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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formative_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formative_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Formative period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formative_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Classical era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Origins of the controversy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_the_"closure_of_the_gates"_notion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_the_"closure_of_the_gates"_notion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Emergence of the "closure of the gates" notion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_the_"closure_of_the_gates"_notion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_classical_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_classical_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Late classical period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_classical_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ranking_of_Mujtahids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ranking_of_Mujtahids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Ranking of Mujtahids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ranking_of_Mujtahids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Modern era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contemporary_debates_over_Ijtihad" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_debates_over_Ijtihad"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Contemporary debates over Ijtihad </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_debates_over_Ijtihad-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_modernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_modernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Islamic modernism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_modernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamism_and_Salafism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamism_and_Salafism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Islamism and Salafism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamism_and_Salafism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Qualifications of a mujtahid </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Qualifications of a mujtahid subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sunni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Sunni </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Shia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female_mujtahids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_mujtahids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Female mujtahids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female_mujtahids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ijtihad</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" > 44 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF_(%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85)" title="اجتهاد (إسلام) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اجتهاد (إسلام)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ctihad" title="İctihad – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İctihad" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اجتهاد – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اجتهاد" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="ইজতিহাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইজতিহাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B6%D1%82%D0%B8%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Ижтиһад – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ижтиһад" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id%C5%BEtihad" title="Idžtihad – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Idžtihad" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id%C5%BEtih%C3%A1d" title="Idžtihád – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Idžtihád" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idschtih%C4%81d" title="Idschtihād – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Idschtihād" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B6%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84" title="Ιζτιχάντ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιζτιχάντ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C5%B7tihad" title="Iŷtihad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Iŷtihad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C4%9Dtihad" title="Iĝtihad – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Iĝtihad" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%AF" title="مجتهد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مجتهد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijitihadi" title="Ijitihadi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ijitihadi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihado" title="Ijtihado – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ijtihado" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%92%27%D7%AA%D7%94%D7%90%D7%93" title="אג'תהאד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אג'תהאד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B6%D1%82%D0%B8%D2%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Ижтиһад – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ижтиһад" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D" title="ഇജ്തിഹാദ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇജ്തിഹാദ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A5%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%83%8F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89" title="イジュティハード – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イジュティハード" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihod" title="Ijtihod – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ijtihod" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اجتہاد – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اجتہاد" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id%C5%BCtihad" title="Idżtihad – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Idżtihad" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Иджтихад – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иджтихад" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ixhtihadi" title="Ixhtihadi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ixhtihadi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اجتھاد – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اجتھاد" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%9F%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Иџтихад – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Иџтихад" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id%C5%BEtihad" title="Idžtihad – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Idžtihad" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ijtihad" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9C%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="இஜ்திகாது – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இஜ்திகாது" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%8D%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94" title="อิจญ์ติฮาด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิจญ์ติฮาด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ctihad" title="İctihad – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İctihad" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Іджтигад – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іджтигад" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="اجتہاد – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اجتہاد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ct%C4%B1had" title="İctıhad – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İctıhad" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%99%BA%E6%8F%90%E5%93%88%E5%BE%B7" title="伊智提哈德 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伊智提哈德" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q73599#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:1px solid #060;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Islamic_jurisprudence" title="Principles of Islamic jurisprudence">Usul al-Fiqh</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #686;background:rgb(220,245,220);border-bottom:1px solid #686;"> <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijma</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ijtihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhtilaf" title="Ikhtilaf">Ikhtilaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istihlal" title="Istihlal">Istihlal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istihsan" title="Istihsan">Istihsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istishab" title="Istishab">Istishab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Madhhab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">Maslaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">Taqlid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqwa" title="Taqwa">Taqwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urf" title="Urf">Urf</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #686;background:rgb(220,245,220);border-bottom:1px solid #686;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahkam" title="Ahkam">Ahkam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fard" title="Fard">Fard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustahabb" title="Mustahabb">Mustahabb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halal" title="Halal">Halal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mubah" title="Mubah">Mubah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makruh" title="Makruh">Makruh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haram" title="Haram">Haram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batil" title="Batil">Batil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bid%27ah" title="Bid'ah">Bid'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fahisha" title="Fahisha">Fahisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasiq" title="Fasiq">Fasiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitna_(word)" title="Fitna (word)">Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasad" title="Fasad">Fasad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghibah" title="Ghibah">Ghibah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_sin" title="Islamic views on sin">Gunah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirabah" title="Hirabah">Hirabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islah" title="Islah">Islah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istighfar" title="Istighfar">Istighfar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istishhad" title="Istishhad">Istishhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasd" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasd">Qasd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taghut" title="Taghut">Taghut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqiyya" title="Taqiyya">Taqiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawbah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawbah">Tawbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tazkiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tazkiah">Tazkiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thawab" title="Thawab">Thawab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation_in_Islam" title="Moderation in Islam">Wasat</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #686;background:rgb(220,245,220);border-bottom:1px solid #686;"> Legal vocations and titles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharif" title="Sharif">Sharif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashraf">Ashraf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrat" title="Hadrat">Hadrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faqeeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Faqeeh">Faqeeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allamah" title="Allamah">Allamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohyeddin" title="Mohyeddin">Mohyeddin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">Mufti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti" title="Grand Mufti">Grand Mufti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hujjat_al-Islam" title="Hujjat al-Islam">Hujjat al-Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mujtahid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mujtahid">Mujtahid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Ayatollah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seghatoleslam" title="Seghatoleslam">Seghatoleslam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">Marja'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)" title="Hafiz (Quran)">Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hujja" title="Hujja">Hujja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakim_(title)" title="Hakim (title)">Hakim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mullah" title="Mullah">Mullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawlawi_(Islamic_title)" title="Mawlawi (Islamic title)">Mawlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khatib" title="Khatib">Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khawaja" title="Khawaja">Khawaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawl%C4%81n%C4%81" title="Mawlānā">Mawlānā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">Mawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Mufassir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murshid" title="Murshid">Murshid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pir_(Sufism)" title="Pir (Sufism)">Pir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wali" title="Wali">Wali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhund" title="Akhund">Akhund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaddith" title="Muhaddith">Muhaddith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mujaddid" title="Mujaddid">Mujaddid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">Sheikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marabout" title="Marabout">Marabout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu%27l-amr" title="Ulu'l-amr">Ulu'l-amr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ustad" title="Ustad">Ustad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27azzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'azzin">Mu'azzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murid" title="Murid">Murid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_(warrior)" title="Ghazi (warrior)">Ghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahid" title="Shahid">Shahid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajji" title="Hajji">Hajji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ansar_(Islam)" title="Ansar (Islam)">Ansar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salaf" title="Salaf">Salaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahabah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahabah">Sahabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabi%27un" title="Tabi'un">Tabi'un</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabi%27_al-Tabi%27in" title="Tabi' al-Tabi'in">Tabi' al-Tabi'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%27i_al-Mutlaq" title="Da'i al-Mutlaq">Da'i al-Mutlaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dawla" title="Al-Dawla">al-Dawla</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Usul_al-Fiqh" title="Template:Usul al-Fiqh"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Usul_al-Fiqh" title="Template talk:Usul al-Fiqh"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Usul_al-Fiqh" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Usul al-Fiqh"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Ijtihad (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌɪdʒtəˈhɑːd/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">IJ-tə-HAHD</a>;<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: اجتهاد ijtihād <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[ʔidʒ.tihaːd]</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'physical effort' or 'mental effort')<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ODI-3">[3]</a> or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> It is contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a> (imitation, conformity to legal precedent).<a href="#cite_note-ODI-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> According to classical <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> theory, ijtihad requires expertise in the Arabic language, theology, revealed texts, and principles of jurisprudence (<a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Islamic_jurisprudence" title="Principles of Islamic jurisprudence">usul al-fiqh</a>),<a href="#cite_note-ODI-3">[3]</a> and is not employed where authentic and authoritative texts (<a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>) are considered unambiguous with regard to the question, or where there is an existing scholarly consensus (<a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">ijma</a>).<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> Ijtihad is considered to be a religious duty for those qualified to perform it.<a href="#cite_note-ODI-3">[3]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Islamic_scholar" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic scholar">Islamic scholar</a> who is qualified to perform ijtihad is called as a "<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid">mujtahid</a>".<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Throughout the first five Islamic centuries, the practice of ijtihad continued both theoretically and practically amongst Sunni Muslims. The initial dispute surrounding the exercise of ijtihad and the existence of mujtahids emerged in its nascent form around the beginning of the sixth/twelfth century.<a href="#cite_note-B._Hallaq_20,_33-6">[6]</a> By the 14th century, development of <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Islamic Fiqh</a> (jurisprudence) prompted leading Sunni jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and the scope of ijtihad was gradually restricted.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> In the modern era, this gave rise to a perception amongst <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalist</a> scholars and sections of the Muslim public that the so-called "gate of ijtihad" was closed at the start of the classical era.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> While recent scholarship established that the practice of Ijtihad had never ceased in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islamic history</a>, the extent and mechanisms of legal change in the post-formative period remain a subject of debate.<a href="#cite_note-katz-8">[8]</a> Differences amongst the <a href="/wiki/Faq%C4%ABh" title="Faqīh">Fuqaha</a> (jurists) prevented <a href="/wiki/Sunni_muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni muslims">Sunni Muslims</a> from reaching any consensus (<a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijma</a>) on the issues of continuity of Ijtihad and existence of Mujtahids.<a href="#cite_note-B._Hallaq_20,_33-6">[6]</a> Thus, Ijtihad remained a key aspect of Islamic jurisprudence throughout the centuries.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Ijtihad was practiced throughout the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> and claims for ijtihad and its superiority over taqlid were voiced unremittingly.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Starting from the 18th century, Islamic reformers began calling for abandonment of taqlid and emphasis on ijtihad, which they saw as a return to Islamic origins.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> Public debates in the Muslim world surrounding ijtihad continue to the present day.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> The advocacy of ijtihad has been particularly associated with the <a href="/wiki/Salafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi">Salafiyya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist">modernist</a> movements.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> Among contemporary Muslims in the West there have emerged new visions of ijtihad which emphasize substantive moral values over traditional juridical methodology.