaging Ltd</a>, Melbourne, Australia) developed for pre-clinical research, the neurosurgical device Convivo (<a href="/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_Meditec" title="Carl Zeiss Meditec">Carl Zeiss Meditech AG</a>, Jena, Germany), the Pentax ISC-1000/EC3870CIK endoscope (<a href="/wiki/Pentax" title="Pentax">Pentax</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hoya_Corporation" title="Hoya Corporation">Hoya</a>, Tokyo, Japan), now withdrawn from some markets, and Cellvizio (<a href="/wiki/Mauna_Kea_Technologies" title="Mauna Kea Technologies">Mauna Kea Technologies</a>, Paris, France). The Pentax Medical device was packaged into an endoscope, that used OptiScan's electromagnetic-controlled scanning of a single fibre to perform the confocal scanning at the distal tip of the device. This provides sub-micrometre resolution across a large field of view and up to a million pixels per frame. The original Pentax instrument had variable frame rate up to 1.6 fps and dynamic adjustment of working distance by the user over a depth range from surface to 250 μm.<sup id="cite_ref-Polglase_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polglase-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>The second generation of OptiScan's scanner has an adjustable frame rate between 0.8fps to 3.5fps, field of view of 475μm and a depth range of surface to 400μm. Mauna Kea’s Cellvizio device has an external laser scanning unit and offers a selection of fibre-bundle based probes with resolution, field of view and working distance optimised for different applications. These probes are compatible with standard endoscope instrument channels, and have a frame rate of 12 Hz.<sup id="cite_ref-Goualher_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goualher-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of clinical trials have focused on applications in the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract, particularly the detection and characterisation of pre-cancerous lesions. OptiScan's FIVE2 has been certified to ISO 13485:2016 in alignment with 21CFR820 and EU Medical device regulations for installation of the scanner into medical devices while Mauna Kea’s Cellvizio has US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 510(k) clearance and a European CE Mark for clinical use in the GI and pulmonary tracts.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabbour_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabbour-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research studies have suggested a large range of potential applications, including in the urinary tract,<sup id="cite_ref-Sonn_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonn-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> head and neck,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ovaries,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lungs.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commonly used fluorescent stains include topically applied <a href="/wiki/Acriflavinium_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Acriflavinium chloride">acriflavine</a>, and intravenously administered <a href="/wiki/Fluorescein" title="Fluorescein">fluorescein sodium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jabbour_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jabbour-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Endomicroscopy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paull, P.E., et al., Confocal laser endomicroscopy: a primer for pathologists. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, 2011. 135: p. 1343-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liu, J.T.C., et al., Review Article : Modern Trends in Imaging II Point-of-care pathology with miniature microscopes. Pathology, 2011. 34: p. 81-98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jabbour-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jabbour_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jabbour_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jabbour_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jabbour_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jabbour, J.M., et al., Confocal Endomicroscopy: Instrumentation and Medical Applications. Annals of biomedical engineering, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newton, R.C., et al., Progress toward optical biopsy: bringing the microscope to the patient. Lung, 2011. 189: p. 111-9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sonn-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sonn_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sonn_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sonn, G.a., et al., Optical biopsy of human bladder neoplasia with in vivo confocal laser endomicroscopy. The Journal of urology, 2009. 182: p. 1299-305.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tearney, G.J., et al., In Vivo Endoscopic Optical Biopsy with Optical Coherence Tomography. Science, 1997. 276: p. 2037-2039.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zysk, A.M., et al., Optical coherence tomography: a review of clinical development from bench to bedside. Journal of biomedical optics, 2012. 12: p. 051403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jung-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jung_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jung, J.C., et al., In vivo mammalian brain imaging using one- and two-photon fluorescence microendoscopy. Journal of neurophysiology, 2004. 92: p. 3121-33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Myaing-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Myaing_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Myaing, M.T., et al., Fiber-optic scanning two-photon fluorescence endoscope. Optics Letters, 2006. 31: p. 1076-78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, T., Optical sectioning in fluorescence microscopy. 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Dabbs, Tim (1992-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osapublishing.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-31-16-3030">"Fiber-optic confocal microscope: FOCON"</a>. <i>Applied Optics</i>. <b>31</b> (16): 3030–3035. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992ApOpt..31.3030D">1992ApOpt..31.3030D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.31.003030">10.1364/AO.31.003030</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2155-3165">2155-3165</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20725247">20725247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Optics&rft.atitle=Fiber-optic+confocal+microscope%3A+FOCON&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=3030-3035&rft.date=1992-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FAO.31.003030&rft.issn=2155-3165&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20725247&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992ApOpt..31.3030D&rft.aulast=Glass&rft.aufirst=Monty&rft.au=Dabbs%2C+Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osapublishing.org%2Fao%2Fabstract.cfm%3Furi%3Dao-31-16-3030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEndomicroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.H.Hopkins and N.S.Kapany, A flexible fibrescope, using static scanning. 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The exogenous fluorophore, fluorescein, enables in vivo assessment of the gastrointestinal mucosa via confocal endomicroscopy: optimization of intravenous dosing in the dog model. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 2012. DOI: 10.1111/jvp.12031</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Projectional_radiography" title="Projectional radiography">2D</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pneumoencephalography" title="Pneumoencephalography">Pneumoencephalography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_radiography" title="Dental radiography">Dental radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sialography" title="Sialography">Sialography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelography" title="Myelography">Myelography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chest_radiograph" title="Chest radiograph">CXR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronchography" title="Bronchography">Bronchography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_x-ray" title="Abdominal x-ray">AXR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_x-ray" title="Abdominal x-ray">KUB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-energy_X-ray_absorptiometry" title="Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry">DXA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Digital_X-ray_radiogrammetry" title="Digital X-ray radiogrammetry">DXR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_gastrointestinal_series" title="Upper gastrointestinal series">Upper gastrointestinal series</a>/<a href="/wiki/Small-bowel_follow-through" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-bowel follow-through">Small-bowel follow-through</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lower_gastrointestinal_series" title="Lower gastrointestinal series">Lower gastrointestinal series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholangiography" title="Cholangiography">Cholangiography</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cholecystography" title="Cholecystography">Cholecystography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammography" title="Mammography">Mammography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyelogram" title="Pyelogram">Pyelogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cystography" title="Cystography">Cystography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthrogram" title="Arthrogram">Arthrogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterosalpingography" title="Hysterosalpingography">Hysterosalpingography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_survey" title="Skeletal survey">Skeletal survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiography" title="Angiography">Angiography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angiocardiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiocardiography">Angiocardiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aortography" title="Aortography">Aortography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venography" title="Venography">Venography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphogram" title="Lymphogram">Lymphogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_x-ray" title="Orbital x-ray">Orbital x-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Techniques:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_of_computed_tomography" title="Operation of computed tomography">General operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_computed_tomography" title="Quantitative computed tomography">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-resolution_computed_tomography" title="High-resolution computed tomography">High-resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_microtomography" title="X-ray microtomography">X-ray microtomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_computed_tomography" title="Electron beam computed tomography">Electron beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cone_beam_computed_tomography" title="Cone beam computed tomography">Cone beam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Targets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Heart <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronary_CT_calcium_scan" title="Coronary CT calcium scan">calcium scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronary_CT_angiography" title="Coronary CT angiography">angiography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_of_the_abdomen_and_pelvis" title="Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis">Abdominal and pelvis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_colonoscopy" title="Virtual colonoscopy">Virtual colonoscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_angiography" title="Computed tomography angiography">Angiography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronary_CT_angiography" title="Coronary CT angiography">Coronary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CT_pulmonary_angiogram" title="CT pulmonary angiogram">Pulmonary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_of_the_head" title="Computed tomography of the head">Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_of_the_thyroid" title="Computed tomography of the thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_body_imaging" title="Whole body imaging">Whole body imaging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Full-body_CT_scan" title="Full-body CT scan">Full-body CT scan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">Fluoroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panoramic_radiograph" title="Panoramic radiograph">Dental panoramic radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_motion_analysis" title="X-ray motion analysis">X-ray motion analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hounsfield_scale" title="Hounsfield scale">Hounsfield scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiodensity" title="Radiodensity">Radiodensity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging_of_the_brain" title="Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain">Brain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_neurography" title="Magnetic resonance neurography">Neurography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging">Cardiac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_magnetic_resonance_imaging_perfusion" title="Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging perfusion">perfusion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_angiography" title="Magnetic resonance angiography">Angiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_cholangiopancreatography" title="Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography">Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_MRI" title="Breast MRI">Breast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MRI_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI sequence">Sequences</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion MRI">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfusion_MRI" title="Perfusion MRI">restriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractography" title="Tractography">Tractography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_MRI" title="Synthetic MRI">Synthetic MRI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_ultrasound" title="Medical ultrasound">Ultrasound</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Techniques <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doppler_ultrasonography" title="Doppler ultrasonography">doppler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrast-enhanced_ultrasound" title="Contrast-enhanced ultrasound">contrast-enhanced</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3D_ultrasound" title="3D