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> jurists did not use the term ijtihad until the 12th century. With the exception of <a href="/wiki/Zaydi" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaydi">Zaydi</a> jurisprudence, the early <a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imami</a> <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> were unanimous in censuring Ijtihad in the field of law (<a href="/wiki/Ahkam" title="Ahkam">Ahkam</a>). After the Shiite embrace of various doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Mu'tazila</a> and classical Sunnite <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> (jurisprudence), this led to a change.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> After the victory of the <a href="/wiki/Usuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Usuli">Usulis</a> who based law on principles (<a href="/wiki/Usul_Fiqh_in_Ja%27fari_school" title="Usul Fiqh in Ja'fari school">usul</a>) over the <a href="/wiki/Akhbari" title="Akhbari">Akhbaris</a> ("traditionalists") who emphasized on reports or traditions (khabar) by the 19th century, Ijtihad would become a mainstream Shia practice.<a href="#cite_note-Mohammad_Farzaneh_2015_6-13">[13]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_definition">Etymology and definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and definition">edit</a>]</div> The word derives from the <a href="/wiki/Triliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Triliteral">three-letter Arabic verbal root</a> of ج-ه-د <a href="/wiki/Gimel_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gimel (letter)">J</a>-<a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">H</a>-<a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">D</a> (jahada, 'struggle'): the "t" is inserted because the word is a <a href="/wiki/Arabic_verbs#Formation_of_derived_stems_("forms")" title="Arabic verbs">derived stem VIII</a> verb. In its literal meaning, the word refers to effort, physical or mental, expended in a particular activity.<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> In its technical sense, ijtihad can be defined as a "process of legal reasoning and hermeneutics through which the jurist-mujtahid derives or rationalizes law on the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunna</a>".<a href="#cite_note-hallaq-14">[14]</a> The juristic meaning of ijtihād has several definitions according to scholars of <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Islamic_jurisprudence" title="Principles of Islamic jurisprudence">Islamic legal theory</a>. Some define it as the jurist's action and activity to reach a solution. Al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111) defines it as the "total expenditure of effort made by a jurist for the purpose of obtaining the religious rulings." Similarly the ijtihād is defined as "the effort made by the mujtahid in seeking knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Ahkam" title="Ahkam">aḥkām</a> (rulings) of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shar%C4%AB%27ah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sharī'ah (page does not exist)">sharī'ah</a> (Islamic canonical law) through interpretation."<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> From this point of view that ijtihād essentially consists of an inference (istinbāṭ) that extents to a probability (ẓann)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. Thus it excludes the extraction of a ruling from a clear text as well as rulings made without recourse to independent legal reasoning. A knowledgeable person who gives a ruling on the sharī'ah, but is not able to exercise their judgement in the inference of the rulings from the sources, is not called a mujtahid but rather a <a href="/wiki/Muqallid" class="mw-redirect" title="Muqallid">muqallid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scriptural_basis">Scriptural basis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scriptural basis">edit</a>]</div> Islamic scholar <a href="/wiki/Asghar_Ali_Engineer" title="Asghar Ali Engineer">Asghar Ali Engineer</a> cites a <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> related by a <a href="/wiki/Sahabah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahabah">sahabi</a> (companion of the Islamic prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>) by the name of <a href="/wiki/Muadh_ibn_Jabal" title="Muadh ibn Jabal">Muadh ibn Jabal</a> (also Ma'adh bin Jabal), as the basis for ijtihad. According to the hadith from <a href="/wiki/Sunan_Abu-Dawud" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunan Abu-Dawud">Sunan Abu-Dawud</a>, Book 24,<a href="#cite_note-USC-24-3585-17">[17]</a> Muadh was appointed by Muhammad to go to <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. Before leaving he was asked how he would judge when the occasion of deciding a case arose. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Ma'adh said, according to the Quran. The Prophet thereupon asked what he would do if he did not find the solution to the problem in the Quran, to which Ma'adh said he would govern according to the Sunnah. But when the Prophet asked if he could not find it in the Sunnah also, Ma'adh said "ana ajtahidu" (I will exert myself to find the solution). The Prophet thereupon patted his back and told him he was right.<a href="#cite_note-USC-24-3585-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-ISI-1-2-13-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formative_period">Formative period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Formative period">edit</a>]</div> During the early period, ijtihad referred to the exertion of mental energy to arrive at a legal opinion (ra'y) on the basis of the knowledge of the Divine Revelation.<a href="#cite_note-hallaq-14">[14]</a> Jurists used Ijtihad to help reach legal rulings, in cases where the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunna</a> did not provide clear direction for certain decisions. It was the duty of the educated jurists to come to a ruling that would be in the best interest of the Muslim community and promote the public good. As religious law continued to develop over time, ra'y became insufficient in making sure that fair legal rulings were being derived in keeping with both the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunna</a>. However, during this time, the meaning and process of ijtihad became more clearly constructed. Ijtihad was "limited to a systematic method of interpreting the law on the basis of authoritative texts, the Quran and Sunna".<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> As the practice of ijtihad transformed over time, it became religious duty of a mujtahid to conduct legal rulings for the Muslim society. Mujtahid is defined as a Muslim scholar that has met certain requirements including a strong knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunna</a>, and Arabic, as well as a deep understanding of legal theory and the precedent; all of which allows them to be considered fully qualified to practice ijtihad.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Islamic_Studies-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_era">Classical era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classical era">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origins_of_the_controversy">Origins of the controversy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Origins of the controversy">edit</a>]</div> The controversy over the existence of Mujtahids began in its nascent form during the sixth/12th century. The fifth century Hanbali jurist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Aqil" title="Ibn Aqil">Ibn 'Aqil</a> (1040–1119) responding to a Hanafi jurist's statement, advocated for the necessity of existence of Mujtahids using scripture and reasoning. A century later, Shafi'i jurist <a href="/wiki/Sayf_al-Din_al-Amidi" title="Sayf al-Din al-Amidi">Al-Amidi</a> would counter the premise of Hanbalis and prominent Shafīʿis arguing that extinction of Mujtahids is possible. Over the centuries, the controversy would garner more attention with the scholars gathering around 3 camps: 1) <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbalis</a> and majority of <a href="/wiki/Shafi%CA%BDi_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafiʽi school">Shafīʿis</a> who denied the theoretical possibility of Mujtahid's extinction 2) a group of jurists who asserted that extinction of Mujtahids is possible but not proven 3) a group who advocated the extinction of Mujtahids.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> To validate their points, the scholars of Taqlid camp cited Prophetic hadiths that report the disappearance of knowledge when ignorant leaders "will give judgements" and misguide others. Muqallids also argued that Ijtihad isn't a communal obligation (fard kifaya) when it is possible to blindly imitate the laws of ancestors received through transmitted chains of narrations. Hanbalis, the staunch advocates of permanent existence of Mujtahids, countered by citing Prophetic reports which validated their view that knowledge and sound judgement would accompany the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a> led by Mujtahid scholars until the <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Day of Judgment</a>, thus giving theological implications to the controversy.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> They also raised the question of leadership and interpretive religious authority to vigorously deny the possibility of an age without Mujtahids, a doctrine which they defended using both Scripultural and rational arguments. Citing Prophetic traditions such as "scholars are the heirs of the prophets", Hanbalis settled on the belief that God would not leave any age without a proper guide, i.e., Islamic <a href="/wiki/Fuqaha" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuqaha">Fuqaha</a> (jurists) who solve novel issues through Ijtihad.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Majority of Shafīʿi scholars too were leading advocates of Ijtihad as a fard kifaya (communal obligation). The prominent 16th century Shafi'i legal treatise <a href="/wiki/Fat%27h_Ul_Mueen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat'h Ul Mueen">Fath-ul-Mueen</a> affirmed the existence of Mujtahids and obligated them to take the post of <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> as fard kifaya.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Leading Shafīʿi jurist <a href="/wiki/Al-Suyuti" title="Al-Suyuti">Al-Suyuti</a> (1445-1505) also stipulated Ijtihad as a communal obligation, the abandonment of which would be sinful upon the whole Ummah. Shafīʿis also upheld the popular Muslim tradition of appearance of <a href="/wiki/Mujaddid" title="Mujaddid">Mujaddids</a> who would renew the religion every century. As promoters of the idea of Mujaddids; (who were assumed as Mujtahids) majority of jurists who claimed <a href="/wiki/Tajdid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajdid">Tajdid</a> or honoured as Mujaddids were Shafīʿis. On the other hand, some prominent Shafīʿi jurists like Al-Rafi'i (d. 623) had made statements speculating an "agreement" on the absence of Mujtahid Mutlaqs (highest-ranking Mujtahid) during his era while few others affirmed theoretical possibility of absence of Mujtahids. However, such statements had ambiguities in legal terminology and didn't stipulate an established consensus on the issue. In addition, Rafi'i himself was considered as a Mujtahid and a Mujaddid.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Nawawi" title="Al-Nawawi">Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi</a> (d. 676/1277), a prominent Shafī'i <a href="/wiki/Muhaddith" title="Muhaddith">Muhaddith</a> and Jurist, who is a primary reference even for Shafiites of Taqleed camp; advocated that it isn't obligatory for laymen to adhere to a mad'hab, reinforcing the orthodox Shafī'ite pro-Ijtihad position.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Other prominent classical Shafī'i jurists who advocated the pro-Ijtihad position included <a href="/wiki/Taj_al-Din_al-Subki" title="Taj al-Din al-Subki">Taj ud Din al Subki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Dhahabi" title="Al-Dhahabi">Dhahabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Izz_al-Din_ibn_%27Abd_al-Salam" title="Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam">Izz ud Deen Ibn Abdussalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Salah" title="Ibn al-Salah">Ibn al Salah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siraj_al-Din_al-Bulqini" title="Siraj al-Din al-Bulqini">Al Bulqini</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Taj ud Din al Subki (d. 1370) summed up the classical-era Shafi'i position in his Kitāb Mu'īd an-Ni'am wa-Mubīd an-Niqām:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"It is unacceptable to Allah, the forcing of people to accept one madhab and the associated partisanship (tahazzub) in the subsidiary issues of the Din and nothing pushes this fervour and zealously except partisanship and jealousy. If Abu Haneefah, Shafi, Malik and Ahmad were alive they would severely censure these people and they would dissassociate themselves from them."<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emergence_of_the_"closure_of_the_gates"_notion">Emergence of the "closure of the gates" notion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Emergence of the "closure of the gates" notion">edit</a>]</div> In contrast to the view of these Shafiites, classical Shafi'ite theologian <a href="/wiki/Al-Juwayni" title="Al-Juwayni">'Abd al-Malik al-Juwayni</a> (d. 1085 C.E/ 478 A.H) postulated a new doctrine on the controversy of the existence of Mujtahids. Juwaynī and his Shāfiʿī colleagues insisted that not only the disappearance of Mujtahids was possible, but that it had already happened. Juwayni's doctrine was taken by his student <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Ghazālī</a> (d. 1111 C.E/ 505 A.H), al-Qaffāl al-Shāshī (d. 1113 C.E/507 A.H) and promoted in the next century by the Shafi'i scholars <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī</a> (d. 606/1209), Sayf al-Dīn al-Āmidī (d. 631/1233), and Rāfiʿī (d. 623/1226). These scholars asserted the belief that Mujtahids had already disappeared, and some would claim a consensus on this point. Thereafter, the theory of legal minimalism elucidated by Juwayni in his book Ghiyāth al-umam fī iltiyāth al zulam, penned for his <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a> patron Nizam ul-Mulk, would be popularised. This system listed a set of core principles that implemented legal and procedural minimalism; and attempted the standardisation of Islamic courts and legal framework in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Islam">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim World</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Most significantly, the influential Islamic theologian Al Ghazzali introduced the notion of closure of Ijtihad since he viewed numerous people with inadequate knowledge of Qur'an as claiming to be Mujtahids. Ghazzali's emphasis on rigorous asceticism and imitation of traditions practised by Sufi mystics led him to attack rational enquiry and sciences like physics for contradicting religion. Owing to his status as a great scholar, numerous <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulema</a> followed his call; even though many continued to dispute it.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Intellectuals like <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Hanafi" title="Hassan Hanafi">Hasan Hanafi</a> argue that Ghazali had tried to preclude the endeavour of Ijtihad during his era in order to establish a rigid, stable orthodoxy that could effectively challenge external enemies of Islam like the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Pakistanis" title="Pakistanis">Pakistani</a> Professor of Philosophy <a href="/wiki/C._A._Qadir" title="C. A. Qadir">C.A Qadir</a>; Ghazzali's efforts had tremendous impact in limiting the scope of Ijtihad in medieval Islamic orthodxy.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> However, there is still a vigorous scholarly debate regarding whether Al-Ghazali had himself "closed the gates" or whether he merely continued an established policy of his scholarly predecessors or whether the gate was ever closed. According to Professor James P. Piscatori, the provision for Ijtihad in Sunni <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a> was never "tightly shut" and remained open to some extent.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> During the 16th century, majority of the clerical classes would claim Ghazzali's doctrine as sacrosanct and inviolable by <a href="/wiki/Consensus_in_Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Consensus in Islamic law">Ijma</a> (consensus).<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Post-classical era, a large part of Shafīʿi scholarship would also shift to a pro-Taqleed position owing to external influence from <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafite</a>-<a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Malikite</a> Muqallid camps. Most noteworthy amongst them were <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hajar_al-Haytami" title="Ibn Hajar al-Haytami">Ibn Hajar al-Haytami</a> (d. 1566). However many still defended Ijtihad while others who theoretically affirmed the disappearance of Mujtahids rejected the claim that they did in reality.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_classical_period">Late classical period</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Late classical period">edit</a>]</div> Until the end of the 14th century, no voice had before actively risen to condemn the claims of mujtahids to practice ijtihad within their schools. However, the doctrine of Taqlid was steadily amassing support amongst the masses. The first incident in which muqallids openly attacked the claims of mujtahids occurred in Egypt, during the lifetime of <a href="/wiki/Al-Suyuti" title="Al-Suyuti">Suyuti</a>. Suyuti had claimed to practice the highest degree of Ijtihad within the Shafi'i school. He advocated that Ijtihad is a backbone of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> and believed in the continuous existence of Mujtahids.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Around the 15th century, most Sunni jurists argued that all major matters of religious law had been settled, allowing for <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a> (تقليد), "the established legal precedents and traditions," to take priority over ijtihād (اجتهاد).<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Islamic_Studies-21">[21]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] This move away from the practice of ijtihād was primarily made by the scholars of <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Malikī</a> schools, and a number of <a href="/wiki/Shafii" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafii">Shafīʿis</a>, but not by <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbalīs</a> and majority of Shafīʿi jurists who believed that "true consensus" (<a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">ijmāʿ</a> اجماع), apart from that of Muhammad's Companions, did not exist" and that "the constant continuous existence of mujtahids (مجتهد) was a theological requirement."<a href="#cite_note-WahhabiIslam-40">[40]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> clergy denied Ijtihad in theory, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Hanafite ulema had practiced Ijtihad to solve a number of new legal issues. Various legal rulings were formulated on a number of issues, such as the <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">Waqf</a> of movables, on drugs, coffee, music, tobacco, etc. However to support the official doctrine of "extinction of Mujtahids", the Ottoman ulema denied Ijtihad even when it was practised.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The increasing prominence of taqlid had at one point led most Western scholars to believe that the "gate of ijtihad" was in fact effectively closed around tenth century.<a href="#cite_note-rabb-42">[42]</a> In a 1964 monograph, which exercised considerable influence on later scholars, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Joseph Schacht</a> wrote that "a consensus gradually established itself to the effect that from that time onwards no one could be deemed to have the necessary qualifications for independent reasoning in religious law, and that all future activity would have to be confined to the explanation, application, and, at the most, interpretation of the doctrine as it had been laid down once and for all."<a href="#cite_note-44">[Note 1]</a> While more recent research is said to have disproven the notion that the practice of ijtihad was abandoned in the tenth century — or even later in the 15th century — the extent of legal change during this period and its mechanisms remain a subject of scholarly debate.<a href="#cite_note-katz-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> The Ijtihad camp primarily consisted of Hanbalis and Shafiites, while the Taqlid camp were primarily Hanafites who were supported to a greater or lesser extent by Malikis as well as some Shafi'is.<a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ranking_of_Mujtahids">Ranking of Mujtahids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ranking of Mujtahids">edit</a>]</div> After the 11th century, Sunni legal theory developed systems for ranking jurists according to their qualifications for ijtihad. One such ranking placed the founders of <a href="/wiki/Maddhab" class="mw-redirect" title="Maddhab">maddhab</a>s, who were credited with being "absolute mujtahids" (mujtahid muṭlaq) capable of methodological innovation, at the top, and jurists capable only of taqlīd at the bottom, with mujtahids and those who combined ijtihād and taqlīd given the middle ranks.<a href="#cite_note-47">[Note 2]</a> In the 11th century, jurists required a <a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">mufti</a> (jurisconsult) to be a mujtahid; by the middle of the 13th century, however, most scholars considered a muqallid (practitioner of taqlīd) to be qualified for the role. During that era some jurists began to ponder whether practitioners of ijtihad continued to exist and the phrase "closing of the gate of ijtihād" (إغلاق باب الاجتهاد iġlāq bāb al-ijtihād) appeared after the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-49">[Note 3]</a><a href="#cite_note-WahhabiIslam-40">[40]</a> However, these rankings have been criticized for its arbitrariness. Many other distinguished scholars have been recorded by scholars as Mujtahid Mutlaqs even after the deaths of four Imams (to whom the four schools are attributed). Also, various schools were subject to transformation and evolution through time in ways that their founders had not imagined. The founders themselves had not stipulated many such rankings or classifications. Nor did they obligate strict adherence to a particular scholar or legal theory. In many cases, major parts of the legal theory were in fact developed by the later followers.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> The classical <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> theologian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Taqi al-Din Ibn Taymiyya</a> (d. 1328 C.E/ 728 A.H) was a notable figure who dissented from the prevalent Madh'hab-based ranking standardisations and classifications. Arguing that the practice of Ijtihad is allowed for every Muslim, Ibn Taymiyya writes:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"...doors of ijtihād are open even to laymen, who are permitted to practice ijtihād without fear of punishment: the muftī, the soldier and the layman. If they speak according to their ijtihād ..., intending to follow the Messenger to the extent of their knowledge, they do not deserve punishment; this is so by the <a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">consensus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, even if they have erred in a matter for which consensus already exists."<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a></blockquote> Legal schools(mad'habs) had begun to take shape by the middle of the fourth/tenth century and practice of affiliating to the madhabs began to become popular. Systematic categorisation of Mujtahids emerged during late fifth/eleventh century into ranks of excellence. By doing so, they sought to facilitate the Ijtihad of qualified <a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">Muftis</a>. The earliest known typology of jurists is <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd</a>'s (d. 520/1126) tripartite classification of Muftis. In this typology, the top-Mufti was a Mujtahid (like Ibn Rushd himself) while the latter two ranks weren't, i.e., a Mujtahid must independently reason on the basis of Scriptures and general principles of the school. On the other hand, Ghazzali distinguished between two ranks of Mujtahids, the independent(Mutlaq) and the affiliated(Muqayyad) in a three-rank classification. In the seventh century, Shafi'i jurist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Salah" title="Ibn al-Salah">Ibn al-Salah</a> (d. 643/1245) would elaborate a five rank classification of Muftis. During the 10th/16th century, Ottoman Shaykh al-Islam <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kemal" title="Ibn Kemal">Ammad Ibn Kamal</a> (d. 940/1533) articulated a Hanafite typology of jurists with seven ranks. Unlike the previous typologies, the latter classification was promoted by Taqlid partisans who advocated that Mujtahids ceased to exist. All these classifications created an archetype of an ideal standard to which all other typologies must conform, i.e., the founders of 4 schools. However, this typological conception of the founder Mujtahid suffered from chronological ruptures, overlooking in the process the founder's predecessors as well as his immediate intellectual history that formed a continuity. Although the founder imams were accomplished jurists, they were not as absolutely and as categorically as they were portrayed to be, starting from the 5th/11th century.<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> Ibn Kamal's seven-rank typology, in particular, would come under scathing criticism by other Hanafites as well, such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Bakhit_al-Muti%27i" title="Muhammad Bakhit al-Muti'i">Muhammad Bakhit al-Muti'i</a> (1854 or 1856 — 1935), who was the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti" title="Grand Mufti">Grand Mufti</a> of Al-Azhar.<a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a> Many Islamic reformers, starting from the 18th century would criticize these classifications altogether, since these classifications assumed every Mufti in terms of leaders and followers, affiliated to the founder imams and succeeding generations who are progressively inferior to knowledge of imams.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-55">[52]</a> Faithful to the tenets of Ibn Taymiyya and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab</a> (1792 C.E/ 1206 A.H), the Wahhabi movement called for Ijtihad and opposed <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">Taqlid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> Advocating the Wahhabi stance on Ijtihad, 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan <a href="/wiki/Al_ash-Sheikh" title="Al ash-Sheikh">Aal-Al Shaykh</a> (1196-1285 A.H / 1782-1868 C.E), influential <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Nejd" title="Emirate of Nejd">Emirate of Nejd</a>, asserts:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">".. when a scholar does his best to come to a right decision or verdict concerning a certain matter, if his verdict is right, he will get a double reward, and even if his verdict is wrong, he will still get a reward.... one who prefers the verdict of a scholar to the authorized proof, is to be severely rebuked. It is not permissible to imitate other scholars save in matters of ljithad," which do not contain a proof from the Glorious <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an</a> or the Prophetic <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>. This is what is called by scholars, "There should be no denial in matters of ljtihad." But, as for those who disagree with this or act otherwise, they should be rebuked and blamed.., this issue has gained the consensus of all scholars, as stated by lmam <a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">Ash-Shafi'i</a>."<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a></blockquote> The 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Islah" title="Islah">Islamic reformer</a> and top-most Qadi of Yemen, <a href="/wiki/Al-Shawkani" title="Al-Shawkani">Al-Shawkani</a> (1759-1839) totally rejected the theory of classification of Mujtahids. According to him, there is only one form of Ijtihad which can be practised by anybody possessing sufficient knowledge. Shawkani maintains that it is sufficient for a scholar to study one compendium in each of the five disciplines to practice Ijtihad. According to Shawkani, the Muqallids who propagate the closure of Ijtihad and argue that only the four Imams can understand Qur'an and Sunnah are guilty of: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"(telling lies) about Allah and accuse Him of being not capable of creating people that understand what is His law for them and how they must worship Him. They make it appear as if what he has enacted for them through His Book and His Messenger, is not an absolute but a temporary law, restricted to the period before the rise of the madhhabs. After their appearance, there was no Book and no Sunnah anymore [if these people are to be believed], but there emerged persons that enacted a new law and invented another religion..., by their personal opinions and sentiment."</blockquote> This view would influence many 19th and 20th century Salafi reform movements.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-55">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modern era">edit</a>]</div> During the turn of the 16th to 17th century, <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Muslim reformers began to criticize <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a>, and promoted greater use of ijtihad in legal matters. They claimed that instead of looking solely to previous generations for practices developed by religious scholars, there should be an established doctrine and rule of behavior through the interpretation of original foundational texts of Islam—the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Islamic_Studies-21">[21]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] During the 18th century, Islamic revivalists increasingly condemned the Muqallid camp through a mass of writings explaining the evils of Taqlid and advocating Ijtihad as well as defending its status as a Divinely established principle in sharia. This would often result in violence between their followers. Most prominent amongst them were <a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Shawkani" title="Al-Shawkani">Shawkani</a>, Muhammad ibn Isma'il Al-San'aani, Ibn Mu'ammar, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Idris_al-Fasi" title="Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi">Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Usman_dan_Fodio" title="Usman dan Fodio">Uthman Ibn Fudio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ali_al-Sanusi" title="Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi">Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> Shah Waliullah Dehlawi was an ardent advocate of Ijtihad and considered it essential for the vigour of society. Re-inforcing the classical theory, he considered Ijtihad to be fard kifaya (communal obligation). Condemning the prevalent partisanship over Taqleed he denounced the Muqallid camp as the misguided "simpletons of our time". He considered himself as a Mujtahid of the highest rank affiliated to Hanafi school.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> In his treatise Usul al-Sittah (Six Foundations), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab harshly rebuked the Muqallids for raising the description of Mujtahids to humanely unattainable levels. He also condemned the practice of obligating Taqleed which deviated people away from Qur'an and Sunnah. In similar terms, Yemeni scholar Shawkani too condemned the practice of rigid Taqleed. Demonstrating the perpetual existence of Mujtahids in his works, Shawkani also argued that Ijtihad at later times was far easier due to detailed manuals unavailable for jurists of the past era.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> Amongst the eighteenth-century reformers, the most radical condemnation of Taqlid and advocacy of Ijtihad was championed by the Arabian scholar Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, whose uncompromising reformist efforts often turned violent. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the centuries-long heritage of jurisprudence (<a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a>) that coalesced into four schools (mad'habs) as an innovation. Challenging the authority of religious clerics, and a large portion of the classical scholarship, he proclaimed the necessity of directly returning to Qur'an and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations. According to Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, in order to uphold true monotheism (Tawhid), Muslims should return to the pristine Islam of the early generations (<a href="/wiki/Salaf" title="Salaf">Salaf</a>), stripped of all human additions and speculations.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> In his legal treatises such as Mukhtasar al-Insaf wa al-Sharh al-Kabir, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab weighed in legal opinions between different schools, opening the realm to comparative Fiqh thinking and often referring the conclusions of Ibn Taymiyya.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> This legal approach of drawing inferences directly from Qur'an and Hadith (istinbat), instead of taqlid to one of the 4 law schools, as well as his prohibition of Taqlid, drew sharp condemnation from the Muqallid camp. In a scathing response, Muhammad Ibn 'Abdul Wahhab accused his detractors of taking "the scholars as lords"<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> and vehemently condemned taqleed as the biggest principle of the kuffar (disbelievers), in his treatise Masa'il al-Jahiliyya (Aspects of the Days of Ignorance) writing : <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"Their religion was built upon certain principles, the greatest of which was taqleed (blind following). So this was the biggest principle for all of the disbelievers – the first and last of them"<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a></blockquote> In face of the backlash towards Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's uncompromising stance in his rejection of taqlid, advocacy of Ijtihad and radical anti-madhab views,<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> the later Wahhabis became more conciliatory towards traditional four schools of Fiqh. <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_bin_Muhammad_Al_Sheikh" title="Abdullah bin Muhammad Al Sheikh">Abdallah</a>, the son of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also toned down the radical anti-Taqlid stances by stating that they affiliate themselves to the Hanbali school and do not condemn the common people who make taqleed to the four schools of jurisprudence.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> The earliest substantial Wahhabite treatise on Ijtihad was written by the scholar Ibn Mu'ammar (d. 1810), a student of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and a <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a> of <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Diriyah" title="Emirate of Diriyah">First Saudi state</a>. In his treatise "Risalat al-Ijtihad wal Taqlid", Ibn Muammar gave respect to the four traditional Sunni schools of law and distinguished between two ranks of Mujtahids: independent Mujtahid and Mujtahid al-Muqayyid bound to the Imams. According to Ibn Mu'ammar, Taqlid is permissible for laymen and scholar without sufficient knowledge, but forbidden for those who can comprehend the bases of the law. Unlike Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Ibn Mu'ammar permitted laypeople to make Taqleed to trustworthy scholars, with certain reservations. Despite this, he also criticized strict adherence to a madhab and denounced mad'hab fanaticism as a bid'ah (innovation). According to Ibn Mu'ammar, the opinions of Imams should be discarded if they differ from authentic Prophetic traditions.<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> Outlining the conventional Wahhabi legal theory which harmonised the <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhab</a> system with the practice of Ijtihad, Ibn Mu'ammar writes:<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a><blockquote>"Adopting the [revealed] proof [for a position] without considering the statements of [other] ulama is the function of the absolute mujtahid.... [Laity are] obligated to practice taqlid and to consult those with knowledge.. [But the idea that one must always follow a single school] is a false view which Satan has cast upon many claimants to knowledge. ... [T]hey imagine that study of the proofs is a difficult matter, of which only an absolute mujtahid is capable... [They have even arrived at a claim] that one associated with the school of an imam is obliged to accept that school... even if it differs with the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunna</a>. Thus, the imam of the school is to the members of his school as the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Prophet</a> is to his <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Community</a>, ... You will [also] find the fanatic adherents of the schools in many matters differing with the explicit positions of their imams, and following the views of the latecomers in their school,.. the books of the predecessors are hardly found among them."<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a></blockquote> Ahmad Ibn Idris Al-Fasi also emphasized on the practice of ijtihad. His criticism of Taqleed of the schools of law (<a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhabs</a>) was based on three concerns. First, the need for following the Prophetic traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Dajani,_Samer_p._12-76">[73]</a> Second, to reduce divisions between the Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Dajani,_Samer_p._12-76">[73]</a> Third, mercy for the Muslims, because there were 'few circumstances on which the Quran and Sunna were genuinely silent, but if there was a silence on any question, then that silence was intentional on God's part- a divine mercy.'<a href="#cite_note-Sedgwick,_Mark_p._15-77">[74]</a> He therefore rejected any 'attempt to fill a silence deliberately left by God, and so to abrogate one of His mercies.'<a href="#cite_note-Sedgwick,_Mark_p._15-77">[74]</a> His student, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ali_al-Sanusi" title="Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi">Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi</a> also followed in his footsteps. In his work Al-Bughya, Al Sanusi advocates for the need to practice Ijtihad. The most detailed treatise by Al-Sanusi on the topic of Ijtihad is Iqaz al-wasnan fi 'l-'amal bi'l-hadith wa'l-Qur`an. Quoting Ibn Taymiyya, Al Sanusi emphasizes on the principle of fallibility of the Imams of the madhabs and the obligation to follow the Sunnah. The opinions of the four Imams should only be used for a better understanding of <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a>. Following <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a> and Shawkani, Sanussi asserted that taqlid is <a href="/wiki/Bid%CA%BBah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bidʻah">bid'ah</a>(innovation) and fully condemned it. Sanussi distinguished between the independent Mujtahid and the affiliated Mujtahid and affirmed the existence of the affiliated Mujtahid in every age. He also objected to Taqlid and emphasized that Qur'an and Sunna must be given precedence over the opinions of Mujtahids, even in cases where the 4 Imams are wrong.<a href="#cite_note-auto-78">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-79">[76]</a> Remarkably, all these reformers shared common points of contact in <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hijaz</a> and a network of scholars with a Hijazi-Yemeni centre. Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Hayyat_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Sindhi" title="Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi">Muhammad Hayat as-Sindi</a> were pupils of Muhammad Ibn Ibrahim Al Kurrani Al Kurdi as well as connected to <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Kurani" title="Ibrahim al-Kurani">Ibrahim Ibn Hasan Al Kurrani Al Kurdi</a> (d. 1690) and AbuI-Baqa' al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al- Ajami (d. 1702). Al-Sanusi is also linked with these scholars via his teacher al-Badr b. 'Amir al-Mi'dani who was a student of Al-Sindi as well as via other independent chains. Al-Shawkani is connected to Ibrahim Al-Kurrani via his teacher Yusuf Ibn Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-auto-78">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-79">[76]</a> Outside these circles, some scholars amongst traditional Sufi circles were also in favour of Ijtihad. These included the prominent Ottoman Hanafite jurist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abidin" title="Ibn Abidin">Ibn Abidin</a> (1784-1836) who is a scholarly authoritaty for even Hanafites of the Taqleed camp. Ibn Abidin employed Ijtihad in order to issue fatwas, using reasoning and believed that ijtihad was acceptable to use in certain circumstances. According to Ibn Abidin, Hanafite Muftis should look up to rulings of Abu Hanifa, then Abu Yusuf, then Shaybani, then Zufar and then some lesser jurists for fatwas.<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> However, if a previous Hanafi scholar hasn't found an answer to the issue, then he should employ Ijtihad to solve the novel issue.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> According to Ibn Abidin, it is not obligatory to follow a particular mad'hab as well.<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contemporary_debates_over_Ijtihad">Contemporary debates over Ijtihad</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Contemporary debates over Ijtihad">edit</a>]</div> On the issue of existence of Mujtahids and continuity of Ijtihad, contemporary scholarship are divided into two diametric camps, and a third moderate camp: 1) Those who oppose Ijtihad: These include the Orientalist scholars who view that "Gates of Ijtihad are closed". Sufi groups such as <a href="/wiki/Barelvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelvi">Barelvis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandis</a>, etc. believe that Mujtahids have ceased to exist. Some others such as <a href="/wiki/Said_Nurs%C3%AE" title="Said Nursî">Said Nursi</a> is not theoretically against Ijtihad, but advocates postponing Ijtihad to a later time when Muslims attain sufficient strength. 2) Those who advocate Ijtihad: These include <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> scholars and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Islamic modernists</a> who believe in the existence of Mujtahids. Salafis argue that Ijtihad doesn't have a gate, but only pre-requisites. Others who advocate Ijtihad include <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Asad" title="Muhammad Asad">Muhammad Asad</a>, etc. Recent scholars in academia such as <a href="/wiki/Wael_Hallaq" title="Wael Hallaq">Wael Hallaq</a> are also its supporters. 3) Those who take an intermediary position.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamic_modernism">Islamic modernism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Islamic modernism">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Islamic modernism</a></div> Starting in the middle of the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Islamic modernists</a> such as Sir <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Ahmed_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Ahmed Khan">Sayyid Ahmed Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-din_Al-Afghani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamal al-din Al-Afghani">Jamal al-din Al-Afghani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a> emerged seeking to revitalize Islam by re-establish and reform <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> and its interpretations to accommodate Islam with modern society.<a href="#cite_note-USIP-84">[81]</a> They emphasized the use of ijtihad, but in contrast to its original use,<a href="#cite_note-NYU-85">[82]</a> they sought to "apply contemporary intellectual methods" such as academic or scientific thought "to the task of reforming Islam".<a href="#cite_note-NYU-85">[82]</a> Al-Afghani proposed the new use of ijtihad that he believed would enable <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> to think critically and apply their own individual interpretations of the innovations of modernity in the context of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYU-85">[82]</a> One modernist argument for applying ijtihad to sharia law is that while "the principles and values underlying Sharia (i.e. usul al-fiqh)" are unalterable, human interpretation of sharia is not.<a href="#cite_note-Hussain-IotiL-2013-86">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-ISI-1-2-13-18">[18]</a> Another, (made by <a href="/wiki/Asghar_Ali_Engineer" title="Asghar Ali Engineer">Asghar Ali Engineer</a> of India), is that the adaat (customs and traditions) of Arabs were used in the development of the sharia, and form an important part of it. They are very much not divine or immutable, and have no more legal justification to be part of the sharia than the adaat of Muslims—Iranians, Uzbeks, Turks, Chinese, Indians and others—living beyond the home of the original Muslim in the Arab <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Ummah was no longer a homogenous group but comprised of various cultural communities with their own age-old customs and traditions. ... When Imam <a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">Al-Shafi'i</a> moved from Hejaz to Egypt, which was a confluence of Arab and Coptic cultures, he realised this and changed his position on several issues.<a href="#cite_note-ISI-1-2-13-18">[18]</a></blockquote> In Indonesia, following considerable debate among the <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulema</a>, Indonesian adaat "become part of Sharia as applicable in that country".<a href="#cite_note-ISI-1-2-13-18">[18]</a> This use of ijtihad of adaat applies to <a href="/wiki/Muamalat" class="mw-redirect" title="Muamalat">mu'amalat</a> (socio-economic matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance), and not <a href="/wiki/Ibadah" title="Ibadah">Ibadah</a> fiqh (ritual <a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">salat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sawm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawm">sawm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a>, etc.). Asghar Ali Engineer argues that while the Quran was revealed in a "highly patriarchal" Arab adaat that still informs what is understood as sharia, the Quran itself has a "transcendental" vision of justice that includes "absolutely equal rights" between genders and should guide ijtihad of sharia.<a href="#cite_note-ISI-1-2-13-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islamism_and_Salafism">Islamism and Salafism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Islamism and Salafism">edit</a>]</div> Contemporary <a href="/wiki/Salafis" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafis">Salafis</a> are major proponents of ijtihad. They criticize taqlid and believe ijtihad makes modern <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> more authentic and will guide Muslims back to the Golden Age of early Islam. <a href="/wiki/Salafis" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafis">Salafis</a> assert that reliance on taqlid has led to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>'s decline.<a href="#cite_note-Wahabism-87">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i-Hadith</a> revivalist movement of <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">subcontinent</a> highly influenced by the thoughts of Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, Shawkani and <a href="/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Barelvi" title="Syed Ahmad Barelvi">Syed Ahmed Barelvi</a>, fully condemn <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a> and advocate for ijtihad based on scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-ODI2-88">[85]</a> Founded in mid-19th century in Bhopal, it places great emphasis on hadith studies and condemns imitation to the canonical law schools. They identify with the early school of <a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Hadith" title="Ahl al-Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a>. During the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Najd" title="Najd">Najdi</a> scholars would establish contacts with Ahl-i-Hadith and many Najdi students would study under the scholars of Ahl-i-Hadith, amongst them prominent scholars.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> traces its founding philosophies to al-Afghani's ijtihad. The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> holds that the practice of ijtihad will strengthen the faith of believers by compelling them to better familiarize themselves with the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and come to their own conclusions about its teachings. But as a political group the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> faces a major paradox between ijtihad as a religious matter and as a political one. Ijtihad weakens political unity and promotes pluralism (which is also why many oppressive regimes reject ijtihad's legitimacy).<a href="#cite_note-American_Historical_Review-91">[88]</a> The Iranian Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a> envisioned a prominent role for ijtihad in his political theory of "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Government:_Governance_of_the_Jurist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist">guardianship of the jurist</a>" (vilāyat-e faqīh).<a href="#cite_note-OEIW-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a> supported ijtihad. He criticized the <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi</a> regime for disallowing the "free believer"<a href="#cite_note-American_Historical_Review-91">[88]</a> and imposing harsh restrictions on successful practice of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. Thus, Bin Laden believed his striving for the implementation of ijtihad was his "duty" (<a href="/wiki/Takleef" class="mw-redirect" title="Takleef">takleef</a>).<a href="#cite_note-American_Historical_Review-91">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid">Qualifications of a mujtahid</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Qualifications of a mujtahid">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mujtahid" redirects here. For the Twitter activist, see <a href="/wiki/Mujtahidd_(activist)" title="Mujtahidd (activist)">Mujtahidd (activist)</a>.</div> A mujtahid (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: مُجْتَهِد, "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diligent" class="extiw" title="wikt:diligent">diligent</a>") is an individual who is qualified to exercise ijtihad in the evaluation of Islamic law. The female equivalent is a mujtahida. In general mujtahids must have an extensive knowledge of Arabic, the Qur'an, the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, and legal theory (<a href="/wiki/Usul_al-fiqh" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul al-fiqh">Usul al-fiqh</a>).<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> Sunni Islam and Shia Islam, due to their divergent beliefs regarding the persistence of divine authority, have different views on ijtihad and the qualifications required to achieve mujtahid. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunni">Sunni</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sunni">edit</a>]</div> In the years following the death of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, Sunni Muslims practiced ijtihad and saw it as an acceptable form of the continuation of sacred instruction. Sunni Muslims justified practice of Ijtihad with a particular hadith, which cites Muhammad's approval of forming an individual sound legal opinion if the Qur'an and Sunnah contain no explicit text regarding that particular issue. As Muslims turned to the Quran and Sunnah to solve their legal issues, they began to recognize that these Divine proponents did not deal directly with certain topics of law. Therefore, Sunni jurists began to find other ways and sources for ijtihad which allowed for personal judgment of Islamic law.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> Thus, a legal theory (<a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Islamic_jurisprudence" title="Principles of Islamic jurisprudence">usul al-Fiqh</a>) was developed during the classical period to facilitate Ijtihad. It established a coherent system of principles through which a jurist could extract rulings on upcoming issues.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> Only a competent Muslim of sound mind with intellectual qualifications was allowed to engage in Ijtihad. <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Husayn_al-Basri" title="Abu al-Husayn al-Basri">Abu'l-Husayn al-Basri</a> (d. 436/1044) provides the earliest, complete account for the qualifications of a mujtahid, in his book "al-Mu'tamad fi Usul al-Fiqh". They include: <ul><li>Enough knowledge of Arabic so that the scholar can read and understand both the Qur'an and the Sunnah.</li> <li>Extensive comprehensive knowledge of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. More specifically, the scholar must have a full understanding of the Qur'an's legal contents. In regards to the Sunnah the scholar must understand the specific texts that refer to law and also the incidence of abrogation in the Sunnah.</li> <li>Must be able to confirm the consensus (<a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijma</a>) of the Companions, the Successors, and the leading Imams and mujtahideen of the past, in order to prevent making decisions that disregard these honored decisions made in the past.</li> <li>Should be able to fully understand the objectives of the sharia and be dedicated to the protection of the five necessities, which are life, religion, intellect, lineage, and property.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a></li> <li>Be able to distinguish strength and weakness in reasoning, or in other words exercise logic.</li> <li>Must be sincere and a good person.<a href="#cite_note-Principles_of_Islamic_Jurisprudence-96">[93]</a></li></ul> After Basri, classical Mujtahids like Al-Shirazi (d. 467/1083), <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazzali</a> (d. 505/1111), <a href="/wiki/Sayf_al-Din_al-Amidi" title="Sayf al-Din al-Amidi">Al-Amidi</a> (d. 632/1234) would also develop various criterion with minor changes. Amidi also allowed less qualified Mujtahids who didn't meet these requirements to solve issues provided he has the tools of solution.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> From the declaration of these requirements of mujtahid onwards, legal scholars adopted these characteristics as being standard for any claimant of ijtihad. This allowed for mujtahids to openly discuss their particular views and reach a conclusion together. The interaction required by ijma allowed for mujtahids to circulate ideas and eventually merge to create particular Islamic schools of law (<a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhabs</a>). This consolidation of mujtahids into particular madhhabs prompted these groups to create their own distinct authoritative rules. These laws reduced issues of legal uncertainty that had been present when multiple mujtahids were working together with one another. Oftentimes, multiple rulings would be issued by jurists of the same legal school. Historical records show that throughout the tenth to nineteenth centuries, legal practitioners had consistently modified law using degrees of Ijtihad, making it flexible and adaptable to change.<a href="#cite_note-American_Historical_Review-91">[88]</a> Eventually, there developed a legal system of authoritative rulings on which influential jurists agreed. However, by the 14th century, while influential jurists held that knowledgeable legal scholars should be allowed to engage in Ijtihad , some others began to argue that there were no longer any legal scholars capable of performing Ijtihad beyond a certain limit as the founders of the four <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">mad'habs</a>. Despite this dispute, many high-ranking jurists upheld the practice of Ijtihad in legal rulings.<a href="#cite_note-American_Historical_Review-91">[88]</a> Recent scholarship has largely adopted this view, concluding that Ijtihad was indispensable in Islamic legal theory. Rather than obstructing Ijtihad, the legal theory as well as its stipulated qualifications facilitated Ijtihad.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shia">Shia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Shia">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grand_Ayatollahs_Qom_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%8C_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Grand_Ayatollahs_Qom_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%8C_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85_02.jpg/220px-Grand_Ayatollahs_Qom_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%8C_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Grand_Ayatollahs_Qom_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%8C_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85_02.jpg/330px-Grand_Ayatollahs_Qom_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%8C_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Grand_Ayatollahs_Qom_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%8C_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85_02.jpg/440px-Grand_Ayatollahs_Qom_%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%98%D8%8C_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%82%D9%85_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3414" data-file-height="5120" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Grand Ayatollahs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a>, Iran; Religious leaders who have the authority to interpret sharia sources in <a href="/wiki/Shiism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiism">Shia Islam</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> used assertive names and titles such as <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Ayatollah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hujjat_al-Islam" title="Hujjat al-Islam">Hujjat al-Islam</a>, which directly connect their identities to Allah or Islam, and gained <a href="/wiki/Walayah" title="Walayah">tutelage over people and the administration</a><a href="#cite_note-Newman_in_Meri_2006_734-102">[99]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> Muslims understand the process of ijtihad as being the independent effort used to arrive at the rulings of sharia. Following the death of the Prophet and once they had determined the Imam as absent, ijtihad evolved into a practice of applying careful reason in order to uncover the knowledge of what Imams would have done in particular legal situations. The decisions the Imams would have made were explored through the application of the Qur'an, Sunnah, ijma and <a href="/wiki/%27aql" class="mw-redirect" title="'aql">'aql</a> (reason). It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that the title of mujtahid became associated with the term faqih or one who is an expert in jurisprudence. From this point on religious courts began to increase in number and the ulama were transformed by Shia Islamic authorities into the new producer of ijtihad.