ultrasound">3D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoscopic_ultrasound" title="Endoscopic ultrasound">endoscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duplex_ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Duplex ultrasonography">duplex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echocardiography" title="Echocardiography">Echocardiography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doppler_echocardiography" title="Doppler echocardiography">Doppler echocardiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transthoracic_echocardiogram" title="Transthoracic echocardiogram">TTE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transesophageal_echocardiogram" title="Transesophageal echocardiogram">TEE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracardiac_echocardiogram" title="Intracardiac echocardiogram">ICE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcranial_Doppler" title="Transcranial Doppler">Transcranial Doppler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravascular_ultrasound" title="Intravascular ultrasound">Intravascular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_ultrasonography" title="Gynecologic ultrasonography">Gynecologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_ultrasonography" title="Obstetric ultrasonography">Obstetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echoencephalography" title="Echoencephalography">Echoencephalography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdominal_ultrasonography" title="Abdominal ultrasonography">Abdominal ultrasonography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renal_ultrasonography" title="Renal ultrasonography">renal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_tract_ultrasound" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal tract ultrasound">renal tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transrectal_ultrasonography" title="Transrectal ultrasonography">Rectal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_ultrasound" title="Breast ultrasound">Breast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrotal_ultrasound" title="Scrotal ultrasound">Scrotal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_ultrasonography" title="Carotid ultrasonography">Carotid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_ultrasound" title="Emergency ultrasound">Emergency ultrasound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Focused_assessment_with_sonography_for_trauma" title="Focused assessment with sonography for trauma">FAST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-hospital_ultrasound" title="Pre-hospital ultrasound">pre-hospital</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine#Diagnostic_medical_imaging" title="Nuclear medicine">Radionuclide</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2D/<a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">scintigraphy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholescintigraphy" title="Cholescintigraphy">Cholescintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintimammography" class="mw-redirect" title="Scintimammography">Scintimammography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation/perfusion_scan" title="Ventilation/perfusion scan">Ventilation/perfusion scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide_ventriculography" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclide ventriculography">Radionuclide ventriculography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide_angiography" title="Radionuclide angiography">Radionuclide angiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_renography" title="Radioisotope renography">Radioisotope renography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sestamibi_parathyroid_scintigraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy">Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_iodine_uptake_test" title="Radioactive iodine uptake test">Radioactive iodine uptake test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_scintigraphy" title="Bone scintigraphy">Bone scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunoscintigraphy" title="Immunoscintigraphy">Immunoscintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacryoscintigraphy" title="Dacryoscintigraphy">Dacryoscintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DMSA_scan" title="DMSA scan">DMSA scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_emptying_study" title="Gastric emptying study">Gastric emptying study</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Full body:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octreotide_scan" title="Octreotide scan">Octreotide scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallium_scan" title="Gallium scan">Gallium-67 scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallium_scan" title="Gallium scan">Ga-68-DOTATOC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indium-111_WBC_scan" title="Indium-111 WBC scan">Indium-111 WBC scan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">3D/<a href="/wiki/Emission_computed_tomography" title="Emission computed tomography">ECT</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">SPECT</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a>):</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myocardial_perfusion_imaging" title="Myocardial perfusion imaging">Myocardial perfusion imaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> (<a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>):</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_positron_emission_tomography" title="Brain positron emission tomography">Brain PET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_PET" title="Cardiac PET">Cardiac PET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_mammography" title="Positron emission mammography">PET mammography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PET-CT" title="PET-CT">PET-CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PET-MRI" title="PET-MRI">PET-MRI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_optical_imaging" title="Medical optical imaging">Optical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_tomography" title="Optical tomography">Optical tomography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">Optical coherence tomography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confocal_microscopy" title="Confocal microscopy">Confocal microscopy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Endomicroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_polarization_spectral_imaging" title="Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging">Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thermography" title="Thermography">Thermography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-contact_thermography" title="Non-contact thermography">Non-contact thermography</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contact_thermography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contact thermography (page does not exist)">Contact thermography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_angiothermography" title="Dynamic angiothermography">Dynamic angiothermography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Target conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_stroke_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute stroke imaging">Acute stroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging_in_pregnancy" title="Medical imaging in pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span 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