<a href="#cite_note-Momen-103">[100]</a> Early Shiite theologians had denounced <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> interpretative tools like Ijtihad and <a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyas</a> ( analogical reasoning) citing reports from the <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_imams" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a imams">Shi'i Imams</a>. They held that Ijtihad was a deductive process based on personal conjecture to argue that it had no legal basis in the <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">shari'a</a> (Islamic law). Therefore, until the 13th century, the concept of Ijtihad was denounced disparagingly by the Shi'i jurists, who wanted to construct a systematic and stable legal edifice that was devoid of any uncertainty. However, with the passage of time some Shia jurists sensed the need to respond to newer and novel circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> According to Usuli scholars, Mujtahids existed continuously since the 16th century and employed Ijtihad to form new laws according to altering circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> From the late 18th century, Usuli jurists had advocated for appending <a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">'Aql</a> (intellect) as the fourth source of law. This enabled them to issue legal opinions based on societal needs. The <a href="/wiki/Akhbari" title="Akhbari">Akhbari</a> school rejected the idea of human intellect playing any role in legal reasoning.<a href="#cite_note-Mohammad_Farzaneh_2015_6-13">[13]</a> In order to produce perceptive mujtahids that could fulfill this important role, Usulis developed the <a href="/wiki/Usul_Fiqh_in_Ja%27fari_school" title="Usul Fiqh in Ja'fari school">principles of Shia jurisprudence</a> (Usool) to provide a foundation for scholarly deduction of Islamic law. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/short/ansari.htm">Shaykh Murtada Ansari</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> and his successors developed the school of Shia law, dividing the legal decisions into four levels of certainty (qat), valid conjecture (zann), doubt (shakk), and erroneous conjecture (wahm). These rules allowed mujtahids to issue adjudications on any subject, that could be derived through this process of ijtihad, demonstrating responsibility to the Shia community.<a href="#cite_note-Momen-103">[100]</a> Furthermore, according to Shia Islamic Jurisprudence a believer of Islam is either a Mujtahid (one that expresses their own legal reasoning), or a Muqallid (one performing taqlid—following or imitating a Mujtahid) and a Muhtat ("a lay Shiite who does not follow anyone, yet acts on such precaution that assures him the fulfilment of his religious obligations").<a href="#cite_note-Lost-2017-107">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jannati-Ijtiahad-108">[105]</a> Most Shia Muslims qualify as Muqallid, and therefore are very dependent on the rulings of the Mujtahids. Therefore, the Mujtahids must be well prepared to perform ijtihad, as the community of Muqallid are dependent on their rulings. Not only did Shia Muslims require: <ul><li>Knowledge of the texts of the Qur'an and Sunnah</li> <li>Justice in matters of public and personal life</li> <li>Utmost piety</li> <li>Understanding of the cases where Shia mujtahids reached consensus</li> <li>Ability to exercise competence and authority<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a></li></ul> However, these scholars also depended on further training that could be received in religious centers called Hawza. At these centers they are taught the important subjects and technical knowledge a mujtahid need be proficient in such as: <ul><li>Arabic grammar and literature</li> <li>Logic</li> <li>Extensive knowledge of the Qur'anic sciences and Hadith</li> <li>Science of narrators</li> <li>Principle of Jurisprudence</li> <li>Comparative Jurisprudence<a href="#cite_note-Principles_of_Ijtihad_in_Islam-110">[107]</a></li></ul> Therefore, Shia mujtahids remain revered throughout the Shia Islamic world. The relationship between the mujtahids and muqallids continues to address and solve the contemporary legal issues. Participating in ijtihad, however, has been cautioned by scholars for those not properly educated in interpretation of the Qu'ran. This is narrated by <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Husayn_Zayn_al-Abidin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin">Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin</a>, the great-grandson of Muhammad, when he cautioned <a href="/wiki/Aban_ibn_abi-Ayyash" class="mw-redirect" title="Aban ibn abi-Ayyash">Aban ibn abi-Ayyash</a>, a fellow companion, saying, "Oh brother from 'Abd Qays, if the issue becomes clear to you, then accept it. Otherwise remain silent and defer to Allah because your interpretation from the truth will be as far from the Earth as the sky."<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_mujtahids">Female mujtahids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Female mujtahids">edit</a>]</div> Women can be Mujtahid and throughout Islamic history there were well known female Islamic scholars and Mujtahids who played an important role in traditional Islamic discourse. <a href="/wiki/Aisha" title="Aisha">Aisha</a> the wife of Muhammad was a well-known hadith scholar and a Mujtahid. She was an assertive, intelligent woman as well as an eloquent speaker. According to <a href="/wiki/Urwah_ibn_Zubayr" class="mw-redirect" title="Urwah ibn Zubayr">Urwah Ibn Zubair</a>, Aisha was the most knowledgeable in hadith and fiqh and surpassed everyone in knowledge of poetry and medicine. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Shihab_al-Zuhri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri">Al-Zuhri</a> studied under the well-known woman jurist of the day, Amrah bint Abdul Rahman. She was one of the most knowledgeable people of hadith and was described as an "ocean of knowledge". When the judge of Madinah heard Amrah's message, he did not feel the need to get a male opinion, although Madinah was then housing the famous Seven Jurists. Islamic scholar <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Akram_Nadwi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Akram Nadwi">Akram Nadwi</a> published a 40-volume biographical collection of female Muslim scholars wherein more than 8,000 female scholars were detailed. Other famous female Muhadditha and jurists include Zainab bint Kamal, Fatima Al Batayahiyyah, Fatimah bint Muhammad al Samarqandi, etc. <a href="/wiki/Fatima_al-Fihri" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatima al-Fihri">Fatima Al Fihiriyya</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of Qarawiyyin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fez</a> in 859, world's first academic university that offered a degree. Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Umm_al-Darda_as-Sughra" title="Umm al-Darda as-Sughra">Umm al-Darda</a> used to sit and debate with male scholars in the mosque. She was a teacher of hadith and Fiqh and also lectured in the men's section. One of her students was a <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shiism</a>, there have been dozens of women who have attained the rank in the modern history of Iran (for instance, <a href="/wiki/Amina_Bint_al-Majlisi" title="Amina Bint al-Majlisi">Amina Bint al-Majlisi</a> in the Safavid era, Bibi Khanum in the Qajar era, <a href="/wiki/Nosrat_Amin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nosrat Amin">Lady Amin</a> in the Pahlavi era, and <a href="/wiki/Zohreh_Sefati" title="Zohreh Sefati">Zohreh Sefati</a> during the time of the Islamic Republic).<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> There are diverging opinions as to whether a female mujtahid can be a <a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">marjaʻ</a> or not. <a href="/wiki/Zohreh_Sefati" title="Zohreh Sefati">Zohreh Sefati</a> and some male jurists believe a female mujtahida can become a marja' — in other words, they believe that believers perform taqlid (emulation) of a female mujtahid— but most male jurists believe a marjaʻ must be male.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/18px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/28px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/36px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> The mid-twentieth century European authority on Islamic law Joseph Schacht, said that [...] Since the 1990s, a large and growing body of research has demonstrated the continuing creativity and dynamism of Islamic legal thinking in the post-formative period, as well as probed the lively dialectic between legal rulings and social practice. While it is no longer possible to assert that "the door of ijtihad was closed" after the tenth (or, indeed, any other) century, however, there is still lively debate over the extent of legal change and the mechanisms by which it occurred.<a href="#cite_note-katz-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> After the eleventh century, Sunnī legal literature developed rankings of jurists according to their ability to practice ijtihād. One predominant classification credited the founders of the legal schools with the distinction of being absolute mujtahids (mujtahid muṭlaq) who were capable of laying down a methodology of the law and of deriving from it the positive doctrines that were to dominate their respective schools. Accordingly, each legal school represented a different methodology for ijtihād. Next came the mujtahids who operated within each school (mujtahid muntasim or mujtahid fī al-madhhab), who followed the methodology of the school's founder but proffered new solutions for novel legal cases. The lowest rank belonged to the muqallid, the jurist-imitator who merely followed the rulings arrived at by the mujtāhids without understanding the processes by which these rulings were derived. Between the ranks of mujtahids and muqallids there were distinguished other levels of jurists who combined ijtihād with taqlīd. [...] The settling of the major areas of Islamic law gave rise to the perception, prevalent among many modern Western scholars and Sunnī lay Muslims, that jurists had come to a consensus that the so-called "gate of ijtihād" (باب الاجتهاد bāb al-ijtihād) was closed at the beginning of the tenth century.<a href="#cite_note-rabb-42">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> In the eleventh century, jurists defined a jurisconsult as being a mujtahid (i.e., one who has the ability to independently reason; the highest rank of a jurist). By the middle of the thirteenth century, however, it appears that the prerequisites were lowered, and jurisconsults were expected – by most, but not all scholars – to be muqallids (i.e., able to articulate a legal opinion based on the precedents and methodology of a particular legal school; a lower rank than mujtahid).<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">"ijtihad". Collins English Dictionary (13th ed.). HarperCollins. 2018. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-008-28437-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-008-28437-4"><bdi>978-0-008-28437-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ijtihad&rft.btitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=13th&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-008-28437-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OEIW-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OEIW_2-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabb2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rabb, Intisar A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0354">"Ijtihād"</a>. In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5"><bdi>978-0-19-530513-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ijtih%C4%81d&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530513-5&rft.aulast=Rabb&rft.aufirst=Intisar+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001%2Facref-9780195305135-e-0354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODI-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODI_3-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_L._Esposito2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-978-0-19-512558-0-e-2338">"Taqiyah"</a>. Ijtihad. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0"><bdi>978-0-19-512558-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ijtihad&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512558-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001%2Facref-978-0-19-512558-0-e-2338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_L._Esposito2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-2339">"Taqlid"</a>. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0"><bdi>978-0-19-512558-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taqlid&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512558-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001%2Facref-9780195125580-e-2339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> sometimes spelt mojtahed </li> <li id="cite_note-B._Hallaq_20,_33-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-B._Hallaq_20,_33_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-B._Hallaq_20,_33_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1): 20, 33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20%2C+33&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, Rebecca (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43908333">"Ijtihād against Madhhab: Legal Hybridity and the Meanings of Modernity in Early Modern Daghestan"</a>. Comparative Studies in Society and History. 57 (1): 50–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0010417514000590">10.1017/S0010417514000590</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43908333">43908333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121170987">121170987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=Ijtih%C4%81d+against+Madhhab%3A+Legal+Hybridity+and+the+Meanings+of+Modernity+in+Early+Modern+Daghestan&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-51&rft.date=2015-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A121170987%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43908333%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0010417514000590&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43908333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-katz-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-katz_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katz_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katz_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarion_Katz2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Marion Katz (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199679010.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199679010-e-14">"The Age of Development and Continuity, 12th–15th Centuries CE"</a>. In Emon, Anver M; Ahmed, Rumee (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press. pp. 436–458. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199679010.013.14">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199679010.013.14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967901-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967901-0"><bdi>978-0-19-967901-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Age+of+Development+and+Continuity%2C+12th%E2%80%9315th+Centuries+CE&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Islamic+Law&rft.pages=436-458&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199679010.013.14&rft.isbn=978-0-19-967901-0&rft.au=Marion+Katz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199679010.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199679010-e-14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Campo2009" class="citation book cs1">E. Campo, Juan (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On File, Inc. p. 346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-5454-1</bdi></a>. <q>..ijtihad has, in fact, been a key aspect of Islamic jurisprudence for centuries thereafter."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Facts+On+File%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1&rft.aulast=E.+Campo&rft.aufirst=Juan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1): 20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaykel2014" class="citation book cs1">Haykel, Bernard (2014). "Chapter 1: On the Nature of Salafi Thought and Action". In Meijer, Roel (ed.). Global Salafism. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 USA: Oxford University Press. p. 34, 43, 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933343-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-933343-1"><bdi>978-0-19-933343-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+On+the+Nature+of+Salafi+Thought+and+Action&rft.btitle=Global+Salafism&rft.place=198+Madison+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+New+York+10016+USA&rft.pages=34%2C+43%2C+51&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-933343-1&rft.aulast=Haykel&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahman2000" class="citation book cs1">Rahman, Fazlur (2000). REVIVAL AND REFORM IN ISLAM: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism. Oxford, England: One World Publications Oxford. pp. 63–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85168-204-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-85168-204-X"><bdi>1-85168-204-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=REVIVAL+AND+REFORM+IN+ISLAM%3A+A+Study+of+Islamic+Fundamentalism&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=63-64&rft.pub=One+World+Publications+Oxford&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1-85168-204-X&rft.aulast=Rahman&rft.aufirst=Fazlur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mohammad_Farzaneh_2015_6-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mohammad_Farzaneh_2015_6_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mohammad_Farzaneh_2015_6_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammad_Farzaneh2015" class="citation book cs1">Mohammad Farzaneh, Mateo (2015). The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3388-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-3388-4"><bdi>978-0-8156-3388-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iranian+Constitutional+Revolution+and+the+Clerical+Leadership+of+Khurasani&rft.place=Syracuse%2C+New+York&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-3388-4&rft.aulast=Mohammad+Farzaneh&rft.aufirst=Mateo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hallaq-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hallaq_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hallaq_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallaq2005" class="citation book cs1">Hallaq, Wael (2005). The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+and+Evolution+of+Islamic+Law&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKayadibi2017" class="citation book cs1">Kayadibi, Saim (2017). Principles of Islamic Law and the Methods of Interpretation of the Texts (Uṣūl al-Fiqh). <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a>: Islamic Book Trust. p. 349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-967-0526-33-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-967-0526-33-1"><bdi>978-967-0526-33-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Islamic+Law+and+the+Methods+of+Interpretation+of+the+Texts+%28U%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABl+al-Fiqh%29&rft.place=Kuala+Lumpur&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=Islamic+Book+Trust&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-967-0526-33-1&rft.aulast=Kayadibi&rft.aufirst=Saim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKayadibi2017" class="citation book cs1">Kayadibi, Saim (2017). Principles of Islamic Law and the Methods of Interpretation of the Texts (Uṣūl al-Fiqh). Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust. p. 350. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-967-0526-33-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-967-0526-33-1"><bdi>978-967-0526-33-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Islamic+Law+and+the+Methods+of+Interpretation+of+the+Texts+%28U%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABl+al-Fiqh%29&rft.place=Kuala+Lumpur&rft.pages=350&rft.pub=Islamic+Book+Trust&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-967-0526-33-1&rft.aulast=Kayadibi&rft.aufirst=Saim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USC-24-3585-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USC-24-3585_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USC-24-3585_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/hadith/abudawud/024-sat.php#024.3585">"The Office of the Judge (Kitab Al-Aqdiyah). Book 24, Number 3585"</a>. University of Southern California. Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. Retrieved 28 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Southern+California.+Center+for+Muslim-Jewish+Engagement&rft.atitle=The+Office+of+the+Judge+%28Kitab+Al-Aqdiyah%29.+Book+24%2C+Number+3585&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usc.edu%2Forg%2Fcmje%2Freligious-texts%2Fhadith%2Fabudawud%2F024-sat.php%23024.3585&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISI-1-2-13-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISI-1-2-13_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISI-1-2-13_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISI-1-2-13_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISI-1-2-13_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISI-1-2-13_18-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFALI_ENGINEER2013" class="citation news cs1">ALI ENGINEER, ASGHAR (1 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dawn.com/news/782766/is-sharia-immutable">"Is Sharia immutable?"</a>. Dawn. Retrieved 27 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Is+Sharia+immutable%3F&rft.date=2013-02-01&rft.aulast=ALI+ENGINEER&rft.aufirst=ASGHAR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dawn.com%2Fnews%2F782766%2Fis-sharia-immutable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> see also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannan" class="citation web cs1">Hannan, Shah Abdul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimtents.com/aminahsworld/Islamic_jurisprudence_ijtihad.html">"Islamic Jurisprudence (Usul Al Fiqh): Ijtihad"</a>. Muslim tents. Retrieved 27 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Muslim+tents&rft.atitle=Islamic+Jurisprudence+%28Usul+Al+Fiqh%29%3A+Ijtihad&rft.aulast=Hannan&rft.aufirst=Shah+Abdul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.muslimtents.com%2Faminahsworld%2FIslamic_jurisprudence_ijtihad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito" class="citation web cs1">Esposito, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t24/e150">"Ijtihad"</a>. The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford Islamic Studies Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Islamic+World%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=Ijtihad&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordislamicstudies.com%2Farticle%2Fopr%2Ft24%2Fe150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_Islamic_Studies-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Islamic_Studies_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Islamic_Studies_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Islamic_Studies_21-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito" class="citation web cs1">Esposito, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141022174928/http://oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e150">"Ijtihad"</a>. The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e150">the original</a> on October 22, 2014. Retrieved April 28, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Islamic+World%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=Ijtihad&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxfordislamicstudies.com%2Farticle%2Fopr%2Ft243%2Fe150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">Hallaq, Wael B. (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 21–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-26&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">Hallaq, Wael B. (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 22–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-25&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallaq1986" class="citation journal cs1">Hallaq, Wael B. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1595569">"On the Origins of the Controversy about the Existence of Mujtahids and the Gate of Ijtihad"</a>. Studia Islamica (63). Maisonneuve & Larose: 139–140. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1595569">10.2307/1595569</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595569">1595569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Islamica&rft.atitle=On+the+Origins+of+the+Controversy+about+the+Existence+of+Mujtahids+and+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad&rft.issue=63&rft.pages=139-140&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1595569&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595569%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabb2013" class="citation book cs1">Rabb, Intisar A. (2013). "8: Islamic Legal Minimalism: Legal Maxims and Lawmaking When Jurists Disappear". In Cook, Michael; Haider, Najam; Rabb, Intisar; Sayeed, Asma (eds.). Law and Tradition in Classical Islamic Thought. New York, NY: Palgrave Mcmillan. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-11329-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-11329-9"><bdi>978-0-230-11329-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8%3A+Islamic+Legal+Minimalism%3A+Legal+Maxims+and+Lawmaking+When+Jurists+Disappear&rft.btitle=Law+and+Tradition+in+Classical+Islamic+Thought&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Palgrave+Mcmillan&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-230-11329-9&rft.aulast=Rabb&rft.aufirst=Intisar+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakhdoom_bin_Sheikh_Muhammad_Al_Gazzali2008" class="citation book cs1">Makhdoom bin Sheikh Muhammad Al Gazzali, Ahmad Zainuddin (2008). "Chapter 19: Judgements". Fath-ul-Mu'een. Mangalore, Karnataka: Punkavanam Bookstall, Al Maktabatul Ghazzaliyya. pp. 626–631.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+19%3A+Judgements&rft.btitle=Fath-ul-Mu%27een&rft.place=Mangalore%2C+Karnataka&rft.pages=626-631&rft.pub=Punkavanam+Bookstall%2C+Al+Maktabatul+Ghazzaliyya&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Makhdoom+bin+Sheikh+Muhammad+Al+Gazzali&rft.aufirst=Ahmad+Zainuddin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">Hallaq, Wael B. (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 25–28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-28&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaliyah2012" class="citation web cs1">Aaliyah, Abu (17 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehumblei.com/2012/10/17/practical-steps-for-learning-fiqh/amp/">"Practical Steps for Learning Fiqh"</a>. Thehumblei. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200503064340/https://thehumblei.com/2012/10/17/practical-steps-for-learning-fiqh/amp/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thehumblei&rft.atitle=Practical+Steps+for+Learning+Fiqh&rft.date=2012-10-17&rft.aulast=Aaliyah&rft.aufirst=Abu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehumblei.com%2F2012%2F10%2F17%2Fpractical-steps-for-learning-fiqh%2Famp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnsari2017" class="citation web cs1">Ansari, Abu Khuzaimah (2 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forum.salafiri.com/viewtopic.php?t=1386#p1518">"Answering the Book - Refutation of Those Who Do Not Follow The Four Schools PART 4 Was it The Norm to Only Follow the Four Madhabs in the seventh and eighth Century & The Existence of Other Madhabs"</a>. Salafi Research Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201128163326/https://forum.salafiri.com/viewtopic.php?t=1386">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salafi+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Answering+the+Book+-+Refutation+of+Those+Who+Do+Not+Follow+The+Four+Schools+PART+4+Was+it+The+Norm+to+Only+Follow+the+Four+Madhabs+in+the+seventh+and+eighth+Century+%26+The+Existence+of+Other+Madhabs&rft.date=2017-04-02&rft.aulast=Ansari&rft.aufirst=Abu+Khuzaimah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforum.salafiri.com%2Fviewtopic.php%3Ft%3D1386%23p1518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnsari2017" class="citation web cs1">Ansari, Abu Khuzaimah (2 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forum.salafiri.com/viewtopic.php?t=1386#p1518">"Answering the Book - Refutation of Those Who Do Not Follow The Four Schools and that Taqlid of them is Guidance"</a>. Salafi Research Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201128163326/https://forum.salafiri.com/viewtopic.php?t=1386">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2020. <q>(Mu'eed an-Na'am Wa Mubeed an-Naqam pg.76)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salafi+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Answering+the+Book+-+Refutation+of+Those+Who+Do+Not+Follow+The+Four+Schools+and+that+Taqlid+of+them+is+Guidance&rft.date=2017-04-02&rft.aulast=Ansari&rft.aufirst=Abu+Khuzaimah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforum.salafiri.com%2Fviewtopic.php%3Ft%3D1386%23p1518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Rabb2013" class="citation book cs1">A. Rabb, Instisar (2013). "8: Islamic Legal Minimalism: Legal Maxims and Lawmaking When Jurists Disappear". In Cook, Michael; Haider, Najam; Rabb, Intisar; Sayeed, Asma (eds.). Law and Tradition in Classical Islamic Thought. New York, NY: Palgrave Mcmillan. pp. 150–151, 153–157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-11329-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-11329-9"><bdi>978-0-230-11329-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8%3A+Islamic+Legal+Minimalism%3A+Legal+Maxims+and+Lawmaking+When+Jurists+Disappear&rft.btitle=Law+and+Tradition+in+Classical+Islamic+Thought&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=150-151%2C+153-157&rft.pub=Palgrave+Mcmillan&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-230-11329-9&rft.aulast=A.+Rabb&rft.aufirst=Instisar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriani_Arimbi2009" class="citation book cs1">Ariani Arimbi, Diah (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rrhGD6ztEgoC&dq=Ghazali+gates+of+Ijtihad&pg=PA195">Reading Contemporary Indonesian Muslim Women Writers: Representation, Identity and Religion of Muslim Women in Indonesian Fiction</a>. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789089640895" title="Special:BookSources/9789089640895"><bdi>9789089640895</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+Contemporary+Indonesian+Muslim+Women+Writers%3A+Representation%2C+Identity+and+Religion+of+Muslim+Women+in+Indonesian+Fiction&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789089640895&rft.aulast=Ariani+Arimbi&rft.aufirst=Diah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrrhGD6ztEgoC%26dq%3DGhazali%2Bgates%2Bof%2BIjtihad%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2007" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Caryle (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rjj48T4zrb8C&dq=Ghazali+gates+of+Ijtihad&pg=PA317">Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: The Egyptian Experience</a>. Scribner. p. 317. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1416569572" title="Special:BookSources/978-1416569572"><bdi>978-1416569572</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Passion+for+Islam%3A+Shaping+the+Modern+Middle+East%3A+The+Egyptian+Experience&rft.pages=317&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1416569572&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Caryle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRjj48T4zrb8C%26dq%3DGhazali%2Bgates%2Bof%2BIjtihad%26pg%3DPA317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardy2010" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, Roger (2010). "1: Dream of Revolt". The Muslim Revolt: A Journey Through Political Islam. London: Hurst & Company. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84904-031-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84904-031-0"><bdi>978-1-84904-031-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+Dream+of+Revolt&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Revolt%3A+A+Journey+Through+Political+Islam&rft.place=London&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Hurst+%26+Company&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84904-031-0&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaseem_Rafiabadi2002" class="citation book cs1">Naseem Rafiabadi, Hamid (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F3rEjofhC2oC&dq=Ghazali+gates+of+Ijtihad&pg=PA293">Emerging From Darkness: Ghazzali's Impact on the Western Philosophers</a>. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. p. 293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7625-310-3" title="Special:BookSources/81-7625-310-3"><bdi>81-7625-310-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emerging+From+Darkness%3A+Ghazzali%27s+Impact+on+the+Western+Philosophers&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=293&rft.pub=Sarup+%26+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=81-7625-310-3&rft.aulast=Naseem+Rafiabadi&rft.aufirst=Hamid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF3rEjofhC2oC%26dq%3DGhazali%2Bgates%2Bof%2BIjtihad%26pg%3DPA293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaninKahlmeyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Janin, Hunt; Kahlmeyer, Andre (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VtEdBgAAQBAJ&dq=Ghazali+gates+of+Ijtihad&pg=PA67">"3: The Sharia and its Jurists"</a>. Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2921-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-2921-9"><bdi>978-0-7864-2921-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%3A+The+Sharia+and+its+Jurists&rft.btitle=Islamic+Law%3A+The+Sharia+from+Muhammad%27s+Time+to+the+Present&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-2921-9&rft.aulast=Janin&rft.aufirst=Hunt&rft.au=Kahlmeyer%2C+Andre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVtEdBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DGhazali%2Bgates%2Bof%2BIjtihad%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldziher1981" class="citation book cs1">Goldziher, Ignaz (1981). "VI. Later Developments". Introduction to Islamic theology and Law. Translated by Hamori, Andras; Hamori, Ruth. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. pp. 244–245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07257-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-07257-4"><bdi>0-691-07257-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VI.+Later+Developments&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Islamic+theology+and+Law&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey%2C+USA&rft.pages=244-245&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-691-07257-4&rft.aulast=Goldziher&rft.aufirst=Ignaz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 3–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-41&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WahhabiIslam-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WahhabiIslam_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WahhabiIslam_40-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeLong-Bas2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Natana_J._DeLong-Bas" title="Natana J. DeLong-Bas">DeLong-Bas, Natana J.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wahhabiislamfrom0000delo">Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad</a> (First ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, USA. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wahhabiislamfrom0000delo/page/106">106</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516991-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516991-3"><bdi>0-19-516991-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wahhabi+Islam%3A+From+Revival+and+Reform+to+Global+Jihad&rft.pages=106&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-516991-3&rft.aulast=DeLong-Bas&rft.aufirst=Natana+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwahhabiislamfrom0000delo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 30–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-32&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rabb-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rabb_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rabb_42-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIntisar_A._Rabb2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Intisar A. Rabb (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0354">"Ijtihād"</a>. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5"><bdi>978-0-19-530513-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ijtih%C4%81d&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530513-5&rft.au=Intisar+A.+Rabb&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001%2Facref-9780195305135-e-0354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacht1964" class="citation book cs1">Schacht, Joseph (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontois0000scha">An Introduction to Islamic Law</a>. Clarendon Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontois0000scha/page/70">70</a>–71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Islamic+Law&rft.pages=70-71&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Schacht&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontois0000scha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Wael B. Hallaq, "On the origin of the Controversy about the Existence of Mutahids and the Gate of Ijtihad," Studia Islamica, 63 (1986): 129 </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLapidus2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Lapidus, Ira M.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJ">A History of Islamic Societies</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9"><bdi>978-0-521-51430-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51430-9&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkFJNBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq2004" class="citation book cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (2004). AUTHORITY, CONTINUITY, AND CHANGE IN ISLAMIC LAW. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 120–135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-80331-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-80331-4"><bdi>0-521-80331-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=AUTHORITY%2C+CONTINUITY%2C+AND+CHANGE+IN+ISLAMIC+LAW&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=120-135&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-80331-4&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Atawneh2010" class="citation book cs1">Al-Atawneh, Muhammad (2010). "4: Modern Wahhabi Jurisprudence". Wahhābī Islam Facing the Challenges of Modernity. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18469_5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18469 5"><bdi>978-90-04-18469 5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+Modern+Wahhabi+Jurisprudence&rft.btitle=Wahh%C4%81b%C4%AB+Islam+Facing+the+Challenges+of+Modernity&rft.place=Koninklijke+Brill+NV%2C+Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-184695&rft.aulast=Al-Atawneh&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq2004" class="citation book cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (2004). Authority, Continuity and Change in Islamic Law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-80331-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-80331-4"><bdi>0-521-80331-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Authority%2C+Continuity+and+Change+in+Islamic+Law&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=1-30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-80331-4&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 28–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28-30&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtif_Ahmad2012" class="citation book cs1">Atif Ahmad, Ahmad (2012). The Fatigue of the Shari'a. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 39–40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-34292-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-34292-1"><bdi>978-1-349-34292-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fatigue+of+the+Shari%27a&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=39-40&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-349-34292-1&rft.aulast=Atif+Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters1980" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Peters, Rudolph (September 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190217064715/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1486104/94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf">"Ijtihad and Taqlid is 18th and 19th century Islam"</a> (PDF). Die Welt des Islams. XX, 3–4. University of Amsterdam: 131–145. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1486104/94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Welt+des+Islams&rft.atitle=Ijtihad+and+Taqlid+is+18th+and+19th+century+Islam&rft.volume=XX%2C+3-4&rft.pages=131-145&rft.date=1980-09&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.uva.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F1486104%2F94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Atawneh2010" class="citation book cs1">Al-Atawneh, Muhammad (2010). "4: Modern Wahhabi Jurisprudence". Wahhābī Islam Facing the Challenges of Modernity. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18469_5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18469 5"><bdi>978-90-04-18469 5</bdi></a>. <q>Faithful to the tenets of Ibn Taymiyya and Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, contemporary Wahhābīs champion ijtihād and restrict blind taqlīd.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+Modern+Wahhabi+Jurisprudence&rft.btitle=Wahh%C4%81b%C4%AB+Islam+Facing+the+Challenges+of+Modernity&rft.place=Koninklijke+Brill+NV%2C+Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-184695&rft.aulast=Al-Atawneh&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_Hasan_Aal-Sheikh2002" class="citation book cs1">Ibn Hasan Aal-Sheikh, 'Abdur-Rahman (2002). "38: Taking Scholars or Rulers as Partners Besides Allah". Fath al-Majeed: Sharh Kitab al-Tawhid [Divine Triumph: Explanatory Notes on the Book of Tawheed]. Translated by Al-Halawani, 'Ali As-Sayed. El Mansoura, Egypt: Dar al Manarah. pp. 369–370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/977-6005-18-7" title="Special:BookSources/977-6005-18-7"><bdi>977-6005-18-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=38%3A+Taking+Scholars+or+Rulers+as+Partners+Besides+Allah&rft.btitle=Fath+al-Majeed%3A+Sharh+Kitab+al-Tawhid&rft.place=El+Mansoura%2C+Egypt&rft.pages=369-370&rft.pub=Dar+al+Manarah&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=977-6005-18-7&rft.aulast=Ibn+Hasan+Aal-Sheikh&rft.aufirst=%27Abdur-Rahman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaljon1986" class="citation book cs1">Baljon, J. M. S. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.katinkahesselink.net/sufi/baljon-dihwahli.html">'Religion and Thought of Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi', 1703–1762</a>. Brill Academic Pub. pp. 87–88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27Religion+and+Thought+of+Shah+Wali+Allah+Dihlawi%27%2C+1703%E2%80%931762&rft.pages=87-88&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Pub&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Baljon&rft.aufirst=J.+M.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.katinkahesselink.net%2Fsufi%2Fbaljon-dihwahli.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFateh_MuhammadMuhammad_BurfatMuhammad2013" class="citation journal cs1">Fateh Muhammad, Aazadi; Muhammad Burfat, Fateh; Muhammad, Ghulam (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iri.aiou.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/eng-10-Fateh-Ghulam-04-11-13-OK.pdf">"Sociological Thought of Shah Wali Ullah"</a> (PDF). Pakistan Journal of Islamic Research. 12: 129–143 – via iri.aiou.edu.pk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pakistan+Journal+of+Islamic+Research&rft.atitle=Sociological+Thought+of+Shah+Wali+Ullah&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=129-143&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Fateh+Muhammad&rft.aufirst=Aazadi&rft.au=Muhammad+Burfat%2C+Fateh&rft.au=Muhammad%2C+Ghulam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firi.aiou.edu.pk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F06%2Feng-10-Fateh-Ghulam-04-11-13-OK.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" class="citation web cs1">ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://salafipublications.com/sps/downloads/pdf/SCL070001.pdf">"The Six Foundations"</a> (PDF). Salafi Publications. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220172400/http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/downloads/pdf/SCL070001.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salafi+Publications&rft.atitle=The+Six+Foundations&rft.aulast=ibn+Abd+al-Wahhab&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsalafipublications.com%2Fsps%2Fdownloads%2Fpdf%2FSCL070001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Hallaq1984" class="citation journal cs1">B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 32–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-33&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Martin2004" class="citation book cs1">C. Martin, Richard (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 728, 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-865603-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-865603-2"><bdi>0-02-865603-2</bdi></a>. <q>Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, along with other Muslim reformers of the eighteenth century, was one of the most important proponents of independent legal judgment (ijtihad) of his time." ... "Among the "innovations" condemned by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was the centuries-long heritage of jurisprudence (fiqh) that coalesced into four Sunni schools of law"... "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab challenged the authority of the religious scholars (ulema), not only of his own time, but also the majority of those in preceding generations... scholars had injected unlawful innovations (bida) into Islam, he argued. In order to restore the strict monotheism (tawhid) of true Islam, it was necessary to strip the pristine Islam of human additions and speculations.. Thus, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab called for the reopening of ijtihad</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam+and+the+Muslim+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=728%2C+6&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-02-865603-2&rft.aulast=C.+Martin&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Esposito2003" class="citation book cs1">L. Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512558-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512558-4"><bdi>0-19-512558-4</bdi></a>. <q>(Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab).. Proclaimed the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations... Opposed taqlid.. Called for the use of ijtihad</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-512558-4&rft.aulast=L.+Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Zarabozo2005" class="citation book cs1">M. Zarabozo, Jamal al-Din (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhab. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 148–151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9960-29-500-1" title="Special:BookSources/9960-29-500-1"><bdi>9960-29-500-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life%2C+Teachings+and+Influence+of+Muhammad+ibn+Abdul-Wahhab&rft.place=Riyadh%2C+Saudi+Arabia&rft.pages=148-151&rft.pub=The+Ministry+of+Islamic+Affairs%2C+Endowments%2C+Dawah+and+Guidance%2C+Kingdom+of+Saudi+Arabia&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9960-29-500-1&rft.aulast=M.+Zarabozo&rft.aufirst=Jamal+al-Din&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Bunzel2018" class="citation journal cs1">M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). "MANIFEST ENMITY: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)". Near Eastern Studies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University: 49–50, 57–58, 155, 156. <q>he rails against Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, for drawing inferences directly from the Qurʾān and the ḥadīth(istinbāṭ) as opposed to emulating (taqlīd) one of the four law schools" ... "Ibn al-Ṭayyib also criticizes Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb for... claiming ijtihād, prohibiting taqlīd.." .. "he describes his position with respect to scholarly authority as neither taqlīd nor ijtihād, but rather ittibāʿ.. where they are not agreed, "I submit the matter to God and His prophet.. To do otherwise, he says in the same letter, invoking Q. 9:31, would be "to take the scholars as lords" (ittikhādh al-ʿulamāʾ arbāban)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=MANIFEST+ENMITY%3A+The+Origins%2C+Development%2C+and+Persistence+of+Classical+Wahhabism+%281153-1351%2F1741-1932%29&rft.pages=49-50%2C+57-58%2C+155%2C+156&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=M.+Bunzel&rft.aufirst=Cole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Zarabozo2005" class="citation book cs1">M. Zarabozo, Jamal al-Din (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhab. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9960-29-500-1" title="Special:BookSources/9960-29-500-1"><bdi>9960-29-500-1</bdi></a>. <q>Thus ibn Abdul-Wahhab noted about those who blindly follow, "Their religion is built upon some principles, the greatest being taqleed. It is the greatest maxim for all the disbelievers, from the first to the last of them."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life%2C+Teachings+and+Influence+of+Muhammad+ibn+Abdul-Wahhab&rft.place=Riyadh%2C+Saudi+Arabia&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=The+Ministry+of+Islamic+Affairs%2C+Endowments%2C+Dawah+and+Guidance%2C+Kingdom+of+Saudi+Arabia&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9960-29-500-1&rft.aulast=M.+Zarabozo&rft.aufirst=Jamal+al-Din&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbn_'Abd_al-Wahhab" class="citation book cs1">Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. Masa'il al Jahiliyya Aspects of the Days of Ignorance. <q>"Their religion was built upon certain principles, the greatest of which was taqleed (blind following). So this was the biggest principle for all of the disbelievers– the first and last of them"..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masa%27il+al+Jahiliyya+Aspects+of+the+Days+of+Ignorance&rft.aulast=Ibn+%27Abd+al-Wahhab&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Campo2009" class="citation book cs1">E. Campo, Juan (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On File, Inc. p. 704. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-5454-1</bdi></a>. <q>Wahhabism.. also was opposed to key doctrines held by most Sunni ulama, such as adherence (taqlid) to the cumulative tradition of jurisprudence (fiqh)..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=704&rft.pub=Facts+On+File%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1&rft.aulast=E.+Campo&rft.aufirst=Juan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wahhabis.com/articles/fgxss-shaykh-abd-allaah-bin-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhaab-on-fiqh-ijtihaad-madhhabs-and-taqlid.cfm">"Shaykh Abd Allaah Bin Muhammad Bin Abd Al-Wahhaab on Fiqh, Ijtihaad, Madhhabs and Taqlid"</a>. 'Wahhabis'.com. August 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170507224721/http://www.wahhabis.com/articles/fgxss-shaykh-abd-allaah-bin-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhaab-on-fiqh-ijtihaad-madhhabs-and-taqlid.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2017. <q>And also we are upon the madhhab of Imaam Ahmad bin Hanbal in the matters of jurisprudence, and we do not show rejection to the one who made taqleed of one of the four Imaams..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%27Wahhabis%27.com&rft.atitle=Shaykh+Abd+Allaah+Bin+Muhammad+Bin+Abd+Al-Wahhaab+on+Fiqh%2C+Ijtihaad%2C+Madhhabs+and+Taqlid&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wahhabis.com%2Farticles%2Ffgxss-shaykh-abd-allaah-bin-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhaab-on-fiqh-ijtihaad-madhhabs-and-taqlid.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters1980" class="citation web cs1">Peters, Rudolph (September 1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1486104/94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf">"IJTIHAD AND TAQLID IN 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY ISLAM"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190510084450/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1486104/94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 10 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IJTIHAD+AND+TAQLID+IN+18TH+AND+19TH+CENTURY+ISLAM&rft.date=1980-09&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.uva.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F1486104%2F94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFibn_Nāṣir_ibn_Muʿammar" class="citation book cs1">ibn Nāṣir ibn Muʿammar, Ḥamād. Risalah fi'l-Ijtihad wa'l-Taqlid (Treatise on Ijtihad and Taqlid). Jeddah: Dar al-Andalus. <q>The lay-people haven't ceased – since the time of the Companions, the Successors, and their followers – asking their scholars about rulings of the shari'ah. Scholars, in turn, have readily responded to such queries without necessarily mentioning proofs; nor did they forbid this to them in the least. So this is a point of consensus on the lawfulness of the laity making taqlid of their mujtahid scholars, and that they are only required to do this of one whom they consider to be a scholar.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Risalah+fi%27l-Ijtihad+wa%27l-Taqlid+%28Treatise+on+Ijtihad+and+Taqlid%29&rft.place=Jeddah&rft.pub=Dar+al-Andalus&rft.aulast=ibn+N%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ir+ibn+Mu%CA%BFammar&rft.aufirst=%E1%B8%A4am%C4%81d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehumblei.com/2017/11/08/understanding-taqlid-the-good-the-bad-the-ugly-1-2/">"Taqlid & Madhhabs: The Good, Bad and the Ugly [1/2]"</a>. The Humble i. 8 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180102063307/https://thehumblei.com/2017/11/08/understanding-taqlid-the-good-the-bad-the-ugly-1-2/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Humble+i&rft.atitle=Taqlid+%26+Madhhabs%3A+The+Good%2C+Bad+and+the+Ugly+%5B1%2F2%5D&rft.date=2017-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehumblei.com%2F2017%2F11%2F08%2Funderstanding-taqlid-the-good-the-bad-the-ugly-1-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Vogel2000" class="citation book cs1">E. Vogel, Frank (2000). Islamic Law and Legal System: Studies of Saudi Arabia. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 66–67, 70, 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004110623" title="Special:BookSources/9004110623"><bdi>9004110623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Law+and+Legal+System%3A+Studies+of+Saudi+Arabia&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=66-67%2C+70%2C+73&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9004110623&rft.aulast=E.+Vogel&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Vogel2000" class="citation book cs1">E. Vogel, Frank (2000). Islamic Law and Legal System: Studies of Saudi Arabia. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 66–67, 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004110623" title="Special:BookSources/9004110623"><bdi>9004110623</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Law+and+Legal+System%3A+Studies+of+Saudi+Arabia&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=66-67%2C+70&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9004110623&rft.aulast=E.+Vogel&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dajani,_Samer_p._12-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dajani,_Samer_p._12_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dajani,_Samer_p._12_76-1">b</a> Dajani, Samer, Reassurance for the Seeker, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sedgwick,_Mark_p._15-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sedgwick,_Mark_p._15_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sedgwick,_Mark_p._15_77-1">b</a> Sedgwick, Mark, Saints and Sons, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._Vikør1995" class="citation web cs1">S. 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University of Amsterdam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190217064715/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1486104/94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ijtihad+and+Taqlid+in+18th+and+19th+Century+Islam&rft.pub=University+of+Amsterdam&rft.date=1980-09&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.uva.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F1486104%2F94781_Ijtihad_and_taqlid.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Gerber (1999), 88 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Gerber (1999), 126 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSultan_al-Ma'soomee_al-Khajnadee" class="citation book cs1">Sultan al-Ma'soomee al-Khajnadee, Shaykh Muhammad. 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The Journal of International Social Research. 4 (19): 160–163 – via Sosyalarastirmalar.Com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+International+Social+Research&rft.atitle=A+CRITICAL+ANALYSIS+OF+THE+SCHACHT%27S+ARGUMENT+AND+CONTEMPORARY+DEBATES+ON+LEGAL+REASONING+THROUGHOUT+THE+HISTORY+OF+ISLAMIC+JURISPRUDENCE&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=160-163&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kesgin&rft.aufirst=Salih&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sosyalarastirmalar.com%2Fcilt4%2Fsayi19_pdf%2F2_tarih_uluslararasi%2Fkesgin_salih.pdf%26ved%3D2ahUKEwjn6qi3wervAhU973MBHdYJCgoQFjAAegQIAxAC%26usg%3DAOvVaw2R1hsFf70xj8BGDD3Io2V3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USIP-84"><a href="#cite_ref-USIP_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.cigilibrary.org/jspui/bitstream/123456789/15036/1/Ijtihad%20Reinterpreting%20Islamic%20Principles%20for%20the%20Twenty%20first%20Century.pdf?1">"Ijtihad: Reinterpreting Islamic Principles for the 21st Century"</a> (PDF). 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Center for Dialogues. NYU. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamuswest.org/publications_islam_and_the_West/Who_Speaks_For_Islam/Who-Speaks-For-Islam_21.html">the original</a> on 2016-01-05. 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Cambridge University Press: 6–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-9&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHashim_Kamali1991" class="citation book cs1">Hashim Kamali, Muhammad (1991). 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Cambridge University Press: 4–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800027598">10.1017/S0020743800027598</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/162939">162939</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159897995">159897995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+the+Gate+of+Ijtihad+Closed%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-33&rft.date=1984-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159897995%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800027598&rft.aulast=B.+Hallaq&rft.aufirst=Wael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F162939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHashim_Kamali1991" class="citation book cs1">Hashim Kamali, Muhammad (1991). "Chapter Nineteen: Ijtihad, or Personal Reasoning". Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. International Islamic University, Malaysia. pp. 323–325.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Nineteen%3A+Ijtihad%2C+or+Personal+Reasoning&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Islamic+Jurisprudence&rft.pages=323-325&rft.pub=International+Islamic+University%2C+Malaysia.&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Hashim+Kamali&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Sociology of religions: perspectives of Ali Shariati (2008) Mir Mohammed Ibrahim </li> <li id="cite_note-Newman_in_Meri_2006_734-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Newman_in_Meri_2006_734_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewman_in_Meri2006">Newman in Meri 2006</a>, p. 734 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNewman_in_Meri2006 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Momen-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Momen_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Momen_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMomen1985" class="citation book cs1">Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shia Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Shia+Islam%3A+The+History+and+Doctrines+of+Twelver+Shi%27ism&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Momen&rft.aufirst=Moojan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakim2022" class="citation book cs1">Takim, Liyakat (2022). "2: Usul al-Fiqh and Ijtihad in Shi'ism". Shi'ism Revisited: Ijtihad and Reformation in Contemporary Times. New York, United States of America: Oxford University Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197606575.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780197606575.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197606575" title="Special:BookSources/9780197606575"><bdi>9780197606575</bdi></a>. <q>To further vindicate their practice, the scholars cited traditions from the Imams that denounced Sunni interpretive tools like those of analogical deduction (qiyas) and independent reasoning (ijtihad). The negative stance toward Sunni legal practices was premised on the view that ijtihad was a deductive process based on personal conjecture and therefore had no legal basis in the shari'a. Due to this, the term ijtihad was used in a disparaging way by the Shi'is until the thirteenth century. The denunciation of ijtihad during this period also indicates that Shi'i jurists wanted to construct a legal edifice that was devoid of any doubt or uncertainty. With the passage of time, Shi‛i fuqaha' sensed the need to respond to newer issues and novel circumstances..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Usul+al-Fiqh+and+Ijtihad+in+Shi%27ism&rft.btitle=Shi%27ism+Revisited%3A+Ijtihad+and+Reformation+in+Contemporary+Times&rft.place=New+York%2C+United+States+of+America&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197606575.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780197606575&rft.aulast=Takim&rft.aufirst=Liyakat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammad_Farzaneh2015" class="citation book cs1">Mohammad Farzaneh, Mateo (2015). The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani. 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January 19, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.al-islam.org&rft.atitle=The+Life+and+Times+of+Shaykh+Murtada+Ansari&rft.date=2013-01-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Farticles%2Flife-and-times-shaykh-murtada-ansari-abbas-jaffer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lost-2017-107"><a href="#cite_ref-Lost-2017_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohammadreza_Kalantari2017" class="citation web cs1">Mohammadreza Kalantari, ed. (19 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.almahdi.edu/research-seminar-lost-in-translation-taqlid-and-marjaiyya-in-shiite-islam/">"Research Seminar: "Lost in Translation: Taqlid and Marja'iyya in Shiite Islam""</a>. AlMahdi Institute. Retrieved 2 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AlMahdi+Institute&rft.atitle=Research+Seminar%3A+%22Lost+in+Translation%3A+Taqlid+and+Marja%27iyya+in+Shiite+Islam%22&rft.date=2017-01-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.almahdi.edu%2Fresearch-seminar-lost-in-translation-taqlid-and-marjaiyya-in-shiite-islam%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jannati-Ijtiahad-108"><a href="#cite_ref-Jannati-Ijtiahad_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJannati2013" class="citation book cs1">Jannati, Muhammad Ibrahim (17 March 2013). "The Term Ijtihad. 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Retrieved 2 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Term+Ijtihad.+The+Forth+Definition+of+Ijtihad&rft.btitle=Ijtihad%3A+Its+Meaning%2C+Sources%2C+Beginnings+and+the+Practice+of+Ray&rft.pub=Al-Islam.org&rft.date=2013-03-17&rft.aulast=Jannati&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Ibrahim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fal-tawhid%2Fgeneral-al-tawhid%2Fijtihad-its-meaning-sources-beginnings-practice-ray-jannati%2Fterm-ijtihad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutahhari2013" class="citation web cs1">Mutahhari, Murtada (2 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/ijtihad.htm">"The Principle of Ijtihad in Islam"</a>. Retrieved 1 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Principle+of+Ijtihad+in+Islam&rft.date=2013-03-02&rft.aulast=Mutahhari&rft.aufirst=Murtada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fal-serat%2Fijtihad.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Principles_of_Ijtihad_in_Islam-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Principles_of_Ijtihad_in_Islam_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMutahhari2013" class="citation web cs1">Mutahhari, Murtada (2 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/ijtihad.htm">"The Principles of Ijtihad in Islam"</a>. Retrieved 1 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Ijtihad+in+Islam&rft.date=2013-03-02&rft.aulast=Mutahhari&rft.aufirst=Murtada&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-islam.org%2Fal-serat%2Fijtihad.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Kulayni2015" class="citation book cs1">al-Kulayni, Muhammad ibn Ya'qub (2015). Al-Kafi. Vol. 6. NY: Islamic Seminary Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9914308-6-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9914308-6-4"><bdi>978-0-9914308-6-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Al-Kafi&rft.place=NY&rft.pub=Islamic+Seminary+Incorporated&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-9914308-6-4&rft.aulast=al-Kulayni&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+ibn+Ya%27qub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emel.com/article?a_id=828&id">"The Lost Female Scholars of Islam"</a>. Emel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210113170132/https://www.emel.com/article?a_id=828&id">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Emel&rft.atitle=The+Lost+Female+Scholars+of+Islam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.emel.com%2Farticle%3Fa_id%3D828%26id&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIjtihad" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> See: Mirjam Künkler and Roja Fazaeli, "The Life of Two Mujtahidas: Female Religious Authority in 20th Century Iran", in Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority, ed. Masooda Bano and Hilary Kalmbach (<a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, 2012), 127-160. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1884209">1884209</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wael_Hallaq" title="Wael Hallaq">Wael Hallaq</a>: "Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?", International Journal of Middle East Studies, 16, 1 (1984), 3–41.</li> <li>Glassé, Cyril, The Concise Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Stacey International, London (1991) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-905743-65-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-905743-65-2">0-905743-65-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Goldziher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignaz Goldziher">Goldziher, Ignaz</a> (translated by A And R Hamori), Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey (1981) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-10099-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-10099-3">0-691-10099-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Hashim_Kamali" title="Mohammad Hashim Kamali">Kamali, Mohammad Hashim</a> Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Texts_Society" title="Islamic Texts Society">Islamic Texts Society</a>, Cambridge (1991) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-946621-24-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-946621-24-1">0-946621-24-1</a>.</li> <li>Carlos Martínez, "Limiting the Power of Religion from Within: Probabilism and Ishtihad," in Religion and Its Other: Secular and Sacral Concepts and Practices in Interaction. Edited by Heike Bock, Jörg Feuchter, and Michi Knecht (Frankfurt/M., Campus Verlag, 2008).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100306143642/http://www.maaref-foundation.com/english/library/beliefs/al_nas_walijtihad/index.htm">Ijtihad against the Text</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijtihad.org/ijtihad.htm">Two Theories of Ijtihad</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.youquran.com/INTRODUCTION-ISLAMIC-LAW-Schacht.PDF">An Introduction to Islamic Law by Joseph Schacht</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/ijtihad.htm">A Detailed Q & A on Ijtihad</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.resetdoc.org/story/00000021629">Opening the doors of Ijtihad, essay by Fred Dallmayr on www.resetdoc.org</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Aqidah (theology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">'Aql (intellect)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">medieval astronomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilm al-Kalam">Kalam (dialectic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh (jurisprudence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Natural philosophy (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasah (education)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism (mysticism)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Farabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_cosmology" title="Sufi cosmology">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_metaphysics" title="Sufi metaphysics">metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_psychology" title="Sufi psychology">psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Transcendent theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Traditionalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asabiyyah" title="Asabiyyah">ʻAṣabīya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_(Sufism)" title="Hal (Sufism)">Ḥāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27jaz" title="I'jaz">Iʻjaz</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ʼIjtihād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm_(Arabic)" title="Ilm (Arabic)">ʻIlm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irfan" title="Irfan">ʻIrfān</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijmāʿ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">Maslaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">Nafs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalb" title="Qalb">Qalb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyās</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shura" title="Shura">Shūrā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawḥīd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophers_by_century_(CE)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_philosophers" title="List of Muslim philosophers">Philosophers</a> by century (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th–10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Apharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hatim_Ahmad_ibn_Hamdan_al-Razi" title="Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi">Abu Hatim al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahmany%C4%81r" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmanyār">Bahmanyār</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_fi%27l-Din_al-Shirazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi">Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Khusraw" title="Nasir Khusraw">Nasir Khusraw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afdal_al-Din_Kashani" title="Afdal al-Din Kashani">Afdal al-Din Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahi_Evren" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahi Evren">Ahi Evren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoja_Akhmet_Yassawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoja Akhmet Yassawi">Ahmad Yasavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn-al-Quzat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyám</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_Tabrizi" title="Shams Tabrizi">Shams Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bektash_Veli" title="Haji Bektash Veli">Hajji Bektash Wali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab’in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ath%C4%ABr_al-D%C4%ABn_al-Abhar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī">al-Abharī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Din_al-Qunawi" title="Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi">Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th–16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunus_Emre" title="Yunus Emre">Yunus Emre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Bayram_Veli" title="Haji Bayram Veli">Hajji Bayram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalaladdin_Davani" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalaladdin Davani">Jalaladdin Davani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_ad-Din_Dashtaki" title="Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki">Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Hudayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud Hudayi">Aziz Mahmud Hudayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi_Mir_Husayn_al-Maybudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi">Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Shabestari" title="Mahmoud Shabestari">Mahmud Shabistari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Haydar_Amuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Sayyid Haydar Amuli">Sayyid Haydar Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daw%C5%ABd_al-Qay%E1%B9%A3ar%C4%AB" title="Dawūd al-Qayṣarī">Dawūd al-Qayṣarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jami" title="Jami">Jami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th–19th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_Fendereski" title="Mir Fendereski">Mir Fendereski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Fayz_Kashani" title="Mohsen Fayz Kashani">Mohsen Fayz Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Razzaq_Lahiji" title="Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji">Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sirhindi" title="Ahmad Sirhindi">Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajab_Ali_Tabrizi" title="Rajab Ali Tabrizi">Rajab Ali Tabrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazi_Sa%E2%80%99id_Qumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Qazi Sa’id Qumi">Qazi Sa’id Qumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadi_Sabzavari" title="Hadi Sabzavari">Hādī Sabzavārī</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabataba%27i" title="Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i">Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riaz_Ahmed_Gohar_Shahi" title="Riaz Ahmed Gohar Shahi">Gohar Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_al-Sadr" title="Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr">Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ismail_al-Faruqi" title="Ismail al-Faruqi">Ismail al-Faruqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syed_Muhammad_Naquib_al-Attas" title="Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas">Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdolkarim_Soroush" title="Abdolkarim Soroush">Abdolkarim Soroush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gholamhossein_Ebrahimi_Dinani" title="Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani">Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Abdurrahman" title="Taha Abdurrahman">Taha Abdurrahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Abed_al-Jabri" title="Mohammed Abed al-Jabri">Mohammed Abed al-Jabri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Arkoun" title="Mohammed Arkoun">Mohammed Arkoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fouad_Zakariyya" title="Fouad Zakariyya">Fouad Zakariyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Davari_Ardakani" title="Reza Davari Ardakani">Reza Davari Ardakani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fardid" title="Ahmad Fardid">Ahmad Fardid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_Malekian" title="Mostafa Malekian">Mostafa Malekian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassan_Hassanzadeh_Amoli" title="Hassan Hassanzadeh Amoli">Hasanzadeh Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_Javadi-Amoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah Javadi-Amoli">Javadi Amoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_Nasir_Hunzai" title="Nasir al-Din Nasir Hunzai">Partawi Shah</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q73599#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q73599#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q73599#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4334951-1">Germany</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ictihad">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&oldid=1254676959">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ijtihad&oldid=1254676959</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sharia_legal_terminology" title="Category:Sharia legal terminology">Sharia legal terminology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hawza" 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[\"CITEREFGould2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallaq1984\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFHallaq1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallaq2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardy2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHashim_Kamali1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHaykel2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHussain2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_\u0026#039;Abd_al-Wahhab\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn_Hasan_Aal-Sheikh2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIndira_Falk_Gesnik2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIntisar_A._Rabb2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaninKahlmeyer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJannati2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_L._Esposito2014\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFKamali1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKayadibi2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKesgin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFL._Esposito2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Bunzel2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Zarabozo2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMakhdoom_bin_Sheikh_Muhammad_Al_Gazzali2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarion_Katz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeijer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohammad_Farzaneh2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMohammadreza_Kalantari2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMomen1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMutahhari2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNaseem_Rafiabadi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters1980\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRabb2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabb2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._Vikør1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchacht1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSultan_al-Ma\u0026#039;soomee_al-Khajnadee\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakim2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUngureanu\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Kulayni2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFibn_Abd_al-Wahhab\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFibn_Nāṣir_ibn_Muʿammar\"] = 1,\n [\"Qualifications_of_a_mujtahid\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 7,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 47,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 24,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Islamic philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Italic title\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Lit\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Portalbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Request quotation\"] = 2,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"SSRN\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 3,\n [\"Usul al-fiqh\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-ng8f6","timestamp":"20241124053118","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Ijtihad","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ijtihad","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q73599","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q73599","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-01-06T02:00:16Z","dateModified":"2024-11-01T03:49:22Z","headline":"Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning"}</script> </body> </html>